231

DIVINE CALL AND

HUMAN RESPONSE
Prayer in the religious traditions of Africa, II

N THE FIRST part of this introduction to african traditional prayer we

I tried to answer the questions 'To whom is prayer in the ethnic religions
of Africa addressed? How is divine reality perceived and approached?' In
this article we shall look at some of the major themes in african prayer. We
have seen that the supreme being is often conceived as 'ancestor', 'elder' or
'lifegiver' and that his creative activity and providence are thought to be
mediated by human ancestors or intermediaries. It is not surprising, there-
fore, that one of the major preoccupations in african prayer should be life
and the transmission or continuity of life. Also that, as a corollary to the
theme of life, we should find an emphasis on heakh and healing.
The following blessing formula comes from the Meru of Kenya who
address God on Mount Kenya, the mountain of brightness (Kirinyaga).
The prayer asks for life and health and all that is necessary for them.
Kirinyaga, owner of all things,
I pray thee, give me what I need,
Because I am suffering,
And also my children (are suffering)
And all things that are in this country of mine.
I beg thee for life,
The good one, with things,
Healthy people with no disease,
May they bear healthy children.
And also to women who suffer because they are barren,
Open the way by which they may see children.
(Give) goats, cattle, food, honey.
And also the troubles of the other lands
That I do not know, remove)
For many african peoples who raise livestock, human life is bound up with
the life of their herds. Indeed the herds are an effective symbol of the
human family, a kind of 'shadow family'. Animals are exchanged and
sacrificed at important moments in the life of the family and the com-
munity. It is therefore natural that the Dinka of Sudan, whose principal
interest is raising cattle, should pray both for the 'life of cattle' and the 'life
of men'. This prayer is addressed to 'Divinity' or the supreme being whose
symbol is the white ox. It also addressed Deng, the rain-divinity and
Deng's mother, Abuk, patroness of motherhood, gardens and crops.
232 DIVINE CALL AND HUMAN RESPONSE

I p r a y the white one.

Is Divinity not near?
Does m y father not give us life?
Deng, son of A b u k , p r a y for life,
Life of cattle, life of men. 2

Since all life comes from God, the life-giver, parenthood is somehow a share
in the divine activity. This delightful religious cradle-song from B u r u n d i
calls children 'the field that we share with G o d ' (Imana). W o m e n believe
that I m a n a manifests himself to them in the form of a calf when they go to
the river. T h e singer calls her b a b y 'child of m y m o t h e r ' a n d even ' m o t h e r '
because it is a n o m i n a l or metaphorical r e i n c a r n a t i o n of its g r a n d m o t h e r .

H u s h , child of m y mother,
H u s h , hush, O m y mother!
G o d who gave you to me,
If only I could meet him,
I would fall on m y knees a n d p r a y to him.
I would p r a y for little babies,
F o r little babies on m y back.

You came when the m o o n was shining,

You came when another was rising,
Hush, field that we share,
T h a t we share with Imana]
G o d who gave you to me,
M a y he also b r i n g you up for me. 3

T h e C h a g g a make their prayers facing M o u n t K i l i m a n j a r o in T a n z a n i a .

Like M o u n t K e n y a , it is thought to be the abode of R u w a or God. This
p r a y e r a c c o m p a n i e d a sacrifice on b e h a l f o f a sick m a n . T h e bull which G o d
bestowed on him in the first place is now restored through sacrifice, a n d the
p r a y e r for healing turns into a p r a y e r for offspring. G o d is called ' C h i e f ' ,
' P r e s e r v e r ' and even ' E l e p h a n t ' , the most impressive and mysterious
animal in the forest.
W e know you, R u w a , Chief, Preserver,
H e United the bush and the plain,
You, R u w a , Chief, the Elephant indeed,
H e who burst forth m e n that they lived.
W e praise you a n d p r a y to you a n d fall before you.
You have sent us this a n i m a l which is of y o u r own fashioning,
F o r you share with no m a n and none is given thereof.
Gh~cf, receb~e this bull of y o u r n a m e .
H e a l him to whom you gave it a n d his children.
Sow the seed of offspring with us,
 DIVINE CALL AND HUMAN RESPONSE 233

That we m a y beget like bees.

May o u r clan hold together
That it be not cleft in the land.
May strangers not come to possess our groves.
Now Chief, Preserver, bless all that is ours. 4

M a n y african peoples believe in some kind of reincarnation, some real

and vital link between those who have died a n d those who are newborn. In
some cases reincarnation is thought to be literal. N o t only do h u m a n beings
become ancestors, but ancestors become h u m a n beings again. As the Edo
of N i g e r i a have it, b u r y i n g a dead m a n is like p l a n t i n g a seed. T h e
following funerary p r a y e r is addressed to the spirit of the d e a d m a n and
asks that his next incarnation m a y be h a p p i e r a n d m o r e lengthy.

You came to the world and you lived to old age . . . .

W h e n you come back m a y you once again b r i n g a good body
with you.
M o n e y , health, all the things that are used in living,
You must b r i n g t h e m with you . . . .
W h e n you come again m a y sickness not send you back.
M a y you not suffer the diseases of this world in y o u r next
incarnation.
G r e a t M a n , you will come back! 5

In the african way of thinking h u m a n survival after death is b o u n d up with

physical procreation, b u t it is also, interestingly, b o u n d up with p r a y e r to
the ancestors. ' H e who holds out his hands dies not' says this p r a y e r of the
K o n g o people of Angola.

I have held out m y h a n d s to you (in prayer),

A n d he holds out his hands dies not.
I have shown you the animals of the feast,
A n d I have b r o u g h t you no other presents
Except p a l m wine,
T h a t you m a y favour the procreation of ( h u m a n ) wealth.
A n d here are the kola nuts I brought for you. 6

T h e following p r a y e r of the D i n k a in S u d a n was recorded on the occasion

of a general supplication for good health.

You Divinity, we shall kill y o u r ox.

And better that you should be pleased with us.
You will let us walk in health,
And we have m a d e a feast so that there should be no fever,
And that no other illness should seize people,
234 DIVINE CALL AND HUMAN RESPONSE

T h a t they m a y all be well.

A n d if m y clansman travels,
T h e n let him complete his j o u r n e y without sickness,
A n d let no evil befall him or anybody.
A n d you, Divinity, do not b r i n g evil u p o n us,
A n d I shall be pleased.
You women, clap y o u r hands and sing.
A n d w u u away the fever, that nothing m a y be w r o n g with us.
You tribe of m y father, walk in health,
N o t h i n g shall h a r m us,
A n d Divinity will b e pleased with u s ,
A n d we will p r a y to Divinity that there be no b a d things,
A n d sing . . . . 7

It is often felt, in cases of sickness, that only G o d who is the ultimate source
of life can help. T h a t is the opinion expressed in a p r a y e r which comes from
another Nilotic people of S u d a n , the A n u a k .

O God, thou art great,

T h o u art the one who created me,
I have no other.
God, thou art in the heavens,
T h o u art the only one:
N o w m y child is sick,
A n d thou wilt grant me m y desire. 8

A short ejaculatory p r a y e r from the L u y i a of K e n y a compares G o d to a

traditional medicine m a n , spitting a medicine u p o n his patient to make him
'walk well'. 'Po! G o d , m a y the day dawn well; M a y y o u spit u p o n us the
medicine so that we m a y walk well!'9
A m o n g the I b o of Nigeria, it is customary to break and chew a kola-nut
with a visitor in a greeting ritual. This idea is extended to God, the spirits
and to Agbala, a m i n o r divinity.

God, eat kola-nut,

Spirits, eat kola-nut,
Sky, eat kola-nut,
Agbala, eat kola-nut.
M a y we not die,
M a y we not perish,
M a y we not be sick,
M a y we not be t o r m e n t e d with maladies.l°
Finally, we might conclude this theme of life, health and healing with a
short p r a y e r - f o r m u l a from the N y a k y u s a of T a n z a n i a . It is addressed to the
spirits of the dead and accompanies a libation of milk.
 DIVINE CALL AND HUMAN RESPONSE 235

Here is y o u r milk . . . .
May the locusts pass,
May sickness be slight,
May milk be plentiful,
May the cows calve! ~1

T h e t h e m e of continuity of life implies always an appeal to the past as a

means of u n d e r s t a n d i n g the present and discovering a hope for the future.
This is, of course, the concept of m e m o r i a l or anamnesis which is found in
virtually every religion in the world. Even in african religions, where the
interpretation of history is s u b o r d i n a t e d to the ideal of h u m a n continuity
with the world o f N a t u r e , the theme of m e m o r i a l is present. It is an
i m p o r t a n t means of unifying experience and p r o v i d i n g certainty in a world
of change. T h e following p r a y e r from the K i k u y u of K e n y a is m a d e u n d e r
'the ' v e r y same tree' used by their ancestors. It therefore reproduces their
prayer, a p r a y e r which in the past was effective:

R e v e r e n d Elder (God) who lives on K e r e - N y a g a ,

You make m o u n t a i n s tremble and rivers flood;
W e offer to you this sacrifice that you m a y b r i n g us rain.
People a n d children are crying;
Sheep, goats and cattle are crying.
Nwene N y a g a , we beseech you,
W i t h the blood a n d fat of this l a m b we are going to sacrifice to
you.
Refined h o n e y and milk we have b r o u g h t for you.
W e praise you in the same way as o u r forefathers used to praise
you,
U n d e r this very same tree,
A n d you h e a r d them and b r o u g h t them rain.
W e beseech you to accept this, o u r sacrifice,
A n d b r i n g us rain of prosperity.

Peace, we beseech you,

Ngai, peace be with us! 12

T h e D i n k a of S u d a n also resort to a n efficacious, ancestral prayer. This

p r a y e r is that of the w o r s h i p p e r ' s ancestor, Guejok. It was recited at the
sacrifice o f a grey ox or malith that was expected to urinate, as a sign of
divine acceptance. T h e p r a y e r itself is personalized a n d addressed by the
worshipper.

A n d you of m y father, i f you are called then you will help me,
A n d j o i n yourself with m y words.
A n d t did not speak that m y children should become ill;
236 DIVINE CALL AND HUMAN RESPONSE

T h a t quarrel is an old matter.

A n d you, malith, even though you have not urinated,
You u r i n a t e d on the way, when you were b e i n g b r o u g h t here,
A n d you, m y prayer, and you p r a y e r of the long distant past,
P r a y e r of m y ancestors, you are spoken now.
M e e t together, ee!
It is that of m y ancestor Guejok,
It is not of the tongue only,
It is that of Guejok,
It is not of the tongue only.13

A p r a y e r from the N y o r o , on the occasion of entering a new house, sees

house-building as a tradition going back to the w o r s h i p p e r ' s forefathers.
T h e p r a y e r was a c c o m p a n i e d by an offering of millet a n d simsim seeds.

M y father built,
A n d his father built,
A n d I have built,
Leave me to live here in success,
Let me sleep in comfort,
A n d have children.
T h e r e is food for you. 14

Closely linked with the theme of m e m o r i a l or anamnesis is that of thanks-

giving. T h e african worshipper is grateful for divine favour in the past a n d
his gratitude takes the form of c o m m i t m e n t and the promise of fidelity in
the future. G r a t i t u d e is a form of trust and a form of praise. O n e of the
most beautiful prayers of thanksgiving, and one which demonstrates all
these aspects, is the p r a y e r attributed by the K i k u y u t o G i k u y u , the
founder of their tribe, after G o d (the ' G r e a t E l d e r ' ) had let him into the
fertile land which is now their home.

O M y Father, G r e a t Elder,
I have no words to thank y o u ,
But with y o u r deep wisdom
I a m sure that you can see
H o w I value y o u r glorious gifts.
O M y Father, when I look upon y o u r greatness,
I a m confounded with awe~
O G r e a t Elder,
R u l e r of all things earthly and heavenIy,
I am your warrior,
R e a d y to act in accordance with your mill. 1~

T h e r e is also the sentiment, expressed in this p y g m y p r a y e r from Zaire (as

 DIVINE CALL AND HUMAN RESPONSE 237

well as in the above example from the K i k u y u ) of the i n a d e q u a c y of h u m a n

gratitude. This is a p r a y e r of thanksgiving for the birth of a child.

O God, thanks!
H e r e is the h u m a n being w h o m you gave us.
T o d a y we b r i n g you the food that you have given us,
You, m y termite heap on which I lean,
F r o m which come the termites that I eat.
L o r d we thank you; you have given us j o y
W i t h the n u m e r o u s births you have given us.
N o t h i n g of all that we offer you is worthy of you. j6

T h e same sense of i n a d e q u a c y is present in this ashanti p r a y e r from G h a n a ,

addressed to G o d ( O d o m a n k o m a ) a n d other divinities.
T h e y e a r h a s come round, great O d o m a n k o m a ,
N e v e r can we thank you for y o u r deeds a n d blessing for us.
T a n o Kofi and all the seventy-seven gods of B r e n h o m a ,
C o m e now and eat from our hands and bless your people.
Let all who are ill get well.
Let all who are b a r r e n b e a r children.
Let all who are i m p o t e n t find remedy.
D o n ' t let them go blind or paralysed.
W e all beseech happiness,
Let us have it.17
T h e theme of peace is e m p h a s i z e d especially a m o n g pastoral peoples who
are addicted to feuding a n d raiding, b u t there is no lack of realism in the
concept. Peace is ultimately g u a r a n t e e d only by personal self-control a n d
by social h a r m o n y and justice. Some of the most beautiful prayers for peace
in african tradition come from the Boran of K e n y a , as these three examples
show.

O. God, thou hast let me pass the night in peace,

Let me pass the d a y in peace.
W h e r e v e r I m a y go
U p o n m y way which thou madest peaceable for me,
O G o d , lead m y steps.
W h e n I have spoken,
K e e p off c a l u m n y from me.
When I am hungry,
K e e p me from m u r m u r i n g .
W h e n I a m satisfied,
K e e p m e from pride.
Calling u p o n thee, I pass the day,
O L o r d who has no Lord.18
238 DIVINE CALL AND HUMAN RESPONSE

C o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the above m o r n i n g p r a y e r is the following night offering:

O God, thou has let me pass the day in peace,
Let me pass the night in peace,
O Lord who hast no Lord.
T h e r e is no strength but in thee.
T h o u alone hast no obligation.
U n d e r thy h a n d I pass the night.
T h o u art m y m o t h e r and m y father.19

Like the two previous texts, this longer p r a y e r asks for peace at the hands of
an inscrutable G o d who permits infringements of peace by violent men, but
who d e m a n d s ultimate trust in his providence.

G o o d G o d of this earth, m y Lord!

T h o u art above me, I a m below thee.
W h e n misfortune comes to me,
As trees keep off the sun from me,
M a y e s t thou keep off misfortune;
M y Lord, be thou m y shadow!
Calling u p o n thee, I pass the day.
Calling u p o n thee, I pass the night.
W h e n this m o o n rises, do not forsake me;
W h e n I rise, I do not forsake thee;
Let the d a n g e r pass b y me.
God, m y Lord, thou Sun with thirty rays,
W h e n the e n e m y comes,
Let not thy w o r m be killed u p o n the earth;
K e e p him off, as we seeing a w o r m u p o n the earth,
C r u s h him if we like, spare him if we like.
As we tread u p o n a n d kill a w o r m on the earth,
T h o u , if thou pleasest, thou crushest us u p o n the earth.
God, thou goest, holding the b a d and the good in thy hand;
M y Lord, let us not be killed,
W e , thy worms, we are p r a y i n g to thee.
A m a n who knows not evil and good m a y not anger thee;
If once he knew it and was not willing to know it,
This is wicked - - treat him as it pleases thee.
If he formerly did not learn,
Do thou, m y Lord, teach him.
If he learns not the language of men,
H e learns thy language.
G o d , thou hast m a d e aU the animals a n d m e n
T h a t live u p o n the earth;
T h e corn also u p o n this earth on which we are t o live
 DIVINE CALL AND HUMAN RESPONSE 239

Hast thou made; we have not made it.

T h o u hast given us strength;
T h o u has given us cattle a n d corn;
W e worked with them and the seed grew up for us.
With the corn which thou let'st grow for us
M e n were satisfied.
T h e corn in the house has been b u r n t up;
Who has b u r n t the corn in the house?
T h o u knowest.
I know one or two men,
I know them when I have seen them with my eye;
T h o u , even if thou didst not see them with thine eyes,
knowest them by thy heart.
A single bad m a n has chased away all our people from their
houses;
The children a n d their mother has he scattered
Like a flock of turkeys, hither and thither.
The m u r d e r o u s e n e m y took the curly~headed child
O u t of his m o t h e r ' s h a n d and killed him.
T h o u hast permitted all this to be done so.
W h y has thou done so?
T h o u knowest.
T h e corn which thou let'st grow
Dost thou show to our eyes;
T h e h u n g r y m a n looks at it and is comforted.
W h e n the corn blooms thou sendest butterflies
A n d locusts into it - - locusts and doves.
All this comes from thy hand;
T h o u has caused it to be done so?
W h y hast thou done so?
T h o u knowest.
M y Lord, spare those who pray to thee!
As a thief, stealing another's corn,
Is b o u n d by the owner of the corn,
T h u s do not thou bind, 0 Lord;
Binding the beloved one thou settest free with love.
If I a m beloved by thee,
Set me free, I entreat thee from m y heart;
If I do not pray to thee with m y heart,
T h o u hearest me not.
If I pray to thee with m y heart,
T h o u knowest it a n d are gracious u n t o me. 2°

T h e following litany for peace, which comes from the K i k u y u of Kenya,

240 DIVINE CALL AND HUMAN RESPONSE

envisages the prosperity that is the consequence of peace. The prayer is

addressed to Ngai, the Creator.

Say ye, the elders m a y have wisdom and speak with one voice,
Praise ye, Ngai. Peace be with us.
Say ye that the country may have tranquillity
And the people m a y continue to increase.
Praise ye Ngai, peace be with us.
Say ye that the people and the flocks and the herds
M a y prosper and be free from illness.
Praise ye Ngai. Peace be with us.
Say ye the fields m a y bear much fruit
And the land may continue to be fertile.
Praise ye Ngai. Peace be with us. 2t

The Nuer of Sudan use short petitionary prayers to introduce the longer
invocation which precedes a sacrifice. This particular prayer is a stock
petition for the right dispositions at a s a c r i f i c e - peace of heart and
freedom from evil. It is addressed to 'Spirit' or Kwoth, and calls him ' O u r
Father'.

O u r Father, it is thy Universe,

It is thy will, let us be at peace,
Let the souls of thy people be cool;
T h o u art our Father,
Remove all evil from our path. 22

In the ethnic religious traditions of Africa there are frequent prayers for
conversion of heart, both for oneself and for others. Contrition is some-
times expressed in question form: ' H o w have I wronged y o u ? ' but also in
the form of a direct confession of wrongdoing. In the following prayer from
the Dinka of Sudan, h u m a n beings are referred to as 'children of the ants',
the smallest of the small before Divinity. The worshipper confesses that in
his pride and greed he slaughtered his best ox, t h e majok with pied
markings. Golong, a cattle plague is now afflicting his cattle, according to
the diviner M a y a n , and it is this punishment that prompts the confession.

Children of the ants,

We have suffered from dryness.
Why, am I without cattle?
Why, am I without g r a i n . . . ?
That is what I ask, ee!
I am a man who boasted of himself.
I slaughtered in my greed m y majok ox.
Children of Aghok, my father,
The children of the ants are forsaken.
 DIVINE CALL AND HUMAN RESPONSE 241

M y father, the C r e a t o r , indeed created men.

W e h o n o u r o u r father,
T h a t he m a y look in u p o n u s .
M a y a n honours Divinity.
M a y a n , son of Deng, divines.
It is G o l o n g which devours o u r cattle. 23

T h e prophet leader of the M e r u of K e n y a p r a y s that his work for a client

m a y be successful a n d that those who do not trust him m a y be converted.

Almighty God,
H a v e m e r c y on me.
M a y this child o f m i n e
See these things,
So that m y work
M a y be seen by all m e n ,
A n d also those who do not trust me,
M a y their infidelity change, z4

F r o m the D i n k a again comes the idea that Divinity o r G o d is ' h e a r t b r o k e n '

because of m a n ' s wrongdoing.

R e p e a t m y words. T h u s it is.
You, h e a d - c a r r y i n g ring of m y father,
I call on you because you are the one
W h o wastes the limbs,
A n d if I call u p o n you,
You will hear m y words.
A n d you, O Divinity,
You are the great person w h o m all venerate,
A n d you do not repulse y o u r people
If no one has given you offence.
A n d if a m a n has done wrong,
You will be h e a r t b r o k e n because of him,
A n d if a m a n h a s k e p t malice in his heart,
T h e n you will decide between h i m a n d h i s e n e m y ,
Because it is you who are the father of all people. 25

T h e negative or question form of contrition is instanced by the following

two prayers. T h e first comes from the N y a k y u s a of T a n z a n i a and
a c c o m p a n i e d a confession r k e in which water was blown out of the mouth.
T h e p r a y e r is addressed to an ancestor on the occasion of a child's illness,
assumed to be a p u n i s h m e n t for sin.

W h y are you angry, father?

Since you left me,
242 DIVINE CALL AND HUMAN RESPONSE

I have nourished the children.

How have I wronged you?
Even though I have wronged you,
Forgive me father.
M a y the child recover.
Stand by me. 26

The second example comes from the T u m b u k a of Malawi and calls u p o n all
the 'great ones', the ancestors, to gather and receive the offerings being
made. The occasion was an influenza epidemic.

Let the great ones gather!

What have we done to suffer so?
We do not say, Let so-and-so come;
We say, all.
Here your children are in distress.
There is not one able to give a drink of water to another.
W h e r e i n have we erred?
Here is food; we give to you.
Aid us, your children! 27

Finally, let it be said that the concept of divine j u d g m e n t is not entirely

lacking from the religious traditions of Africa. T h e following is an odu or
recital from the Y o r u b a of Nigeria, urging moderation in view of ' o u r
sleeping' - - our death.

Let us not r u n the world hastily,

Let us not grasp at the rope of wealth impatiently;
What should be treated with m a t u r e j u d g m e n t ,
Let us not treat in a fit of temper;
W h e n e v e r we arrive at a cool place,
Let us rest sufficiently well;
Let us give prolonged attention to the future,
A n d then let us give due regard to the consequence of things,
A n d that is on account of our sleeping. 28

A n d this prayer from the Ewe of G h a n a , addressed to the Creator or

' M o t h e r of G o d s ' , pictures reincarnation as b e i n g dependent u p o n the
deeds done in life.

Life is like a hill.

M a w u , the Creator, made it sharp a n d slippery.
T o right and to left deep waters s u r r o u n d it.
You cannot t u r n back once you start to climb.
You must climb with a load on your head,
A m a n ' s arm will not help him, for it is a trial . . .
 DIVINE CALL AND HUMAN RESPONSE 243

At the gates of the land of the dead

Y o u will p a s s b e f o r e a s e a r c h i n g j u d g e ,
H i s j u s t i c e is t r u e a n d h e will e x a m i n e y o u r feet.
H e will k n o w h o w to f i n d e v e r y s t a i n
W h e t h e r visible o r h i d d e n u n d e r t h e skin.
I f y o u h a v e f a l l e n o n t h e w a y h e will k n o w .
I f t h e j u d g e f i n d s n o s t a i n o n y o u r feet,
O p e n y o u r belly to j o y , for y o u h a v e o v e r c o m e
A n d y o u r b e l l y is c l e a n . . . .
S i c k n e s s is t h e a b u s e o f y o u r w e l l - b e i n g ;
Y o u will b e r e m i n d e d at t h e g a t e s o f d e a t h ,
T h e j u d g e will e x a m i n e y o u r feet
A n d y o u will b e p u n i s h e d . 29
Aylward Shorter W.F.

NOTES

I Bernardi, B.: TheMugwe, a failing prophet (Oxford, 1959), p 115.

2 Lienhardt, R. G.: Divinity and experience (Oxford, 1961), pp 38-39.
3 Smith, E. W.: African ideas of God (London, 1950), p 197.
4 Dundas, (3.: Kilimanjaro and its peoples (London, 1924), p 146.
5 Fortes, M. and Dieterlen, G.: African systems of thought (1965), p 1965.
6 van Wing, J.: 'Bakongo incantations and praye~:s',Journal of the RoyalAnthropological Institute,
LX (1930), p 418.
7 Lienhardt: op. dr., pp 231-32.
8 Seligman, (3. O. and B. Z.: The pagan tribes of the Nilotic Sudan (London, 1932), p 519.
9 Wagner, G.: The Bantu of north Kavirondo (Oxford, 1949), p 170.
10 Ezeanya, S. N. in Dickson, K. A. and Ellingworth, P. (eds): Biblical revelation and african
beliefs (London, 1969), p 38.
11 Wilson, M. : Communal rituals of the Nyakyusa (Oxford, 1959), p 32.
12 Kenyatta, J.: Facing Mount Kenya (London, 1938), p 247.
J3 Lienhardt: op. tit., p 221.
14 Roscoe, J.: The Bakitara or Banyoro (Cambridge, 1923), 213.
15 Kenyatta, J.: My people ofKikuyu (Nairobi), p 3.
16 Moreau, J.: 'Les Pygmies', in Parole et mission, XI (1960), p 548.
17 Konadu, A.: A woman in herprime (London, 1967), p 56.
18 Tutsehek, (3.: A grammar of the Calla (Boran) language (Munich, 1845), pp 87-88.
19 Ibid., p 88.
2o Ibid., pp 84-87.
21 Kenyatta: (1938), op. tit., p 258.
22 Evans-Pritchard, E. E. Y.: Nuer religion (Oxford, 1956), p 22.
2~ Lienhardt: op. tit., p 243.
24 Bernardi: op. cir., p 117.
25 Lienhardt: op. eit., p 228.
26 Wilson, M. :Rituals of kinship among the Nyakyasa (Oxford, 1957), p 183.
27 Young, T. (3.: Contemporary ancestors (London, 1940), p 44.
28 Idowu, E. B.: Olodumare, God in Yoruba belief(London, 1962), pp 183-84.
29 Smith: op. cir., pp 233-34.