Aircraft Systems

Introduction to Aircraft systems

• Several systems are incorporated in an aircraft to enable it to
perform various functions.
• A system can be defined as a group of interacting components and
equipments performing a particular function.
• Aircraft Systems can be classified in different ways.
• According to function,
General systems (Mechanical & Electrical)
Flight control system
Mission system
• According to type,
Mechanical
Electrical
Avionics
 System Engineering
• System engineering is an overall, integrated product and process
development effort, using multidisciplinary team work.
• Aircraft System design and Development Processes are governed by
certain key documentation which provides the materials, set of
tools, set of processes, advisory information and guide lines for
hardware/software design & certification.
• Some of them are:

– SAE documents like ARP4754 & ARP4761

– FAA documents like AC25.1309
– JAA documents like AMJ25.1309
– ATA documents like ATA100
– RTCA documents like DO178B & DO254
 System Engineering
• The phases involved in a Product Life Cycle are:
– Concept
– Definition
– Design
– Manufacture
– Testing
– Service operation
– Refurbish
– Scrap
Different skills and resources will be required for each phase.
Design Drivers for System Engineering
• Standards & Regulations
• Operational availability requirements
• Cost
• Time schedule
• Performance
• Skills and resources available
• Safety issues
• Risk
• Environmental conditions of operation
 Mechanical Systems in an Aircraft
1) Engine control system : Controls thrust to aircraft

2) Fuel system : Supplies fuel, the source of energy

3) Hydraulics : Generates & distributes hydraulic power

4) Landing gear : Facilitates take off and landing

5) Brake and antiskid : Stops aircraft on runway without tire skid

6) Nose wheel steering: Facilitates directional control on ground
 Mechanical Systems in an Aircraft
7) Environmental control: Controls temperature, humidity and
pressure in cabin
8) Ice & Rain protection : Anti-icing, De-icing, Rain dispersal,
De-misting etc
9)Oxygen system : Supplies oxygen to crew and
passengers when needed
10) Pneumatic systems : For heating, actuation,
pressurization of reservoirs and tanks
For military aircraft only
11) Ejection seat : Provides for crew escape in emergency
12) Canopy jettison : Provides for crew escape during ejection
13) Arrestor mechanism : Provides means of stopping on carrier deck
14) In-flight refueling : System for re-fueling from a tanker aircraft
 Engine Control systems
• Aircraft engines - Technologies:

– Shaft engines (I.C. Piston Engines driving propellers for thrust)

– Jet engines (Gas turbine engines - Turbo jet or Turbo fan
producing thrust)
– Turbo prop (Propellers driven by shaft power taken from a gas
turbine engine through gears produce thrust)

Jet engines types are:

– Turbo jet ( Thrust is generated by exhaust gas jet )

– Turbo fan (Thrust is generated by a bypass air flow
through fan and also by exhaust gas jet)
 Turbo jet Engine
In a Turbo jet, inlet air is compressed in compressor stages, goes to a
combustion chamber where fuel is injected and burnt, then sent to
turbine stages and from there to exhaust jet.
Once sustained the turbine drives the compressor. Thrust is produced by
the high velocity gas jet leaving the turbine through a nozzle.

Single shaft & Two shaft Turbo jet engines

In a single shaft engine the speeds of low pressure and high pressure
stages of the compressor and of the turbine are the same, being on the
same shaft.
In a two shaft (two spool) engine, compressor and turbine have low
pressure and high pressure stages running at different speeds, on two
concentric shafts.
This is done to get improved efficiency.
 Turbojet Engine (contd) 10

• Compressor draws air in and compress it

• Combustion section adds fuel and ignites it
• Turbines extract power from the expanding exhaust gases to drive the compressor
• An exhaust nozzle which accelerates the exhaust out creates thrust
 Turbo fan Engine
In a Turbo fan engine, portion of inlet air is compressed in compressor
stages, passed on to a combustion chamber where fuel is burnt, then sent
to turbine stages and then to exhaust nozzle as in a turbo jet. This portion
is called as Core Engine or Gas Generator.

The other portion of inlet air bypasses the core engine through a fan and
then goes to exhaust nozzle where it mixes with core engine exhaust gas.

In order to drive the fan power is taken from additional low pressure
stage in the turbine in a two shaft turbo fan engine.
 Turbo fan Engine (contd)
In a three spool engine the additional low pressure turbine stage and fan
are connected by a third shaft rotating at a different speed.

The ratio of bypass air to air going through core engine is called bypass
ratio. It is generally 4:1 or 5:1 for many engines, and as high as 10:1 in
some.

Major portion of the thrust is generated by the fan as most of the exhaust
gas energy of core engine is dissipated in the turbine stage driving the fan.
At the exhaust, the combined flow has high mass and low velocity.
Because of this, turbo fan engines are quieter than the turbo jet engines.
 Turbo fan Engine (contd) 13

• Same as a turbojet, but with an enlarged fan at the front which provides thrust in the
same way as a ducted propeller.
• A turbofan has extra turbine stages to turn the fan.
• More power is extracted from the exhaust gases before they leave the engine.
• Results in improved fuel-efficiency as compared to nozzle alone.
 Turbo prop Engine 14

• Two main parts of a turboprop propulsion system are the core engine and the
propeller
• Drive shaft is connected to a gear box
• Gear box is then connected to a propeller that produces the thrust
 Engine Control system Requirements
Engine Control System is to control the flow of
fuel and air to the engine and also the flow of
exhaust gas from the engine.
• This control must be exercised over a wide range of speeds, altitudes and
temperature conditions encountered by the aircraft.
• Control of thrust is to be obtained by regulating the quantity of fuel flow into
the combustor of the engine. This controls the pressure ratio or fan speed.
• The rate of acceleration/deceleration must be limited in order to prevent
surging or flame out under varying conditions of inlet temperature, pressure
etc.
• Air flow modulations are to be done by use of variable vanes/ bleed valves to
control the ratio of air to fuel to provide enough surge margin.
• Burning of exhaust gases and control of nozzle area is required to provide
additional thrust.
 Engine Control system Methods
• Various systems have been evolved for the engine control
systems. Some of them are:

– Fuel pump, relief valve and throttle valve with centrifugal

governor
– Hydro-mechanical system with limited electronic trim
– Full authority analogue control with electrical throttle signaling
– Full Authority Digital Electronic Control (FADEC), controlling a
Fuel Control Unit (FCU) which is a hydro-mechanical unit
located between the HP pump and engine.

Engine control system in modern aircraft takes care of

additional functions like monitoring, carrying out engine
starting, providing reverse thrust and engine oil system.
 Engine Control systems Functions
Inputs taken by the engine control system
• Throttle position
• Air data
• Total temperature
• Engine speed
• Engine temperature
• Nozzle position
• Fuel flow
• Pressure ratio

Outputs from the control system

• Fuel flow control
• Air flow control
• Nozzle control
 Fuel System
• Fuel Management system of a modern aircraft deals with
the following:
– Fuel storage
– Engine feed
– Fuel transfer
– Fuel pressurization
– Fuel gauging
– Vent systems
– Refuel/Defuel
– In-flight refueling
– Fuel jettison
– Cooling using fuel
– Fuel tank inerting
 Types of Fuel

- Avgas : Aviation gasoline for use in piston engines

- Avtur : Aviation kerosene for use in gas turbine
engines

• Avgas is a mixture of lighter hydrocarbons produced

from mineral oil and has a specific gravity of 0.72.

• Avtur is a mixture of heavier hydrocarbons and has a

specific gravity of 0.75 to 0.84
 Properties of Fuel

• Volatility : denotes tendency to change from liquid to

vapor
• Vapor pressure : It is the pressure at/below which fuel
vaporizes
• Flash point : Temperature at which fuel vapor will
ignite, but with no sustained flame
• Fire point : Temperature at which fuel can sustain
combustion
• Auto ignition temp : It is the temperature at which fuel will
spontaneously ignite
• Freezing point : Temperature at which last ice crystal
disappears as fuel warms up
 Grades of Fuel
• Avgas Grades

80 grade – For low powered engines (red
color)

100LL grade – For high powered ( fuel
injected) engines (Blue color)

• Low flash point of Avgas (-40° C) makes starting

easy.
• But high volatility and high vapor pressure can
cause vapor locks.
 Grades of Fuel (contd)
• Avtur Grades

Jet B : Not in use nowadays

Jet A : High flash point (38° C), Low freezing point ( -40° C )
This is used mainly in domestic flights

Jet A1 : Developed for long haul , high altitude aircraft . It
has a lower freezing point ( -47 °C)

JP-4 : Fuel used by US Air Force ( -58 °C)

JP-5 : Used by US Navy ( -46 °C)
• Avtur has low vapor pressure (0.14 psi) and hence less
chance for vapor lock.
• Fuel contains additives like antioxidants, antistatic agents,
corrosion inhibitors and icing inhibitors.
 Fuel storage

Rigid Tanks

Flexible Tanks

Integral Tanks

• Rigid fuel tanks that are separately mounted are

rarely used nowadays.
• Flexible tanks are made from rubberized fabric.
• Integral tanks are part of the aircraft wing
structure.
 Fuel storage (contd)
• Self sealing flexible tanks are made by providing an external
foam layer that has a property to swell when fuel comes
into contact, thereby achieving sealing.

• Integral tanks are made by sealing the joints and fastenings

in the wing structure.

• Sealing is done by coating two or more layers of rubberized

sealant.

• A sealant is never allowed to remain dry to prevent

cracking.
Flexible Fuel Tank

Fig 58 Flexible fuel tank

Integral Fuel Tank

Fig 59 Integral fuel tank

Fuel storage Tanks example

Fig 60 Fuel tank layout in a twin jet aircraft

 Fuel Tank Sump
Sumps are made in tanks to collect free water
which can be drained out through a drain
valve.

Sump, in fuel tank

 Fuel Feed System
• Fuel is taken out from the tank to the engine through a
stack pipe fitted with a strainer.
Gravity feed
• Early aircraft used gravity feed system where the tank is
above the engine and fuel flow is controlled through a pilot
operated fuel selector valve through a filter to the engine-
mounted pump and then to engine.
Pumped feed
• Fuel is transferred to a collector tank by Fuel Transfer
Pumps and then pumped to the engine using a Fuel
Booster pump. This supplements the engine-mounted
pump. This method is employed in aircraft flying at high
altitudes, to prevent aeration and cavitations.
 Booster Pump
• Booster pump
• Booster pumps are normally centrifugal pumps mounted
within the collector tank and powered by electrical motors.
They deliver fuel at 10 to 15 psi pressure.
Collector Tank

Fig 67 Collector tank

Fuel Feed System example

Fig 62 Pump fed fuel system

 Vapor Lock problem
• Vapor lock
• Formation of vapor lock formed in a bend can
reduce the flow of fuel and pressure.
• A vapor lock can be caused by high fuel
temperature, low fuel level and high attitudes
of the aircraft.
• To prevent vapor lock, the fuel pressure must
be kept at least 5 psi more than the vapor
pressure.
 Tank Pressurization
• To prevent fuel loss through evaporation at high
altitudes and to assist in preventing vapor locks
by ensuring a positive head of fuel pressure into
the inlet of tank mounted booster pumps, the
fuel tank is pressurized slightly using regulated
bleed air taken from compression stage of the
aircraft gas turbine engine.

• Tank pressurization is also used as a means to

transfer fuel from one tank to another.
 Fuel Gauging
• Fuel quantity existing in the aircraft is estimated by
various methods:

• Resistance Gauging system

• This system uses float switches and potentiometer and

an electric circuit to gauge the volume of fuel in the
tank.

• The resistance is not very accurate and cannot cater to

fuel volume variations due to change in temperatures.
 Fuel Gauging (contd)
• Capacitive gauging system

• This system functions on the principle that air

and fuel have different dielectric values.
• A series of capacitors units are mounted vertically
in the tank and their outputs are connected to an
amplifier and contents indicator.
• This method gives the mass of the fuel though
there is change in specific gravity due to variation
in temperature.
Fuel Gauging (contd)

Fig 63 Capacitive tank units

 Venting of Tanks
• Tank’s air space is vented to atmosphere via a vent pipe to
allow it to ‘breathe’ as the aircraft climbs/descends.
• Venting is done through relief valves which will open if
pressure exceeds a set level.
• An inward relief valve also is provided to allow ambient air
into the tank so that tank is not subjected to negative
pressure.

Fig 64 Venting
 Other Functions in a Fuel system
Refueling, Defueling & In-flight refueling
• For large aircraft single point pressure refueling system
is provided. Refueling is done at a pressure (around 50
psi)
• Similarly defueling is also done from a single point.
• In-flight refueling is transfer of fuel from a Tanker
aircraft to another aircraft in flight. This is done trough
an aerial refueling probe.
Trim
• Fuel is transferred between tanks to maintain pitch or
lateral trim by altering the CG location of the aircraft.
This is done through Fuel Transfer valves.
In-flight Refueling
Other Functions in Fuel system (contd)
Jettisoning
• Jettisoning of fuel is throwing out fuel to outside to reduce
the landing weight of the aircraft in case of an emergency.
This is done by using Dump valves which can discharge fuel
at a high flow rate.
Cooling of other systems
• Fuel is used to cool hydraulic oil and engine oil in an aircraft
using heat exchangers.
Inerting
• Fuel tank inerting with nitrogen is done in new aircrafts to
increase the safety against fire. The nitrogen is generated
onboard by using molecular sieve to filter nitrogen from
air(OBIGGS).
 Valves in Fuel System
• Non return valve: To prevent reverse flow
• Thermal relief valve: To relieve excess pressure due to
temperature rise
• Suction valve: To meet the requirement if both booster
pumps fail, the engine’s High pressure pump is able to
draw sufficient fuel through suction valve.
• Low pressure cock (LP Cock) : LP Cock isolates the tanks
from engine. It is located close to tank.
• High Pressure Cock (HP cock) : This isolates the
engine’s combustion section from the high pressure
fuel and is located downstream of the HP Engine driven
pump (EDP).
 Fuel System Schematic

Fig 68 Fuel system schematic of a twin jet

 A Learning Review through Questions

1. What is FADEC?
2. Why Turbo fan engines are less noisy?
3. What drives the Compressor in a Jet engine?
4. What is the problem associated with high vapor pressure
of fuel?
5. What is done to prevent aeration and cavitations in a fuel
system?
6. What is meant by trimming by fuel transfer valves?
7. What is the purpose of inerting of fuel tanks?
8. Where is a Booster pump located?
9. Why capacitive gauging is superior to resistance gauging?
10. What is meant by single point refueling?
 Hydraulics System
• Hydraulic system deals with generation, transmission and
control of hydraulic power for actuation of services such as:
– Primary flight controls (ailerons, elevators/canards/moving tail,
rudder )
– Secondary flight controls (flaps, slats, spoilers, air brake,
stabilizer trim etc)
– Utility systems
• Landing gears, Doors, Cargo doors, Passenger stairs etc
• Wheel brakes & Antiskid,
• Nose wheel steering
• Emergency electric power generation etc.

• Its study consists of different types of hydraulic systems and

components such as fluids, pumps, actuators, valves,
reservoirs, accumulators, plumbing lines, controls etc.
 Hydraulic Fluids
• Properties required by the hydraulic fluid are:
- Low viscosity to reduce friction in fluid flow
- Resistance to heat, i.e.. Low freezing point and
high boiling point
- Chemically stability
- Non-flammable, i.e.. High Flash point and High
Fire point
- Resistance to foaming
- Good lubrication
- Corrosion resistance
 Hydraulic Fluids (contd)
• Vegetable oil ( not in use in aircraft today)
• Mineral oil
• Synthetic oil ( Hydrocarbon based & Phosphate Ester based)

• Mineral oil is a petroleum hydrocarbon based fluid and is mainly

used in military and light aircraft where fire hazard is low (up to
135°C). It is compatible with nitrile rubber and is red in color.
• A synthetic hydrocarbon based fluid has been developed with high
temperature resistance (up to 205° C), that is mixable with the
mineral oil.
• Skydrol is a synthetic phosphate ester based fluid and is used in
commercial aircraft. It is extremely fire resistant. It is compatible
with butyl rubber. It is purple colored.
 Hydraulics System Classification
• Hydraulic systems can be classified into two
categories:

• Low pressure system (Less than 2000 psi)

• High pressure system ( 2000 to 5000 psi)

• The standard pressure used in many aircraft is

3000 psi.
• The trend today is towards use of high pressures
at 4000 psi, 5000 psi and even 8000 psi.
 Hydraulics System Classification
(contd)
• Advantages of high pressure systems :

• Reduced size of actuators thereby saving weight and fluid

quantity
• Smaller pipe diameter, making installation easier

• Disadvantage of high pressure systems :

• Higher probability for leak

 Hydraulics System Configuration
• Two configurations of Hydraulic system exist.

1. Open Centered System

2. Close Centered System

• Open centered system

• It is used in low pressure systems in older, light
aircraft to operate flaps, landing gear and air
brakes.
Open centered system

Fig 35 Open centered system

 Open centered system (contd)
• In the Open centered system, the pump pumps the fluid
continuously through the centre of the open centered
selectors.
• System pressure remains low until a selection is made and
builds up to full value after the selection. Hence average
pressure is less than maximum pressure.
• This feature offloads the pump and the engine when
system is not in use.
• Selecting the system diverts the pump output to the
actuator.
• When pressure reaches a set level, the selector
automatically return to the open position which
hydraulically locks the actuator.
 Open Centered System (contd)
• In the open centered system only one service can be
operated at one time, hence not suitable for flying
controls.

• A pressure relief valve is required to protect the

system, should the selector valve fails to return to open
position.

• The pressure relief valve is a ball valve held by a spring

which will open to relieve the pressure to return to
reservoir when pressure exceeds a set value called
cracking pressure.
Open centered system with offloading
valve
• Open centered system using an offloading valve
• In this system, the outlet fluid from pump passes
through a bypass valve called offloading valve or
unloading valve.
• When pilot makes a selection, the bypass valve
closes and full flow is available to services.
• More than one services can be operated
simultaneously
Open Centered System with Offloading
Valve (contd)

Fig 36 Open centered system with offloading valve

 Close centered System
• Closed centered system provides a constant head of
pressure and allows operation of multiple services
simultaneously.

• Such an active system is required for operation of control

surfaces.

• This system gives instant response to control inputs and has

greater output force due to higher average working
pressure.

• It has capacity to store energy in Accumulators for use in

emergencies.
 Close centered system (contd)
• In closed centered system a means of pressure
regulation is required. This is achieved in two
ways.

• (i) by using an Automatic cut out valve (ACV)

in constant displacement systems

• (ii) by using a Variable volume pump

Close centered system (contd)

ACV

Fig 37 Close centered system

 Components of Hydraulics System
• Major components in a Hydraulic system are:
• Pumps
• Actuators & Motors
• Valves
• Accumulators
• Reservoirs
• Filters
• Seals
• Plumbing
• Fittings
• Gauges
 Hydraulic Pump
• Pump raises the pressure of fluid by moving it into a
restrictive pipe.
• Pump driven by the engine is called Engine Driven Pump
(EDP)
• Pump driven by electric motor is called Electric motor
driven pump (EMDP)
• Pump driven by Ram air turbine is called RAT driven pump.
• Pump operated manually is called Hand Pump

• Hydraulic pumps are of two types:

- Constant volume pump (Constant displacement pump)
- Constant pressure pump (Variable displacement pump)
 Low Pressure Pumps

• 1. Spur Gear pump

It is constant volume pump.
The pressure is produced by forcing fluid into a restrictive outlet
pipe by transporting the fluid between the teeth and the housing
by the rotating gears.
• 2. Vane pump
Vane pump also is a constant volume pump.
Here the radial spring loaded vanes on a shaft that has an offset
with the circular housing draws the fluid from inlet and expels to
the outlet while rotating.
• The leakage increases as pressure increases in these types of
pumps and they are not suitable for high pressures. Hence they
find application only in lubrication systems at pressures less than
1500 psi.
 Vane Pump

Fig 38 Vane pump

 High Pressure Pumps
• For high pressure, Piston pumps are employed in
modern close centered systems.

• They are driven by engine gear box at about 4500 rpm.

• These pumps are of two designs.

(i) Constant displacement piston pump

(ii) Variable displacement piston pump (widely used)
 Piston Pumps
Constant displacement Piston pump

• This pump moves a constant volume into the system during

each cycle, regardless of the pressure and hence requires a
pressure regulating device.
• Reciprocation of pistons arranged in a cylinder block is
achieved by angling the body in relation to the shaft.
• The drive quill shaft is designed as a weak point to protect
the gear box in the event of jamming of pump.
• Cooling and lubrication of the pump is achieved by allowing
a bleed of fluid which is removed through case drain and
returned to the reservoir through a filter.
Constant Displacement Pump

Constant displacement pump

 Constant Displacement Pump (contd)
• Pressure regulation in constant displacement pump is
achieved by the Automatic Cut out Valve (ACV).
• The ACV is a hydro-mechanical valve and regulates the
pressure within two limits (Cut-in and Cut-out).
• When the system pressure reaches the upper limit the
pump output is diverted to reservoir thereby offloading the
pump.
• When the system pressure drops to lower limit, the pump
output is supplied to the system.

• In an active system with constant displacement pump and

ACV, an Accumulator must be fitted downstream of the
NRV (Non return valve) associated with ACV.
 Constant Pressure Pump( Variable
volume)
Constant pressure piston pump
• This pump is a piston pump called also as variable
displacement pump or axial pump.
• Pressure regulation is incorporated within the pump.
• In this design the stroke of reciprocating pistons is
controlled by the angle of a swash plate.
• The swash plate is controlled by the interaction of control
piston’s spring force and the output pressure acting on the
control piston.
• When the system output pressure reaches the design
value, the swash plate comes into neutral position and
brings the pump to idle position (no stroke).
• The piston rods terminating in sliding shoes are forced to
follow the swash plate by the spring force.
Constant Pressure Pump (contd)

Constant pressure pump

 Actuators & Motors
• Actuators convert fluid pressure and flow into
mechanical force and motion.
• There are Linear actuators and Rotary actuators.
• Linear actuators are also called as Jacks

• 3 types of linear actuators are available.

• Single acting
• Double acting
• Double acting balanced
Actuators & Motors (contd)

Single acting actuator

Double acting actuator

 Actuators & Motors (contd)
• In single acting actuator it is operated hydraulically in
forward direction and the return stroke is by a spring.

• In double acting type the hydraulic areas will vary for

forward and return strokes because of the ram.

• To make equal areas the ram can be provided on both sides

of the piston and is called double acting balanced type.

• Rotary actuators are called Motors. These are piston pumps

that work in reverse direction.
 Valves
• A valve is used in between the pump and the actuator
to control the operation of actuator by controlling the
flow into and out of the actuator.

• A valve is a component that stops, starts, directs,

checks, diverts, shuttles, divides and modulates the
flow of fluid.

• Valves use a moving element like flapper, ball, gate,

poppet, diaphragm, disc, needle, plug, plate, spool etc
to accomplish the above functions.
 Valves (contd)
• Control valves are categorized according to their
respective function.
a) Distributors or Directional Control valves
b) Regulators, both Pressure Control & Flow Control valves
c) Controllers, such as Proportional valves and Servo valves

• Design-wise valves can be of different types, namely,

a) Spool type
b) Poppet type
c) Rotary type
d) Flapper type
 Valves (contd)
• Directional Control valve are classified by the number of
flow paths (ways), positions and ports
• Way denotes the number of paths that fluid can flow.
• Position denotes the number of positions of the movable
element in the valve
• Port denotes the number of plumbing connections to the
valve.
• Valves may be operated hydraulically by pilot pressure,
electrically by solenoids or servo drives, mechanically by
means of spring, cam or linkage or manually.
• Accordingly they are known as ‘pilot operated valve’,
‘solenid valve’, ‘servo valve’, ‘mechanically operated valve’
etc.
 Types of Valves
Selector Valve
Selector valve is a directional control valve in which the position of
the valve is selected by means of an external input, electrical,
hydraulic or mechanical.

Rotary selector
Spool selector
 Selector Valve

Solenoid operated pilot valve operating a linear selector

 Type of Valves (contd)

• Isolation valve/ Pressure maintaining valve

This valve is also known as Priority valve.

Priority services are flying controls and wheel

brakes. Isolation valves are used to isolate
secondary services if there is a drop in reservoir
level.
 Type of Valves (contd)
• Pressure relief valve
Pressure relief valves are used to protect the system
from high pressures. There are relief valves for high
pressure and low pressure in return lines.
• Non Return valve (Check valve)
Non return valve allows flow only in one direction. It is
provided to prevent back flow.
• Sequence valve
Sequence valves are used to ensure that one operation
is completed before another starts. The sequencing is
done either hydraulically, mechanically or electrically.
 Non return valve

Fig 54 Non return valve

 Type of Valves (contd)
• Shuttle valve
Shuttle valves are when a service has to operated by two
systems independently.
• Restrictor valve
Restrictors are used to control flow for controlling the
speed of actuators. These are either two way or one
way type.
• Throttling valve
It is a variable restrictor valve. A floating core under the
action of a spring controls the flow.
Type of Valves (contd)

Fig 55 Two way restrictor

Fig 56 One way restrictor

 Type of Valves (contd)
• Pressure Reducing valve
It is used to reduce the system pressure to a lower value as
required by a particular sub system like wheel brake.
• Thermal Relief valve
This is similar to Pressure relief valve, but smaller in size.
• Hydraulic Lock
Hydraulic lock can be created in an actuator by placing the
selector valve in a position such that flow out of the
actuator blanked.
• Hydraulic Fuse
A fuse senses increased flow rate caused by an external leak
and blocks the flow.
Type of Valves (contd)

Fig 57 Hydraulic lock

 Type of Valves (contd)
• Servo Valves
Servo valves gives output flow or pressure according to a
given varying command, unlike on/off type valves.
Flow control servo valves gives an output flow
proportional to the magnitude of input.
Pressure control servo valve gives an output pressure
according to the magnitude of input.
Servo valves takes feed back from the output to regulate
its control action.
Servo valves are used in flying control system, nose
wheel steering system, brake system etc.
 Accumulators
• Accumulators are designed to store energy, dampen
pressure fluctuations, absorb fluid due to thermal
expansion and also to supply limited fluid in the event of an
emergency.
• Accumulators come in two different shapes, spherical or
cylindrical.
• Cylindrical accumulator may be with or without floating
separator piston. Separation of fluid and air is desirable to
avoid problems due to aeration.
• In spherical accumulators, some designs use internal
bladder, while other types have flexible diaphragm.
• All accumulators are pre charged with nitrogen, normally a
third of the working pressure. When accumulator gets
charged with pump running the pre-charge gets
compressed to the system pressure.
Accumulators (contd)

Fig 46 Accumulators
 Reservoirs
• Reservoirs are required to:
 Hold sufficient fluid, including that required to cater
for small external leak, jammed ram and fluid
expansion.
 Have a means to remove air and dissolved gases
 Ensure that only fluid enters the pump inlet
 Physical means to determine fluid level
 Means of replenishment
• Pressurized Reservoir
In pressurized reservoir the air space above fluid is
pressurized by compressed air at about 5 to 15 psi.
Reservoir (contd)

Fig 47 Reservoir
 Reservoir (contd)
Boot Strap Reservoir (Airless Reservoir)

Here, the fluid is pressurized by delivery pressure in a cylindrical vessel

with a floating separator

Bootstrap Reservoir
 Filtration & Filters
• Fluid contamination can lead to damage of valves
especially servo valves which have very small
orifices and hence fluid should be cleaned.

• As the pump is a source of particle contamination

a filter is placed immediately after the pump and
is known as High Pressure Filter. No filter is used
at the inlet of the pump.

• Also a Low Pressure Filter (5 micron) is placed

before fluid enters the reservoir.
 Filtration & Filters (contd)
• High Pressure Filter
Even particles of 25 micron size can damage selector valves
and seals.
Full flow micronic filters (15 micron) are used for pressure
filters.
The micronic element causes restriction to flow and results
in a differential pressure across the filter element. The
differential pressure is monitored using a pressure switch to
give warning to the pilot of its clogging.
Filter bypass valves open in case of filter clogging to permit
safe landing. Opening of bypass valves are indicated to
ground crew by red tell tale button popping out.
 Filters (contd)

Fig 49 Micronic filter

 Sealing System
• Seals are required to prevent fluid leakage through gaps,
for example, between piston and cylinder.
• Seals between moving parts are called dynamic seals
whereas seals between fixed parts are called static seals.
• Flat static seals are called gaskets, circular rings in grooves
are called ‘O’ rings or sealing rings.

• Back up rings are rings used to support the seal to prevent

rolling and extrusion.

• Wiper rings are used to prevent dirt adhering to the ram

from entering the cylinder that can damage the seal.
 Sealing Systems (contd)

Ram

Fig 50 Dynamic seal

Fig 51 Backing ring

Fig 52 Seal cross sections

Fig 53 Wiper ring
 Plumbing
• Pipes
• Rigid pipes – Uses Titanium, Stainless steel or
Aluminum tubes
• Flexible pipes- Uses Rubber or Teflon Hoses with fabric
or steel braids
• Fittings
• Separable fittings like Union, T, Elbow, 4 way etc
• Swaged end fittings or Flared ends with sleeves to
mate to the separable fittings
• Various standard and proprietary designs are available
for swaging and flaring of tube ends
 Joints, Gauges
• Fixed
• Sliding
• Swiveling
• Slide and swivel etc

• Pressure Gauges

• Bourdon gage is a direct reading gauge.

• Pressure transmitters give electrical output
proportional to the pressure.
 Hydraulic Control system
• Advantages of Hydraulic Control
• Hydraulic fluid carries away the heat, preventing seizing of machine parts and
deterioration of lubricants, resulting in smaller and lighter components.
• Hydraulic fluid acts as lubricant giving long life
• No magnetic saturation losses (Torque does not increase with current beyond
saturation limit in electric machines)
• Higher speed of response and acceleration capability
• No damage under stalled conditions and larger speed range
• High positional stiffness and less positional error in closed loop control
• Simpler actuator control in open loop and closed loop systems
• Energy storage is simple with accumulators

• Disadvantages of Hydraulic control

• High cost because of small tolerances
• High temperature limitations due to fluid
• Fire hazard and leakage problems
• Fluid contamination problems
• Not advantageous in low power applications
 A Learning Review through Questions

1. What is the range of pressure in a high pressure system?

2. Why a closed centered system is called active system?
3. Why do you require large accumulator in a closed centered system with
constant displacement pump?
4. Can we do away with an accumulator with a variable volume pump?
5. Why gear pump or vane pump is not suitable for high pressures?
6. How is pressure regulation done in a constant displacement system?
7. What is a double acting balanced actuator?
8. What is a hydraulic lock?
9. What is a Boot strap reservoir?
10. What is purpose of a Back up ring to a seal?
 Landing Gear System
Landing Gear constitutes the structure and the system that support the
aircraft on ground during taxi, take off and landing.

Total weight of the Landing Gear system is about 3% to 6 % of the aircraft

take off weight, (3% - 4% range for fixed type and 5% - 6% range for
retractable type landing gears).

The subject of Landing Gear encompasses multi disciplinary areas of

engineering like structures, mechanisms, fluid mechanics, runway
flotation etc.

Landing Gear of today is a very sophisticated and safety critical system of

the aircraft.
 Landing Gear system Functions

• Landing Gear, Alighting Gear or Undercarriage as it is

called, constitutes the structure and system that support
the aircraft on ground and does the following functions:

1. Provides a suspension system during ground roll

2. Provides cushioning on landing impact by absorbing and

dissipating the kinetic energy, keeping the ground reaction
within desired limit

3. Facilitates for braking for stopping the aircraft

 Landing Gears in an Aircraft

Nose Landing Gear

(NLG)

Right Main Landing Left Main Landing Gear

Gear (MLG) (MLG)

Aircraft featured here: Dassault Falcon 900EX

Pic courtesy: www.airliners.net
 Landing Gear Components
• The Landing Gear system consists of main and
auxiliary units, which may be fixed or retractable
and comprises the following sub systems /
components:
a. Strut with Shock absorber
b. Retraction mechanism ,Retraction actuator and Control
c. Wheels, Brakes, Tires ( called as Rolling Gear), floats, skis, skids
d. Down locks & Up locks
e. Landing Gear Doors, Fairings, Door operating system
f. Braking system & Arrestor hook
g. Nose wheel steering system
h. Towing / Mooring provisions
i. Position indicators, Safety systems, Warning devices
 Examples of Landing Gear

a. Four wheeled bogie gear b. Twin wheeled gear

Examples of Main Landing Gears
 Airworthiness Regulations
• Airworthiness regulations to be followed to ensure safety
are issued by Governments. Some adopted worldwide are:
• FAR (Federal Aviation Regulations - USA)
(FAR Part 23 for normal, utility and acrobatic aircraft)
(FAR Part 25 for Transport category aircraft)

• JAR (Joint Airworthiness Regulations - Europe)

• DEFSTAN 970 ( Defense Standards – UK Military)

• MIL Specs ( US Military Specifications) like MIL- A- 8860,

MIL- A- 8862, MIL- A- 8863, MIL- A- 8866, MIL-
A- 8867, MIL- T- 6053, MIL- L- 8552, MIL- S- 8812,
MIL- W- 5013 etc.
 Airworthiness Regulations (contd)
• Apart from the above, AP specifications in Russia,
AIR specifications in France, BCAR in UK are also
being used.

• In addition, there a number of Aerospace

Information Reports (AIR), Aerospace
Recommended Practices (ARP) and Aerospace
Standards (AS) issued by SAE A-5 Aerospace
Landing Gear Systems Committee which give
guidelines for design of landing gear systems.
 Landing Gear Configurations
Landing Gear configuration denotes its
arrangement in the aircraft.
A Tricycle type configuration, with two main gears and one auxiliary nose gear is
the most common one. Each gear may have single or multiple wheels.

Other Configurations are:

4- strut gear with 4 landing gears, used in aircraft where unrestricted loading is
desired.
Bicycle gear with 2 gears at the centre line of the aircraft with out-trigger gears on
wings, used in high and thin winged aircraft.
Skid, used in helicopters which make a vertical landing.
Multi strut gear, used in very large aircraft.
Hull and Float, used on airplanes operating from water bodies.
Ski and wheel ski, used for operating from snow and ice.
 Landing Gear Layouts

Two types of layouts are:

1. Nose gear layout, in which the main gears are placed behind the
centre of gravity of the aircraft and the auxiliary gear is placed at
the front end of the aircraft.
Number of main gears may be two or more.

2. Tail gear layout, known also as Conventional layout, in which the

main gears are placed forward of the centre of gravity of the
aircraft and the auxiliary gear is placed at the rear end of the
aircraft.
 Landing Gear Layouts (contd)
Tail Gear layout is not used nowadays except in very light aircraft. Nose
Gear layout is the preferred one, for the following reasons:

• Stable and easy to control in landing and in braking, with no tendency to swing
around, owing to a stabilizing moment developed from the side forces generated
in main wheels which are located behind the centre of gravity of the aircraft.
• No nosing over tendency during landing or braking.
• No aerodynamic bouncing on landing as attitude of the aircraft does not increase
after touch down.
• Places the aircraft in level attitude with good visibility for the pilot.
• Easy take off with low drag in take off run.
• Easy ground maneuvering with shorter wheel base.
 Landing Gear Types
Landing Gear can also be divided as two
types, depending on the shock absorber
method:
1. Non-absorbing type in which energy is only absorbed, but not dissipated.
Examples are rigid landing gear like skid, spring type landing gear, rubber
block landing gear etc. The energy is absorbed temporarily, but returned
to the aircraft quickly.

2. Shock absorbing type in which energy is dissipated by a damper. This

does this by forcing a fluid through an orifice where energy is converted
into heat which is then radiated into atmosphere. Examples are spring
oleo and air oleo.
 Landing Gear Geometries
Three types of geometries are generally employed in Landing Gears:
 Telescopic geometry,
 Articulated geometry,
 Semi articulated geometry.

In a Telescopic geometry, a cantilever strut houses a telescopic shock absorber and the
wheel is attached to the bottom sliding tube. In this, the drag load acting on the wheel will
cause friction at the bearings of the sliding tube affecting the smooth operation of the shock
absorber. This geometry results in lighter and compact design.
In an Articulated geometry, the shock absorber is hinged at both ends and free to swing. The
lower end is hinged to a wheel lever which hinges on a main fitting. The top end is hinged to
the main fitting. The wheel is carried on the lever. This geometry results in better ride
qualities due to the absence of friction in the shock absorber.
In a semi articulated geometry, the shock absorber has one fixed end and the other end is
hinged to the wheel lever through a link, or the lever is attached to the main fitting through
a link. Here shock absorber motion takes place under the action of drag load, but still there
is friction at the bearings.
Landing Gear geometries (contd)

Telescopic or Cantilever geometry

Landing Gear geometries (contd)
Articulated &
Semi articulated geometries

a.) Semi articulated type with link between

shock absorber and wheel lever
b.) Articulated type with both ends hinged
shock absorber
c.) Articulated type with Tension shock
absorber
d.) Semi articulated type with link between
shock absorber and fitting
e.) Articulated type in Hinged
parallelogram
f.) Semi-articulated type with link between
wheel lever and fitting.
Landing Gear geometries (contd)

Articulated geometry – Example

 Wheel Arrangements

When there are more than one wheel per leg, wheels are
arranged in one of following ways.

• Tandem : One behind the other (2 wheels per leg)

• Triple : Three in line (3 wheels per leg)
• Twin : Two in line (2 wheels per leg)
• Twin Tandem : Twins in tandem ( 4 wheels per leg)
• Tri Twin Tandem : Twin in 3 rows ( 6 wheels per leg)
• Dual Twin : Two twins in line ( 4 wheels per leg)
• Twin Tricycle : 3 Twins in tricycle ( 6 wheels per leg)
• Dual Twin Tandem: Dual Twins in tandem ( 8 wheels per leg)
Types of wheel mounting systems

Wheel mounting systems

1. Single wheel (with half fork)
2. Single wheel (with twin fork)
3. Twin wheels
4. Tandem wheels
5. Bogies of 4 or 6 wheel configuration for large air transport
Types of wheel mounting systems (contd)

Four wheeled Bogie and Strut

 Wheel Arrangements (contd)
• Where wheels are arranged in tandem, it is known as a Bogie arrangement .
Normally bogies contain 4 or 6 wheels. Bogie is used to provide wide
distribution of load.

• In a bogie arrangement, one wheel/pair of wheels (either

front or rear) is made to touch down first instead of all
wheels together to reduce the spin up load.
• This is achieved by a trim actuator.
• To prevent bogie wheels from bouncing on rough surfaces
and to ensure that the wheels remain in contact with
runway, a hop damper is used which can be pressurized to
act as actuator to force one wheel downward.
Landing Gear Examples (contd)

Examples of Landing Gears

(A 380 Wing MLG and Body MLG)
 Disposition of Wheels
The basic requirements to be met while
configuring a landing gear for an aircraft are the
following:

1) Adequate clearance with ground during taxi,

take off and landing.
2) Ground stability and controllability.
3) Runway flotation.
4) Energy absorption to keep the ground
reaction within desired limit.
5) Airfield operational compatibility.
 Disposition of Wheels (contd)
The main criteria for positioning of the wheels
with respect to aircraft are the following:

 Adequate height to ensure clearance of the aircraft with ground under all conditions of take off,
landing and ground maneuvering.
 No tail tipping while braking during backward motion. A 15º angle for the line between static
contact position of main wheel and C.G with respect to vertical is sufficient to ensure this
requirement.
 Stability against lateral overturning while turning with 0.5 g lateral acceleration. Turn over angles
not exceeding 63º for smooth runway and 54º for rough runway and carrier based aircraft are
sufficient to ensure this. This is met by a combination of proper track for the main wheels and
wheel base.
Track – Distance between main wheels in front view
Base – Distance between main and nose wheel in side view
 Adequate nose wheel load of 8 to 15 % of aircraft weight for proper steering control.
 The main wheel position shall ensure easy rotation of aircraft for take off and sufficient arm from
the C.G to provide directional stability during ground roll.
Disposition of wheels (contd)
Disposition of Wheels (contd)

Disposition of wheels for stability

(Tricycle with single nose wheel)
 Wheel and Tire sizes
The size of the tire is selected based on :
Load,
Speed, &
Inflation pressure.
The number, inflation pressure and arrangement of tires are
dictated by the runway strength, denoted by either LCN method
(Load Classification Number) or by PCN method (Pavement
Classification Number). This is arrived at through a Flotation
analysis in which the ACN (Aircraft Classification Number) is
calculated. ACN should be less than PCN for unlimited operations.
Flotation is defined as the capability of the runway surface to
support the aircraft load.
 Tire Pressures
Based on inflation pressure, tires are classified as follows:

Low pressure tires : Below 50 psi

Medium pressure tires : 50 – 80 psi
High pressure tires : 80 – 120 psi
Extra high pressure : 120 – 250 psi
Ultra high pressure : 250 – 400 psi
 Tire pressures (contd)
• Low pressure tires are used on unprepared airfields like desert sand, medium
pressure for tarmac with poor foundation, high/extra high pressure for concrete
runways and ultra high pressure for deck landing.

• In selecting wheel size, the space availability in the wheel cavity to house a brake
with required kinetic energy capacity is to be looked into.

• Higher pressure helps in reducing size, weight, volume and aerodynamic drag of
the tire. It also helps to increase the brake power as ratio of brake radius to rolling
radius is higher. Additional benefits in axle and leg sizes due to narrow tire with
reduced moment of inertia are added advantages of high pressure tires.

• However, high pressure induces high stress on the runway, and gives reduced
friction coefficient with ground. A balanced approach is, therefore, needed while
selecting tire pressures.
 Number of tires
• The number of main landing gears and tires
are decided based
Aircraft Weight, lbs
on the aircraft
Number of MLG
weight.
Total Number of MLG
tires
<Typically
60,000 it is as2 follows: 2 or 4
60,000 – 175,000 2 4
175,000 - 235,000 2 4 or 8
235,000 – 400, 000 2 8
>400,000 4 16
 Landing Gear Loads
• Ground Loads act on the landing gear in all three
directions:
– Vertical ( z direction), caused due to vertical impact
– Drag ( x direction), caused due to tire spin up (aft
direction) and due to spring back (forward direction)
– Side (y direction), due to lateral drift

• The loads arise from the following cases:

– Landing Cases
– Ground maneuvering Cases
– Supplemental Cases
 Landing Cases
The loading criteria for design of landing gear are
given in the Airworthiness regulations.

Landing cases
• Three point Level landing
• Two point Level landing
• Tail down landing
• One wheel landing
• Drift landing
 Ground Maneuvering Cases
Ground maneuvering cases
• Braked roll (Symmetrical & Unsymmetrical)
• Supplementary conditions (Turning & Steering)
• Towing
• Jacking
• Taxiing
• Supplemental cases
• Retraction and Extension
• Locking
• Air loads
 Limit and Ultimate Loads

• Limit load is the highest load likely to occur under

operational conditions.
• The landing gear should perform satisfactorily without
yielding (detrimental permanent deformation not
exceeding 0.2%) up to the limit load.
• Ultimate loads are obtained by applying a Factor of
Safety, usually 1.5, on limit loads. At ultimate load the
landing gear shall not fail, but permanent set is
allowed.
• Positive margins of safety are desirable in both yield
and ultimate conditions.
Shock Absorber Design Requirements
The important criterion for shock absorber design is the sink rate, as the kinetic
energy to be absorbed and dissipated depends on it. Sink rate is the vertical
component of the aircraft velocity at touch down. Its value depends on the glide
slope and the amount of flaring before touch down.
Typical sink rates vary from 3 to 6 ft/sec in actual landings of land planes. But for
design purpose, a higher value is assumed to take into account at least 33%
margin for error.
The design sink rate is specified by the Airworthiness regulation depending on the
type of aircraft. It varies from 8 to 13 ft/sec and 10 ft/sec is typical value for many
aircraft.

For basic trainer aircraft a higher value of 13 ft/sec is used.

For STOL aircraft the design sink rate is around 15 ft/sec.
For deck landing aircraft the value is about 20 to 25 ft/sec.
 Shock absorption Methods
The Shock absorber and Tire together provide the cushioning to the aircraft during
touch down.
The kinetic energy associated with the vertical sink rate is absorbed and dissipated by
the shock absorber and tire. Thus the ground reaction is kept within tolerable level
thereby protecting the aircraft structure.

The shock absorbers can be divided into two types based on the spring used:
a) Fluid spring with gas / oil.
a) Solid spring made of metal or rubber.
A shock absorber using both oil and air is known as oleo pneumatic shock absorber,
which is the most preferred one because of its high efficiency (80 to 90%).
Other types include coil spring, leaf spring, liquid spring, rubber blocks etc. which have
an efficiency about 50 to 60%.
 Axle Travel
• Sufficient vertical axle travel is provided to absorb the
kinetic energy associated with sink rate. The vertical
axle travel required is estimated depending on the
permissible landing load factor.

• The aircraft may be either fully airborne or partially

airborne on touch down. The Lift/Weight ratio at touch
down is taken as per the Regulation. It may be 2/3 or 1
depending on the specification of the aircraft.
• For vertical travel calculation typical Oleo efficiency of
80% and tire efficiency of 47% for energy absorption
are assumed.
 Axle Travel (contd)
• Approximate equation for vertical axle travel is:
• E + (W-L) (S+t) = NW(0.8 S+0.47 t)
• Where
E: Kinetic Energy = W V2/2g , V = sink rate
N : Landing Load Factor ( Reaction Factor)
S: Vertical axle travel
t : Tire deflection
W : Aircraft weight
L : Lift
0.8 and 0.47 are efficiencies of oleo and tire respectively.
 Oleo pneumatic Shock Absorbers
• Principle of Oleo Pneumatic shock absorber
• In an oleo pneumatic shock absorber, under the external load, the oil
contained in a cylindrical chamber is compressed and forced through an
orifice into a pre-charged gas chamber, further compressing the gas. This
action provides cushioning to reduce shock of landing. Some energy is
dissipated as heat while the oil is being forced through the orifice
(damping) and the remaining energy is absorbed by the gas spring.
• Damping is provided for recoil as well to control the velocity of rebound.
The stored energy is dissipated during the recoil stroke.
• The damping is proportional to square of the velocity of closure.
• The gas spring supports the weight of the aircraft and acts as shock
absorber during taxiing. It helps to extend the shock absorber when
aircraft is airborne (load removed).
 Oleo pneumatic Shock Absorbers
(contd)

• Classification of Oleos
• Single stage : Has only one air chamber
• Two stages : Has two air chambers
• Mixing type : There is no separation
between oil and air chambers
• Separator type : Oil and air are separated by a
floating piston

• Two stage oleos provide varying spring characteristics

and are used to handle operation from rough airfields.
Two stages are also used in nose gears to reduce pitch
oscillations due to large variations in load caused due
to braking in aircraft with short wheel bases.
 Oleo pneumatic Shock Absorbers (contd)

Schematics of various Oleo designs

 Oleo pneumatic Shock Absorbers
(contd)

• A variable orifice area is required to maximize efficiency.

• At the beginning of the oleo stroke, the closure velocity is less and the
orifice area should be small, thereafter it should be large to avoid sharp
increase in load and again towards the end of closure it should be again
small.
• Orifice area can be varied by a hydraulic valve or with a metering pin.
• The optimum orifice area is determined through a mathematical
simulation of landing through a dynamic analysis using software package
like ADAMS (Automatic Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical Systems) which is
a widely used tool for the shock absorber performance analysis.
• Virtual prototyping using these software helps in better, faster and
cheaper product development.
Oleo pneumatic Shock Absorbers (contd)

Oleo operation – Functional diagrams

Oleo pneumatic Shock Absorbers (contd)

Double stage Oleo - Schematic

Oleo pneumatic Shock Absorbers (contd)

Double stage Oleo – A typical design

Oleo pneumatic Shock Absorbers (contd)

Load deflection curve

 Tire
Pneumatic tires are used on aircraft for the following reasons:

• Low rolling drag due to its elasticity which damps out

vertical motion of the aircraft,

• Results in low contact pressure,

• Adequate adhesion during braking and cornering,

• High energy storage capacity.

 Tire Construction

Tires are classified as Bias ply and Radial tires based on

their construction.
In Bias ply tire, the casing is made of plies laid upon
each other at opposite bias angles.
In Radial ply tire, the plies are in radial direction.

Radial tire is lighter by 20% and have better wear

performance resulting in twice the life compared to
bias ply tire. It offers better floatation due to 10%
more foot print area and also reduces chances of
hydroplaning on wet runways, enhancing safety.
 Tire Construction (contd)

Bias ply OR Cross ply tire

Radial ply tire

Tire construction
 Tire Characteristics
• Static tire deflection
High deflection of about 32% is allowed in aircraft tire to
provide large energy absorbing capacity. Fully
deflected load is about 3 times static load. High
deflection, however, will result in faster heating up and
low roll life.
• Rolling resistance
The rolling resistance of tires vary from 0.02 to 0.16.
Rolling drag is created due to elasticity of the tire.
• Conducting tires
Tires are made conducting to discharge electric charge
to ground.
 Tire Characteristics (contd)
• Self aligning moment of tire
One property of pneumatic tire is its ability to produce
cornering force (side force) with yaw angle. The cornering
force generates a moment due to pneumatic trail that
tends to straighten the tire into direction of motion.
Conversely, if a tire rolls with a side load, a yaw angle is
produced while resisting slip. The ability to resist yaw is
known as cornering power.
• Rolling radius of tire
The rolling radius is the distance traveled in one rotation
divided by 2¶.
Rolling radius = free radius – 1/3 deflection
 Tire Characteristics (contd)
• Hydroplaning
Hydroplaning or Aquaplaning is a phenomenon in which the tire gets lifted
above a water film when it is traversing on a wet runway at very high
speed.
Hydroplaning results in loss of traction due to reduction in friction
coefficient.
To reduce effects of hydroplaning grooves are provided in aircraft tires and
runway surface is made textured.

An empirical formula for hydroplaning speed is,

V = 9*P ½ , where V is speed in knots,
and P in tire pressure in psi.
 Wheel
An aircraft wheel is designed to accommodate the tire and to
house the brake unit.
Wheels are generally made of forged aluminum alloys.

Two basic configurations of wheel design are in use.

a) ‘A’ frame type
b) Bowl type

‘A’ frame type is more structurally efficient, but the space

available to house the heat sink volume for the brake is small.
Bowl type design was developed to house brake with large heat
sink volume to meet higher energy absorption requirement.
 Wheel Construction

Wheel construction (‘A’ Frame type)

Wheel Construction (contd)

Wheel construction (Bowl type)

 Retraction System
• Landing gear is retracted in flight to reduce aerodynamic drag. This
is achieved by having a mechanism which is actuated by a suitable
actuator for retraction and extension.

• This also facilitates the aircraft to adapt to landing on different

surfaces (eg. Landing on land or water as needed).

• The mechanism is generally a 4 bar linkage which has a geometry to

take all the loads and to get accommodated in the bay space.

• The actuator capacity is designed to cater to retracting within 6

to10 seconds under vertical accelerations of 1.5 and maximum air
load.
Retraction mechanism and Actuation

Retraction mechanisms
Retraction mechanism and Actuation (contd)

Retraction mechanisms
Retraction mechanism and Actuation (contd)

Retraction mechanism
Retraction mechanism and Actuation (contd)

Retraction mechanism
 Retraction Actuation
• For retraction of landing gear various actuation systems are
employed.
• 1. Electrical retraction system using an electric motor. This
is generally used on light aircraft.
• 2. Hydraulic actuation system using hydraulic power
generated by an engine driven pump for large aircraft or an
electrically operated pump in smaller aircraft.
• 3. Mechanical system used in small aircraft.

• Apart from a normal system for retraction and extension an

emergency extension system is also provided. Emergency
systems consist of back up hydraulics, stored gas energy,
mechanical system or free fall gravity systems.
Hydraulic Retraction Actuation

Retraction Actuation system

 Locking system
• Up-lock and Down lock
• The landing gear requires both up-lock and down lock to keep it
firmly locked in both positions.

• While down lock should prevent collapse of landing gear under

ground loads, up lock should handle ‘g’ loads in flight.

• The various methods employed are

- Separate hydro-mechanical up locks
- Geometric lock / Over center locks with springs
- Internal claw lock or segment lock in the actuator
 Locking system (contd)
• In all designs the locking is automatic and
release of lock requires some kind of
actuation, either hydraulic or electrical.

• Ground locks
Ground locks are used to prevent inadvertent
retraction when the aircraft is being towed or
standing on ground.
 Materials for Landing Gear
• In landing gears high strength aluminum alloys, low alloy steels and
titanium alloys are generally used. Bushings are made from
aluminum bronze, beryllium copper, stainless steel etc. For large
and complex shaped parts forgings are developed.
• Among steels, commonly used specifications are 4130, 4340 (260
ksi), 4330V and 300M (280 ksi)
• In Aluminum, 7075 T73, 7175 T736 (76 ksi), 7049 T73, 7050 T736
(72 ksi) are commonly used.
• Titanium Ti 6Al 6V 2Sn (170 ksi) is also used where stiffness is
important.
• Aluminum bronze (DTD 197A) with bearing stress of 60 ksi and
Beryllium copper are good bushing materials.
• Composites are being introduced in Landing Gears.
Landing Gear – A safe life Structure
• Landing Gear is designed as a safe life structure
as no redundant load paths are provided.
• Hence it is necessary to carry out fatigue analysis
and testing.
• Damage tolerant design is difficult to be applied
as landing gear is designed with high strength
materials which are characterized by very small
allowable flaw sizes.

• However materials with higher fracture

toughness is always desirable.
 Manufacturing
• Major components are made from closed die
forgings which have better grain flow and
mechanical properties for complex shapes.

• All other components are machined from bar

stocks.

• Corrosion protection is given by electroplating

(cadmium plating for steels and anodizing for
aluminum) followed by organic painting (epoxy
primer and polyurethane top coat).
 Landing Gear development
• Verification of landing gear performance is done by
drop tests.
• Development of landing gear is complete only when all
qualification tests like static strength test, endurance
test and impulse test on actuator, environmental tests
and fatigue test are satisfactorily carried out.

• Strength test : To prove static strength up to ultimate

load
• Fatigue test : To verify life in terms of number of
landings
• Environmental test : To verify ability to withstand extreme conditions of temperature, thermal
shock, vibration, shock, acceleration, humidity, altitude, salt spray, fungus, sand and dust etc
 A Learning Review through Questions

1. Which landing gear layout gives a dynamically stable arrangement?

2. What does a shock absorber do?
3. What is a telescopic or cantilever gear?
4. Why articulated gear provides better ride qualities?
5. What is meant by ACN/PCN ?
6. What is a Bogie?
7. What is an oleo?
8. What is called rolling drag?
9. What is a cornering force?
10. What is known as hydroplaning?
 Brake system
• The main functions of the brake are to stop, to control while taxiing, to
hold the aircraft during engine run up and for parking.

• Aircraft brake consists of rotor discs rotating with the wheel and stator
discs which are stationary. The discs are forced together by an actuation
force and a friction torque is generated between them. The energy is
absorbed as heat in a heat sink mass. Suitable friction material is used at
the rubbing surface.

• The criteria for aircraft brake sizing are:

- kinetic energy to be absorbed
- torque/drag to be produced to achieve required deceleration
 Brake system (contd)

• The kinetic energy to be absorbed in landing is a

function of the landing speed. Stopping the aircraft in a
rejected take off in an emergency requires large
amount of kinetic energy to be absorbed. This
requirement decides the mass of heat sink needed.

• The design requirement for deceleration to be

produced by brake is 10ft/sec2. This requirement
decides the torque to be produced by the brake and in
turn the number of rubbing surfaces and normal force
to be applied through pistons.
 Heat Sinks
• Two types of heat sinks in use are:
– 1. Steel
– 2. Carbon- carbon composite
In a steel brake, steel based sintered friction material is fixed on steel
rotor or stator discs.
In Carbon brake, discs are made of carbon fiber composite in a carbon
matrix. The disc functions as a heat sink, a friction material and a
structural member. Carbon disc has better specific heat and thermal
conductivity and hence results in 40 % lighter heat sink. Another
advantage is its increased wear life (more than twice that of steel). It
can withstand higher temperatures ( greater than 1800°C as against
about 1000°C for steel) and retains frictional properties at elevated
temperatures also.
Carbon brakes occupy greater volume ( about 28% more) compared to
steel brakes.
 Heat Sinks (contd)

A multidisc carbon brake

 Brake System Operation
• The brakes are generally hydraulically actuated.
• In an independent manual braking system, the hydraulic pressure is
generated by piston pumps, foot operated by the pilot. This is employed in
light aircraft.
• In large aircraft power brake system is used. The pilot’s input from pedal is
used to control a brake metering valve to meter the hydraulic system
pressure to the brakes.
• All aircraft will have a Normal Brake system and an Emergency back up
system.
• A Parking brake system is also provide in all aircraft.
 Antiskid system
• Antiskid system is provided in high speed aircraft to prevent wheel locking and to
optimize braking for obtaining minimum stopping distance.
- On-off type
- Modulating type

• In on-off type the brake pressure is automatically released though a on-off

valve when the wheel is about to skid. An impending skid is detected by rapid
deceleration of the wheel.

• In modulating type the pressure is not dumped fully, but only modulated as
required. In this system the brake pressure is metered by a servo valve to
accomplish antiskid protection at the point of maximum braking effectiveness.
Electronic controllers are employed to control the servo valves.
• Modulated systems yield the shortest possible stopping distances.
Antiskid system (contd)

Antiskid system
 Antiskid system (contd)
Auto braking
• In auto braking systems the controller controls the brake pressure
as per the demand of deceleration set by the pilot.
Braking problems
a) Brake fade
• This is a problem where brake effectiveness is found to deteriorate
towards the end of braking stop. This is due to decrease in friction
coefficient as temperature increases.
b) Gear walk/ judder / chatter/ squeal
• These are vibratory problems caused in the landing gear leg due to
braking fluctuations, known by different terminologies depending
on the frequencies, gear walk being the lowest and squeal being
the highest.
Antiskid system (contd)

Auto brake system

 Nose Wheel Steering
• The auxiliary wheel (Nose wheel or Tail wheel) is made castering
type for turning the aircraft on ground.

• Aircraft’s directional control on ground is done either by having

nose wheel steering or with differential braking on main wheels.

• A minimum mechanical trail (distance between swivel axis and tire

contact point) of about 1/6 radius is to be provided for free
castered wheels for turning by differential braking.

• Steering by differential braking on main wheels is not desirable for

large aircraft as use of brakes is inconvenient and results in wear of
brakes.
 Caster Wheel

Caster wheel configurations

 Steering Methods
• Steering is achieved by applying a torque about the caster axis to
turn the nose wheel, thereby making use of the cornering
properties of the tire to generate a side force at the nose wheel
which imparts a yawing moment to the aircraft.

• Direct mechanical steering can be done for light aircraft up to 3000

lbs weight by connecting rudder pedals to nose wheel swivel
through springs or without springs.

• Power steering system is employed for large aircraft, operated by

hydraulic/electric actuators through a rack and pinion or linkage
mechanism, and controlled through a servomechanism with feed
back.
 Steering Methods (contd)
• Fighter aircrafts have rudder pedals steering control.

• Transport aircrafts have combination controls with

hand operated wheels for full travel along with pedals
for small angles.

• Steering authority varies from 30 deg to 60 deg either

side.

• Steering rate is controlled and varies from 15 deg to 20

deg per second depending on aircraft configuration.
 Steering Requirements
• Steering system requirements are :

– Large angle steering at low speeds of aircraft for close

parking
– Small angle steering at high speeds for course
correction
– Shimmy stability
– Compatibility with centering mechanism
– Free castering when not activated
– Disconnection after retraction of landing gear
 Steering Controls
• When power steering is used dual controls are employed
separately for high speed and low speed. (ie. 2 different
ratios)

• For take off and landing runs at high speed the angle of
rotation of nose wheel is limited to small value of about 7°
either side.

• For low speed taxiing the wheel can be turned through

large angle of up to 60° either side.

• Steering control for low speed taxiing is sometimes

provided through separate control wheel.
 Steering System Design

• Steps involved in Steering design:

• Estimation of steering torque
• Estimation of shimmy damping torque
• Estimation of centering torque
• Steering actuation mechanism design
 Self centering of Nose wheel
• Castered nose wheels are to be centered prior
to retraction and should remain central at
touch down.

• Self centering is done automatically using cam

and spring either internally or externally.

• In some designs cams are acted upon by the

extension pressure force from the oleo.
 Nose wheel Trail
• Trail:
• Trail is the distance between the swivel axis and tire contact point.

• Trail is comprised of 3 components, mechanical trail, caster trail and

pneumatic or dynamic trail.

• Mechanical trail is the offset of axle centre from swivel axis.

• Caster trail is the offset due to swivel axis caster angle.
• Pneumatic trail is due to shift of contact point as the tire rolls.

• Pneumatic trail = L/6 where L is the footprint length which is equal to

1.457√A where A is the contact area.
 Nose wheel shimmy
• Nose wheel shimmy is an oscillatory motion
about the swivel axis in the nose gear that is
caused by runway surface irregularities and non
uniformity of tire.

• It is exaggerated by worn out landing gear parts

that allow play in joints.

• To avoid shimmy, the nose gear should be

provided with high torsional stiffness, stiff back
up structure and appropriate trail.
 Nose wheel shimmy damper
• In general, shimmy dampers are provided in nose gear. Shimmy damper is
device to lessen the effects of shimmy by reducing its amplitude or
prevent the onset of shimmy cycle.

• This is achieved by having hydraulic viscous dampers or by other damping

devices using springs or friction damping.

• Co-rotating wheels in twin wheel nose gear design is another method to

avoid shimmy.

• General rule is that the amplitude should be reduced to one third of the
original amplitude within 3 seconds.

• The frequency of shimmy is found to vary from 10 to 25 Hz.

 Nose wheel shimmy Damper (contd)
A typical shimmy damper is a snubbing unit to reduce the speed of
oscillation.

Hydraulic Shimmy damper

 A Learning Review through Questions

1. What is a heat sink?

2. What is the design deceleration value to be provided by brake?
3. What is a carbon brake?
4. What is an antiskid system?
5. What is an on-off antiskid system?
6. What is meant by gear walk?
7. What is a caster wheel?
8. What is shimmy?
9. What is known as trail?
10. What are the methods adopted for shimmy damping?
 Environmental Control System
• Environmental Control System deals with the following
requirements to be met for the aircraft cabin.

Ventilation

Temperature control

Humidity control

Pressurization

Also,
ECS system provides cooling for the Avionics Bay as well as heat load
transfer from hydraulic, fuel and oil systems.
ECS system provides de-misting, anti-icing, anti-g and rain dispersal
services.
 Air Conditioning & Pressurization
• Air conditioning system refers to the first 3 of the
above requirements ,namely, control of
ventilation, temperature and humidity.

• For aircraft flying at low altitudes up to 10,000’,

air conditioning alone is adequate whereas
pressurization is required for high altitude aircraft
to ensure required pressure of oxygen for
breathing.
• ARP 1270 outlines aircraft cabin pressurization
control criteria.
 Air conditioning system
• Air Conditioning refers to adequate supply of air to the
cabin with controlled temperature and humidity. As the
aircraft is operated at different levels in different
temperature zones, the air conditioning system must be
capable of taking extremely cold air and warming it, or
extremely hot humid air and cooling it and dehumidifying
it.
• For comfort the average requirements are

About 1lb of air per minute per person for ventilation

Temperature between 18° C to 24° C
Relative humidity of 30% to 60%
 Air conditioning system (contd)
• Some light aircraft have only ventilation along
with ram air heating systems using exhaust gas
from engines. The hot air supplied as required to
the cabin through a control box.

• Some other light aircraft uses dedicated

combustion heater to heat ram air.

• These systems are suitable upto a maximum of

16000’.
 Air conditioning system (contd)
• For aircraft flying at higher altitudes above 16000’, some
kind of air conditioning system is used.

• As the ambient temperature is a variable, the air

conditioning systems use heated ambient air for its cycle.

• Heating of the ambient air is either by dedicated means, or

hot bleed air is taken from a gas turbine compressor.

• This hot air is then split and a portion cooled before it is

mixed together to achieve the desired temperature and
supplkied to the cabin.
International Standard Atmosphere
• ISA conditions of Temp. (Deg Celsius) and Pressure (psi)

• Altitude Temp, C Pressure, psi

• 0 15 14.69
• 8000’ -0.85 10.92
• 15000’ -14.72 8.29
• 25000’ -34.53 5.45
• 36090’ -56.5 3.28 (Tropo-pause)
• 40000’ ” 2.7
• 50000’ ” 1.68
 Heating system

Fig 70 Ram air muffler type heat exchanger

 Cooling system
• Cooling of air is done by two ways
• Air cycle machines
• Vapor cycle machines
• Air cycle machines
In this, heat is removed by a heat exchanger from compressed
hot air which is then expanded in a turbine resulting in cold air.
An Air Cycle machine is also called Cold Air Unit (CAU)

Different types of CAU are:

 Bootstrap
 Brake turbine
 Turbofan
Air conditioning system schematic

Fig 71 Bootstrap system with blower

Air conditioning system schematic (contd)

Fig 72 Bootstrap system with bleed air

 Cooling system (contd)
• In the bootstrap CAU, the hot charge air is generated
by a blower or bleed air from gas turbine engine is
taken. The air is passed through flow control valve,
bypass valve, primary heat exchanger, cold air unit and
water separator. The cold air is then mixed with hot air
as required and supplied to cabin.

• The charge air from blower or from compressor is at a

high pressure and temperature.

• Bypass valve controls the amount of air that enters the

heat exchanger
 Cooling system (contd)
• One more bypass valve controls the amount of air
that enters the cold air unit. Both are controlled
by temperature sensors.

• The primary heat exchanger cooled by ram air

cools the charge air at constant pressure.

• The bootstrap cold air unit has 3 components,

compressor, heat exchanger and turbine.
Compressor and turbine are linked together.
 Cooling system (contd)
• The system is referred to as a bootstrap as it is
able to self start. As soon as air flows across the
turbine it starts to rotate and then its compressor
increases the airflow which accelerates the
turbine. Due to increased load from the turbine
they self regulate.

• The output from the compressor is passed

through secondary heat exchanger before
supplied to turbine. The air that is expanded in
the turbine is cold air.
 Vapor Cycle system for cooling
• Vapor Cycle system is a closed loop system where
heat load is absorbed by evaporation of a liquid
refrigerant such as Freon.

• The refrigerant passes through a compressor and

then cooled in a condenser. It flows back to the
evaporator via an expansion valve.

• Vapor cycle machines, though more efficient, are

heavier than Air cycle machines.
 Cabin Air conditioning
• Water extractor removes excess moisture.

• Water particles are removed through a

diffuser that slows the airflow and guides it
over a coalescer and the water is extracted.

• Dried air leaving water separator is than mixed

with hot air and supplied to the cabin.
 Pressurization system
• Cabin pressurization is done to safeguard humans
from effects of hypoxia at high altitudes.
• Hypoxia is the sickness caused due to reduced
partial pressure of oxygen.
• Partial pressure of oxygen above 8000’ altitude is
not comfortable, and hence ambient pressure in
cabin is to be maintained at 10.92 psi (8000’
cabin altitude) or higher.
• Maximum safe altitude for pilots to operate
without supplementary oxygen is 15000’. Above
20,000’ loss of consciousness sets in.
 Pressurization system (contd)
• Maintaining cabin differential pressure causes stress on
aircraft structure and an upper limit of 9.5 psi is fixed
by airworthiness regulations. So to protect aircraft the
aircraft from structural damage due to excessive
pressure differential two outward relief valves called
safety valves and two inward relief valves are fitted.

• Cabin is pressurized by using ventilation air from the air

conditioning system. The inflow is considered fixed.
The cabin pressure is determined by controlling the
outflow of this air.
 Pressurization system (contd)
• During aircraft’s climb, air has to be allowed to
escape from the cabin at a greater rate than
inflow from the air conditioning system to allow
the cabin altitude to climb. When the aircraft and
the cabin altitudes arrive at their predetermined
level, the outflow must equal inflow.

• The major component in the cabin pressurization

system is the outflow or discharge valve.
 Rate of Change
• Rate of change is the value in ft/minute by
which the cabin altitude is allowed to ascend
or descend.
• The maximum allowed rate of change for
human comfort due to human ear physiology
is

• 500 fpm for ascent, and

• 300 fpm for descent
Pressurization system schedule

Fig 73 Rate of Change of Cabin Pressure

 Pressurization system methods
• Cabin pressure control systems
• There are 3 types

 pneumatic
 electro pneumatic
 Electronic

• The cabin pressure controller has controls for rate of

change and cabin altitude, according to selected cabin
altitude and rate of change. The controller also ensures
that the valve is fully open on landing to ensure that
the aircraft does not land pressurized.
Pressurization system methods (contd)
• Electronic pressure control system
• In this, the discharge valve is a totally electronically
operated system with electrical motors. This system has the
advantage of reduced pilot work load and more comfort.

Decompression
• Loss of cabin pressure is called decompression.

- Explosive : in 0 to 4 seconds due to structure failure

- Rapid : in 5 to 7 seconds, (supplementary oxygen to
be given)
- Normal
Pressurization system schematic

Fig 74 Electronic Pressure Control System

 Sealing Systems

Fig 75 Sealing Arrangements

 Anti ‘g’ system
• Another use of ECS air in a fighter aircraft is to provide
anti-g protection to the pilot.

• At high ‘g’ levels encountered in a highly maneuverable

fighter aircraft, heart becomes unable to supply
adequate supply of oxygenated blood to the brain
leading to a black out. Anti ‘g’ trousers consisting of
inflatable air bladders with ECS air and control valves
are used to restrict the flow of blood away from brain.
• With anti ‘g’ trousers, pilot can perform maneuvers up
to 8 g.
 Anti-icing / De-icing systems
• Icing can occur either on ground or in flight. In flight is
occurs at leading edges of wing, engine intakes etc.

• For the ground icing hazard, de-icing fluids are used.

• For airborne hazards, anti-icing systems utilize hot bleed air
where hot air is projected on the inside of the surface of
leading edge or engine bullet.

• De-icing system utilizes pneumatic boots where a synthetic

rubber layer is overlaid on the surface and periodically
inflated to break the ice.
• For both anti-icing and de-icing electrical heating methods
are also employed.
 De-misting systems & Rain water
dispersal
De-misting
• Another use of ECS hot air is de-misting. Mist
forming on the wind screen is removed by
blowing hot air from ECS system.

Rain water dispersal

• Hot air jets are used for water dispersal from
the wind screens. The hot air is supplied from
ECS system
 Oxygen System
• Oxygen system is to supply breathing oxygen to the occupant in
case the cabin altitude goes more than 15000 feet.

• This is required in an unpressurized aircraft flying above 15000 feet,

or in a pressurized aircraft if pressurization fails while flying at
above 15000 feet. Oxygen is also supplied in case of rapid
depressurization or contamination of cabin air.

• The partial pressure of oxygen at sea level is about 20% of 14.69

psi, equal to 2.94 psi.

• Oxygen pressure less than about 2 psi is not enough for human
body’s physiology.
 Oxygen System
• It has been fixed by regulations that aircraft operating
above 25000’ and those which cannot descend to 13000’
within 4 minutes must be fitted with oxygen equipment.
Oxygen masks are to be automatically dropped if cabin
altitudes exceeds 15000’.
• Increased concentration of oxygen can prevent hypoxia. At
33,000’, breathing 100% oxygen is equivalent to sea level
condition in restoring body’s physiological condition.
• 40,000’ is the maximum altitude for breathing with 100%
oxygen. Pressure breathing is needed above this altitude.
• At 65,000’, without pressurization/full pressure suit, the
body fluids will boil.
 Oxygen system
• Oxygen equipments

• Liquid type – used only in military aircraft

• Gaseous type
• Chemical type
• Obogs
 Liquid Oxygen system
• In liquid oxygen system a LOX converter
evaporates liquid oxygen stored in a cryogenic
storage.

• Breathing gas is delivered to PEC (Personal

Equipment Connector) on the seat.

• Liquid oxygen system is used normally only in

military aircraft and not used in civil aircraft as it
is expensive and has handling difficulties.
 Gaseous system
• In gaseous oxygen system oxygen flows through an NRV,
high pressure oxygen line valve, pressure reducing valve
and regulator.
• A pressure gauge before PRV shows the contents.
• Regulator is a demand regulator.
• It allows oxygen when breathing, shuts off supply as pilot
exhales.
• Regulator also mixes oxygen with air taken from outside to
reduce oxygen concentration.
• PRV reduces the pressure to 50 – 70 psi at the inlet of
regulator.
• Gaseous system is generally used in unpressurized aircraft
flying above 10,000’
Gaseous Oxygen system

Fig 76 Gaseous Oxygen System

 Chemical oxygen system
• This system is commonly used in civil transport
aircraft.

• The chemical oxygen generators are cheaper and

has 5 year shelf life.

• The oxygen generators work on the principle that

some mono fuels like sodium chlorate, when
ignited produce more oxygen than the
combustion process requires.
 Onboard Oxygen Generation system
OBOGS

Some military aircraft have OnBoard Oxygen Generation

Systems, which makes it possible to do long duration
flights with aerial refueling, without worrying about
stored oxygen contents.

• Here, a molecular sieve material, Zeolite hold on to

nitrogen molecules when air is passed through it.

• Nitrogen is filtered and oxygen comes out.

 Pneumatic Systems
Pneumatic systems are employed in aircraft, such as the following:

• Motive power for thrust reverser and engine starting

• Heating systems for anti-icing / de-icing of air intake, wing LE
• Cabin conditioning (Pressurization and Air conditioning)
• Pressurization of fuel tanks / hydraulic reservoirs
• Rain dispersal on wind screen
• Air pumps for hydraulic power generation

For all the above, the source of air is the medium

pressure bleed air taken from engine compressor.
 Pneumatic Systems
Other systems where pneumatics is involved are:

• Pitot system for speed measurement

• Stored nitrogen bottles at high pressure as

back up for hydraulic actuators

• Pressurization of fuel tanks by inert gas

(nitrogen) obtained by molecular sieving
• Gaseous oxygen supply to occupants
 Auxiliary Power Unit
Auxiliary Power unit (APU) is a small gas turbine engine
which supplies pneumatic/hydraulic/electrical power to the
aircraft systems when main engines are not running.

It is started by an electrical motor prior to aircraft engine

starting. It supplies the pneumatic power from its
compressors for starting of the first aircraft engine. Further
cross bleed air can be used to start other engines.

APU will be mounted with electrical generators and

hydraulic pumps for generating energy.
 System Integrity
• System Integrity refers to the Reliability of the systems
to ensure safety of the aircraft.
• Today, many automated systems are being used in
order to reduce the work load of the pilot and to
increase reliability.
• Increased use of Automatic Systems requires cross-
coupling of many systems, like electrical, hydraulic,
mechanical, instrumentation, computer systems etc.
• Assessment of the systems involve Failure Mode and
effect analysis, which should take into account previous
experience, statistical distribution, aircraft inspection
and maintenance procedures etc.
 Maintainability
• Maintenance is done to get maximum operational availability.
• Availability can be increased by increasing MTBF (Mean time
between failures) and reducing MTTR (Mean time to repair)

• Maintenance efforts are of 3 categories

Correction

Corrective action

Preventive action
• Correction is done after a defect is noticed.
• Corrective action is done to prevent recurrence of the defect
• Preventive action is done to prevent occurrence of the defect
 Failure mode and Effect Analysis
• FMEA is important because it evaluates the effects of a failure of
any part or sub system in the overall system.
• A work sheet is prepared with the following columns
– Failure mode
– Possible cause of failure
– Flight phase
– Effect on operation
– Severity, ie. Catastrophic, Critical (Hazardous), Major (Managerial),
Minor
– Probability of occurrence, ie. Frequent, Probable, Occasional, Remote,
Unlikely
– Failure warning/ detection
– Action to be taken
– Remarks
 A Learning Review through Questions

1. What are the functions of ECS?

2. What is an air cycle cooling machine?
3. Why pressurization of cabin is required at high altitudes?
4. What is hypoxia?
5. How is cabin pressure regulated?
6. Why the rate of descent/ascent is controlled?
7. What is decompression?
8. What is OBOGS?
9. What is an APU?
10. What is MTBF?