PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE:

STATEMENTS, Q and A

USE:
To talk about actions or states which began in the past and are still relevant in the
present. The Present Perfect is often used with expressions starting with FOR and
SINCE, to talk about actions or states which began in the past and are true up
until the present time. It is also used with the adverbs JUST, ALREADY, and YET to
talk about actions or events which took place at an indefinite time in the past. The
Present Perfect is also used to talk about recent actions or events ("news").

FORM:
The Present Perfect is made up of HAVE/HAS and the Past Participle (the third
form of the verb [V3]).
AFFIRMATIVE

[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + (just/already) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]... (for/since...)]

EXAMPLES:
"I've lived here for two years."
"You've already lost one key. I can't believe you can't find the second."
"Whose package is this? It's been here since 4 p.m."
"We've already met them."
"They're not hungry. They've just eaten their dinner."

NOTE: In positive sentences, JUST and ALREADY usually go immediately before

the past participle. Phrases with FOR and SINCE go at the end of the sentence.
NEGATIVE

[SUBJECT + HAVE NOT/HAVEN'T + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]..] HAS NOT/HASN'T

EXAMPLES:
"I haven't met her yet."
"It hasn't begun to rain yet."
"We haven't had lunch yet."
"You haven't said a word for 2 hours."
"They haven't finished their breakfast."

NOTE: In negative sentences, YET and phrases with FOR and SINCE usually go at
the end of the sentence.
YES/NO QUESTIONS

[HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT +...PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EXAMPLES:
"Have you already finished your work?"
"Has she finished painting the room?"
 WH-QUESTIONS

WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE SUBJECT

[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS +...PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EXAMPLE:
"Who has just eaten the candy?"
WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE REST OF THE SENTENCE

[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT +...PAST PARTICIPLE (V3)]

EXAMPLES:
"Where has he put my coat?"
"What have you done with the money?"

NOTE: In questions, JUST and ALREADY usually go before the Past Participle [V3];
YET and phrases with FOR and SINCE usually go at the end of the sentence.
CONTRAST WITH OTHER TENSES
USE:
We use the Present Perfect to talk about actions or events that happened during a
period which in some way includes or is connected to the present, when the exact
time is not given.

EXAMPLE:
"Peter Parker has written five books."

The "period" in this sentence is Parker's life. By using the Present Perfect, we show
that he is still alive and still writing books.

BUT -
"John Craig wrote five books."

In this case, the Past Simple is used, showing that the "period" is finished,
probably because Craig is dead.

We also use the Present Perfect to talk about recent actions or events which are
"news" to the listener, often with the adverbs JUST and ALREADY and YET in
negative sentences and questions.

EXAMPLES:
"The results have just come in; and here they are..."
"I don't want to go to that movie: I've already seen it."
"Have you typed that letter yet?"

NOTE: In American English, the simple past form is often used:

"The election results just came in: here they are..."
"I don't want to go to that movie; I already saw it."
"Did you type that letter yet?"

We often use the Present Perfect with certain expressions:

FOR or SINCE
We can use FOR or SINCE at the beginning of the time expression. If we say how
long the action or state lasted, we use FOR:
"...for ten minutes."
"...for twenty years."
"...for two centuries."
"...for a very long time." etc.

If we say when the action or state began, we use SINCE, followed by the time or
another expression which indicates the time:
"...since 2 o'clock."
"...since last Monday."
"...since 1975."
"...since the end of the war."
"...since I was a baby." etc.

HOW LONG
We start a question to ask about the duration of an activity or state with HOW
LONG:

EXAMPLES:
"How long have you had that sweater?"
"About six months."

"How long have you been an actor?"

"Since I left school."

EVER
If we want to know if something has happened, but not when, we often put the
adverb EVER before the verb in the question.

EXAMPLES:
"Have you ever eaten octopus?"
"Yes, I have."

"Have you ever been in an accident?"

"No, I haven't."

JUST, ALREADY or YET

JUST (=a short time ago), ALREADY (=before now) and YET (=before/until now)
are used in Present Perfect sentences that talk about recent actions or events
("news"). JUST and ALREADY usually go immediately before the third form of the
verb and YET is often used at the end of a negative sentence or question.
EXAMPLES:
"I have already seen that movie. Let's stay home!"
"But I haven't seen it yet!"

"Here we are at the Indy 500 with Mike Rhodes. Mike, have you ever driven in an
Indy race?"
"No, I haven't. But I've been a race driver in Europe for ten years."
"Well, Good Luck to you!"
THE PASSIVE: FORM - WITH OR WITHOUT AGENT

USE:
To talk about actions or events in which the agent, or the "doer" of the action, is
obvious, unknown or unimportant, or to emphasize the action, the results of the
action, or the receiver of the action. The Passive is also used to stress a process or
event.

FORM:
["BE" + Past Participle [V3]]

NOTE: The verb "BE" varies according to the tense of the sentence. It can take any
form, including progressives.

EXAMPLES:
"The castle was built in 1543."
"It has been rebuilt twice since then."
(Agent unknown/unimportant)

"English is spoken here."

(Agent is obvious or understood)

"The game is played until there are no more players on the field."
(Process is stressed)

NOTE: We can include the agent after the verb in a Passive sentence, using the
preposition BY.

EXAMPLES:
"My lunch was stolen by a gorilla from the circus!"
"The new hospital is going to be opened by the Queen herself."
AFFIRMATIVE/NEGATIVE

PRESENT/PAST SIMPLE
[OBJECT + Present/Past Form of BE (NOT) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] (by
SUBJECT)...]

EXAMPLES:
"English is spoken here."
"These socks weren't made in Japan."
PRESENT/PAST PROGRESSIVE

[OBJECT + Present/Past Form of BE (NOT) + BEING + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] (by

SUBJECT)]

EXAMPLES:
"The house is being painted (by John)."
"Our car wasn't being used yesterday."
PRESENT PERFECT

[OBJECT + HAVE (NOT)/HAS (NOT) + BEEN + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] (by

SUBJECT)]

EXAMPLES:
"The house has been rented (by Bob Tell)."
"We haven't been invited to the party."
YES/NO QUESTIONS

[BE/HAVE + SUBJECT (BE) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EXAMPLES:
"Was the letter sent?" (SIMPLE)
"Is it being ordered?" (PROGRESSIVE)
"Have they been asked?" (PERFECT)
WH-QUESTIONS

[WH-WORD + BE/HAVE + (SUBJECT) (BE) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]...]

EXAMPLES:
"Who was told about this?"
"When was John invited to the wedding?"
"Where was it being shown?"
"Why has Bill been fired?

OTHER EXAMPLES:

"The car wasn't being repaired when we arrived."

"The election results have just been announced."
"George has been caught by the police."
"Are we going to be invited to Joe's party?"
"Why has Betty been arrested?"

"Who was that movie made by?

"It was made by DeMille, I think."

THE PASSIVE: INDIRECT FORM

Some verbs, such as GIVE, ASK, TELL, OFFER, PROMISE, SEND, SHOW, TEACH,
and PAY, can have two objects: one DIRECT and one INDIRECT. Either the direct
object or the indirect object can become the subject in a passive sentence:

"My grandmother gave me a watch for my birthday."

"The watch was given to me for my birthday."

(direct object)

"I was given the watch for my birthday."

(indirect object)

PRESENT PERFECT:
CONTRAST WITH OTHER TENSES

USE:
Unlike the Present Perfect, the Simple Past or Past Progressive are used to talk
about an action or event which happened during a period that does not include the
present.

EXAMPLES:
"Have you seen Pat this week?"
"No, but I saw her last week."

"Have you talked to Sharon?"

"No. I haven't talked to her since she came back from France."

Sometimes, a conversation begins in the Present Perfect and continues in the

Simple Past: when the first question ["Have you ever...?" or "How long have
you...?"] covers a long period (including the present), while the rest of the
conversation deals with a particular action or event in the past.

EXAMPLES:
"Have you ever been to New York?"
"Yes, I have. I went in 1989. I loved it."
"How long have you had that car?"
"We've had it for five years."
"How much did you pay for it?"
"Not much, but we had to do a lot of work on it..."

MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS): MUST

USE:
Used to talk about a strong necessity, obligation, or duty to do something. There is
often very little difference between MUST and HAVE TO. In formal, written English,
MUST is used for public notices about official rules and regulations. MUST can also
be used to express a strong opinion about a situation based on existing facts or
circumstances.
AFFIRMATIVE

FORM:
[SUBJECT + MUST + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"I have a terrible toothache; I must go to the dentist."
"We must try to help Nicky; she's our oldest friend."
"All workers must wear safety helmets in work areas!"
"Jack must be on his way. There was no one home when I called his apartment."
NEGATIVE

USE:
In both formal and informal English we use the negative form MUST NOT (often
shortened to MUSTN'T) to talk about something which is wrong or forbidden. Note
that this is not the same as the negative form of HAVE TO, which only means that
something is not necessary.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + MUST + NOT (MUSTN'T) + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"You mustn't pull the dog's tail, dear; he'll bite you."
"We mustn't forget to pay back that loan."
"Workers must not smoke in work areas!"
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

USE:
Used to ask whether something is necessary or obligatory. The interrogative form
of HAVE TO has the same meaning and is more common.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:

[Q: MUST + SUBJECT + VERB...?]

[A: Yes, + SUBJECT + MUST
No, + SUBJECT + NEEDN'T]

EXAMPLE:
"Must I go to school today, Mom?"
"Yes, you must."
WH-QUESTIONS

FORM:
About the SUBJECT of the sentence:
[Wh-Word + MUST + VERB...?]

ABOUT REST OF SENTENCE:

[WH-WORD + MUST + SUBJECT + VERB...?]

EXAMPLES:
"What must happen before we can leave?"

"When must you take the test?"

"Next Friday."

MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS): HAD TO

AFFIRMATIVE

USE:
Used to talk about necessity, obligation, and duty in the past. HAD TO is the past
form of both HAVE TO and MUST.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + HAD TO + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"I had to stay up all night to write this paper!"
"We had to run to catch the train."
NEGATIVE

USE:
Used to talk about something that was not necessary or not obligatory in the past.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + DID NOT (DIDN'T) + HAVE TO + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Monday was a holiday, so I didn't have to go to work."
"I didn't have to study Latin in high school."
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

USE:
Used to ask questions about duties and obligations in the past.
YES/NO QUESTIONS

[Q: DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB...?]

[A: Yes, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + DID.
No, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + DIDN'T]

EXAMPLE:
"Did you have to borrow money to buy the car?"
"Yes, we did."
WH-QUESTIONS

About the SUBJECT of the sentence:

[WH-WORD + HAS/HAD/HAD TO+ VERB...?]

About the REST of the sentence:

[WH-WORD + DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB...?]

EXAMPLES:
"Who had to wash the car this week?"

"What did you have to do to get the loan?"

"I had to fill out a form for the bank."

MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS):

MUST NOT/DON'T HAVE TO

USE:
While MUST and HAVE TO have similar meanings in the affirmative, they cannot be
used interchangeably in the negative.

MUST NOT (MUSTN'T) is used to show that something is prohibited or forbidden.

DON'T HAVE TO means "it's not necessary to do something".

EXAMPLES:
"You mustn't run in here; this is a hospital."
"You don't have to run; the bus is waiting for you."
 MORE MODALS (and SEMI-MODALS): SHOULD
AFFIRMATIVE

USE:
Used to talk about a duty or obligation which is much weaker than MUST or HAVE
TO. It is also used to give somebody advice.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + SHOULD + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"You should study for your test tonight instead of watching TV." (duty)

"I'm terribly tired."

"You should work less!" (advice)
NEGATIVE

USE:
We can use SHOULD NOT (SHOULDN'T) as a weaker form of MUSTN'T, to warn
people or advise them not to do something.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + SHOULD NOT (SHOULDN'T) + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"You shouldn't eat so much candy. It'll make you fat!"

"You shouldn't throw candy wrappers on the street. Put them in the trash can
instead."
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

USE:
Used to ask whether something is necessary, right, or useful, or to ask people for
advice.
YES/NO QUESTIONS

FORM:

[Q: Should + SUBJECT + VERB...?]

[A: Yes, + SUBJECT + SHOULD
No, + SUBJECT + SHOULDN'T]

EXAMPLE:
"Should I answer Peter's letter?"
"Yes, you should!"
WH-QUESTIONS

FORM:
About the SUBJECT of the sentence
[WH-WORD + SHOULD + VERB...?]
About the REST of the sentence
[WH-WORD + SHOULD + SUBJECT + VERB...?]

EXAMPLES:
"Who should bring the drinks?"

"Where should we go to buy the local pottery?"

"Well, don't go to the big tourist shops. You should go to the small shops in the
villages."

INFINITIVES: AFTER VERBS

USE:
When two verbs in the same clause have the same subject, the second acts as the
object of the first. Depending on the first verb, the second may be in the infinitive
form.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB 1 + (NOT) + Infinitive...]

EXAMPLE:
"Tina decided to study Russian."

There are two main groups of verbs which can be followed by an Infinitive:

SUBJECT'S ATTITUDE: Agree, Choose, Decide, Hope, Offer, Promise, Refuse, etc.

EXAMPLES:
"Patrick agreed to cook dinner."
"Jane chose to stay at home."
"We decided not to buy a new house."
"I hope to win first prize next year."

SUBJECT'S ABILITY: Attempt, Fail, Learn, Manage, Try, Be able to, etc.

EXAMPLES:
"Ben attempted to start the car."
"Anne failed to finish her paper on time."
"We learned to ski when we were on vacation."

GERUNDS: AFTER VERBS

USE:
GERUNDS are used as the object of most transitive verbs, instead of a noun or
pronoun. In some cases an object-verb takes the infinitive form, but normally it is
a Gerund. Note that a Gerund can also follow "BE".
FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB + GERUND]

EXAMPLES:
"Smith admitted stealing the jewels, but denied killing the security guard."
"I avoid arguing with my boss."
"Frank enjoys watching horror movies."
"We must finish painting this wall today."
"I can't imagine eating snails."
"Cats don't like swimming."
"Do you mind waiting for me?"
"Sam remembers meeting you last year."
INFINITIVES: AFTER ADJECTIVES

USE:
Used to say how somebody thinks or feels about an action or event.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + ADJECTIVE + TO + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"Mike was very surprised to see Ted with Laura."
"We were delighted to see Fred at the party."

INFINITIVES: AFTER VERB + OBJECT

USE:
When there are two verbs with different subjects in the same clause, the second is
sometimes an Infinitive. This structure is often used to talk about the first
subject's attitude towards or influence on the second subject.

FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB 1 + SUBJECT 2 + Infinitive]

EXAMPLES:
"I told Maggie to write that letter last week."
"The teacher allowed the students to go home early."
"Fred asked me to lend him some money."
"I expected them to answer my letter immediately."
"They invited Sarah to go on vacation with them."
"We'd like you to work with us."
"I need you to sign this paper, please."
"The general ordered his men to retreat."
"Janet paid the mechanic to fix her car."
"David reminded her to feed the cat."
"Mary teaches people to read."
"The boss told me to work harder."
"Angela wants Paul to marry her."

GERUNDS: AS SUBJECTS

USE:
A GERUND can act as the subject of any verb, instead of a noun or pronoun. We
often use Gerunds in this way to make generalizations. The Gerund can stand
alone, be followed by a complement (i.e. an object or an adverbial) or by an
adverbial clause.

FORM:
[GERUND + (Complement/Adverb Clause) + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"Smoking is dangerous."
"Eating always makes me sleepy."
"Smoking cigars is very dangerous." (with Complement)
"Playing football makes me thirsty." (with Complement)
"Smoking when you are in a crowded room is inconsiderate." (with Adverbial
Clause)
"Not brushing your teeth before you go to bed is bad for your teeth." (with
Adverbial Clause)

ADVERBS: ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY

USE:
Used to talk about how often or how rarely something happens. The most
important adverbs of frequency are ALWAYS, GENERALLY, NORMALLY, USUALLY,
FREQUENTLY, OFTEN, SOMETIMES, EVER,
OCCASIONALLY, SELDOM, RARELY, and NEVER.

FORM:
Adverbs of frequency normally come immediately before the verb in affirmative
sentences, but after the verb "BE". In negative sentences, adverbs of frequency
normally come immediately after the word NOT. In questions, adverbs of
frequency normally come immediately after the subject.
AFFIRMATIVE
[ADVERB + VERB]

EXAMPLE:
"I always drink champagne with my supper."
[BE + ADVERB]

EXAMPLE:
"Peter is sometimes late for lessons."
NEGATIVE
[NOT + ADVERB]

EXAMPLES:
"We don't often go to the theater."
"My sister isn't usually so quiet."
QUESTIONS
[SUBJECT + ADVERB]

EXAMPLES:
"What do you usually have for breakfast?"
"Do you always eat a sandwich for lunch?"
"Are you ever going to finish that book?"
"We sometimes take the car and sometimes walk."
"Bill is rarely late."
"Jessica doesn't ever call me at work."
"Why don't Pam and Jim ever speak to Michael?"

GERUNDS: GERUND OR INFINITIVE

USE:
Several verbs can be followed by either GERUNDS or INFINITIVES. In some cases,
such as REMEMBER, FORGET, STOP, and USE, this changes the meaning of the
sentence completely.

FORM + MEANING:
[REMEMBER/FORGET + GERUND - memories of the past]

EXAMPLES:
"I remember seeing the Beatles in 1970."
"I'll never forget meeting you in Rome last year."

FORM + MEANING:
[REMEMBER/FORGET + INFINITIVE - actions in the future]

EXAMPLES:
"I'll remember to give him the message tomorrow."
"Don't forget to feed the chickens this evening!"

FORM + MEANING:
[STOP + GERUND - to finish or abandon an action]

EXAMPLE:
"We stopped dancing because we were tired."

FORM + MEANING:
[STOP + INFINITIVE - to start a new action]

EXAMPLE:
"I stopped to tie my shoelace."
FORM + MEANING:
[TRY + GERUND - to experiment; to perform an action to see what the result will
be.]

EXAMPLE:
"If you want to make perfect tea, try heating the pot with some boiling water
before putting in the tea."

FORM + MEANING:
[TRY + INFINITIVE - to attempt something; to find out whether it is possible]

EXAMPLE:
"I tried to stroke the cat, but she ran away before I could touch her."

FORM + MEANING:
[LIKE + GERUND - to enjoy something]

EXAMPLES:
"I like eating chocolate."
"I like reading novels."

FORM + MEANING:
[LIKE + INFINITIVE - to think that something is wise, right, or enjoyable]

EXAMPLES:
"I like to brush my teeth after meals."
"I like to answer business letters immediately."

Note the difference between USE TO + INFINITIVE and BE/GET USED TO +

GERUND:

FORM + MEANING:
[USED TO (past) + INFINITIVE - refers to a past habit or state which has now
stopped or changed]

EXAMPLES:
"I used to smoke 50 cigarettes a day, before I stopped."
"We used to live in Washington; now we live in Montreal."
"My father used to have brown hair, but now he is bald."

FORM + MEANING:
[BE or GET USED TO + GERUND - means to consider something normal or become
accustomed to something]

EXAMPLES:
"I'm used to driving on the left now, but when I first came to Britain it felt very
strange!"
"I can't get used to being a grandmother; I feel so old!"
"Don't worry; you'll get used to having grandchildren."

With some verbs (e.g. START, BEGIN, CONTINUE), it makes very little difference
whether they are followed by GERUND or an INFINITIVE, although one form may
be slightly more common than the other. In the following examples the more
common form comes first.

EXAMPLES:
"We started traveling/to travel at 6 o'clock."
"Pat began swimming/to swim when she was six."
"Joe continued writing/to write to me for years."

IMPERSONAL STATEMENTS

USE:
These are used to talk about time, place, weather, and other conditions in
expressions where the verb "BE" has no real subject.

FORM:
[IT + BE + Time expression/adjective + REST]

EXAMPLES:
"It's 1 o'clock in Miami when it's 7 o'clock in Rome."
"It's warm and sunny today in Washington."
"It's too late to get tickets for the 4 o'clock show."
"It's time to start cooking dinner."
"Come and swim; it's lovely in the water!"
"It's very dusty up in our attic."

CONDITIONALS: REAL CONDITIONALS

USE:
To talk about real possibilities in "general time" and uncertain but possible events
in the future.

FORM:
The condition clause begins with IF/IF... NOT (or sometimes UNLESS).The verb is
usually in the present.

The result clause usually contains Present Tense verbs (to talk about possibilities
in "general time") or Future Tense verbs and Modals such as CAN, MAY, MUST, or
SHOULD (to talk about uncertain events in the future).

You can begin a sentence with either a condition or a result clause.

 POSSIBILITIES IN GENERAL TIME
(Verb in result clause is in the Present.)

EXAMPLES:

CONDITION CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE

Unless you give
plants enough water, they die."
If it isn't cold
enough, it doesn't snow."

RESULT CLAUSE CONDITION CLAUSE

"It's time to eat unless you are not hungry."
"Talk to your plants if you want them to grow."

UNCERTAIN EVENTS IN THE FUTURE

(The result clause has Future verb or Modal.)

EXAMPLES:

CONDITION CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE

If you say that
" again, I'm going to hit you!"
" If it rains, I'll take an umbrella."
" If she doesn't study, she may fail the exam."

RESULT CLAUSE CONDITION CLAUSE

They will come to
" the party if they find a baby-sitter."
I'm going to buy a
" new dress if I get paid today."
He won't wash the
" car unless you pay him."

PAST PERFECT: PROGRESSIVE

USE:
To talk about continuous actions or states which continued up to a point in the
past.

FORM:
[SUBJECT + HAD/HAD NOT + BEEN + VERB+ING...]

EXAMPLES:
"I'd been waiting for an hour when the train pulled in."
"He hadn't been studying much until he failed his first exam."

Describing Two Events:

"They'd been waiting for two hours when the bus finally arrived."
USE of FOR and SINCE

If we want to say how long the action or state lasted, we generally use FOR at the
beginning of the "time expression": "... for ten minutes." "... for twenty years." "...
for two centuries." "... for a very long time.", etc.

If we want to say when the action or state began, we use SINCE, followed by the
time or another expression which indicates the time: "... since two o'clock." "...
since the previous Monday." "... since 1975." "... since the end of the war." "...
since I was a baby.", etc.

EXAMPLE:
The two scientists had been working for fifty years (since 1945) when they finally
discovered the Youth Drug.

PAST PERFECT: SIMPLE

USE:
To emphasize that one event happened before another (connected by conjunctions
like WHEN/BEFORE) or in reported speech, when the "reporting verb" is in the Past
Tense and the "original" statement or idea was in the Past or Present Perfect
Tense.
We also use the Past Perfect to interrupt a story (in the Past Tense) with a
reference to an earlier time (before the story began).

EXAMPLE:
"I went home. I was very tired and I wanted my supper. But when I arrived I
couldn't get into my house because I had left the key in my office!"

FORM:

AFFIRMATIVE

[SUBJECT + HAD... + Past Participle.[V3]..]

HAD NOT/HADN'T

EXAMPLES:
"She had just arrived when he came in."
"We had already eaten by the time she arrived."
"The opera had just begun when we arrived."
"I had never been in love until I met you!"
REPORTED SPEECH

[PAST TENSE + (THAT) + PAST PERFECT]

EXAMPLES:
"I thought (that) you had already seen this."
"She said (that) she had never met me before."

PAST PERFECT

USE:
To emphasize the difference in time between two states, actions, or events in the
past which are mentioned in the same sentence. We generally use the Past Perfect
Tense when we want to emphasize that one event or state happened before
another.

EXAMPLE:
"I was really surprised when I met Fred at Jill's party last week. I hadn't seen him
for five years, and he looked really different. I asked him what he'd
been doing since we left school, but he didn't tell me. Then somebody told me he'd
been in prison..."
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

USE:
To emphasize that one event happened before another (connected by conjunctions
like WHEN/BEFORE) or in reported speech, when the "reporting verb" is in the Past
Tense and the "original" statement or idea was in the Past Simple, Present Perfect,
or Past Perfect.

FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE

[SUBJECT + HAD (+Adverb) + Past Participle[V3]...]

HAD NOT/HADN'T
EXAMPLES:
"She had just arrived when he came in."
"We had already eaten by the time they arrived."
"The opera had just begun when we arrived."
"I had never been in love until I met you!"
REPORTED SPEECH

[PAST TENSE + (THAT) + PAST PERFECT]

EXAMPLES:
"I thought (that) you'd already seen this."
"She said (that) she'd never met me before."
PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

USE:
To talk about continuous actions or states which continued up to a point in the
past.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + HAD/HAD NOT + BEEN + VERB + ING...](HADN'T)

EXAMPLES:
"I'd been waiting for an hour when the train pulled in."
"He hadn't been studying much until he failed his first exam."
"They'd been waiting for two hours when the bus finally arrived."

REPORTED SPEECH: STATEMENTS and QUESTIONS

USE:
To report or describe statements/ideas or questions without using the speaker's
exact words.

FORM:
The main clause contains the "reporting or question verb":

REPORTING VERBS: SAY, TELL, PROMISE, KNOW, BELIEVE, THINK, CLAIM, etc.

QUESTION VERBS: ASK, WONDER, WANT/WOULD LIKE TO KNOW

The noun clause contains the statement or question which is being reported.

For statements, we use the conjunction THAT, which is omitted in informal English.

[MAIN CLAUSE + (THAT) + NOUN CLAUSE]

EXAMPLES:
"Mr. Jones says (that) he'll call later."
"She said (that) she was leaving."
"I'm sorry, Mr. Jones says (that) he is too busy to talk to you."
"Everybody tells me (that) I should stop smoking."

For questions, we use IF (Yes/No questions) or WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHY, WHERE,
HOW, HOW MUCH, or HOW MANY (Wh-Questions).

Notice that the verb in the noun clause takes the normal affirmative or negative
form and not the question form.

We often use "double questions" with ASK, TELL, or KNOW to make a polite
request for information.

"May I ask what your name is?" is politer than "What's your name?"

[MAIN CLAUSE + IF or WH-WORD + NOUN CLAUSE]

EXAMPLES:
"He's asking you if you like chocolate."
"Please ask him who that boy is."
"I wonder why the President didn't go to Rome."
"Do you know how many windows were broken."
"Could you tell me where the station is?"

CONDITIONALS: UNREAL CONDITIONALS

USE:
To talk about unreal, impossible, or very improbable hypotheses in the present
and future.

The condition clause begins with IF/IF... NOT (or sometimes UNLESS).

The verb can take the Past of "BE", the Past Simple/Past Progressive (to talk about
a hypothetical fact), or the Modal COULD (to talk about a hypothetical ability).

NOTE: If we use the verb "BE" as the main verb, or in the past progressive form,
we use WERE instead of WAS.

The verb in the RESULT CLAUSE always has a Modal, usually WOULD/'D (to
express a certainty), MIGHT (to express a possibility), or COULD (to express
ability).

We can begin a sentence with either a condition or a result clause.

CONDITION CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE

"If I had a new car,
"If she weren't so tired,
"If he asked him nicely,
"If we could meet tomorrow,
"If I had enough money,
I'd be very happy."
she'd go to the party."
he might agree."
we could finish the project."
I wouldn't be working."

RESULT CLAUSE CONDITION CLAUSE

"I might pass English if I studied more."
"They'd tell me if they knew."
"He'd answer the phone if he were at home."
"We might go swimming if we weren't studying."
REPORTED SPEECH: TIME ASPECTS

When the reporting VERB (SAY, THINK, ASK, etc.) is in the Past Tense, the
"original" statement/idea or question may be modified.

VERB IN REPORTED NOUN CLAUSE

When the reporting verb in the main clause is in the Past Tense, the verb in the
noun clause is usually also in the Past Tense, even when the original statement or
idea was in the Present Tense.

Here are some examples to show the differences between direct speech/quotation
and indirect/reported speech.
DIRECT SPEECH / INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH

Present Tense / Past Tense

Ann: "I'm happy." (DIRECT SPEECH)

She told me she was happy. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Tom: "I like bananas." (DIRECT SPEECH)

He said he liked bananas. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

The Browns: "We're enjoying the concert." (DIRECT SPEECH)

They said they were enjoying the concert. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Ann: "Where do you live?" (DIRECT SPEECH)

She asked me where Ilived (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH).

Past Simple/Present-Past Perfect / Past Perfect

Frank: "She went home." (DIRECT SPEECH)

He said she had gone home. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Jane: "He's been arrested." (DIRECT SPEECH)

She said he had been arrested. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Mr. Selden: "Why had they invited me?" (DIRECT SPEECH)

He asked why they had invited him. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Modals / Past Modals

Tim: "I can't swim." (DIRECT SPEECH)

He said he couldn't swim. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Marsha: "I may be late." (DIRECT SPEECH)

She said she might be late. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)

Paul: "Will you try to do it?" (DIRECT SPEECH)

He asked if I would try to do it. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)
PRONOUNS

Pronouns must be changed to fit the reported statement.

EXAMPLES:
Tom: "I bought my girlfriend a pin for her birthday."
Tom said that he'd bought his girlfriend a pin for her birthday.

Alice: "Can I borrow your car?"

Alice asked me if she could borrow my car.
 TIME ADVERBIALS

When the reporting verb is in the Past Tense "time adverbials" may also change.
DIRECT - INDIRECT/REPORTED

NOW - THEN/AT THAT TIME

Ali: "I live in Paris now."
He said he lived in Paris then/at that time.

TODAY - THAT DAY/THE SAME DAY

The Workers: "We're going to finish the job today."
They told us they were going to finish the job that day/the same day.

TOMORROW - THE NEXT/FOLLOWING DAY

Toshio and Kumi: "We'll see you tomorrow."
They said they'd see us the next/following day.

NEXT WEEK, etc. - THE NEXT/FOLLOWING WEEK, etc.

Mr. Edison: "We can go to Rio next year."
He said they could go to Rio the following year.

YESTERDAY - THE DAY BEFORE

Ada: "I couldn't come yesterday."
She said she hadn't been able to come the day before.

LAST WEEK, etc. - THE WEEK, etc. BEFORE

Alex: "I sent you that letter last month."
He claimed he'd sent us the letter the month before.

THE/THIS/THESE - THAT/THOSE
Maria: "I can't believe these stories."
She told us she couldn't believe those stories.
Pedro: "I like that picture near this window."
He said he liked the picture near that window.

HERE - THERE
Paul: "I'm going to wait here."
He said he was going to wait there.

REPORTED SPEECH

USE:
To report what somebody says or thinks without using their exact words.

FORM:
The main clause contains the "reporting or question verb":

REPORTING VERBS: SAY, TELL, PROMISE, KNOW, BELIEVE, THINK, CLAIM, etc.
QUESTION VERBS: ASK, WONDER, WANT/WOULD LIKE TO KNOW

The noun clause contains the statement or question which is being reported.

EXAMPLES:
"I asked Smith why he'd robbed that bank."
"He told me that he needed money."
"He said he'd never had any luck."
"He wanted to know if I would help him."
STATEMENTS and QUESTIONS

For statements, we use the conjunction THAT, which is omitted in informal English.
[MAIN CLAUSE + (THAT) + NOUN CLAUSE]

EXAMPLES:
"Mr. Jones says (that) he'll call later."
"She said (that) she was leaving."

For questions, we use IF (Yes/No Questions) or WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHY,

WHERE, HOW, HOW MUCH, or HOW MANY (Wh-Questions). Notice that the verb in
the noun clause takes the normal affirmative or negative form and not the
question form.

We often use "double questions" with ASK, TELL, or KNOW to make a polite
request for information.

"May I ask what your name is?" is politer than "What's your name?"
[MAIN CLAUSE + IF or WH-WORD + NOUN CLAUSE]

EXAMPLES:
"He's asking you if you like chocolate."
"Please ask him who that boy is."
TIME ASPECTS

When the reporting verb (SAY, THINK, ASK, etc.) is in the Past Tense, the
"original" statement/idea or question may be modified.

VERB IN REPORTED NOUN CLAUSE

When the reporting verb in the main clause is in the Past Tense,the verb in the
noun clause is usually also in the Past Tense, even when theoriginal statement or
idea was in the Present Tense.

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH

Be Present Be Past
Present Simple Past Simple
Present Progressive Past Progressive
Past Simple Past Perfect
Present/Past Perfect Past Perfect
 Modals Past Modals

EXAMPLES:
Mary: "I want to go alone."
Mary said she wanted to go alone.

Tony: "I'll pay you when I see you."

Tony said he'd pay me when he saw me.

PRONOUNS:
Pronouns must also be changed to fit the reported statement.

EXAMPLES:
Tom:"I bought my girlfriend a pin for her birthday."
Tom said that he'd bought his girlfrienda pin for her birthday.

Alice: "Can I borrow your car?"

Alice asked me if she could borrow my car.
TIME ADVERBIALS

When the reporting verb is in the Past Tense, "time adverbials" may also change.
Here are some possible changes:

DIRECT INDIRECT/REPORTED
Now Then/At that time
Today That day/The same day
Tomorrow The next/following day
Next week, etc. The next/following week, etc.
Yesterday The day before
Last week, etc. The week before
This That
These Those
Here There

CAUSATIVES and PERMISSIVES: ACTIVE

USE:
To describe when one person allows another person to perform an action (LET) or
when one person obliges or persuades another person to perform an action (HAVE,
MAKE, or GET).

We generally use the following verbs in Active Causatives (in all forms including
Modals):

LET
HAVE
MAKE
GET
(Also PAY, BRIBE, PERSUADE, FORCE, OBLIGE, ASK, BEG, and EXPECT.)

FORM:

AFFIRMATIVE

[SUBJECT + LET/HAVE/MAKE + Object + VERB (base)...]

EXAMPLES:
"I'll have her call home. "
"You're making him get angry."
"She lets them stay up late."

[SUBJECT + GET + OBJECT + INFINITIVE...]

"We'll get him to finish it on time."

"She got him to wash the floor."
NEGATIVE and QUESTIONS

We can use LET, HAVE, MAKE, and GET in their normal negative and question
forms.

EXAMPLES:
"The boss didn't let me go home early."
"They're not having their house painted this year."
"He couldn't get them to clean their room."
"When will you let me use your computer?"
"Can't you get him to apologize?"
"Where are you getting him to take you tonight?"

CAUSATIVES and PERMISSIVES: PASSIVE

USE:
The PASSIVE form is used with Causatives as with other verbs to emphasize the
receiver of the action. We use it when we want something done to someone or
something.

FORM:
We generally use the following verbs in Passive Causatives:
WANT
WOULD LIKE/'D LIKE (More formal than WANT)
HAVE
GET (Less formal than HAVE)

The verb which expresses the action is in the past participle [V3] form.
If we want to mention the agent (the person who performs the action), we use the
preposition BY after the verb.

NOTE: WANT does not usually take perfect or progressive forms.

FORM:

AFFIRMATIVE

[SUBJECT + CAUSATIVE + Object + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]

EXAMPLES:
"I want the dishes washed."
"You are getting your car fixed by the best mechanic in town!"
"He would like his eggs cooked for 3 minutes."
"We are having a new house built next year."
NEGATIVE and QUESTIONS

We can use WANT, WOULD LIKE, HAVE, and GET in their normal negative and
question forms.

EXAMPLES:
"I don't want the house painted blue!"
"I won't have my hair cut today."
"She didn't get the computer fixed last week."
"How would you like your steak cooked, madam?"

MORE RELATIVE CLAUSES: WHOEVER, WHENEVER etc.

USE:
WHOEVER, WHENEVER, etc. may be used as either the subject or object in noun
clauses to describe or define a whole class of people, objects, places etc.
WHOEVER... is used with the same meaning as: ALL THE PEOPLE WHO... or
WHATEVER... means ALL THE THINGS THAT... or EVERYTHING THAT... WHOEVER
and WHATEVER can also mean ANYTHING THAT...

EXAMPLE:
"Anna is an obedient child. She does whatever her parents tell her to do."

FORM:
WHOEVER and WHATEVER can act as the subject or the object of the verb in the
relative clause.
As SUBJECT OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE:
[...WHOEVER/WHATEVER + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"Please tell whoever calls that I'll be back by noon."
"I hope to be back sooner, but I'll be back by noon, whatever happens."

Notice that WHOEVER and WHATEVER are always singular and take the normal 3rd
person singular "-s" with Simple Present Tense verbs.

As OBJECT OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE:

[...WHOEVER/WHATEVER + SUBJECT + VERB]

EXAMPLES:
"Tom's very friendly. He says hello to whoever he meets."
"Whatever Sally does she does well."

WHOEVER and WHATEVER can act as the subject or the object of the main clause.

As SUBJECT:
[WHOEVER/WHATEVER (+ SUBJECT) + VERB... + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"Whatever arrives by post comes to this office first."

As OBJECT:
[SUBJECT + VERB + WHOEVER/WHATEVER (+SUBJECT) + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"The police questioned whoever arrived atthe house."

"Some people believe whatever they readin the newspapers."

WHEREVER... means ALL THE PLACES WHERE... or EVERY PLACE WHERE... or ANY
PLACE WHERE... and WHENEVER means EVERY TIME WHEN... or ANY TIME
WHEN...

FORM:
Clauses containing WHEREVER or WHENEVER are normally used like adverbs, to
provide information about the verb in the main clause.

EXAMPLE:
"I will always think of you, wherever I am."

[MAIN CLAUSE + WHEREVER/WHENEVER + SUBJECT + VERB...]

EXAMPLES:
"You can find plenty of parking wherever you go in the city."
"I think of Julia whenever I hear that song."
 MORE RELATIVE CLAUSES: WHOSE and WHERE
WHOSE

USE:
WHOSE is a relative pronoun which shows possession. It can refer to people or
things.

FORM:
WHOSE is used together with nouns in the same way as HIS, HERS, etc.
[NOUN + WHOSE + SUBJECT + VERB...]

EXAMPLE:
"My Uncle Jack, whose house burned down last week, is living with us now."
WHERE

USE:
A relative clause which describes a place can begin with WHERE.

FORM:
[NOUN + WHERE + SUBJECT + VERB...]

EXAMPLE:
"This is a photograph of my first school, where I studied until I was twelve."
CONJUNCTIONS: IN SHORTANSWERS
I... SO, I... NOT
USE:
We can give SHORT ANSWERS to Yes/No questions by using SO instead of
repeating the clause from the question. These short answers can be affirmative or
negative.
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE

There are four common short affirmative answers:

I THINK SO. (neutral)
I GUESS SO. (usually neutral, but can express regret or displeasure)
I HOPE SO. (expresses hope)
I'M AFRAID SO. (expresses regret or displeasure)

EXAMPLES:
"Is that John over there?"
"I think so."
"Will you have to join the army after college?"
"I guess so. There doesn't seem to be any way out of it."
"Is it going to stop raining soon, Mom?"
"I hope so. Then you'll be able to play baseball."
"Was anybody killed in the accident?"
"I'm afraid so. The driver of the car is dead."
NEGATIVE

Each of the four expressions listed above has a negative equivalent:

I DON'T THINK SO. (the negative form I THINK NOT is more formal and not used
very much)
I GUESS NOT.
I HOPE NOT.
I'M AFRAID NOT.

EXAMPLES:
"Do cats like to swim?"
"I don't think so. They usually hate to go near water."
"It's so late now. You're not going to the movies, are you?"
"I guess not. I'd probably fall asleep."
"Will your parents be angry that you stayed out late?"
"I hope not. If they are, I'll be stuck at home for a month!"
"Did I get a high mark on the exam?"
"I'm afraid not. You almost failed."
NOTE: There are also short replies to positive or negative statements which
express agreement (THE SAME IS TRUE FOR ME). They may refer to the speaker
or to another subject (THE SAME IS TRUE FOR FRED, etc.).

EXAMPLES:
"Mary loves the rain."
"Isn't that odd. The same is true for Tom. He loves to go out in the rain."
...TOO., ...SO.

USE:
Instead of repeating the verb in the original statement, we use the appropriate
Auxiliary or Modal, as follows, together with the adverbs SO or TOO.

FORM:

Statement Short Answer

SIMPLE PRESENT DO/DOES

SIMPLE PAST DID
PRESENT PERFECT HAVE/HAS
PAST PERFECT HAD
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE AM/IS/ARE
PAST PROGRESSIVE WAS/WERE
WILL/WOULD WILL/WOULD
CAN/COULD CAN/COULD
MUST/SHOULD MUST/SHOULD
AFFIRMATIVE

FORM:
[SUBJECT + AUXILIARY/MODAL + TOO]
or
[SO + AUXILIARY/MODAL + SUBJECT]

EXAMPLES:
"I live in New York."
"I do, too."OR: "So do I."
"I went home at 3 o'clock."
"Mike did, too."OR: "So did Mike."
"Pat has had the flu."
"Ted has, too."OR: "So has Ted."
"James can sing well."
"His wife can, too."OR: "So can his wife."
"I must find a taxi."
"We must, too."OR: "So must we."
NEGATIVE

FORM:
[SUBJECT + AUXILIARY/MODAL + NOT + EITHER]
or
[NOR/NEITHER + AUXILIARY/MODAL + SUBJECT]

EXAMPLES:
"I don't like fish."
"I don't, either."OR: "Neither do I."
"Joe doesn't dance."
"Sam doesn't, either."OR: "Neither does Sam."
"They won't help him."
"We won't, either."OR: "Nor will we."
"You shouldn't wait."
"You shouldn't, either."OR: "Neither should you."

CONJUNCTIONS

USE:
To connect two clauses of equal importance.

EXAMPLE:
"At Paradise Travel we do everything for you! You neither have to organize your
journey, nor worry about accommodations. We both buy your tickets and book
your hotel. We guarantee that you will not onlyenjoy your holiday but
also remember it for the rest of your life!"

Conjunctions are also used to make short "echo" answers to statements and
Yes/No questions.

EXAMPLES:
"I remember that holiday very well."
"So do I. It was terrible."
"But I can't remember the name of our hotel."
"I can't either, and I don't want to remember it."
"Well, do you think we'll be luckier this year?"
"I hope so!"