From: MIT- Department of Aeronautics And Astronautics

Theory of Flight
Flight is a phenomenon that has long been a part of the natural world. Birds fly not only by
flapping their wings, but by gliding with their wings outstretched for long distances. Smoke,
which is composed of tiny particles, can rise thousands of feet into the air. Both these types of
flight are possible because of the principles of physical science. Likewise, man-made aircraft
rely on these principles to overcome the force of gravity and achieve flight.

Lighter-than-air craft, such as the hot air balloon, work on a buoyancy principle. They float on
air much like rafts float on water. The density of a raft is less than that of water, so it floats.
Although the density of water is constant, the density of air decreases with altitude. The density
of hot air inside a balloon is less than that of the air at sea level, so the balloon rises. It will
continue to rise until the air outside of the balloon is of the same density as the air inside. Smoke
particles rise on a plume of hot air being generated by a fire. When the air cools, the particles fall
back to Earth.

Heavier-than-air flight is made possible by a careful balance of four physical forces: lift, drag,
weight, and thrust. For flight, an aircraft's lift must balance its weight, and its thrust must exceed
its drag. A plane uses its wings for lift and its engines for thrust. Drag is reduced by a plane's
smooth shape and its weight is controlled by the materials it is constructed of.

Lift
In order for an aircraft to rise into the air, a force must be created that equals or exceeds the force
of gravity. This force is called lift. In heavier-than-air craft, lift is created by the flow of air over
an airfoil. The shape of an airfoil causes air to flow faster on top than on bottom. The fast
flowing air decreases the surrounding air pressure. Because the air pressure is greater below the
airfoil than above, a resulting lift force is created. To further understand how an airfoil creates
lift, it is necessary to use two important equations of physical science.

The pressure variations of flowing air is best represented by Bernoulli's equation. It was derived
by Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss mathematician, to explain the variation in pressure exerted by
flowing streams of water. The Bernoulli equation is written as:

where: P = pressure (force exerted divided by area exerted on)

rho = density of the fluid
V = velocity of the moving object or fluid

To understand the Bernoulli equation, one must first understand another important principle of
physical science, the continuity equation. It simply states that in any given flow, the density (rho)
times the cross-sectional area (A) of the flow, times the velocity (V) is constant. The continuity
equation is written as:

where: P = pressure
V = velocity
A = cross sectional area of flow

Using the Bernoulli equation and the continuity equation, it can be shown how air flowing over
an airfoil creates lift. Imagine air flowing over a stationary airfoil, such as an aircraft wing. Far
ahead of the airfoil, the air travels at a uniform velocity. To flow past the airfoil, however, it
must "split" in two, part of the flow traveling on top and part traveling on the bottom.
The shape of a typical airfoil is asymmetrical - its surface area is greater on the top than on the
bottom. As the air flows over the airfoil, it is displaced more by the top surface than the bottom.
According to the continuity law, this displacement, or loss of flow area, must lead to an increase
in velocity. Consider an airfoil in a pipe with flowing water. Water will flow faster in a narrow
section of the pipe. The large area of the top surface of the airfoil narrows the pipe more than the
bottom surface does. Thus, water will flow faster on top than on bottom. The flow velocity is
increased some by the bottom airfoil surface, but considerably less than the flow on top.

The Bernoulli equation states that an increase in velocity leads to an decrease in pressure. Thus
the higher the velocity of the flow, the lower the pressure. Air flowing over an airfoil will
decrease in pressure. The pressure loss over the top surface is greater than that of the bottom
surface. The result is a net pressure force in the upward (positive) direction. This pressure force
is lift.

There is no predetermined shape for a wing airfoil, it is designed based on the function of the
aircraft it will be used for. To aid the design process, engineers use the lift coefficient to measure
the amount of lift obtained from a particular airfoil shape. Lift is proportional to dynamic
pressure and wing area. The lift equation is written as:

where S is wing area and the quantity in parantheses is the dynamic pressure. In designing an
aircraft wing, it is usually advantageous to get the lift coefficient as high as possible.

Drag
Every physical body that is propelled through the air will experience resistance to the air flow.
This resistance is called drag. Drag is the result of a number of physical phenonmena. Pressure
drag is that which you feel when running on a windy day. The pressure of the wind in front of
you is greater than the pressure of the wake behind you. Skin friction, or viscous drag, is that
which swimmers may experience. The flow of water along a swimmer's body creates a frictional
force that slows the swimmer down. A rough surface will induce more frictional drag than a
smooth surface. To reduce viscous drag, swimmers attempt to make contact surfaces as smooth
as possible by wearing swim caps and shaving their legs. Likewise, an aircraft's wing is designed
to be smooth to reduce drag.

Like lift, drag is proportional to dynamic pressure and the area on which it acts. The drag
coefficient, analgous to the lift coefficent, is a measure of the amount of dynamic pressure gets
converted into drag. Unlike the lift coefficient however, engineers usually design the drag
coefficient to be as low as possible. Low drag coefficients are desirable because an aircraft's
efficiency increases as drag decreases.
Weight
The weight of an aircraft is a limiting factor in aircraft design. A heavy plane, or a plane meant
to carry heavy payloads, requires more lift than a light plane. It may also require more thrust to
accelerate on the ground. On small aircraft the location of weight is also important. A small
plane must be appropriately "balanced" for flight, for too much weight in the back or front can
render the plane unstable. Weight can be calculated using a form of Newton's second law:
W = mg

where W is weight, m is mass, and g is the acceleration due to gravity on Earth.

Thrust
Propulsion involves a number of principles of physical science. Thermodynamics, aerodynamics,
fluid mathematics, and physics all play a role. Thrust itself is a force than can best be described
by Newton's second law. The basic form of this law is:
F = ma

which states that force (F) is equal to mass (m) times acceleration (a). Acceleration is the rate of
change of velocity over time. Thrust (T) is produced therefore by accelerating a mass of air.

Class Discussion
1. Would more lift be provided by a fluid with a greater density than air?
2. How do aircraft designers determine the correct shape for a wing?
3. Explain how a propeller provides thrust in the same way a wing generates lift.
4. An equation for lift was supplied previously. What would be the two forces involved on a
propeller?
5. Would a propeller work better in a fluid with a greater density than air?
6. Do you think different planes need differently shaped airfoils?
7. During the design phase, how is a wing's theoretical shape tested?
8. How are the wings of a small plane, like a Cessna, different from a large one, like a
passenger jet?
9. How are the propulsion systems of a biplane different than that of a fighter jet?
10. What kind of propulsion does a Lear jet use? The Concorde?
11. Make a list of the differences between fixed wing aircraft and helicopters. How does each
generate lift? How fast can each go? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?
 12. Some planes have more than one engine to propel the craft. Are the multiple engines
necessary or a safety precaution?

Class Activities/Research
1. Build paper airplanes and demonstrate the effects of lift, drag, thrust, and weight.
2. Take a trip to your local airport or an airshow. Visit the control tower and the aircraft
hangers.
3. Determine the wing area of a large aircraft. Describe what kind of plane it is.
4. What kind of propulsion system does the space shuttle use, as opposed to an airplane?
5. Who are the leading manufacturers of aircraft engines?

Problems
1. Derive the basic equation for lift (Eqn 3) from Bernoulli's Equation (Eqn 1). Note any
assumptions that you make.
2. What is the density of air? Does it differ from high altitudes to low altitudes?
3. Draw a free-body diagram of an aircraft.

Man-Vehicle Laboratory
MIT Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics
sablan@mit.edu
16 March 1997

From: JACO Aerospace and Industrial URL: https://www.e-

aircraftsupply.com/aircraft_products/file/physics-of-flight.aspx

The Physics of Flight

The fascination with flight has been the fuel that has motivated notable scientists and inventors
to learn about aerodynamics for hundreds of years. Sir Isaac Newton devised and shared his three
laws of motion in 1686, which focused on how objects move and the forces that affect
movement. Scientists and inventors have also engaged in examination of the physics of flight to
understand how birds fly and to apply these fundamentals to developing and honing aircraft
flight. The physics of flight explain how airplanes leave the ground and land again safely and
how birds soar through the sky.
Basic Flight Physics

Newton's three laws of motion include the following principles. The first law states that every
object in motion will remain in motion unless some type of external force changes this. The
second law of motion focuses on an object's mass and how it affects its acceleration. In short, the
more mass that is in an object, the more force will be required to change its speed and/or
direction. The third law states that every force has an opposing force that is of equal strength.
Slowing or stopping a moving object requires the application of an opposite force.

Daniel Bernoulli was a Swiss scientist who lived during the 18th century. Bernoulli's
contribution to flight physics centers around the discovery of the decreased pressure of fluid as
velocity increases. The Bernoulli Principle is a foundational principle of aerodynamics.

Aerodynamics involves a combination of four different forces: lift, weight, drag, and thrust. Lift
is the opposite force of weight, and it occurs as air moves on wings. The weight force includes
the total weight of an object: The force of gravity naturally pulls weight down. Drag is a slowing
force, opposite to the thrust force, which happens with the disruption of airflow. Thrust is a
forward-moving force that opposes drag. Thrust happens due to the energy produced by the rotor
or propeller.

 Newton's Three Laws of Motion

 First Law of Motion
 Newton's Laws
 Newton's Laws of Motion
 Newton and Planetary Motion
 How Newton Built on Galileo's Ideas
 Newton's Three Laws (PDF)
 Bernoulli's Equation
 Bernoulli Effects
 Aeronautics: Principles of Flight
 The Physics of Flight
 Lift, Thrust, and Flight (PDF)

Aircraft Flight

For an airplane to fly, the four forces have to have the right balance. Taking off requires a
stronger thrust than drag, and landing requires reduced thrust and lift to bring the plane back
down to the ground. Airplane wings are an important component of lift due to the difference in
air pressure on the top surface as compared to the under surface as a plane flies. This difference
causes the airplane to go up. Helicopters also use the same forces for flight. Rotor blades are
counterparts of an airplane's wings, providing lift for the helicopter. The difference is that
helicopter rotor blades rotate, which forces air over them to give lift to the helicopter. Rockets
are another common type of aircraft that also relies on the same four forces. Rockets use fuel to
propel them into space. The rocket's engine exhaust also helps move it because the exhaust
moves backward, which forces the rocket forward. Even kites fly using the forces of motion.
Wind moving across the kite's sail produces pressure, which gives the kite lift. This pressure also
creates a type of vacuum that produces thrust.

 Newton's First Law Applied to an Aircraft

 Aerodynamics of Flight (PDF)
 The Theory of Flight
 The Wright Brothers, Bernoulli, and a Surprise From Upper East Tennessee (PDF)
 Aircraft Flight Dynamics (PDF)
 How Airplanes Fly (PDF)
 Overview of Airplane Flight (PDF)
 How Airplanes Fly: Lift and Circulation (PDF)
 How Airplanes Fly: A Physical Description of Lift (PDF)
 Fundamentals of Airplane Flight Mechanics (PDF)

How Birds Fly

Birds take to the air using the same aerodynamic forces that make it possible for airplanes,
helicopters, rockets, and kites to fly. Pressure on top of a bird's wings compared to below them
creates an upward lift. When birds flap their wings, they create thrust to propel them through the
air. Some birds glide and soar through the air by holding their wings at a V-shaped angle to
control how the wind hits their wings. Birds' tails also help them control flight elevation and
speed. By spreading out their tail feathers, drag occurs, which slows them down for landing.

 The Flight of Birds (PDF)

 How Birds Fly (PDF)
 Vertebrate Flight
 How Do Birds Fly?
 Flight Mechanics of Birds (PDF)
 How Birds Fly (PDF)
 Biological and Physiological Adaptations of Birds (PDF)
 Avian Forelimb Muscles and Nonsteady Flight: Can Birds Fly Without Using the
Muscles in Their Wings? (PDF)

Additional Resources

Get a firm grasp of flight, aerodynamics, and the forces of motion by exploring lesson plans and
educational sites. You can also perform experiments and even play physics games to see the
forces of motion that make it possible to fly. Even something as simple as a paper airplane
provides important clues about how an object is able to fly through the air. Many activities are
simple enough to do at home with household materials.

 Experimenting With Bernoulli's Principle

 The Aerodynamic Forces of Flight
 What Makes Paper Airplanes Fly? (PDF)
 The Bernoulli Principle: How Birds Use Air Pressure to Fly (PDF)
 Flying Paper Birds (PDF)
 Birds and Flight (PDF)
 Amazing Birds (PDF)