Journal of Ethnopharmacology 164 (2015) 78–88

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

Medicinal plants of the Achuar (Jivaro) of Amazonian

Ecuador: Ethnobotanical survey and comparison
with other Amazonian pharmacopoeias
Peter Giovannini a,b,n
a
Natural Capital and Plant Health Department, Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Wakehurst Place, Ardingly, West Sussex RH17 6TN, UK
b
Centre for Biocultural Diversity, School of Anthropology and Conservation, Marlowe Building, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NR, UK

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Aim of the Study and Ethnopharmacological relevance: This paper presents the first ethnobotanical survey
Received 10 November 2014 conducted among the Achuar (Jivaro), indigenous people living in Amazonian Ecuador and Peru. The
Received in revised form aims of this study are: (a) to present and discuss Achuar medicinal plant knowledge in the context of the
23 January 2015
epidemiology of this population (b) to compare the use of Achuar medicinal plants with the uses
Accepted 25 January 2015
reported among the Shuar Jivaro and other Amazonian peoples.
Available online 4 February 2015
Materials and methods: The author conducted field research in 9 indigenous villages in the region of
Keywords: Morona Santiago and Pastaza in Ecuador. Semi-structured interviews on local illnesses and herbal
Ethnomedicine remedies were carried out with 82 informants and plant specimens were collected and later identified in
Achuar
Quito. A literature research was conducted on the medicinal species reported by Achuar people during
Traditional medicine
this study.
Medicinal plant knowledge
Amazon Results: The most reported medicinal plants are species used by the Achuar to treat diarrhoea, parasites
Medicinal plants Ecuador infection, fractures, wounds, and snakebites. Informants reported the use of 134 medicinal species for a
total of 733 recorded use-reports. Of these 134 species, 44 are reported at least 3 times for one or more
specific disease condition for a total of 56 uses. These species are considered a core kit of medicinal plants
of the Achuar of Ecuador. Most of these medicinal species are widely used in the Amazon rainforest and
in many other parts of Latin America.
Conclusion: The author documented a core kit of 44 medicinal plants used among the Achuar of Ecuador
and found that this core set of medicinal plants reflects local epidemiological concerns and the
pharmacopoeias of the Shuar and other Amazonian groups. These findings suggest that inter-group
diffusion of medicinal plant knowledge had a prominent role in the acquisition of current Achuar
knowledge of medicinal plants.
& 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction by a collection of voucher specimens (Descola, 1996; Descola,

The Achuar are indigenous people living in Amazonian Ecuador
and Peru. They belong to the Jivaroan linguistic family together
with the Shuar, the Aguaruna, and the Humabisa (Descola, 1996).
To date no ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological survey has
been conducted among the Achuar. Some information on the
plants used by the Achuar can be found as part of the ethnogra-
phical work about the Achuar compiled by Descola but this
information has a limited ethnobotanical value as it is not backed
n
Correspondence address: Natural Capital and Plant Health Department, Royal
Botanic Gardens Kew, Wakehurst Place, Ardingly, West Sussex RH17 6TN, UK.
Tel. þ44 1444 894116; fax þ44 1444 894110.
E-mail address: peter.giovannini@gmail.com
1997). Two other studies have described the ritualistic use of Ilex
guayusa (Lewis et al., 1991) and reported about the medicinal use
of Cyperus spp. (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis, 1990) among Achuar
people. Therefore, this paper presents the first comprehensive
ethnobotanical survey conducted among the Achuar.
The aims of this paper are: (a) to present and discuss the
medicinal plants known by the Achuar of Ecuador in the context of
the epidemiology of this population (b) to compare the use of
Achuar medicinal plants with the uses reported among the Shuar
and other Amazonian peoples.
The author expects to find a large overlap between Achuar
pharmacopeia and Shuar pharmacopeia, as Achuar and Shuar have
lived in contiguous areas for a long time and many cultural traits
such as language are very related to each other (Descola, 1996).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2015.01.038
0378-8741/& 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
 P. Giovannini / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 164 (2015) 78–88
2. Methods
2.1. Site description
The Achuar are an Amazonian indigenous group inhabiting
north-eastern Peru and southern Ecuador in the basins of the
Pastaza, Corriente and Morona river. Differently from many other
indigenous people in the Americas, and facilitated by the fact that
they inhabit a remote area of the Amazon forest, the Achuar have
been able to defend their land and, to a certain degree, their
lifestyle (Enfermeras para el mundo, 2009).
Before their contact with missionaries at the end of the 1960s,
the Achuar were semi-nomadic horticulturalist and hunters living
in small and temporary settlements scattered in a vast territory
(Descola, 1996).
Although Achuar people living in Peru have traded with out-
siders (white and mestizos) for more than a century, facilitated by
the fact that Achuar territory in Peru can be accessed through the
Marañon river (Descola, 1996), the Achuar of Ecuador had almost
no peaceful contact with foreigners until the first contacts with
missionaries (Salesians and American protestants) at the end of
the 1960s (Descola 1996). In this period missionaries of the
Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) started to work among the
Achuar of Peru and later with the Achuar of Ecuador. They initially
promoted the formation of permanent settlements (centros)
around the landing strips that they used to enter in the area
(Descola 1996) and in 1975 they started a program of cattle raising
in Achuar settlements. Missionaries introduced also a formal
education system (Descola, 1996).
In the 1970s oil companies started petrol exploration in Achuar
territory and began extracting oil from some of the Achuar
territory in Peru. In the area where oil extraction took place,
contamination of natural resources and their overexploitation has
severely damaged the ecosystem and the health of Achuar people
(Martínez et al., 2007).
2.2. Current population and lifestyle of the Achuar
As of 2006 the total population of the Achuar in both Ecuador
and Peru was estimated to be 20,000 (Ministerio de Salud del Peru,
2006). This population is distributed in small communities scat-
tered over a territory of about the size of Belgium. Achuar's
subsistence economy is mostly based on horticulture and hunting
but it is complemented by other activities such as cattle-raising and
in few communities the cultivation of cash crops or the harvesting
of wild plants. Both of these are sold for cash to external actors,
such as NGOs and commercial companies, which use them as
ingredients for herbal products and cosmetics.
In Ecuador an estimated 6000 Achuar people live in 75 commu-
nities scattered in a territory (Figs. 1 and 2) of about 681,218 Hectares
in the Cuenca Alta del Rio Pastaza in the Provinces of Morona
Santiago and Pastaza (Enfermeras para el mundo, 2009). From outside
the territory, the Achuar communities can be reached only by canoe
or with small airplanes but these communities are connected to
each other through a network of forest paths maintained by their
inhabitants.
The Achuar of Ecuador are organized politically through the
Nacionalidad Achuar Ecuador (N.A.E.), an organization founded in
the 1990s and formally recognised by the Ecuadorian state.
2.3. Health and healing among the Achuar
Information on the epidemiology and health system of the Achuar
before their sedentarisation, which started in the late 1960s, is scarce.
Descola (1996) reports that in 1970s the Achuar considered witch-
craft the major cause of sickness and illness. Accordingly, Descola
79
observed that, although Achuar used many medicines, ill people
mostly attended a Shaman (wishin).
Currently, the most common health problems among the Achuar
population are acute infectious diseases of the respiratory tract and
of the gastrointestinal system, intestinal parasitic infections, der-
matophytosis, bacterial infections of the skin, gastritis, malaria,
leishmaniasis, urinary tract infections, arthritis, and tuberculosis.
Dental disorders, snakebites, malnutrition, wounds and traumas are
other frequent medical problems (Ministerio de Salud Peru 2006;
personal communication Dr. B.RodrÍguez; Enfermeras para el
mundo, 2009).
As of 2012 there is a main health post (subcentro de salud) in
Wasakentsa, the Salesian mission, and in five other Ecuadorian
Achuar communities there are other smaller health posts (puestos
de salud) where patients can be attended and medicines are
dispensed at no cost. These health posts are under the jurisdiction
of the Ecuadorian Ministry of Health.
In several communities there are also Achuar health workers
(promotores de salud) mostly men, elected by the community to be
trained by external actors (a local NGO) on primary health care.
They manage the botiquin, a place where the medicines are
stocked, and dispense medicines to patients that visit them.
Achuar health workers also refer severe cases to the health
personnel (auxiliares de salud) based in the health posts who decide
if it is necessary to call by radio a flight to transfer the patient into an
hospital outside of the Achuar territory. While Achuar communities
have received few times medicines at no cost from the government
and from other external actors, several communities are now
organised to buy collectively medicines, which are considered
essential, when the stocks are depleted. With an increasing trust
toward the efficacy of biomedicine, the abuse of pharmaceuticals,
such as lack of compliance with recommended mode of use and
administration, has become widespread in the last 20 years (Vanesa
Mojena personal communication). In many cases pharmaceuticals
are used empirically and local knowledge about their use is devel-
oping among Achuar people as it has been observed elsewhere in
Latin America (Giovannini and Heinrich, 2009).
2.4. Field research
Field research was conducted by the author between July and
October 2011 in the Salesian missionary centre of Wasakentsa and
in 9 indigenous villages in the region of Morona Santiago and
Pastaza in Ecuador: Sewastian, Kaiptach, Tsunkintsa, Mashumar-
entsa, Juyukamentsa, Saapapentsa, Wichimi, Achuar, Yutsuntsa.
Herbarium specimens were collected and dried following standard
ethnobotanical methods and identified and deposited in Quito at
the Herbario de la Universidad Central del Ecuador (QCA), Herbario
Nacional de Ecuador en Quito (QCNE) and Herbario de la Universi-
dad Central del Ecuador (QAP). Table A1 in Appendix A shows
voucher numbers and where these are deposited. Plant names were
later checked with The Plant List (www.ThePlantList.org).
The research was part of a larger EU-funded project1 that
aimed to reduce contamination in the Achuar territory and was
motivated by the observation that pharmaceuticals discarded in
the environment are contributing significantly to contaminate
Achuar territory. Therefore, as part of a wider strategy to reduce
contamination, the project aimed to support the use of medicinal
plants among the Achuar as part of a health care system that
integrates the use of both traditional and western medicine and
minimise contamination caused by the misuse of pharmaceuticals.
1
ACRA/EU-ECUMON Project-Waste management and pollution reduction in the
Municipality of Taisha and in the Achuar territory — NSAPVD/2010/259-173.
80 P. Giovannini / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 164 (2015) 78–88

Fig. 1. The map shows the territory of the Achuar of Ecuador.

Permits to conduct the research were obtained from both Table 1

Ecuadorian (Ministry of the Environment) and Achuar institutions List of common medical problems in the area selected as focus of the semi-
structured interviews on medicinal plants carried out with 82 informants.
(N.A.E.). According to Article 8(j) of the Convention of Biological
Diversity, the objectives, methodology and expected outputs of this Medical problem (English) Medical problem (Spanish)
study, including the benefits shared with the Achuar and the
publication of a research paper, were agreed with the president Diarrhoea Diarrea
Malaria Paludismo
and the coordinator of the N.A.E. Before starting the research in each
Common cold Gripe
community, the aims and outputs of the research were explained Leishmaniasis Leishmaniasis
and discussed in Achuar language during community meetings. As Intestinal parasites Bichos
part of the benefit sharing outputs that were agreed with Achuar Snakebite Picadura de culebra
leaders a deliverable of this project was a manual on Achuar Wounds Heridas
Splints, sprains and broken bones Huesos quebrados
medicinal plants that was distributed to health promoters in all 75
Rheumatism Dolor de huesos
communities and to Achuar general population a few months after
the research took place. In total 1000 copies of the manual of Achuar
medicinal plants were also distributed among the population and 22 This information, together with pilot interviews with 7 Achuar
workshops were conducted to disseminate the results of the research informants, were used to select a list of common medical pro-
with the participation of more than 330 individuals. The results were blems in the area (Table 1) that were used as the main focus of the
also used to design a nursery of medicinal plants in Wasakentsa. In semi-structured interviews on medicinal plants carried out with
March 2013, the results of the research were also shared at the 82 informants (49 males and 33 females). This sample includes
annual assembly of the N.A.E. any adult (ageZ18) respondent, in the 9 villages where the study
was conducted, that was willing to participate in the study.
2.5. Data collection and data analysis Considering that 63% of Achuar population is under 18 (this
figure was estimated by calculating the average from 14 commu-
The author collected epidemiological data from both the nities where demographic data were available), the sample of this
perspective of the medical personnel working in the area and study represents 3.7% of the estimated Achuar adult population in
from the perspective of the Achuar people. More specifically, the Ecuador (6000 individuals).
author conducted open and semi-structured interviews with the In the first part of each interviews the researcher asked the
medical doctor (Dr. B. RodrÍguez) who has worked for about 30 informant to list “the most common health problems in the area”,
years in the area and with two nurses. this methodology is commonly referred as freelisting (Borgatti,
 P. Giovannini / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 164 (2015) 78–88 81

1999). These data complemented the epidemiological data col- Table 2

lected at the beginning of the study. The second part of the The result of the freelist on most common illness problems. Frequency: frequency of
mention during freelisting. Percentage: percentage of informants that mentioned
interview focused on the informant's knowledge of medicinal
the item (illness); Smith's S index: Smith's S index (Smith, 1993) of salience varies
plants that can be used to cure the illnesses in Table 1. Informants between 0 (least salient) and 1 (most salient) and it takes in accounts both
were asked which medicinal plants they know to cure each of frequency and rank order of the item in each list.
these illnesses and, for each use report described, information on
the preparation and administration of the remedy was recorded. English Spanish Frequency Percentage Smith's S
index
In some case informants spontaneously reported the use of
medicinal plants for illnesses not in Table 1 and the author recorded 1 Diarrhoea Diarrea 51 65 0.491
this information. Interviews were tape recorded (verbal permission 2 Fever Fiebre 38 49 0.359
to record the interviews was asked at the beginning of the inter- 3 Malaria Paludismo 36 46 0.346
4 Common cold Gripe 24 31 0.221
view). With the exception of few interviews conducted with
5 Headache Dolor de cabeza 18 23 0.144
informants fluent in Spanish, interviews were conducted in Achuar 6 Cough Tos 18 23 0.126
language and facilitated by a bilingual Achuar–Spanish translator. 7 Rheumatism Reumatismo, Dolor de 15 19 0.111
Plant specimens were collected by means of walks in the huesos
woods with the informants, walks in households' gardens follow- 8 Stomach ache Dolor de estomago 14 18 0.106
9 Tuberculosis Tubercolosis 12 15 0.083
ing interviews, or by asking people to collect them and bring them 10 Leishmaniasis Leishmaniasis 8 10 0.069
to the researcher. Plant specimens were conserved with alcohol 11 Hepatitis Hepatitis 7 9 0.064
(Schweinfurth method) during fieldwork and later pressed and 12 Gastritis Gastritis 10 13 0.063
dried in Macas, Morona Santiago, Ecuador. 13 Whooping Tos ferina 5 6 0.054
cough
14 Intestinal Bichos 5 6 0.051
2.5.1. Data analysis parasites
Each use reported during an interview was entered in a 15 Snakebite Picadura de culebra 8 10 0.049
database. To discern plant uses that are idiosyncratic from plant 16 Abscess Absceso 8 10 0.049
17 Witchcraft Brujeria 7 9 0.045
uses that are shared and part of the “basic medical kit” of the 18 Pneumonia Pneumonia 7 9 0.043
Achuar, plant uses that have been reported independently by at 19 Vomiting Vomito 8 10 0.038
least 3 informants were selected for further analysis. 20 Wounds Herida 4 5 0.031
21 Measles Sarampion 3 4 0.024
22 Body aches Dolor de cuerpo 6 8 0.023
3. Results and discussion 23 Urinary Problema de orina 4 5 0.022
infections
24 Toothache Dolor de muela 3 4 0.02
3.1. Ethnoepidemiology 25 Dizziness Mareo 3 4 0.02

The result of the free list on most common illness and medical
problems is shown in Table 2. These ethno-epidemiological data
match well with the epidemiological data available in literature
(Ministerio de Salud del Peru, 2006) and the epidemiological
information given by the medical doctor working in the area.
The Achuar perceive acute infective disease of the gastrointestinal
system, acute respiratory infection and malaria as the most
common illnesses in the area. Rheumatism, tuberculosis, leishma-
niasis, gastritis and snakebites are also perceived as common
health concerns in the area.
Only 9% of the respondents reported witchcraft as a common
cause of health problems. This is a relatively low percentage
considering that previous ethnographic work on the Achuar
emphasizes the role of witchcraft in their medical system
(Descola, 1996). This low rate is likely due both to response bias
caused by the researcher and changes in medical beliefs that have
occurred in the last 40 years. According to the medical doctor that
worked in the area since 1980s, belief in witchcraft was predomi-
nant when she started to work in the area. While Achuar beliefs in
witchcraft has diminished (but not disappeared) the Achuar have
acquired new beliefs regarding the use and efficacy of biomedicine
and there is a growing concern for the misuse of pharmaceuticals.
3.2. Medicinal plants of the Achuar
In total, informants reported the use of 134 medicinal species
for a total of 733 recorded use-reports. Of this 134 species 44 are
reported at least 3 times for one or more specific disease condition
for a total of 56 uses for which consensus was found. These
medicinal plants are shown in the Table A1 in Appendix A.
The most represented botanical families are Solanaceae
(3 species), Leguminosae (3 species), Rubiaceae (2 Species), Cyper-
aceae (2 species), Euphorbiaceae (2 species), Moraceae (2 species).
These families are well known for having a high percentage of
medicinal species, which reflect their phytochemistry. Cyperaceae
are usually underrepresented as medicinal species but several
studies have already reported the wide medicinal use of Cyper-
aceae among Amazonian peoples (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis, 1990;
Plowman et al., 1990).
3.2.1. Preparations of Achuar herbal remedies
The most common way of preparing remedies among the
Achuar consists of preparing decoctions by boiling plant parts in
a large amount of water until this is considerably reduced and
coloured by plants phytochemicals. In some of the decoctions
sugarcane is added to prepare medicinal syrups.
These preparations are administered orally and in many cases
the patient is expected to vomit after having taken the medicine.
Respondents explained also that children that have not yet “learnt
how to vomit” are not allowed to take these remedies. Accordingly,
Lewis et al. (1991) described how Achuar emesis after the
consumption of a drink of Ilex guayusa is learned rather than
physiological.
Some of these remedies are prepared with several plant species
and in few cases respondents explained that they “invented” the
mixtures. Achuar people are also aware of the possible adverse
effects that can arise from mixing some plant species in medicinal
preparations, as several respondents warned that some species
must not be used together. For example, using the leaves of Ilex
guayusa and Psidium guajava in the same decoction is said to
produce a poisonous beverage.
Some remedies are prepared without cooking the ingredients
but rather by crushing, grating and mashing plant parts in water
and then filtering the water with a sieve. For example, the rhizome
82 P. Giovannini / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 164 (2015) 78–88

Fig. 2. The map shows the territory of the Achuar of Ecuador. Achuar communities are grouped in several associations (associaciónes) indicated on the map.

of Cyperus spp. are chewed and then mixed with water, which is
finally filtered before administration. Oral preparations (both
decoctions and uncooked preparations) are often administered
three times a day in a dosage that is related to the age of the
individual treated.
In some preparations Achuar people grate part of the bark, or
the seed, of some species and then use the powder obtained either
as ingredients for oral preparations or for topical application. For
example the bark of Ceiba pentandra is applied to external lesions.
The raw latex of some plant species is used internally and/or
externally such as, for example, the latex of Croton lechleri and
Ficus insipida. Another type of preparation consists in reducing
herbal mixtures to ashes and then apply these on leshmaniasis
lesions. A cloth may be used to hold the preparation on the lesions.
Young tender leaves of some species, such as Jacaranda copaia,
are rubbed on the skin to treat skin mycosis and other dermato-
logical problems.
3.2.2. Medicinal uses
3.2.2.1. Musculoskeletal disorders and traumatic injuries. Brugmansia
insignis (19 Use Reports or UR) is commonly used by the Achuar to
treat fractures and sprains. Other species with thick leaves or stems,
 P. Giovannini / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 164 (2015) 78–88 83

Table A1
Plants with medicinal uses reported during this study.

Species Family Specimens Local name PU Use (Use Preparation Use reported in the Amazon Use
(Achuar in reports) reported
italics) among the
Shuar

Adenostemma Asteraceae APG20, Araraats L Snakebite (15) Leaves are crushed and mixed – Bennett
fosbergii R.M. APG672, with water, used orally. et al.
King and H. APG773 (2002)
Rob.
Bactris gasipaes Arecaceae APG891- Uwi, Chonta R or Malaria(3) Decoction, used orally and then Balslev et al. (2008) –
Kunth L vomited
Banisteriopsis Malpighiaceae APG232 - Nateem L Malaria (5) Decoction is drunk and then Ruiz et al. (2011) –
caapi (Spruce vomited
ex Griseb.) C.
V. Morton
Brosimum sp. Moraceae APG621- Kustanch Lx Dysentery (5), raw latex used orally na na
Diarrhoea (4)
Brugmansia Solanaceae APG101- Maikua, S Fractures and The stem is scraped and Schultes and Raffauf (1990) Hay et al.
insignis (Barb. Floripondio sprains (19) squeezed to extract juice, the (2012)
Rodr.) juice is drunk and applied
Lockwood ex externally with bandage.
R.E. Schultes
Brugmansia Solanaceae APG101 S Wound healing The stem is scraped and – Hay et al.
insignis (Barb. Maikua, and (5) squeezed to extract juice and (2012)
Rodr.) Floripondio L applied externally with
Lockwood ex bandage. The leaf is roasted,
R.E. Schultes grounded and then applied on
the wound
Brunfelsia Solanaceae APG601 Chirikiasip L Rheumatism Decoction is used orally Schultes and Raffauf (1990) Broseghini
grandiflora D. APG741 (4) and Frucci
Don APG782 (1986)
Carica papaya L. Caricaceae Papaya Se Parasites (22) Seeds are crushed and mixed Rutter (1990) Broseghini
with water, used orally and Frucci
(1986)
Cedrela odorata Meliaceae APG131 Kanu, Cedro B Leishmaniasis Internal part of the bark is Kvist et al. (2006, Odonne (2010) –
L. (3) scraped and applied on the
lesion
Ceiba pentandra Bombacaceae APG151 Mente' B Leishmaniasis Bark powder is applied Odonne et al. (2011) –
(L.) Gaertn. (3) externally
Citrus Rutaceae Limon F Diarrhoea (19) Fruit or juice is added to Odonne et al. (2013) –
aurantifolia and preparations with other species
(Christm. ) J
Swingle
Citrus sinensis Rutaceae APG971 Naranja L Diarrhoea (4) Decoction, used orally Thomas and Vandebroek (2006) –
(L.) Osbeck APG1281
Cremastosperma Annonaceae APG1073, Mantach, B Diarrhoea (10), Decoction – Bennett
cauliflorum R. APG1153, Quinina Dysentery (3), et al.
E. Fr. APG115b2, Colic (1), (2002)
APG1291- Stomach pain
(1)
Cremastosperma Annonaceae Mantach, Malaria (4) Decoction – –
cauliflorum R. Quinina
E. Fr.
Croton lechleri Euphorbiaceae APG901 Uruch numi, Lx Wound healing Latex is applied on the lesion Maxwell (1990) Bennett
Müll. Arg. Sangre de (24), et al.
drago Leishmaniasis (2002)
(1)
Croton lechleri Euphorbiaceae APG901 Uruch numi, Lx Diarrhoea (13), Raw latex is used orally Carlson and King (2000), Odonne Bennett
Müll. Arg. Sangre de Dysentery (1), et al. (2009), Ubillas et al. (1994) et al.
drago (2002)
Croton lechleri Euphorbiaceae APG901 Uruch numi, Lx Stomach ache Raw or cooked, used orally Vásquez (1994) Bennett
Müll. Arg. Sangre de (3) et al.
drago (2002)
Cymbopogon Poaceae Hierba luisa L Common cold Decoction is drunk or the water Grenand et al. (1987) Bennett
citratus (DC.) (6), fever (2) is used to bath et al.
Stapf. (2002)
Cyperus Cyperaceae APG222, Piripiri R To limit Root chewed with water and Duke (2008) Bennett
articulatus L. APG502 childbirth pain then the water is drunk et al.
APG512 (3) (2002)
Cyperus prolixus Cyperaceae APG243, Piripiri R Diarrhoea (12) Crushed with water or chewed Plowman et al. (1990) Bennett
Kunth APG553, and then used orally et al.
APG681, (2002)
APG1463
Dieffenbachia sp. Araceae APG1211 Sunkip S Wound healing Stem is scraped and applied on na na
(camacho) (3), Snakebite lesion
(1)
Arecaceae Saké R Malaria (3) Decoction is used orally –
84 P. Giovannini / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 164 (2015) 78–88

Table A1 (continued )

Species Family Specimens Local name PU Use (Use Preparation Use reported in the Amazon Use
(Achuar in reports) reported
italics) among the
Shuar

Euterpe APG101b2, Bertani et al. (2005) Kvist et al.

precatoria APG101 (2006) Ruiz et al. (2011)
Mart.
22 Ficus insipida Moraceae APG191, Seem, Lx Intestinal Latex with water (somtimes Vásquez (1994) –
Willd. APG1112, Wampu' parasites (16) cooked) is used orally
Gossypium Malvaceae APG452, Uruch, L Diarrhoea (5) Decoction sometimes Psidium Rengifo-Salgado (2010) –
barbadense L. APG1171 Algodon guayava leaves and bark and
lemon fruits are added
Gossypium Malvaceae APG452, Uruch, uF Ear ache (8) Fruit is roasted and then the tip Grenand et al. (1987), Luziatelli –
barbadense L. APG1171 Algodon is cut, the fruit is squeezed and et al. (2010)
drops are applied inside the ear
Grias neuberthii Lecythidaceae APG323, Apai, Huevo B Malaria (3) scraped bark is mixed with Schultes and Raffauf (1990) –
J. F. Macbr. APG122, de burro water and boiled, decoction is
APG1311, drunk and vomited
APG1411
Guarea Rubiaceae APG811- Pamasuki B Malaria (3) Powdered bark is mixed with – –
grandifolia (L.) water and used orally and then
Sleumer vomited
Hamelia patens Rubiaceae APG422 Tsapuk L Malaria (7) Decoction is used orally Valadeau et al. (2009) –
Jacq. APG281
Himatanthus Apocynaceae APG41 Apach B Abscess (3), Bark is scraped and applied on Odonne et al. (2013) Schultes and –
sucuuba the lesion Raffauf (1990)
(Spruce ex
Müll.Arg.)
Woodson
Hylocereus sp. Cactaceae Ikiamanch S Fractures and Gel/Juice is extracted and then na na
sprains (10) both applied externally and
used orally
Ilex guayusa Aquifoliaceae APG931 Wayus L Diarrhoea (3) Decoction is used orally Schultes and Raffauf (1990) –
Loes.
1
Ilex guayusa Aquifoliaceae APG93 L Wound healing Chewed and applied on lesion antiseptic use in De Feo (1992) -
Loes. (3)
Inga edulis Mart. Mimosaceae APG441 Wampaa, B Diarrhoea (5), Decoction is used orally mixed – Gerique-
Guava Dysentery (1), with Psidium. guayava Zipfel
(2011)
Jacaranda copaia Bignoniaceae APG1092 Kuiniap L Leishmaniasis Leaves are crushed and applied Gachet and Schühly (2009), De la Torre
(Aubl.) D.Don APG141 (Kuiship) (3), externally Plotkin (1993) et al.
Dermatological (2007)
(1)
Leguminosae Leguminosae APG1491 Kuup B Snakebite (16) Scraped bark releases liquid, na na
APG1521 which is drunk
Manihot Euphorbiaceae Yuca R Malaria (3) Peeled and cooked roots are Vásquez (1994) reported for -
esculenta fermented to make chicha and Fever.(In this case the plant is
Crantz then juice from leaves of used to create the administration
Nicotiana tabacum are added, drink while the active ingredient
used orally is probably nicotiana tabacum)
Mansoa alliacea Bignoniaceae APG31 Kaip, Ajo del L Common cold Decoction used orally and to Grenand et al. (1987) -
(Lam.) A.H. monte (6) bath
Gentry
Mansoa alliacea Bignoniaceae Kaip, Ajo del L Disease Fumigation by burning leaves Grenand et al. (1987) -
(Lam.) A.H. monte prevention (4) on a fire
Gentry
Mansoa alliacea Bignoniaceae Kaip, Ajo del L or Fever (3) Leaves are boiled in water, Grenand et al. (1987, Schultes and -
(Lam.) A.H. monte R which is used to bath. Root is Raffauf (1990)
Gentry boiled in water and the
decoction is drunk
Mansoa alliacea Bignoniaceae Kaip, Ajo del L Mucosal Crushed and squeezed to Odonne et al. (2009) -
(Lam.) A.H. monte and leishmaniasis extract juice, which is applied
Gentry S (3) on lesion
Mansoa alliacea Bignoniaceae Kaip, Ajo del L, S Rheumatism Decoction is drunk Vásquez (1994) -
(Lam.) A.H. monte and (4)
Gentry R
Minquartia Olacaceae APG822 Paini, B Leishmaniasis External layer of the bark is Gachet et al. (2010), Odonne et al.
guianensis APG631 Wambula (3) reduced in powder and applied (2009)
Aubl. on lesion
Mucuna sloanei Fabaceae APG763 Wapaa Se Snakebite (6) The seed is split and the internal Duke and Vasquez (1994) reports
Fawc. & APG76b2 part is scraped and mixed with the use of Mucuna pruriensis in
Rendle water. Used orally. the Amazon.
APG721 Mucuna rostrata used elsewhere
for snakebite Soukup (1970)
Musa x Musaceae APG941 Majench, Lx Diarrhoea (18) Latex is used orally Branch and Silva, (1983), Odonne Bennett
paridisiaca L. Guineo, Orito et al. (2013) et al.
(2002)
 P. Giovannini / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 164 (2015) 78–88 85

Table A1 (continued )

Species Family Specimens Local name PU Use (Use Preparation Use reported in the Amazon Use
(Achuar in reports) reported
italics) among the
Shuar

Musa x Musaceae Majench, S Snakebite (3) Liquid from the stem is used to [Samy et al. (2008) reported the –
paridisiaca L. Guineo, Orito wash the bite use elsewhere]
1
Nicotiana Solanaceae APG95 Tsaank, L Malaria (8) Leaves are crushed in water, Schultes and Raffauf (1990) [as –
tabacum L. Tabaco sometimes mixed with Chicha. treatment for chills]
The remedy is drunk and then
vomited
Ocimum Lamiaceae APG11 Albahaca L Common cold Decoction of the leaves, Rodrigues (2006, Schultes and –
micranthum (3) Cymbopogon citratus leaves Raffauf (1990)
Willd. may be added. Administered
orally or as a steam bath
Opuntia ficus- Cactaceae Ikiamanch, Cl Fractures and Cladode is split in two and the – –
indica L. Mill Tuna sprains (4) internal gel is drunk and applied
on the affected part
Parkia multijuga Mimosaceae APG162 Tankam B Wound healing Powdered bark is used Alarcón (1988) –
Benth. APG127 (4) externally
Phthirusa Loranthaceae APG301 Au arake L Fractures and Decoction is used orally Alarcón (1988), Odonne et al. –
pyrifolia Kunth APG30b2 sprains (4) (2013)
Eichler
Plagiochila cf. Plagiochilaceae APG113 Juu All Wound healing Chewed and applied on the – –
subplana (5) lesion
Psidium guayava Myrtaceae APG883 Kirim, L, F, Diarrhoea (40) Decoction Duke and Vasquez (1994)
L. APG88b1 Guayaba B
Urera baccifera Urticaceae APG35 Tuntun nara, R Malaria (7) Decoction is drunk and then Valadeau et al. 2010) –
(L.) Gaudich. APG482 Ortiga vomited
Ex Wedd. APG1382
Urera baccifera Urticaceae APG35 Tuntun nara, L Rheumatism leaf hit body parts, which are Cayon and Aristizabal (1980) –
(L.) Gaudich. APG482 Ortiga (5), body aches then massaged
Ex Wedd. APG1382 (1)
Zingiber Zingiberaceae APG981 Ajej, Jengibre Rh Diarrhoea (17) Decoction or rhizome crushed Grenand et al. (1987), Vickers and Bennett
officinale in water and then used Plowman (1984) et al.
Roscoe internally (2002)
Zingiber Zingiberaceae APG981 – Rh Common cold Decoction or chewed Bennett
officinale (9) et al.
Roscoe (2002)
Zingiber Zingiberaceae APG981 Rh Cough (5), Decoction or chewed Duke and Vasquez (1994) Bennett
officinale et al.
Roscoe (2002)
Zingiber Zingiberaceae APG981 Rh Blood loss Decoction, used orally. – Bennett
officinale during et al.
Roscoe childbirth (5) (2002)
Zingiber Zingiberaceae APG981 Rh Pain during Decoction, used orally. Branch and Silva (1983) Bennett
officinale childbirth (4) et al.
Roscoe (2002)
Zingiber Zingiberaceae APG981 Rh Snakebite (3) Chewed together with roots of – Bennett
officinale Cyperus sp. et al.
Roscoe (2002)
Zea mays L. Poaceae IC Colics Internal part of the cob is – -
(3) Diarrhoea reduced to ahses, these are
(2) mixed with water, which is
drunk

Specimens: 1¼ Herbario de la Universidad Central del Ecuador , Quito (QCA); 2 ¼Herbario Nacional de Ecuador en Quito (QCNE); 3¼ Herbario de la Universidad Central del
Ecuador (QAP).
PU: Part used, L ¼leaves; R¼ root; Rh ¼Rhyzome; Lx ¼ Latex; S¼ stem; B ¼Bark; Se ¼ Seeds; F ¼ Fruit; J ¼Fruit juice; uF ¼unripe fruit; Cl¼ cladodes; IC ¼ internal part of the
corn cob.
Use reports: Number of independent reports of the same use is shown within parentheses.
Plant names were checked with www.theplantlist.org (accessed on May 2014); na ¼ not applicable.

such as Hylocereus sp. (11 UR), Phthirusa pyrifolia (4 UR), Opuntia
ficus-indica (4 UR) are also used to treat fractures and sprains.
Hay et al. (2012) reported the same use of Brugmansia insignis
Among the Shuar and De Feo (2004) reports similar uses of this
species in the Peruvian Andes. Phthirusa pyrifolia is used similarly
among the Quichua (Alarcón, 1988).
Decoctions of the leaves of Mansoa alliaceae (4 UR) and Brunfelsia
grandiflora (4 UR) are warmed and applied externally with bandages
to treat the same condition. Previous studies reported the use of
Mansoa alliaceae to treat arthritis among Quichua (Alarcón, 1988) and
the use of Brunfelsia grandiflora to treat rheumatism and other
ailments (Broseghini and Frucci, 1986; Schultes and Raffauf, 1990).
To treat rheumatisms and body aches the Achuar use also the
urticant leaves of Urera baccifera (6 UR) and Urera laciniata (3 UR).
Affected areas of the body are hit with the leaves and are then
massaged. Urera baccifera is used similarly among the Shuar of
Ecuador (Bennett et al., 2002) and the Sionas of the Columbian
Putumayo uses Urera baccifera and Urera laciniata to treat mus-
cular pains (Schultes and Raffauf, 1990).
3.2.2.2. Gastrointestinal complaints. Psidium guajava (40 UR), Croton
lechleri (14 UR), Crematosperma cauliflorum (13 UR), Cyperus prolixus
(12 UR), Musa x parisidiaca (18 UR), Zingiber officinale (18 UR) and
Citrus aurantifolia (19 UR) are the most reported medicinal plants
86 P. Giovannini / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 164 (2015) 78–88
used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. Croton lechleri (3 UR) is also
used to treat stomachache.
Psidium guajava is widely used in tropical regions to treat
gastrointestinal conditions (Gutiérrez et al., 2008). Similarly there
are many reports of the use of Crematosperma lechleri to treat
diarrhoea (Ubillas et al., 1994; Carlson and King, 2000; Odonne
et al., 2009). The Shuar and other Amazonian indigenous group
use Zingiber officinale to treat diarrhoea and other gastrointestinal
conditions (Schultes and Raffauf, 1990). Musa  paridisiaca is used
similarly among the Shuar (Bennett et al., 2002). The use of
Cyperus prolixus to treat several illnesses including diarrhoea has
been already reported among indigenous Amazonian people
(Plowman et al., 1990).
Citrus aurantifolia is a widely used ingredient of herbal reme-
dies and a similar use was documented among the Chayahuita of
the Peruvian Amazon (Odonne et al., 2013). Citrus sinensis is used
similarly by indigenous people living in the Indigenous Territory
and National Park Isiboro-Secure (Thomas and Vandebroek, 2006)
and in other parts of Latin America (Heinrich et al., 1998).
Carica papaya (22 UR) and Ficus insipida (16 UR) are the most
commonly reported species used to treat intestinal parasites.
Bennett et al. (2002) reported the same use of Carica papaya
among the Shuar and the use of both species for intestinal
parasites have been widely documented in Amazonian societies
(Schultes and Raffauf, 1990).
3.2.2.3. Skin-disorders. Wounds are treated by applying directly on
the lesions the latex of Croton lechleri (24 UR), a poultice made of
leaves of Brugmansia insignis (UR 5), a powder obtained from the
bark of Parkia multijuga (UR 4), the chewed leaves of Ilex guayasa
(3 UR) or the chewed liverwort Plagiochila cf. subplana (UR 5).
The Shuar use Croton lechleri (Bennett et al., 2002) and
Brugmansia insignis (Hay et al., 2012) similarly. Alarcon (Ríos
et al., 2007) reported the use of Parkia sp as vulnerary among
the Quichua.
Himathanthus sucuuba is used to treat abscess (3 UR). This
species has been reported as a remedy used for wound healing
(Villegas et al., 1997; Bourdy et al., 2000) and to treat leishmaniasis
lesions in other parts of the Amazon (Castillo et al., 2007; Odonne
et al., 2009).
3.2.2.4. Snakebites. Adenostemma fosbergii (15 UR), Mucuna sloaneii
(6 UR), and an unidentified Leguminosae species are the most
reported remedies to treat snakebite. The use of the first has been
reported also among the Shuar (Bennett et al., 2002) while several
Mucuna species have been reported as remedies for snakebites in
different part of the world (Coe and Anderson, 2005; Molander
et al., 2012).
3.2.2.5. Respiratory disorders. Decoctions made with the rhizome
of Zingiber officinale (14 UR) or the leaves of Cymbopogon citratus
(6 UR) and Mansoa alliacea (5 UR) are the most reported remedies
used to treat common cold and cough.
Bennett et al. (2002) and Gerique-Zipfel (2011) reported the
use of these species to treat respiratory disorders among the
Shuar. Cymbopogon citratus and Zingber officinale are widely used
worldwide to treat common cold and cough (Bennett and Prance,
2000; Ross, 2005). Alarcon (1988) reported the use of Mansoa
alliacea among Quichua to treat fever.
3.2.2.6. Parasitic diseases. To treat malaria the Achuar use several
medicinal plants. The leaves of Nicotiana tabacum (8 UR) are
crushed in water and sometimes mixed with Chicha (a drink
based on fermented manioc).
A decoction of the roots of Urera baccifera (7 UR) is drunk and
vomited. The roots of Bactris gasipaes (UR 3), the internal part of
the bark of Guarea grandifolia (3UR), and the roots of Euterpe
precatoria (3 UR) are prepared and administered similarly.
A decoction made with the leaves of Hamelia patens (6 UR) is
drunk to treat malaria. Similarly a decoction of the leaves Banis-
teriopsis capii (5 UR) is drunk and then vomited to treat the same
condition. A decoction of the bark of Grias neuberthii is used to
treat malaria (UR 3).
Previous studies showed similar uses in Amazonia for Hamelia
patens (Valadeau et al., 2009), Grias neuberthii (Schultes and
Raffauf, 1990), Bactris gasipaes (Balslev et al., 2008) and Euterpe
precatoria (Bertani et al., 2005; Kvist et al., 2006; Ruiz et al., 2011).
Valadeau et al. (2010) reported the use of Urera laciniata to treat
malaria among the Yanesha and Sanz-Biset et al. (2009) reported
the use of Guarea macrophilla to treat the same condition in the
Peruvian Amazon. Interestingly a bark infusion of Guarea grand-
ifolia was reported “to cause vomiting and intoxication” (Boom
and Moestl, 1990) two of the physiological reactions that Achuar
expect when treating malaria. Banisteriopsis capii is widely used
throughout the Amazon to treat many diseases (Schultes and
Raffauf, 1990) but there are no reports of the use of this species
to treat malaria among the Shuar.
To treat mucosal leishmaniasis the Achuar use also the juice
extracted from the leaves and stem of Mansoa alliacea (UR 3).
A powder obtained from the bark of Minquartia guianensis (3 UR)
is applied externally on lesions and remedies from Cedrela odorata
(3 UR) and Ceiba pentandra (3 UR) are prepared and administered
similarly. Finally, the Achuar use also a poultice made with the
leaves of Jacaranda copaia (3 UR) to treat leishmaniasis.
Previous studies reported the same use of Minquartia guianen-
sis (Gachet et al., 2010), Cedrela odorata (Kvist et al., 2006; Odonne,
2010), Jacaranda copaia (Gachet and Schühly, 2009), and Ceiba
pentandra (Odonne et al., 2011) by other peoples inhabiting the
Amazon but there are no reports of the use of these species to
treat leishmaniasis among the Shuar.
3.2.2.7. Gynaecological or reproductive conditions. Cyperus artic-
ulatus (3 UR) and Zingiber officinale (4 UR) are used to limit pain
during childbirth. Zingiber officinale (5 UR) is also used after
copious blood loss during childbirth.
4. Discussion
The epidemiological profile of the population of the Achuar of
Ecuador, with a high incidence of acute infectious diseases, it is
typical of societies that transitioned from a nomadic, semi-
nomadic lifestyle to a sedentary lifestyle (Freedman and Kroeger,
1984; Hern, 1991; Dounias et al., 2004; Alexiades and Peluso,
2009; Dounias and Froment, 2011).
Accordingly, the most reported medicinal plants are species
used by the Achuar to treat diarrhoea, parasitic infection, fractures,
wounds, and snakebites, although the author of this paper
recognises that this result may have been biased by the focus of
the interviews on the diseases in Table 1. Interestingly, while
wounds, fractures and snakebites are likely to have been an
important cause of illness and death in the pre-sedenterised
Achuar society, gastrointestinal infections and parasites are likely
to have been minor illnesses in the past as these are unlikely to
spread in semi-nomadic societies (Dunn, 1968; Polunin, 1967).
Most of these medicinal species are widely used in the Amazon
and most of them in many other parts of Latin America. 21 out of
56 (37%) uses on which there is consensus at species level have
been reported also among the Shuar and 49 out of the 56 uses
reported (i.e. 87%) at the species level have been reported also
 P. Giovannini / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 164 (2015) 78–88
among other Amazonian peoples. However, it is interesting to note
that the most reported medicinal plant, Zingiber officinale, is an
introduced species native of Asia (Ross, 2005).
Similarly to the observations of Descola (1996), a Salesian priest
who has spent considerable time in Achuar communities at the
beginning of their contact with western culture (Salesian priest
personal communication) stated that, while some medicinal plants
where commonly used, pre-sedenterisation Achuar medical sys-
tem was mainly based on witchcraft and the consultation of a
wishin (Shaman) rather than the use of medicinal plants.
Although no baseline data is available as a benchmark of
comparison, the findings of this study suggest that today's Achuar
pharmacopoeia is likely the result of how local knowledge of
medicinal plants has adapted to a relatively recent epidemiological
change and of the effect of the increasing contact with other
indigenous groups and outsiders rather than the results of the
accumulation of botanical lore during centuries of isolation.
The epidemiological shift and the arrival of new diseases likely
fostered the acquisition of new ethnobotanical knowledge through
exchange of information and experimentation. However, the
introduction of western medicine by missionaries during the
process of sedenterisation may have diminished the incentive for
the acquisition of new ethnobotanical knowledge.
The findings of this study suggest that inter-group diffusion of
knowledge (exchange of information) had a prominent role in the
acquisition of Achuar botanical knowledge. For example, it is likely
that contact with the Shuar, facilitated by linguistic and geographic
proximity, highly influenced Achuar pharmacopeia. The Shuar
have been in contact with western civilization long before the
Achuar (Descola, 1996; Rubenstein, 2001) and its possible that also
their pharmacopeia was highly influenced by the changes due to
sedenterization that took place later among the Achuar. If this
occurred, than the Achuar would have conveniently found in the
ethnobotanical knowledge of the Shuar remedies for the new
diseases introduced through the epidemiological shift.
The findings and observations of this study fit with Davis and
Yost hypothesis that the pharmacopeias of some Amazonian
indigenous people “reflect at least in part the chaos of contact
and the accelerated experimentation that took place in post-
contact times” (Davis and Yost, 1983).
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, the author documented a core kit of 44 medic-
inal plants used among the Achuar of Ecuador and found that this
core kit of medicinal plants reflects local epidemiological concerns
and the pharmacopeia of the Shuar and other Amazonian groups.
Future studies on Achuar medicinal plants, could use the findings
of this first ethnobotanical study of the Achuar of Ecuador as a
baseline data to evaluate change in ethnobotanical knowledge and
practices among this Amazonian people.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to all the Achuar people and communities that have
participated in this study. Thanks to Pietro Graziani and to Adriana
Sousa for assistance in organising the logistical aspects of the field
research. Thanks to the staff of the Herbario de la Universidad
Central del Ecuador (QCA), Herbario Nacional de Ecuador en Quito
(QCNE) and Herbario de la Universidad Central del Ecuador (QAP)
for assisting with plant identification. Thanks to Dr. Sarah Edwards
and Dr. Melissa Ceuterick for useful feedback on this manuscript.
87
This research was funded by ACRA/EU-ECUMON Project-Waste
management and pollution reduction in the Municipality of Taisha
and in the Achuar territory — NSAPVD/2010/259-173.
Appendix A
See Table A1 here.
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