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Lithospheric-scale centrifuge models of pull-apart basins

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DOI: 10.1016/j.tecto.2015.09.004

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Lithospheric-scale centrifuge models of pull-apart basins

Giacomo Corti a,⁎, Tim P. Dooley b
a
CNR, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Geoscienze e Georisorse, U.O. Firenze, Via G. La Pira, 4, 50121 Florence, Italy
b
Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas at Austin, University Station, Box X, Austin, TX 78713, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We present here the results of the first lithospheric-scale centrifuge models of pull-apart basins. The experiments
Received 11 June 2015 simulate relative displacement of two lithospheric blocks along two offset master faults, with the presence of a
Received in revised form 20 August 2015 weak zone in the offset area localising deformation during strike–slip displacement. Reproducing the entire
Accepted 2 September 2015
lithosphere–asthenosphere system provides boundary conditions that are more realistic than the horizontal detach-
Available online xxxx
ment in traditional 1 g experiments and thus provide a better approximation of the dynamic evolution of natural
Keywords:
pull-apart basins. Model results show that local extension in the pull-apart basins is accommodated through devel-
Pull-apart basins opment of oblique–slip faulting at the basin margins and cross-basin faults obliquely cutting the rift depression. As
Analogue modelling observed in previous modelling studies, our centrifuge experiments suggest that the angle of offset between the
Centrifuge models master fault segments is one of the most important parameters controlling the architecture of pull-apart basins:
Strike–slip faulting the basins are lozenge shaped in the case of underlapping master faults, lazy-Z shaped in case of neutral offset
Lithospheric thinning and rhomboidal shaped for overlapping master faults. Model cross sections show significant along-strike variations
in basin morphology, with transition from narrow V- and U-shaped grabens to a more symmetric, boxlike geometry
passing from the basin terminations to the basin centre; a flip in the dominance of the sidewall faults from one end
of the basin to the other is observed in all models. These geometries are also typical of 1 g models and characterise
several pull-apart basins worldwide. Our models show that the complex faulting in the upper brittle layer corre-
sponds at depth to strong thinning of the ductile layer in the weak zone; a rise of the base of the lithosphere occurs
beneath the basin, and maximum lithospheric thinning roughly corresponds to the areas of maximum surface sub-
sidence (i.e., the basin depocentre).
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Strike–slip tectonics is a fundamental process affecting many parts
of the Earth's lithosphere and resulting in prominent surface expres-
sions (Mann, 2007; Sylvester, 1988; Woodcock and Schubert, 1994).
Although strike–slip faults form linear and relatively continuous
fault systems, they are typically segmented, resulting in localised
extension/transtension or contraction/transpression as displacement
along the boundary fault system is transferred through a variety of dis-
continuities or steps (Cunningham and Mann, 2007; Mann, 2007; Mann
et al., 1983; Sylvester, 1988). Pull-apart basins form where bends or
sidesteps (jogs) in the main strike–slip fault system (principal displace-
ment zone or PDZ) produce zones of localised extension where the
sense of step or bend in the fault system is the same as the sense of
slip on the PDZ. More than 160 basins around the globe have been at-
tributed to strike–slip motion across segmented systems (Mann, 2007).
Physical models have greatly advanced our understanding of pull-
apart-basin genesis and evolution using models in clay (e.g., Atmaoui
et al., 2006; Hempton and Neher, 1986; Mitra and Paul, 2011; Raynaud,
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 0552757524; fax: +39 055290312.
E-mail address: giacomo.corti@igg.cnr.it (G. Corti).
1987; Soula, 1984), in sand (e.g., Dooley and McClay, 1997; Dooley and
Schreurs, 2012; Dooley et al., 1999; Faugère et al., 1986; McClay and
Dooley, 1995; Rahe et al., 1998; Richard et al., 1995) and in mechanically
layered systems (brittle–ductile; e.g., Basile and Brun, 1999; Dooley and
Schreurs, 2012; Mitra and Paul, 2011; Sims et al., 1999; Smit et al.,
2008a,b; Wu et al., 2009) using deformation rigs with the same basic de-
sign. In most of these models the basal detachment to the pull-apart basin
was a horizontal shear zone underlain by a stretching rubber sheet be-
tween the rigid baseplates. In this paper we present a new series of cen-
trifuge models designed to investigate the development, evolution and
architecture of pull-apart basins on a lithospheric scale. Our new models
adopt a set-up that is analogous to that used in the majority of 1 g models;
however, by reproducing the entire lithosphere–asthenosphere system,
our new set-up provides boundary conditions that are more realistic
than the horizontal detachment typically used in traditional models.
Moreover, our new models complement previous results from classical
1 g models by providing insights into the patterns of lithospheric thin-
ning, in addition to the brittle deformation in the upper crust. To our
knowledge, this is the first application of lithospheric-scale centrifuge
modelling and structural analysis to pull-apart basins and one of the
few experimental works in which strike–slip displacement is investigat-
ed at a lithospheric scale.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.09.004
0040-1951/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Corti, G., Dooley, T.P., Lithospheric-scale centrifuge models of pull-apart basins, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.tecto.2015.09.004
2 G. Corti, T.P. Dooley / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

2. Model set-up and experimental series
The three models presented in this paper were performed in an arti-
ficial gravity field of ~18 g using a large-capacity centrifuge and simulat-
ed strike–slip deformation of a brittle–ductile continental lithosphere
floating above a low-viscosity material representing the asthenosphere.
The models were built inside a transparent rectangular Plexiglas® box
(with internal dimensions of 25 × 16 × 7 cm) and confined by two
moveable side walls. Models consisted of two lithospheric blocks that
moved past each other to simulate symmetric, pure strike–slip defor-
mation; the main strike–slip fault system (principal displacement
zone) was characterised by an offset in the central part of the model
in order to produce a zone of localised extension and give rise to a
pull-apart basin, similar to other strike–slip modelling studies (Dooley
and Schreurs, 2012; Figs. 1 and 2). A weak zone was introduced be-
tween the two lithospheric blocks within the offset area, reproducing
conditions analogous to the use of a basal rubber sheet between rigid
plates or a localised ductile layer in 1 g models (Dooley and Schreurs,
2012). Removal of rectangular blocks (spacers) at the sides of the mov-
ing walls allowed lateral motion of the two lithospheric blocks in re-
sponse to the centrifugal forces to fill the empty space (Fig. 1).
Sequential removal of spacers during successive runs in the centrifuge
allowed control of the amount and rate of deformation. Top-view
photos of the models were taken after the end of each stage in order
to monitor the evolution of surface deformation. Model surface topogra-
phy was monitored by a laser scanner. Once the experiment was com-
pleted, models were frozen before being thinly slabbed to study their
3-D internal geometry.
2.1. Rheological layering and experimental materials
A vertical sequence of brittle and ductile materials was used to repro-
duce the rheological multilayering that is characteristic of the continental
lithosphere (Fig. 1e). As in several previous centrifuge experiments
(e.g., Agostini et al., 2009; Corti, 2012), the upper crust was simulated
by using a K-feldspar powder characterised by a linear increase in
strength with depth to reproduce natural brittle behaviour. The lower
crust was modelled by a ductile mixture of silicone (Dow Corning®
3179 Dilatant Compound, hereafter referred to as DC3179) and corun-
dum sand (100:10% in weight). The strong uppermost lithospheric man-
tle was simulated with a mixture (100:20% in weight) of plasticine
(Pongo Fantasia® modelling dough, distributed by FILA) and PDMS —
Polydimethylsiloxane (Dow Corning® SGM36). A mixture of DC3179, co-
rundum sand and oleic acid (100:50:1% in weight) modelled the lower
lithospheric mantle. The weak zone in the offset area was reproduced
by introducing a weak mixture of DC3179, corundum sand and oleic
acid (100:20:5% in weight) beneath a 1 mm-thick layer of the standard
lower crust model material (Fig. 1g). The crustal–mantle layers rested

a b c Counter
weight

Model
ω
CF
Counterweight
Model

10000
Log shear stress (Pa)

d f
1000

100
Upper lith mantle
Weak zone
10
16 cm

Lower crust
Lower lith mantle
1
0.001 0.01 0.1
Log strain rate (s-1)

g PLATE WEAK ZONE

Differential stress Differential stress
σ1-σ3 σ1-σ3
1000 2000 1000

15 cm 1220 1220

1220 1220
Depth, mm

10
1500 1500
e Upper crust 1500
Lower crust
Weak
zone

Upper lith mantle 20

Lower lith mantle 1500 1500

Fig. 1. Experimental setup. (a) Frontal view of the large-capacity centrifuge at the Tectonic Modelling Laboratory of the Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources (National Research
Council of Italy). (b) Close-up of the internal rotor. (c) Loading conditions in the centrifuge (CFF, centrifuge force field). (d) Top-view photo of a model, illustrating the geometry of defor-
mation. (e) Model cross section illustrating the vertical rheological layering. (f) Stress–strain-rate relationships for the different viscous materials used to simulate the continental litho-
sphere (lith) plotted in a log–log graph. (g) Strength profiles of the model lithosphere in the different domains; numbers indicate the density of the different materials (in kg m−3).

Please cite this article as: Corti, G., Dooley, T.P., Lithospheric-scale centrifuge models of pull-apart basins, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.tecto.2015.09.004
 G. Corti, T.P. Dooley / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 3

Pre-deformation (∼2.5 × 10−5 m s−1) scaled to natural values of ∼5–50 mm yr−1, depend-
ing on the assumed viscosity of ductile layers (e.g., 1023–1024 Pa s for the
strong upper lithospheric mantle). This range of values well compares
with velocities of natural strike–slip systems (e.g., ~25 mm/yr for the

Weak
zone
North Anatolian Fault, Cakir et al., 2014; 3–5 mm/yr for the Dead Sea
transform, Sadeh et al., 2012; 1–35 mm/yr for the fault segments com-
posing the San Andreas Fault, Tong et al., 2014).

2.3. Types of experiments

Post-deformation
The main parameter investigated in the current model series is the
angle of offset between the master fault segments created by control-
ling the amount of underlap (U; Fig. 2) or overlap (O; Fig. 2). This
angle has a fundamental control of the resultant pull-apart-basin geom-
etry (Dooley and Schreurs, 2012). In particular, as shown in Fig. 2, we
have investigated the three conditions of underlapping (Model 1; offset
angle A = 45°), neutral (Model 2; offset angle A = 90°) and overlapping
(Model 3; offset angle A = 135°) master faults, identical to those inves-
Underlapping master faults (Model 1) tigated by Dooley and McClay (1997) and also summarised in Dooley
and Schreurs (2012). All other parameters, including the separation
(S) between the master-fault segments and the initial width of the off-
set area/weak zone (parameters that control the length:width ratio of
1 cm Separation 1.5 cm the basins) as well as the vertical rheological layering of both the nor-
Angle (A) 45° mal lithosphere and the weak zone, were kept constant (Fig. 2).

2.4. Experimental monitoring and analysis

Neutral master faults (Model 2)
In all experiments, deformation was monitored through top-view
photos taken after each run in the centrifuge and laser scanning at sub-
1 cm millimeter resolution to reconstruct the topography of the model sur-
Separation 1.5 cm
face. At the end of each experiment, the models were soaked in water,
Angle (A) 90° frozen and cut in a set of evenly spaced, subparallel cross sections to an-
alyse the internal deformation.

Overlapping master faults (Model 3) 2.5. Simplifications and limitations of the modelling approach

As in all modelling studies, our experimental set-ups require signif-

1 cm
Separation 1.5 cm
Angle (A) 135°
Fig. 2. Geometrical characteristics of the model setups. (a) Overhead view illustrating pre-
and post-deformation of the master faults and offset zone. (b) Separation and angular re-
lationships of the stepovers for the three models presented in this paper. The angles of the
stepovers are identical in geometry to those presented in Dooley and McClay (1997) and
Dooley and Schreurs (2012).
on a low-viscosity mixture made of DC3179, corundum sand and oleic
acid (100:80:15% in weight). The rheological characteristics (flow
curves) and densities of these materials are illustrated in Fig. 1f; their
use resulted in an increase in density, with depth and a variable strength
reproducing a typical Christmas-tree strength profile of the continental
lithosphere (Fig. 1g; e.g., Ranalli, 1995).
Syntectonic sedimentation was simulated by filling the pull-apart
depression (up to the top of the rift shoulders) with sieved K-feldspar
powder before continuing deformation within the centrifuge.
2.2. Scaling
The models were built with a geometric scale ratio of ∼3.3 × 10−7,
such that 1 cm in the experiments corresponded to ∼30 km in nature.
This allowed modelling ∼ 45 km of lateral displacement of ∼60-km-
thick continental lithospheres. Dynamic–kinematic similarity of gravita-
tional, viscous and frictional stresses acting in the system (Ramberg,
1981) ensured that the velocity of lateral displacement in the models
icant simplifications of natural systems. In particular, lithospheric-scale
processes involve temperature-dependent aspects that were not con-
sidered in the current models. This means that the thermo-mechanical
response of the lithosphere to pull-apart development was simplified
to a purely mechanical response. Additionally the rheology of natural
materials and the lithospheric strength profiles are greatly simplified
in laboratory studies. Similarly, sedimentation was simplified with re-
spect to nature: the developing structural topography was simply filled
to the top of the basin shoulders, and it was performed intermittently at
imposed time intervals and not continuously as likely occurs in natural
pull-apart basins. For practical reasons (the size of the internal rotor) we
have deliberately assumed a thin lower lithospheric mantle in the ex-
periments, resulting in a model lithospheres that are thinner than nor-
mal natural continental lithospheres (e.g., Ranalli, 1995). We believe
that this setup does not greatly influence the response of our model lith-
osphere to strike–slip deformation and pull-apart development. This is
due to fact that the lower lithospheric mantle is a weak layer that has
a negligible contribution to the total resistance of the lithosphere,
which is instead mostly controlled by the upper lithospheric mantle
and upper crust. However, this setup limits a more quantitative compar-
ison between model and nature with respect to thinning factors.
3. Experimental results
Figs. 3–7 and Movies 1–3 illustrate the results from the three exper-
iments. Common to all the models is an evolution of deformation
characterised by the early development of Riedel shears above the mas-
ter faults and oblique–slip faults accommodating localised extension in
the offset area that bordered the developing basin (basin sidewall faults,

Please cite this article as: Corti, G., Dooley, T.P., Lithospheric-scale centrifuge models of pull-apart basins, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.tecto.2015.09.004
4 G. Corti, T.P. Dooley / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Model 1 - Underlapping master faults

Illumination 5 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination 7 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination 9 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination 11 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination 13 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination 15 mm
SSFs
CBFs
BSFs

BSFs

SSFs

Illumination 1 cm

Fig. 3. Evolution of model with underlapping master fault (Model 1), shown as sequential top-view photos with differing illumination angles (left and central panels) and line drawings of
structures (right panels). BSFs: basin sidewall faults; CBFs: cross-basin faults; SSFs: strike–slip faults.

BSFs; Figs. 3–5). Progressive displacement led to linking of the Riedel
shears to form thoroughgoing strike–slip faults above the master faults
and propagation of the BSFs towards the opposite master fault. Oblique–
slip faults (cross-basin faults, CBFs) formed later, cutting the basin floor
and propagating to link the offset master faults with increasing
displacement.
In the case of underlapping master faults (Model 1; Figs. 2 and 3;
Movie 1), the BSFs acquired an en-échelon arrangement whose trend
roughly followed the trend of the weak zone boundaries at depth.
CBFs were well established after ~ 9 mm of lateral displacement in
these experiments, and at ~ 15 mm of displacement the basin had ac-
quired a well-defined elongate, lozenge shape, with a length:width
ratio of ~ 2.5:1. Maximum subsidence occurred in the centre of the
pull-apart in association with the CBFs; this corresponded at depth to
strong thinning of the ductile layers and maximum lithospheric thin-
ning of 1/β ~ 0.75 (where 1/β is the ratio between the final and the ini-
tial thickness of the model crust; Figs. 6 and 7).
In Model 2 (neutral master faults, Fig. 2; Fig. 4; Movie 2), BSFs devel-
oped almost orthogonal to the master fault trend, subparallel to the
trend of the weak zone boundaries. The CBFs started forming at ~8 mm
of lateral displacement and were well established at ~12 mm of strike–
slip deformation. At ~14 mm of displacement the basin had acquired a
roughly lazy-Z shape, with a length:width ratio of ~1.7:1. Maximum sub-
sidence and lithospheric thinning occurred in the centre of the pull-apart

Please cite this article as: Corti, G., Dooley, T.P., Lithospheric-scale centrifuge models of pull-apart basins, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.tecto.2015.09.004
 G. Corti, T.P. Dooley / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 5

Model 2 - Neutral master faults

Illumination 4 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination 6 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination 8 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination 10 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination 12 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination SSFs
14 mm
CBFs
BSFs

BSFs

SSFs

Illumination 1 cm

Fig. 4. Evolution of model with neutral master fault (Model 2), shown as sequential top-view photos with differing illumination angles (left and central panels) and line drawings of struc-
tures (right panels). BSFs: basin sidewall faults; CBFs: cross-basin faults; SSFs: strike–slip faults.

in correspondence to the CBFs (Figs. 6 and 7). The lithosphere was
thinned to about half its initial thickness in this model (1/β ~ 0.5 in Fig. 7).
Model 3 investigated an overlapping master fault arrangement
(Figs. 2 and 5; Movie 3). The arrangement of the BSFs around the
basin is slightly more complex than in Models 1 and 2: they formed a
set of subparallel faults nearly orthogonal to the direction of strike–
slip displacement with no direct relation with the trend of the weak
zone boundaries. CBFs were well established at ~9 mm of strike–slip de-
formation. At ~ 14 mm of displacement the pull-apart basin had ac-
quired a rhomboidal shape, with a length:width ratio of ~ 1.7:1.
Maximum subsidence was observed in the box-shaped centre of the
basin in correspondence with the CBFs (Figs. 6 and 7). A maximum lith-
ospheric thinning of 1/β ~ 0.75 was recorded here (Fig. 7).
Cross sections through the models show that deformation is accom-
modated by strong thinning of the ductile weak zone accompanied by
complex faulting of the upper crust (Fig. 6). This latter layer is cut by nu-
merous steep or subvertical faults, sometimes with a curved geometry,
which may display a reverse component of motion (oversteepened),
thus indicating a complex kinematic history. Basin morphology is
characterised by significant along-strike variations. The basin centres
typically display a roughly symmetric, boxlike geometry (Fig. 6). Con-
versely, the areas close to the main master faults are marked by narrow

Please cite this article as: Corti, G., Dooley, T.P., Lithospheric-scale centrifuge models of pull-apart basins, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.tecto.2015.09.004
6 G. Corti, T.P. Dooley / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Model 3 - Overlapping master faults

Illumination 5 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination 7 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination 9 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination 11 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination 13 mm

Illumination 1 cm

Illumination SSFs 14 mm
CBFs
BSFs

BSFs
SSFs

Illumination 1 cm

Fig. 5. Evolution of model with overlapping master fault (Model 3), shown as sequential top-view photos with differing illumination angles (left and central panels) and line drawings of
structures (right panels). BSFs: basin sidewall faults; CBFs: cross-basin faults; SSFs: strike–slip faults.

V- and U-shaped grabens and negative flower structures, with a typical
asymmetric architecture characterised by a faulted margin on one side
and a more monoclonal flexure on the other that dips towards the
faulted margin (Fig. 6). A dip-polarity change from one end of the
basin to the other is typical in all models (Fig. 6).
4. Discussion
Our new centrifuge models reproduced the development of a pull-
apart basin at a lithospheric scale by simulating relative displacement
of two lithospheric blocks along two offset master faults, with the
presence of a weak zone in the offset area that strongly localises defor-
mation during strike–slip displacement. This set-up is analogous to that
used in the majority of 1 g models, where pull-apart development is ob-
tained through the stretching of a rubber sheet, with or without a weak
ductile layer, between laterally moving basal rigid plates (Dooley and
Schreurs, 2012). However, by reproducing the entire lithosphere–
asthenosphere system, our new set-up provides boundary conditions
that are more realistic than the horizontal detachment typically used
in traditional 1 g models and thus better approximates the dynamic
evolution of natural pull-aparts. The close geometric matches of pull-
apart basin geometries between these centrifuge models and those

Please cite this article as: Corti, G., Dooley, T.P., Lithospheric-scale centrifuge models of pull-apart basins, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.tecto.2015.09.004
 G. Corti, T.P. Dooley / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 7

Model 1 - Underlapping master faults Model 2 - Neutral master faults Model 3 - Overlapping master faults
A B C D E F A B C D E F A B C D E F

A’ B’ C’ D’ E’ F’ A’ B’ C’ D’ E’ F’ A’ B’ C’ D’ E’ F’

UC UC
UC
LC LC LC
ULM ULM ULM
LLM LLM LLM

Ast Ast Ast

A A’ A A’ A A’

B B’ B B’ B B’

C C’ C C’ C C’

D D’ D D’ D D’

E E’ E E’ E E’

F F’ F F’ F F’
1cm 1cm 1cm

Fig. 6. Cross sections from the underlapping (left), neutral (centre) and overlapping (right) master-fault models. Of note is the along-strike variation in basin morphology and the dip-
polarity change from one end of the basin to the other. For example, in case of underlapping master faults, the upper crust dips mainly to the right in Section C–C′ then flips to dominantly
left dipping in Section E–E′. The same occurs in the other models. Note in sections B-B′ and D-D′ of Model 2 that the thin layer of lower crust above the black weak material composing the
weakness zone has been in places completely removed by ductile thinning.

produced by traditional 1 g modelling using rigid baseplates validates
our new technique. Our new models also complement previous studies
by offering insights into the patterns of lithospheric thinning, in addi-
tion to the brittle deformation in the upper crust. Although a few previ-
ous studies investigated specific aspects of strike–slip deformation in
the centrifuge (e.g., pluton emplacement in shear zones, Dietl et al.,
2006; reactivation of pre-existing structures, Koyi et al., 2008), to our
knowledge this is the first application of centrifuge modelling to a sys-
tematic analysis of pull-apart basins.
In a fashion similar to published 1 g models, our centrifuge models
show that local extension in the pull-apart basins is accommodated by
the development of oblique–slip faulting (BSFs) at the basin margins,
whereas a portion of the lateral displacement is accommodated along
CBFs within the depression. In agreement with previous researchers,
comparison of the different centrifuge experiments highlight a signifi-
cant change in basin shape depending on the degree of underlap or
overlap of the master fault segments (Fig. 6), supporting the claim
that this is one of the most important parameters controlling the archi-
tecture of pull-apart basins (see Dooley and Schreurs, 2012, for further
details). In particular, the basins are lozenge shaped in the case of
underlapping master faults (Model 1), lazy-Z shaped in the case of neu-
tral offset (Model 2) and rhomboidal shaped for overlapping master
faults (Model 3; Fig. 6), as observed in previous normal-gravity, crustal
models (e.g., Dooley and McClay, 1997). Analysis of model cross sec-
tions shows significant along-strike variations in basin morphology,
with transition from narrow V- and U-shaped grabens to a more sym-
metric, boxlike geometry passing from the basin terminations to the
basin centre; a flip in the dominance of the sidewall faults from one

Please cite this article as: Corti, G., Dooley, T.P., Lithospheric-scale centrifuge models of pull-apart basins, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.tecto.2015.09.004
8 G. Corti, T.P. Dooley / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Model 1 - Underlapping master faults Model 2 - Neutral master faults Model 3 - Overlapping master faults
15 mm 14 mm 14 mm

1 cm 1 cm 1 cm

15 mm Subsidence 14 mm Subsidence 14 mm Subsidence

0.5 0.5
0.5
1
mm 1

mm

mm
1 1.5
1.5
2
2
1.5 2.5

1 cm 1 cm 1 cm

15 mm Thinning 14 mm Thinning 14 mm Thinning

1 1 1

0.95 0.90
0.90
0.90 0.80

1/β

1/β
1/β

0.70 0.80
0.85

0.80 0.60 0.70

1 cm 1 cm 1 cm

Fig. 7. Surface deformation and lithospheric thinning in the three models, illustrated as fault pattern (top panels), amount of subsidence (central panels) and patterns of lithospheric thin-
ning (bottom panels), indicated with the 1/β factor (where 1/β is the ratio between the final and the initial thickness of the model crust).

end of the basin to the other is also observed in all the models. These ge-
ometries and along-strike structural variations are also typical of 1 g
models and have been observed in several pull-apart basins worldwide
(e.g., Dooley and McClay, 1997; Dooley and Schreurs, 2012).
Our new models show that complex oblique–slip faulting in the upper
brittle layer corresponds at depth to strong thinning of the ductile layer in
the weak zone; a rise of the base of the lithosphere occurs beneath the
basin, and maximum lithospheric thinning roughly corresponds to the
areas of maximum surface subsidence (i.e., the basin depocentre). This
pattern of crustal/lithospheric thinning is also broadly similar to the typ-
ical response of the continental lithosphere to extension as observed in
rifting models (e.g., Nestola et al., 2015), although with some significant
differences. Lithospheric-scale models of orthogonal and oblique rifting
(Corti, 2012) show that extension is accommodated by a combination
of marginal and axial faulting with the development of the main basin-
boundary faults and intrabasin faults that can be correlated to the BSFs
and CBFs of our new strike–slip models, respectively.
However, the geometry of BSFs is much more complex than that of
boundary faults in purely extensional basins. Rift-margin fault systems
typically form a system of major faults dipping on average 60–70° to-
wards the rift depression (e.g., Corti, 2012; McClay et al., 2002), whereas
faults bounding the pull-apart basins are normally very steep or
subvertical and may display a reverse component of motion, indicating
complex kinematics dictated by the boundary conditions of the basin
(Fig. 6). Moreover, while internal faults are characterised by almost
pure extension in rifting models, CBFs display an oblique–slip displace-
ment in the pull-apart experiments, accommodating a portion of the
lateral displacement imposed by the master faults. These faults also dif-
fer in trend and architecture: whereas internal faults respond directly to
the plate displacement vector (i.e., direction of extension) – forming or-
thogonal to this direction and, in oblique rifting, with an en-échelon ar-
rangement of fault segments – CBFs develop as a continuous fault
system connecting the opposite master faulting and thus form oblique
to the plate displacement vector. This is particularly evident in Model
2 (neutral master faults), which can be considered analogous to orthog-
onal extension. In these conditions, rifting models show BSFs orthogo-
nal to the direction of plate motion and parallel to the weak zone
boundaries, whereas the CBFs instead develop highly oblique to both
BSFs and the direction of plate displacement. This also results in a differ-
ent pattern of thinning within the pull-apart basin. Maximum thinning
in rift models typically occurs beneath internal faults with an extension-
orthogonal axis or, in oblique rifting, with a segmented, en-échelon ar-
rangement. In pull-apart models the axis of maximum thinning follows
the trend of the CBFs, being thus oblique to the plate displacement vec-
tor. This obliquity of maximum thinning and its relationship to the CBFs
is well illustrated by all three models.
The patterns of lithospheric thinning in our models are also similar to
those observed in lithospheric-scale numerical models of pull-apart basin
development (Petrunin and Sobolev, 2006, 2008; Petrunin et al., 2012).
As in our physical models lithospheric thinning in these numerical models
is compensated at depth by the flow of the asthenosphere beneath the
thinned area; maximum basin subsidence is controlled by the competi-
tion between this flow and brittle/ductile thinning of the overlying litho-
sphere. Overall, these model results indicate that pull-apart basins are
efficient in promoting localised thinning of the crust and lithosphere, as
well as pronounced basin subsidence (e.g., Xie and Heller, 2009).
These processes and the upwelling of the asthenosphere beneath the
thinned area may result in high heat flows and magmatism/volcanism
within the pull-apart basins, as observed in several different natural ex-
amples (e.g., Aydin and Nur, 1982; Aydin et al., 1990; Bellier and Sébrier,
1994; Mann et al., 1983). One spectacular example of a pull-apart sys-
tem with significantly enhanced heat flow and associated volcanicity
is the Coso Geothermal System in Southern California, although crustal
thinning and mantle upwelling are enhanced in the Coso area by the
transtensional nature of deformation (e.g., Dooley and Schreurs, 2012;
Monastero et al., 2005). The efficiency of pull-apart basins in localising

Please cite this article as: Corti, G., Dooley, T.P., Lithospheric-scale centrifuge models of pull-apart basins, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.tecto.2015.09.004
 G. Corti, T.P. Dooley / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
rapid, strong thinning of the lithosphere and the thermomechanical ef-
fects related to magmatic processes have been suggested as promoting
rapid breakup of highly oblique continental rift systems (e.g., the Gulf of
California, Umhoefer, 2011).
5. Conclusions
New centrifuge models were designed to analyse the architecture
and evolution of pull-apart basins at a lithospheric scale. The new
setup is analogous to that used in the majority of 1 g models; however,
by reproducing the development of pull-apart basins at the scale of the
entire lithosphere–asthenosphere system, these models possess more
realistic boundary conditions than the horizontal detachment typically
used in traditional normal-gravity models. Model results suggest the
following main conclusions:
(1) Our results show that, in a fashion similar to normal-gravity
models, deformation in the pull-apart basins is accommodated
through the development oblique–slip faulting at the basin mar-
gins and cross-basin faulting within the depression. The plan-
view basin geometry (lozenge, lazy-Z or rhomboidal) is con-
trolled by the degree of underlap or overlap of the master fault
segments (e.g., underlapping, overlapping or neutral master
faults), as observed in previous normal-gravity experiments.
Cross-sections morphology of the basins show significant
along-strike variations, with a transition from narrow V- and U-
shaped grabens to a more symmetric, boxlike geometry passing
from the basin terminations to the basin centre; a flip in the
dominance of the sidewall faults from one end of the basin to
the other is observed. Many of the faults bounding the basin
are steep or subvertical and may display a reverse component
of motion, indicating complex kinematics.
(2) These new centrifuge models indicate that complex faulting in
the upper brittle layer corresponds at depth to strong thinning
of the ductile layer in the weak zone; a rise of the base of the lith-
osphere occurs beneath the basin, and maximum lithospheric
thinning roughly corresponds to the areas of maximum surface
subsidence (i.e., the basin depocentre). This pattern of crustal/
lithospheric thinning is broadly similar to the typical response
of the continental lithosphere to extension as observed in rifting
models, and is also similar to what has been observed in numer-
ical models of lithospheric-scale of pull-apart basin develop-
ment. Results indicate that pull-apart basins are efficient in
promoting localised thinning and asthenosphere upwelling.
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.09.004.
Acknowledgements
We thank Giorgio Ranalli for discussions and two anonymous re-
viewers for comments that helped us improve the clarity of this manu-
script. The paper was edited by Stephanie Jones. Part of this work has
been developed in the frame of the project “Analisi della dinamica di
apertura del Golfo della California” (Progetti di Mobilità dei Ricercatori
nel P.E. Italia — Messico). TD is funded by the Applied Geodynamics Lab-
oratory at the Bureau of Economic Geology, the University of Texas at
Austin.
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