UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION

ELECTRONICS

Definition of electronics: Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the study of flow
and control of electrons (electricity) and the study of their behavior and effects in vacuums,
gases, and semiconductors, and with devices using such electrons. This control of electrons is
accomplished by devices that resist, carry, select, steer, switch, store, manipulate, and exploit
the electron.

Some of the basic electrical units and definitions are mentioned below:

Passive: Capable of operating without an external power source. Typical passive components
are resistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes (although the latter are a special case).

Active: Requiring a source of power to operate. Includes transistors (all types), integrated
circuits (all types), TRIACs, SCRs, LEDs, etc.

DC: Direct Current. The electrons flow in one direction only. Current flow is from negative to
positive, although it is often more convenient to think of it as from positive to negative. This is
sometimes referred to as "conventional" current as opposed to electron flow.

AC: Alternating Current. The electrons flow in both directions in a cyclic manner - first one way,
then the other. The rate of change of direction determines the frequency, measured in Hertz
(cycles per second).

Frequency: Unit is Hertz, Symbol is Hz, old symbol was cps (cycles per second). A complete
cycle is completed when the AC signal has gone from zero volts to one extreme, back through
zero volts to the opposite extreme, and returned to zero. The accepted audio range is from 20Hz
to 20,000Hz. The number of times the signal completes a complete cycle in one second is the
frequency.

Voltage: Unit is Volts, Symbol is V or U, old symbol was E . Voltage is the "pressure" of
electricity, or "electromotive force" (hence the old term E). A 9V battery has a voltage of 9V DC,
and may be positive or negative depending on the terminal that is used as the reference. The
mains has a voltage of 220, 240 or 110V depending where you live - this is AC, and alternates
between positive and negative values. Voltage is also commonly measured in millivolts (mV),
and 1,000 mV is 1V. Microvolts (uV) and nanovolts (nV) are also used.

Current: Unit is Amperes (Amps), Symbol is I . Current is the flow of electricity (electrons). No
current flows between the terminals of a battery or other voltage supply unless a load is
connected. The magnitude of the current is determined by the available voltage, and the
resistance (or impedance) of the load and the power source. Current can be AC or DC, positive
or negative, depending upon the reference. For electronics, current may also be measured in
mA (milliamps) - 1,000 mA is 1A. Nanoamps (nA) are also used in some cases.

Resistance: Unit is Ohms, Symbol is R or Ω . Resistance is a measure of how easily (or with
what difficulty) electrons will flow through the device. Copper wire has a very low resistance, so
a small voltage will allow a large current to flow. Likewise, the plastic insulation has a very high
resistance, and prevents current from flowing from one wire to those adjacent. Resistors have a
defined resistance, so the current can be calculated for any voltage. Resistance in passive
devices is always positive (i.e. > 0)

Application of Electronics
Electronics has made tremendous advancement during last few decades and our day to
day life involves the use of electronic devices. Electronics has played a major role in
every sphere of our life; this can be proved with the following application o f electronics:
Entertainment and Communication
Availability of economical and fast means of communication paves the way for progress
of a country. Few decades ago, the main application of electronics was in the field of
telephony and telegraphy. Now, with the aid of radio waves we can transmit any message
from one place to another, with out the use of wires.

Radio and TV broadcasting offers a means of both entertainment as well as

communication. Today, Electronics gadgets are widely used for entertainment.

Defence Applications
Defence applications are completely controlled by electronic circuits. RADAR that is
Radio Detection and Ranging is the most important development in electronics field. With
the help of radar it is possible to detect and find the exac t location of enemy aircraft.
Radar and anti craft guns can be linked by an automatic control system to make a
complete unit.

Industrial Application
Electronics circuits are widely being used in industrial applications such as control of
thickness, quality, weight and moisture content of a material. Electronic amplifier circuits
are used to amplify signals and thus control the operations of automatic door openers,
power systems and safety devices. Electronically controlled systems are used for heating
and welding in the industry. The most important industrial application is that the power
stations which generate thousands of megawatts of electricity are controlled by tiny
electronic devices and circuits.

Medical Services
Electronics systems are being used by Doctors and scientists in the diagnosis and
treatment of various diseases. X-rays, ECG, Short eave diathermy units and
oscillographs are some instruments which have been used so far in medical science. The
use of electronics in medical science has grown so extremely and is useful in saving the
life of mankind from a lot of sufferings.

Instrumentation - Application of Electronics

Electronics instruments such as cathode-ray oscilloscopes, frequency counters, signal
generators, strain gauges are of great help in for precise measurement of various
quantities. Without these electronic instruments no research laboratory is complete.

An Introduction to Electronic Components

All electronic circuits contain few basic components. That are three passive components
and two active components. An Integrated circuit may comprise of thousands of
transistors, few capacitors on a small chip.

Types of Electronic Components:

Passive Components
1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
3. Inductors

Active Components
1. Tube devices
2. Semiconductor devices

What are Passive Components?

Resistors, capacitors and inductors are called as passive components. These electronics
components are called passive because they by themselves are not capable of amplifying
or processing an electrical circuit. However, passive components are as important as
active components in any electronic circuit.

Resistors: The component that opposes the flow of current is called a resistor. This
opposing force is called the resistance of the material. It is measured in oh ms.
Capacitors: Capacitor is a component that is used to store electrical energy and release
them whenever desired. It is measured in farads. Capacitors like resistors can either be
fixed or variable. Some common capacitors are mica, ceramic, paper and air gang
capacitors.
Inductor:
The electronic component which produces inductance is called an inductor. The
inductance is measured in henrys (H). All inductors, like resistors and capacitors are
listed as fixed and variable.

What are Active Components?

Active components are used in electronic circuits. They are classified in two categories:
Tube devices and semiconductor devices. Due to many advantages of semiconductor
devices, they are replacing tube devices in many electronic applications.

Electronics components and electronic applications are penetrated everywhere in our day
to day life. Electronics deals in the micro and milli range of voltage, current and power
and also control kilo and mega volts, amperes and watts. Today, Electronics is an
established branch of engineering.
A circuit protection device automatically prevents dangerous or excess amounts of temperature,
excessive amounts of current or a short circuit in an electrical conductor. It limits the amount of
energy that is liberated in the event of electrical failure.
Types of Circuit Protection Devices
There are several different kinds of circuit protection devices at Future Electronics. We stock
many of the most common types categorized by several parameters including Rated Voltage,
Maximum Clamping Voltage, Capacitance, Peak Output Current, Maximum RMS Voltage, On-
State Voltage, Off-State Voltage, On-State Current, Off-State Current, Maximum Breakdown
Voltage, Minimum Breakdown Voltage, Packaging Type and many other parameters specific to
the type of circuit protection device. Our parametric filters will allow you to refine your search
results according to the required specifications.
Circuit Protection Devices from Future Electronics
Future Electronics has a wide range of circuit protection devices from several manufacturers.
Once you decide if you need Circuit Breakers, Electronic Fuses, ESD Protection & Diode Arrays,
Fuse Holders, Clips & Blocks, Gas Discharge Tubes, Power Thyristors, Protection Thyristors,
Resettable Fuses, TVS Diodes or MOV/MLV Varistors, you will be able to choose from their
technical attributes and your search results will be narrowed to match your specific circuit
protection device application needs.
We deal with several manufacturers such as Cooper Bussmann, Littelfuse, ON Semiconductor,
Raychem, STMicroelectronics or Vishay, among others. You can easily refine your circuit
protection device product search results by clicking your preferred circuit protection device brand
from the list of manufacturers below.
Electrical Protective Device

A device used to protect equipment,machinery,components and devices,in electrical and

electronic circuit,against short circuit,over current and earth fault,is called as protective devices.
Necessity of Protective Devices
Protective devices are necessary to protect electrical appliance or equipment against
a) Short Circuit
b) Abnormal variations in the supply voltage
c) Overloading of equipment
d) To protect operator against accidental contact with the faulty equipment, falling which the
operator may get a severe shock.
Types of Protective Device
Different types of the protective device that are commonly used in electrical and electronic circuit
1. Fuse Wire or Fuse
2. MCB – Miniature circuit breaker
3. ELCB – Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
4. ELCB & MCB
5. Earthing or Grounding
1). Fuse
Protective device - fuse
 Fuse generally means a fuse wire, placed in a fuse holder. It is a safety device, which
protects electrical and electronic circuit against over loads, short circuit and earth faults.
 The fuse link or fuse wire is made of low resistivity material and low melting point.
 Operation of a Fuse –
o Fuse is a short length of wire designated to melt and separate in case of
excessive current.
o The fuse is connected in the phase of the supply.
o It is always connected in series with the circuit / components that need to be
protected.
o When the current drawn by the circuit exceeds the rated current of the fuse wire,
the fuse wire melts and breaks. This disconnects the supply from the circuit and
thus protects the circuit and the components in the circuit.
Rating of Fuse Wire –
 The maximum current that a fuse can carry, without being burnt is called the rating of the
fuse wire. It is expressed in Amperes.
 Current rating of the fuse, selected for the circuit, should be equal to the maximum
current rating of the machinery, appliance or components connected in the circuit.
 Fuse Carrier and Fuse Channel – Fuse carrier and channel are made of porcelain or
Bakelite material. They are used for all domestic, commercial and industrial application
up to 100 A capacity.

i) Cartridge Fuse
 This fuse unit is in the form of a cartridge.
 Its normally manufactured in the range of 2 A to 100 A.
 Whenever the fuse blows off, fuse with carrier is replaced by a new one.
 As it is sealed, it cannot be rewired.
 Cartridge fuses are used to protect motors and branch circuit where higher
amps or volt ratings are required. They are available in wide variety of sizes,
amp and volt ratings up to 600 Vac and 600 amps.
 Cartridge fuses are used extensively in commercial, industrial and agricultural
applications as well as residential fuse panels, air conditioning, pumps,
appliances and other equipment.
Cartridge Fuses are available in two types-
 General purpose fuses have no time delay and protect fuse panel,
appliances and branch circuits
 Heavy duty fuses have a time delay feature.

ii) HRC Fuse

 HRC Fuse – High Rupture Capacity fuse unit. It is normally designed for high current.
When fuse is blown off, the entire unit is to be replaced by a new one. It cannot be
rewired as it is a sealed one.
 Characteristics of a good fuse wire.
 A good fuse wire should possess the following characteristics
a) Low resistivity
 b) Low melting point
c) Low conductivity of the metal vapours formed, when the fuse is blown off.
Advantages of HRC Fuse
1. They require maintenance
2. They are reliable
3. They operate at high speed.
4. They have consistent performance
5. They clear both low and high fault current with equal efficiency.

2). MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER

 It is safety device which work magneto thermic release principle. It is connected in the
phase, between the supply and load.
 It is manufactured in standard rating of 6A to 40 A. We can see it on the meter board of
each and every house.
 When the current drawn by load exceeds the rated value it acts and trips the circuit, the
protecting the apparatus, operator and appliance.
Advantages of MCB
1. They act and open the circuit in less than 5 milli seconds.
2. Automatic switch off under overload and short circuit condition
3. No fuse to replace or rewire.It needs no repairs.
4. Supply is restored by resetting it again.

3). EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER

 This is a domestic safety device, which trips the circuit when there is a small leakage to
earth or body of the appliance. Thus it protects the operator from shocks and accidents.
This is connected in the circuit of the appliance to be protected.
 There are two types of ELCB
1. Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
2. Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

4) .MCB & ELCB

 It is the combination of both MCB and ELCB placed in one unit. It acts on both the
occasion of earth leakage and overload and protect the circuit, appliance and the
operator.

5). EARTHING OR GROUNDING

 Connecting the metal body of an electrical appliance, machinery or an electrical
installation to earth, through a low resistance wire, is called Earthing or Grounding.
Necessity of Earthing
 Earthing is necessary for all domestic, commercial and industrial installation to safeguard
the operator, tall buildings and machinery against lightning.
 Metal body of all the electrical appliances, equipment and machinery, the earth points of
all three-pin sockets and the body of the energy meter are connected to earth through a
thick G.I. wire.
  Whenever a live wire comes in contact with the body of the appliance, it is directly
connected to earth the grounding wire and hence the body voltage comes to zero.
Therefore the operator does not get any shock, when he comes in contact with body of
the appliance.
 The high voltage included during lightning is discharged to earth through grounding wire
and thereby building and machinery are protected.
Applications for Circuit Protection Devices:
There are many applications that use circuit protection devices.
 Computers and laptops
 Cell phones
 Game systems
 Computer peripherals
 Portable electronics
 DVD players
 Battery packs
 Set top boxes
 Medical equipment
 Modems
 Wireless communication systems
 ATM machines
 Network systems

ELECTRONIC SOURCE

 A Source is a device which converts mechanical, chemical, thermal or some other form
of energy into electrical energy. In other words, the source is an active network element
meant for generating electrical energy.

 The various types of sources available in the electrical network are voltage source and
current sources. A voltage source has a forcing function of emf whereas the current
source has a forcing function of current.

1. Voltage Source
  A voltage source is a two-terminal device whose voltage at any instant of time is
constant and is independent of the current drawn from it. Such a voltage source is called
an Ideal Voltage Source and have zero internal resistance. Practically an ideal voltage
source cannot be obtained.

 Sources having some amount of internal resistances are known as Practical Voltage
Source, due to this internal resistance; voltage drop takes place, and it causes the
terminal voltage to reduce. The smaller is the internal resistance (r) of a voltage source,
the more closely it is to an Ideal Source. The symbolic representation of the ideal and
practical voltage source is shown below.

The figure A shown below shows the circuit diagram and characteristics of an ideal voltage
source.

The figure B shown below gives the circuit diagram and characteristics of Practical Voltage
Source
 The example of voltage sources is batteries and alternators.

2. Current Source
 The current sources are further categorised as Ideal and Practical current source.
 An Ideal current source is a two-terminal circuit element which supplies the same
current to any load resistance connected across its terminals. It is important to keep in
mind that the current supplied by the current source is independent of the voltage of
source terminals. It has infinite resistance.
 A practical current source is represented as an ideal current source connected with the
resistance in parallel. The symbolic representation is shown below

Figure C shown below, show its characteristics.

 Figure D shown below shows the characteristics of Practical Current Source.

The example of current sources is photoelectric cells, collector currents of transistors.

UNIT-II

SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

 Semiconductor is a material whose conductivity lies in-between that of the conductors

and the insulators. Semiconductors which are chemically pure, meaning free of
impurities, are called Intrinsic Semiconductors or Un-doped Semiconductor or i-type
Semiconductor.
 The most common intrinsic semiconductors are Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge), which
belong to Group IV of the periodic table. The atomic numbers of Si and Ge are 14 and
32, which yields their electronic configuration as 1s2 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p2 and 1s2 2s2 2p6
3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p2, respectively.
 This indicates that both Si and Ge have four electrons each in their outer-most i.e.
valence shell (indicated by red colour). These electrons are called valence electrons and
are responsible for the conduction- properties of the semiconductors.
 Crystal lattice of Silicon (it is the same even for Germanium) in two-dimension is as
shown in Figure 1. Here it is seen that each valence electron of a Si atom pairs with the
valence electron of the adjacent Si atom to form covalent bond.
 After pairing, the intrinsic semi-conductor will be deprived of free charge carriers which
are nothing but the valence electrons. Hence, at 0K the valence band will be full of
electrons while the conduction band will be empty (Figure 2a). At this stage, no electron
in the valence band would gain enough energy to cross the forbidden energy gap of the
semiconductor material. Thus the intrinsic semiconductors act as insulators at 0K.
 However at room temperature, the thermal energy may cause a few of the covalent
bonds to break, thus generating the free electrons as shown by Figure 3a. The electrons
thus generated get excited and move into the conduction band from the valence band,
overcoming the energy barrier (Figure 2b). During this process, each electron leaves
behind a hole in the valence band.
 The electrons and holes created in this way are called intrinsic charge carriers and are
responsible for the conductive properties exhibited by the intrinsic semiconductor
material. Although the intrinsic semiconductors are capable of conducting at room
temperature, it is to be noted that the conductivity so exhibited is low as there are only a
few charge carriers. But as the temperature increases, more and more covalent bonds
break which results in more and more number of free electrons. This in turn results in the
movement of greater number of electrons into the conduction band from the valence
band.
 As the population of the electrons in the conduction band increases, the conductivity of
the intrinsic semiconductor also increases. However, the number of electrons (ni) in the
intrinsic semiconductor remains always equal to the number of holes in it (pi).
 On applying an electric field to such an intrinsic semiconductor, the electron-hole pairs
can be made to drift under its influence. In this case, the electrons move in the direction
opposite to that of the applied field while the holes move in the direction of the electric
field as shown by Figure 3b. This means that the direction along which the electrons and
the holes move are mutually opposite. This is because, as an electron of a
particular atom moves towards say, left, by leaving a hole in its place, the electron from
the neighbouring atom occupies its place by recombining with that hole.
 However while doing so, it would have left one more hole in its place. This can be viewed
as the movement of the holes (towards right side in this case) in the semiconductor
material. These two movements, although opposite in direction, result in the total flow
of current through the semiconductor.

Mathematically the charge carrier densities in intrinsic semiconductors are given by

Here,

Nc is the effective densities of states in the conduction band.

Nv is the effective densities of states in the valence band.

k = 1.38 × 10-23 JK-1 is the Boltzmann constant. T is the temperature.

EF is the Fermi energy.

Ev indicates the level of valence band.

Ec indicates the level of conduction band.

h = 6.624×10-34 Js is the Planck constant.

mh is the effective mass of a hole.

me is the effective mass of an electron.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

 Doping is a process that is used to turn a pure, intrinsic semiconductor into an extrinsic
semiconductor. During the doping process, atoms that are impure are introduced into a pure
intrinsic semiconductor.
 Impurity atoms can act as either donors or acceptors when placed into an intrinsic
semiconductor. This process changes the hole and electron concentrations in a
semiconductor. A donor atom has more valence electrons than the atoms that they are used
to replace in the lattice structure of an intrinsic semiconductor.
 A donor impurity “donates” its extra electrons from its valence to the semiconductor’s
conduction band. This action causes the intrinsic semiconductor to have an extra amount of
electrons. Having an extra number of electrons changes the electron carrier concentration
and transforms it into an N-type semiconductor. An acceptor impurity atom has less valence
electrons than the atoms that they will replace in the lattice structure of the intrinsic
semiconductor.
 The acceptor “accepts” electrons from the valence band. But this process provides extra
holes in the intrinsic semiconductor. These extra holes increase the hole carriers and it is
transformed into a P-type semiconductor. Dopant atoms and semiconductors are both
defined based on their position in the periodic table. The column in the periodic table is used
to identify how many electrons an atom has in its valence and whether the dopant atoms
are acting as a donor or an acceptor.

N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductors

 When an extrinsic semiconductor has a larger concentration of electrons than holes, it is

called an N-type semiconductor. It is labeled as an “N” type since it has a negative charge. In
 an N-type semiconductor, the electrons become the majority carriers while the holes remain
the minority carriers.
 To create an N-type semiconductor an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with donor
impurities. Phosphorus is one of the most common doping elements used. In an N-type
semiconductor the Fermi energy level is greater than an intrinsic semiconductor and it is
situated nearer to the conduction band than the valence band.

P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductors

 In one way, the P-type semiconductor is the opposite of an N-type since it has a larger hole
concentration than electrons. P-type is referring to the hole’s positive charge. In a P-type
semiconductor, the hole becomes the majority carrier while the electrons remain the
minority carriers.
 A very common dopant used to form common P-type semiconductors is Boron. In a P-type
semiconductor, the Fermi energy level is below intrinsic Fermi energy levels. This means that
it lies closer to the valance band than to the conduction band.

What are extrinsic semiconductors used for?

 Many commonly used electrical devices have extrinsic semiconductors as one of the
components. There are many devices that only allow the current to travel in a single
direction and these use a diode.
 A diode uses both a p-type and an n-type semiconductor and these are placed in conjunction
with each other. In most instances, diodes are doped germanium or silicon. Transistors also
use extrinsic semiconductors since these are devices which allow switches and switching.
 One type of transistor is the bipolar junction transistor. The two most common bipolar
junction transistors are a NPN type and a PNP type. NPN transistors have two layers of N-
type semiconductors with a P-type sandwiched in between them. The PNP transistor has
two layers of P-type semiconductors with an N-type sandwiched between.
 Another kind of transistor that uses an extrinsic semiconductor is the Field-effect transistor.
These are unipolar and are not considered to be either an N-channel or P-channel. These
types of transistors have two classifications: insulated gate or junction gate.

Hall Effect in n-type semiconductor

If the magnetic field is applied to an n-type semiconductor, both free electrons and holes are pushed
down towards the bottom surface of the n-type semiconductor. Since the holes are negligible in n-
type semiconductor, so free electrons are mostly accumulated at the bottom surface of the n-type
semiconductor.
This produces a negative charge on the bottom surface with an equal amount of positive charge on
the upper surface. So in n-type semiconductor, the bottom surface is negatively charged and the
upper surface is positively charged.

As a result, the potential difference is developed between the upper and bottom surface of the n-
type semiconductor. In the n-type semiconductor, the electric field is primarily produced due to the
negatively charged free electrons. So the hall voltage produced in the n-type semiconductor is
negative.

Hall Effect in p-type semiconductor

If the magnetic field is applied to a p-type semiconductor, the majority carriers (holes) and the
minority carriers (free electrons) are pushed down towards the bottom surface of the p-type
semiconductor. In the p-type semiconductor, free electrons are negligible. So holes are mostly
accumulated at the bottom surface of the p-type semiconductor.

So in the p-type semiconductor, the bottom surface is positively charged and the upper surface is
negatively charged.
As a result, the potential difference is developed between the upper and bottom surface of the p-
type semiconductor. In the p-type semiconductor, the electric field is primarily produced due to the
positively charged holes. So the hall voltage produced in the p-type semiconductor is positive. This
leads to the fact that the produced electric field is having a direction in the positive y-direction.
 UNIT-III

SEMICONDUCTORS DIODES

P-N JUNCTION DIODE

A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is fused to an n-type semiconductor

creating a potential barrier voltage across the diode junction.

The effect described in the previous tutorial is achieved without any external voltage being applied
to the actual PN junction resulting in the junction being in a state of equilibrium.

However, if we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both the N-type and the P-type
materials and then connect them to a battery source, an additional energy source now exists to
overcome the potential barrier.

The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being able to cross the
depletion region from one side to the other. The behaviour of the PN junction with regards to the
potential barrier’s width produces an asymmetrical conducting two terminal device, better known as
the PN Junction Diode.

A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has the
characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode does
not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an exponential current-
voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we cannot described its operation by simply using an
equation such as Ohm’s law.

If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it can
supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the junction as the width
of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.

By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from the
junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect of increasing or
decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking current flow through
the diode.

Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and narrows
with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the differences in the
electrical properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking place.
One of the results produces rectification as seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage)
characteristics. Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias
voltage is altered as shown below.
But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device we need to
firstly bias the junction, ie connect a voltage potential across it. On the voltage axis above, “Reverse
Bias” refers to an external voltage potential which increases the potential barrier. An external
voltage which decreases the potential barrier is said to act in the “Forward Bias” direction.

There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the standard Junction
Diode and these are:

 1. Zero Bias– No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.

 2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material
and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.

 3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material
and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect
of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.

1. Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to the PN
junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority carriers) in the
P-type material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move across the junction
against this barrier potential. This is known as the “Forward Current” and is referenced as IF

Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation favourable
and move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the “Reverse Current” and is
referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction is known
as diffusion, as shown below.

Zero Biased PN Junction Diode: -

Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type
material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material.

The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode
and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the
junction towards the negative electrode.

The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and
presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is
created thus preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current
flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage
current does flow through the junction which can be measured in micro-amperes, ( μA ).

One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high
enough value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect
around the junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of
maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static
characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Forward Biased PN Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-type
material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes
greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for
germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow.

This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the
energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the
junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to
this voltage point, called the “knee” on the static curves and then a high current flow through the
diode with little increase in the external voltage as shown below.

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction
thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes
place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.

Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large
currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential
difference across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at
approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.

Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a short
circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its
maximum forward current specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of
heat than it was designed for resulting in a very quick failure of the device.

DIODE IV Characteristics

The forward and reverse current voltage (IV) characteristics of a diode are generally compared on a
single characteristic curve. The figure depicted under the section Forward Characteristic shows that
Forward Voltage and Reverse Voltage are usually plotted on the horizontal line of the graph.

Forward and reverse current values are shown on the vertical axis of the graph. Forward Voltage
represented to the right and Reverse Voltage to the left. The point of beginning or zero value is at
the center of the graph. Forward Current lengthens above the horizontal axis with Reverse Current
extending downward.

The combined Forward Voltage and Forward Current values are located in the upper right part of the
graph and Reverse Voltage and Reverse Current in the lower left corner. Different scales are
normally used to display forward and reverse values.

Diode Specifications

Like any other selection, selection of a diode for a specific application must be considered.
Manufacturer generally provides this type of information. Specifications like maximum voltage and
current ratings, usual operating conditions, mechanical facts, lead identification, mounting
procedures, etc.

Following are some of the important specifications −

 Maximum forward current (IFM) −The absolute maximum repetitive forward current that
can pass through a diode.
  Maximum reverse voltage (VRM) −The absolute maximum or peak reverse bias voltage that
can be applied to a diode.

 Reverse breakdown voltage (VBR) −The minimum steady-state reverse voltage at which
breakdown will occur.

 Maximum forward surge current (IFM-surge) −The maximum current that can be tolerated
for a short interval of time. This current value is much greater than IFM.

 Maximum reverse current (IR) −The absolute maximum reverse current that can be
tolerated at device operating temperature.

 Forward voltage (VF) − Maximum forward voltage drop for a given forward current at device
operating temperature.

 Power dissipation (PD) −The maximum power that the device can safely absorb on a
continuous basis in free air at 25° C.

 Reverse recovery time (Trr) −The maximum time that it takes the device to switch from on
to off stat.

Important Terms

 Breakdown Voltage − It is the minimum reverse bias voltage at which PN junction breaks
down with sudden rise in reverse current.

 Knee Voltage − It is the forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts to
increase rapidly.

 Peak Inverse Voltage − It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the PN
junction, without damaging it.

 Maximum Forward Rating − It is the highest instantaneous forward current that a PN

junction can pass, without damaging it.

 Maximum Power Rating − It is the maximum power that can be dissipated from the
junction, without damaging the junction.

CALCULATION OF RESISTANCE

In a reverse biased diode, only a small amount of electric current flows. The minority carriers present
in the diode carry this electric current. Thus, reverse biased diode offer large resistance to the
electric current. This resistance is called reverse resistance.

The two types of resistance takes place in the p-n junction diode are:

 Forward resistance

 Reverse resistance

1. Forward resistance

Forward resistance is a resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when it is forward biased.

In a forward biased p-n junction diode, two type of resistance takes place based on the voltage
applied.

The two types of resistance takes place in forward biased diode are

 Static resistance or DC resistance

 Dynamic resistance or AC resistance

i. Static resistance or DC resistance

When forward biased voltage is applied to a diode that is connected to a DC circuit, a DC or direct
current flows through the diode. Direct current or electric current is nothing but the flow of charge
carriers (free electrons or holes) through a conductor. In DC circuit, the charge carriers flow steadily
in single direction or forward direction.

The resistance offered by a p-n junction diode when it is connected to a DC circuit is called static
resistance.

Static resistance is also defined as the ratio of DC voltage applied across diode to the DC current or
direct current flowing through the diode.

The resistance offered by the p-n junction diode under forward biased condition is denoted as Rf.

ii. Dynamic resistance or AC resistance

The dynamic resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when AC voltage is
applied.

When forward biased voltage is applied to a diode that is connected to AC circuit, an AC or

alternating current flows though the diode.

In AC circuit, charge carriers or electric current does not flow in single direction. It flows in both
forward and reverse direction.

Dynamic resistance is also defined as the ratio of change in voltage to the change in current. It is
denoted as rf.

2. Reverse resistance

Reverse resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when it is reverse biased.

When reverse biased voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the width of depletion region
increases. This depletion region acts as barrier to the electric current. Hence, a large amount of
electric current is blocked by the depletion region. Thus, reverse biased diode offer large resistance
to the electric current.

The resistance offered by the reverse biased p-n junction diode is very large compared to the
forward biased diode. The reverse resistance is in the range of mega ohms (MΩ).

RECTIFIER

A rectifier is a circuit that is used for converting AC supply into unidirectional DC supply. This process
of converting alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) is also called as rectification. These
bridge rectifiers are available in different packages as modules ranging from few amperes to several
hundred amperes. Mostly in bridge rectifier circuits, semiconductor diode is used for converting AC
since it allows the current flow in one direction only (Unidirectional device).
Bridge rectifier selection depends on load requirements and apart from this some more
consideration are component ratings, breakdown voltage, forward current rating, transient current
rating, temperature ranges, mounting requirements, etc. We can connect the diodes in different
configurations for obtaining different types of rectifiers.

Half Wave Rectification

An alternating voltage of Time period T is called input voltage is applied to a diode D which is
connected in series with a load resistance R. In this method only one half of alternating current cycle
is converted into direct current.

During the positive half cycle of the input alternating voltage during the time interval 0 → T/2, the
diode D is forward biased, so it offers a very low resistance and current flows through R. The flow of
current through R causes a potential drop across it which varies is accordance with the alternating
input.

During the negative half cycle of the input alternating voltage during the time interval T/2 → T, the
diode D is reverse biased, so it offers a very high resistance and practically no current flows through
R and potential drop across R is almost zero. The same events repeat during the next cycle and so
on. The current through R flows in only one direction which means it is a direct current. However
this current flows in pulses. The voltage which appears across load resistance R is known as output
voltage.

Full Wave Rectification

The circuit consists of two diodes and a center tap transformer. When the center tap is grounded the
voltage at opposite ends of the secondary coil are 180° out of phase with each other. During positive
half cycle at point 1, there is negative half cycle at point 2. Therefore diode D1 is forward biased and
allows the current to flow through the junction while diode D2 is reverse biased and acts like an
open circuit. As a result, positive half cycle appears across the output. During the negative half cycle
at point 1, there is positive half cycle at point 2. Therefore diode D1 is reverse biased and stop
conducting, while diode D2 is forward biased and conducts, hence we get another positive half cycle
across the output, through D2. Thus during these half of A.C. input, the current flows in the same
direction through the load resistance. The output voltage across the load resistance is rippled DC
containing both the half cycles. To get smooth DC a suitable capacitor is connected in parallel with
the resistance R L.
Full Wave Bridge Rectification

We have seen that in a half wave rectification, we get the output by only one one half of the
alternating output voltage. The other half cycle is blocked and we get no output. However both
halves of the output voltage cycle can be utilized using full wave rectification. Its circuit consists of
four diodes connected in such a way to form a bridge.

During the positive half cycle i.e., during the time 0 → T/2, the Terminal A of the bridge circuit is
positive with respect to terminal B. Now diodes D1 and D3 becomes forward biased and conduct.The
current flows through the circuit shown by arrow.

During the negative half cycle i.e., during the time interval T/2 → T, the terminal A of the bridge
circuit is negative and the terminal B is positive. Now diodes D2 and D4 become forward biased and
conduct. The current flows through the circuit shown by arrows. If we compare fig (a) and (b), it can
be observed that direction of current flow through the load resistance R is same in both halves of
the input cycle. Thus both halves of the alternating input voltage send a unidirectional current
through the load resistance. The input and output voltages are shown in above figure. The output
voltage is not smooth, it has pulses. The out put can be made smooth by using a circuit known as
filter.

The output of the Wave rectifier contains a DC components and AC components. These undesirable
ac components are called ripples.

Ripple factor: Ripple factor is a measure of effectiveness of a rectifier circuit. It is defined as the ratio
of RMS value of the AC component (ripple component) Irrms in the output waveform to the DC
component VDC in the output waveform.

r= Irrms/ IDC
or RippleFactor(r)=(rmsvalueofACcomponents)/(rmsvalueofDCcomponents)

We can measure the value of RMS component of overall output waveform from which we can
estimate the value of Irrms.
Characteristic of Half Wave Rectifier

1. DC current

The DC current is given by,

Where,
Imax = maximum DC load current

2. Output DC voltage (VDC)

The output DC voltage (VDC) is the voltage appeared at the load resistor (RL). This voltage is obtained
by multiplying the output DC current with load resistance RL.

It can be mathematically written as,

VDC = IDC RL

The output DC voltage is given by,

Where, VSmax = Maximum secondary voltage

3. Rectifier efficiency

Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of output DC power to the input AC power.
The rectifier efficiency of a half wave rectifier is 40.6%

4. Root mean square (RMS) value of load current IRMS

The root mean square (RMS) value of load current in a half wave rectifier is

5. Root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage VRMS

The root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage in a half wave rectifier is

Characteristics of full wave rectifier

1. DC output current

At the output load resistor RL, both the diode D1 and diode D2 currents flow in the same direction. So
the output current is the sum of D1 and D2 currents.

The current produced by D1 is Imax / π and the current produced by D2 is Imax / π.

So the output current IDC = 2Imax / π

Where,
Imax = maximum DC load current

2. DC output voltage

The DC output voltage appeared at the load resistor RL is given as

VDC = 2Vmax /π
Where,
Vmax = maximum secondary voltage

3. Rectifier efficiency

Rectifier efficiency indicates how efficiently the rectifier converts AC into DC. A high percentage of
rectifier efficiency indicates a good rectifier while a low percentage of rectifier efficiency indicates an
inefficient rectifier.

Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of DC output power to the AC input power.

It can be mathematically written as

η = output PDC / input PAC

The rectifier efficiency of a full wave rectifier is 81.2%.

The rectifier efficiency of a full wave rectifier is twice that of the half wave rectifier. So the full wave
rectifier is more efficient than a half wave rectifier

4. Root mean square (RMS) value of load current IRMS

The root mean square (RMS) value of load current in a full wave rectifier is
5. Root mean square (RMS) value of the output load voltage VRMS

The root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage in a full wave rectifier is

Characteristics of bridge rectifier

1. Ripple factor

The smoothness of the output DC signal is measured by using a factor known as ripple factor. The
output DC signal with very fewer ripples is considered as the smooth DC signal while the output DC
signal with high ripples is considered as the high pulsating DC signal.

Ripple factor is mathematically defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to the pure DC voltage.

The ripple factor for a bridge rectifier is given by

The ripple factor of the bridge rectifier is 0.48 which is same as the center tapped full wave rectifier.

2. Rectifier efficiency

The rectifier efficiency determines how efficiently the rectifier converts Alternating Current (AC) into
Direct Current (DC).

High rectifier efficiency indicates a most reliable rectifier while the low rectifier efficiency indicates a
poor rectifier.

Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power.

The maximum rectifier efficiency of a bridge rectifier is 81.2% which is same as the center tapped full
wave rectifier.

FILTERS

The filter is a device that allows passing the dc component of the load and blocks the ac component
of the rectifier output. Thus the output of the filter circuit will be a steady dc voltage.
 The filter circuit can be constructed by the combination of components like capacitors, resistors, and
inductors. Inductor is used for its property that it allows only dc components to pass and blocks ac
signals. Capacitor is used so as to block the dc and allows ac to pass. All the combinations and their
working are explained in detail below.

 Series Inductor Filter

The circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier with a series inductor filter is given below.

As the name of the filter circuit suggests, the Inductor L is connected in series between the rectifier
circuit and the load. The inductor carries the property of opposing the change in current that flows
through it.

In other words, the inductor offers high impedance to the ripples and no impedance to the desired
dc components. Thus the ripple components will be eliminated. When the rectifier output current
increases above a certain value, energy is stored in it in the form of a magnetic field and this energy
is given up when the output current falls below the average value. Thus all the sudden changes in
current that occurs in the circuit will be smoothened by placing the inductor in series between the
rectifier and the load.

The waveform below shows the use of inductor in the circuit.

From the circuit, for zero frequency dc voltage, the choke resistance Ri in series with the load
resistance RL forms a voltage divider circuit, and thus the dc voltage across the load is

Vdc = RL/(Ri + RL)

Vdc is the output from a full wave rectifier. In this case, the value of Ri is negligibly small when
compared to RL.

The effect of higher harmonic voltages can be easily neglected as better filtering for the higher
harmonic components take place. This is because of the fact that with the increase in frequency, the
reactance of the inductor also increases. It should be noted that a decrease in the value of load
resistance or an increase in the value of load current will decrease the amount of ripples in the
circuit. So, the series inductor filter is mostly used in cases of high load current or small load
resistance. A simple series inductor filter may not be properly used. It is always better to use a shunt
capacitor (C) with series inductor (L) to form an LC Filter.

 Shunt Capacitor Filter

As the name suggests, a capacitor is used as the filter and this high value capacitor is shunted or
placed across the load impedance. This capacitor, when placed across a rectifier gets charged and
stores the charged energy during the conduction period. When the rectifier is not conducting, this
energy charged by the capacitor is delivered back to the load. Through this energy storage and
delivery process, the time duration during which the current flows through the load resistor gets
increased and the ripples are decreased by a great amount. Thus for the ripple component with a
frequency of ‘f’ megahertz, the capacitor ‘C’ will offer a very low impedance. The value of this
impedance can be written as:

Shunt Capacitor Impedance = 1/2 fC

Thus the dc components of the input signal along with the few residual ripple components, is only
allowed to go through the load resistance RLoad. The high amount of ripple components of current
gets bypassed through the capacitor C.

Now let us look at the working of Half-wave rectifier and Full-wave rectifier with Capacitor filters,
their output filtered waveform, ripple factor, merits and demerits in detail.
 L-C Filters

In the simple shunt capacitor filter circuit explained above, we have concluded that the capacitor will
reduce the ripple voltage, but causes the diode current to increase .This large current may damage
the diode and will further cause heating problem and decrease the efficiency of the filter. On the
other hand, a simple series inductor reduces both the peak and effective values of the output
current and output voltage. Then if we combine both the filter (L and C), a new filter called the L-C
filter can be designed which will have a good efficiency, with restricted diode current and enough
ripple removal factor .The voltage stabilizing action of shunt capacitor and the current smoothing
action of series inductor filter can be combined to form a perfect practical filter circuit.

L-C filters can be of two types: Choke Input L-section Filter and L-C Capacitor input filter

1. Choke Input L-Section Filter

An inductor filter increases the ripple factor with the increase in load current Rload. A capacitor filter
has an inversely proportional ripple factor with respect to load resistance. Economically, both
inductor filter and capacitor filter are not suitable for high end purpose

L-C inductor input or L-section filter consists of an inductor ‘ L’ connected in series with a half or full
wave rectifier and a capacitor ’C’ across the load. This arrangement is also called a choke input filter
or L-section filter because it’s shape resembles and inverted L-shape. To increase the smoothing
action using the filter circuit, just one L-C circuit will not be enough. Several L-section filters will be
arranged to obtain a smooth filtered output. The circuit diagram and smoothened waveform of a
Full wave rectifier output is shown below.

As shown in the circuit diagram above, the inductor L allows the dc to pass but restricts the flow of
ac components as its dc resistance is very small and ac impedance is large. After a signal passes
through the choke, if there is any fluctuation remaining the current, it will be fully bypassed before it
reaches the load by the shunt capacitor because the value of Xc is much smaller than Rload. The
number of ripples can be reduced to a great amount by making the value of XL greater than Xc at
ripple frequency.

Ripple Factor

Ripple Factor = Vac rms/Vdc = (√2/3)(Xc/XL) = (√2/3)(1/[2wc])(1/[2wL]) = 1/(6√2w2LC)

Though the L-C filter has all these advantages, it has now become quite obsolete due the huge size
of inductors and its cost of manufacturing. Nowadays, IC voltage regulators are more commonly
used along with active filters, that reduce the ripples and keeps the output dc voltage constant.

The diagram of L-C Capacitor input filter and waveform is shown below.

 Π – Filter or Capacitance Input Filter

 The name pi – Filter implies to the resemblance of the circuit to a Π shape with two shunt
capacitances (C1 and C2) and an inductance filter ‘L’. As the rectifier output is provided directly into
the capacitor it also called a capacitor input filter.

The output from the rectifier is first given to the shunt capacitor C. The rectifier used can be half or
full wave and the capacitors are usually electrolytic even though they large in size. In practical
applications, the two capacitances are enclosed in a metal container which acts as a common ground
for the two capacitors. Circuit diagram and the waveform are given below.

When compared to other type of filters, the Π – Filter has some advantages like higher dc voltage
and smaller ripple factor. But it also has some disadvantages like poor voltage regulation, high peak
diode current, and high peak inverse voltage.

This filter is divided into two – a capacitor filter and a L-section filter. The capacitor C1 does most of
the filtering in the circuit and the remaining ripple os removed by the L-section filter (L-C2). C1 is
selected to provide very low reactance to the ripple frequency. The voltage regulation is poor for this
circuit as the output voltage falls off rapidly with the increase in load current.

Ripple Factor

Ripple Factor = √2/(8w3C1C2LRload)

 R-C Filter

We have already discussed about the drawbacks of using a pi-filter. The main reason for all these
drawbacks is the use of inductor in the filter circuit. If we use a resistance in series, instead of the
inductor as the filter, these drawbacks can be overcome. Thus the circuit is named as R-C filter. In
this circuit, the ripples have to be made to drop across the resistance R instead of the load resistance
RL. For this, the value of RL is kept much larger than the value of reactance of capacitor C2 (XC2).
This means that each section reduces the ripple by a factor of at least 10.

Though the circuit nullifies certain drawbacks of the pi-filter, the circuit on its own has some
problems as well. The filter has very poor voltage regulation. There is a large voltage drop in the
resistance R. The circuit also develops a lot of heat and this has to be dissipated through enough and
adequate ventilation. Thus, the filter is only suitable for small load current or large load resistance
circuits.

POWER DIODE

Diode is a two terminal P-N junction semiconductor device, with terminals anode (A) and cathode
(C).

Symbol:
The symbol of the Power diode is same as signal level diode.

If terminal A experiences a higher potential compared to terminal K, the device is said to be forward
biased and a forward current will flow from anode to cathode.
This causes a small voltage drop across the device (<1V) called as forward voltage drop(Vf), which
under ideal conditions is usually ignored.
By contrast, when a diode is reverse biased, it does not conduct and the diode then experiences a
small current flowing in the reverse direction called the leakage current. It is shown below in the VI
characteristics of the diode.

The Structure of Power Diode is different from the low power signal diode.

Power Diode Characteristics:

The reverse recovery characteristics of the Power diode is shown in the following figure. From the
figure, we can understand the turn off characteristic of the diode. The Reverse recovery time tRR is
the time interval between the application of reverse voltage and the reverse current dropped to
0.25 of IRR.
Parameter ta is the interval between the zero crossing of the diode current to it reaches IRR.
Parameter tb is the time interval from the maximum reverse recovery current to 0:25 of IRR .

The lower trr means fast diode switching.

The ratio of the two parameters ta and tb is known as the softness factor SF.

ZENER DIODE

Zener diodes are widely used as voltage reference diodes in electronics circuits. Zener diodes allow
simple voltage regulator circuits to be made, and in addition to this they are cheap and easy to
manufacture.

Zener diodes have been available for many years, and nowadays they are widely used in many areas
of electronic circuits. Their obvious use is within power supply regulators, but they can be used as a
reasonably stable reference voltage in many electronics circuits. In addition to this, they can be used
to remove peaks in waveforms that may not be required. In one specific instance they can be used
to remove spikes that may damage a circuit or cause it to overload.

Although the term Zener diode is widely used to describe diodes used as voltage references, the
Zener effect that gives them their name is used in all diodes as seen later. Accordingly they should
probably more correctly be termed voltage reference diodes.

In view of the many applications for Zener diodes, they are used in many areas of electronics circuits
- not just in power supplies which is probably their most obvious used.

Zener diode basics

Zener diodes or as they may sometimes be called, reference diodes operate like an ordinary diode in
the forward bias direction. They have the normal turn on voltage of 0.6 volts for a silicon diode.
However in the reverse direction their operation is rather different. For very low voltages, like a
normal diode they do not conduct at all. However once a certain voltage is reached the diode
"breaks down" and current flows. It can be seen by looking at the curves for Zener diodes that the
voltage is almost constant regardless of the current carried.
Zener diode characteristic

Although the voltage reference diode is normally referred to as a Zener diode, there are two
different breakdown mechanisms that can occur:

 Zener effect: This effect predominates below 5.5 volts.

 Impact ionisation: This effect predominates above 5.5 volts.

The result of both breakdown effects is the same and design engineers do not need to design their
circuits differently in any major way. The main difference is that the two effects have different
temperature coefficients.

Zener diode symbol

To differentiate a Zener diode from a normal signal diode the circuit symbol is modified slightly. The
Zener diode symbol has a small "tag" applied to the bar of the diode symbol to identify its function.

Zener diode symbol used in circuit diagrams

The Zener diode or voltage reference diode is widely used throughout electronics circuits. The Zener
diodes or reference diodes can be used as discrete devices, or they may be used within integrated
circuits. As such Zener diodes provide an essential building block for many circuits - one which could
not easily be overcome if they were not available for some reason.

VARACTOR DIODE

Varactor diodes or varicap diodes are semiconductor devices that are widely used in the electronics
industry and are used in many applications where a voltage controlled variable capacitance is
required. Although the terms varactor diode and varicap diode can be used interchangeably, the
more common term these days is the varactor diode.

Although ordinary PN junction diodes exhibit the variable capacitance effect and these diodes can be
used for this applications, special diodes optimised to give the required changes in capacitance.
Varactor diodes or varicap diodes normally enable much higher ranges of capacitance change to be
gained as a result of the way in which they are manufactured. There are a variety of types of
varactor diode ranging from relatively standard varieties to those that are described as abrupt or
hyper abrupt varactor diodes.

Varactor diode basics

The varactor diode or varicap diode consists of a standard PN junction, although it is obviously
optimised for its function as a variable capacitor. In fact ordinary PN junction diodes can be used as
varactor diodes, even if their performance is not to the same standard as specially manufactured
varactors.
The basis of operation of the varactor diode is quite simple. The diode is operated under reverse bias
conditions and this gives rise to three regions. At either end of the diode are the P and N regions
where current can be conducted. However around the junction is the depletion region where no
current carriers are available. As a result, current can be carried in the P and N regions, but the
depletion region is an insulator.

This is exactly the same construction as a capacitor. It has conductive plates separated by an
insulating dielectric.

The capacitance of a capacitor is dependent on a number of factors including the plate area, the
dielectric constant of the insulator between the plates and the distance between the two plates. In
the case of the varactor diode, it is possible to increase and decrease the width of the depletion
region by changing the level of the reverse bias. This has the effect of changing the distance between
the plates of the capacitor.

Varactor diode symbol

As the primary function of a varactor diode is as a variable capacitor, its circuit symbol represents
this. Sometimes they may be shown as ordinary diodes, whereas more usually the varactor diode
circuit symbol shows the bar as a capacitor, i.e. two lines.

Varactor diode circuit symbol

Varactor diodes are always operated under reverse bias conditions, and in this way there is no
conduction. They are effectively voltage controlled capacitors, and indeed they are sometimes called
varicap diodes, although the term varactor is more widely used these days.

Varactor diodes, or as they are sometimes called, varicap diodes are a particularly useful form of
semiconductor diode. Finding uses in many applications where electronically controlled tuning of
resonant circuits is required, for items such as oscillators and filters, varactor diodes are an essential
component within the portfolio of the electronics design engineer. However to be able to use
varactor diodes to their best advantage it is necessary to understand features of varactor diodes
including the capacitance ratio, Q, gamma, reverse voltage and the like. If used correctly, varactor
diodes provide very reliable service particularly as they are a solid state device and have no
mechanical or moving elements as in their mechanical variable capacitor counterparts.
 UNIT-4

INTRODUCTION TO BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR AND FETS

 A bipolar transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used for amplification. The device
can amplify analog or digital signals. It can also switch DC or function as an oscillator.
Physically, a bipolar transistor amplifies current, but it can be connected in circuits designed
to amplify voltage or power.
 There are two major types of bipolar transistor, called PNP and NPN. A PNP transistor has a
layer of N-type semiconductor between two layers of P-type material. An NPN transistor has
a layer of P-type material between two layers of N-type material. In P-type material, electric
charges are carried mainly in the form of electron deficiencies called holes. In N-type
material, the charge carriers are primarily electrons.
 The bipolar transistor has advantages and disadvantages relative to the field-effect
transistor (field-effect transistor). Bipolar devices can switch signals at high speeds, and can
be manufactured to handle large currents so that they can serve as high-power amplifiers in
audio equipment and in wireless transmitters. Bipolar devices are not especially effective for
weak-signal amplification, or for applications requiring high circuit impedance.
 Bipolar transistors are fabricated onto silicon integrated circuit (IC) chip. A single IC can
contain many thousands of bipolar transistors, along with other components such as
resistors, capacitors, and diodes.
 In the diode tutorials we saw that simple diodes are made up from two pieces of
semiconductor material to form a simple pn-junction and we also learnt about their
properties and characteristics.
 If we now join together two individual signal diodes back-to-back, this will give us two PN-
junctions connected together in series that share a common P or N terminal. The fusion of
these two diodes produces a three layer, two junction, three terminal device forming the
basis of a Bipolar Junction Transistor, or BJT for short.
 Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials
that can act as either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage.
The transistor’s ability to change between these two states enables it to have two basic
functions: “switching” (digital electronics) or “amplification” (analogue electronics). Then
bipolar transistors have the ability to operate within three different regions:
 Active Region – the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β*Ib
 Saturation – the transistor is “Fully-ON” operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)
 Cut-off – the transistor is “Fully-OFF” operating as a switch and Ic = 0
 The word Transistor is a combination of the two words Transfer Varistor which describes
their mode of operation way back in their early days of electronics development. There are
two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which basically describes
the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which
they are made.

BJT transistor
  The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three
connecting terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other
two. These three terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and the
Collector ( C ) respectively.
 Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing
through them from the Emitter to the Collector terminals in proportion to the amount of
biasing voltage applied to their base terminal, thus acting like a current-controlled switch. As
a small current flowing into the base terminal controls a much larger collector current
forming the basis of transistor action.

PNP TRANSISTOR
 PNP transistor is another type of Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). The structure of the PNP
transistor is completely different from the NPN transistor. The two PN-junction diodes in the
PNP transistor structure are reversed with respect to the NPN transistor, such as the two P-
type doped semiconductor materials are separated by a thin layer of N-type doped
semiconductor material. In PNP transistor the majority current carriers are holes and
electrons are the minority current carriers. All the supply voltage polarities applied to the
PNP transistor are reversed. In PNP transistor the current sinks in to the base terminal. The
small base current in the PNP transistor has the ability to control the large emitter-collector
current because it is a current-controlled device.
 The arrow for BJT transistors is always located on the emitter terminal and also it indicates
the direction of conventional current flow. In PNP transistor this arrow indicates as ‘pointing
in’ and the current direction in PNP is completely opposite to the NPN transistor and
structure as well.
 But the characteristics and operation of the PNP transistor is almost same as NPN transistor
with small differences. The symbol and structure for PNP transistor is shown below.

 The above figure shows the structure and symbol of PNP Transistor. This transistor mainly
consists of 3 terminals and they are Emitter (E), Collector (C) and Base (B). Here if you
observe, the base current flows out of the base unlike NPN transistor. The emitter voltage is
much positive with respect to base and collector.

PNP Transistor Working

The circuit connection of PNP transistor with supply voltages is given below. Here the base terminal
has negative bias with respect to emitter and the emitter terminal has positive bias voltage with
respect to both base and collector because of PNP transistor.
The polarities and current directions are reversed here compared to NPN transistor. If the transistor
is connected to all the voltage sources as shown above then the base current flows through the
transistor but here the base voltage needs to be more negative with respect to the emitter to
operate transistor. Here the base- emitter junction acts as a diode. The small amount of current in
the base controls the flowing of large current through emitter to collector region. The base voltage is
generally 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Germanium devices.

Here the base terminal acts as input and the emitter- collector region acts as output. The supply
voltage VCC is connected to the emitter terminal and a load resistor (RL) is connected to the collector
terminal. This load resistor (RL) is used to limits the maximum current flow through the device. One
more resistor (RB) is connected to the base terminal which is used to limit the maximum current flow
through the base terminal and also a negative voltage is applied to the base terminal. Here the
collector current is always equal to the subtraction of base current from emitter current. Like NPN
transistor, the PNP transistor also has the current gain value β. Now let us see the relation between
the currents and current gain β.

The collector current (IC) is given by,

IC = IE – IB

The DC current gain (β) for the PNP transistor is same as the NPN transistor.

DC current gain = β = Output current/Input current

Here output current is collector current and input current is base current.

β = IC/IB

From this equation we get,

IB = IC/β

IC = β IB

And also we define the current gain as,

Current gain = Collector current/ Emitter current (In common base transistor)

α = IC/IE

The relation between α and β is given by,

β = α / (1- α) and α = β/ (β+1)

The collector current in PNP transistor is given by,

IC = – α IE + ICBO where ICBO is the saturation current.

Since IE = -(IC + IB)

IC = – α (-(IC + IB)) + ICBO

IC – α IC = α IB + ICBO

IC (1- α) = α IB + ICBO

IC = (α/ (1- α)) IB + ICBO/ (1- α)

Since β = α / (1- α)

Now we get the equation for collector current

IC = β IB + (1+ β) ICBO

The output characteristics of PNP transistor are same as NPN transistor characteristics. The small
difference is that the PNP transistor characteristic curve rotates 1800 to calculate the reverse
polarity voltages and current values. The dynamic load line also exists on the characteristic curve to
calculate the Q-point value. The PNP transistors are also used in switching and amplifying circuits like
NPN transistors.

NPN TRANSISTOR
NPN transistor is one of the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) types. The NPN transistor consists of
two n-type semiconductor materials and they are separated by a thin layer of p-type semiconductor.
Here the majority charge carriers are the electrons. The flowing of these electrons from emitter to
collector forms the current flow in the transistor. Generally the NPN transistor is the most used type
of bipolar transistors because the mobility of electrons is higher than the mobility of holes. The NPN
transistor has three terminals – emitter, base and collector. The NPN transistor is mostly used for
amplifying and switching the signals.

The above figure shows the symbol and structure of NPN transistor. In this structure we can observe
the three terminals of transistor, circuit currents and voltage value representations. Now let us see
the operation of the NPN transistor with explanation.
NPN Transistor Circuit

The above figure shows the NPN transistor circuit with supply voltages and resistive loads. Here the
collector terminal always connected to the positive voltage, the emitter terminal connected to the
negative supply and the base terminal controls the ON/OFF states of transistor depending on the
voltage applied to it.

NPN Transistor Working

 The working of NPN transistor is quite complex. In the above circuit connections we observed
that the supply voltage VB is applied to the base terminal through the load RB. The collector
terminal connected to the voltage VCC through the load RL. Here both the loads RB and RL can
limit the current flow through the corresponding terminals. Here the base terminal and collector
terminals always contain positive voltages with respect to emitter terminal.
 If the base voltage is equal to the emitter voltage then the transistor is in OFF state. If the base
voltage increases over emitter voltage then the transistor becomes more switched until it is in
fully ON state. If the sufficient positive voltage is applied to the base terminal i.e. fully-ON state,
then electrons flow generated and the current (IC) flows from emitter to the collector. Here the
base terminal acts as input and the collector-emitter region acts as output.
 To allow current flow between emitter and collector properly, it is necessary that the collector
voltage must be positive and also greater than the emitter voltage of transistor. Some amount of
voltage drop presented between base and emitter, such as 0.7V. So the base voltage must be
greater than the voltage drop 0.7V otherwise the transistor will not operate. The equation for
base current of a bipolar NPN transistor is given by,

IB = (VB-VBE)/RB

Where,

IB = Base current
VB = Base bias voltage
VBE = Input Base-emitter voltage = 0.7V
RB = Base resistance

The output collector current in common emitter NPN transistor can be calculated by applying
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).

The equation for collector supply voltage is given as

VCC = ICRL + VCE ………… (1)

From the above equation the collector current for common emitter NPN transistor is given as

IC = (VCC-VCE)/RL

In a common emitter NPN transistor the relation between collector current and emitter current is
given as

IC = β IB

In active region the NPN transistor acts as a good amplifier. In common emitter NPN transistor total
current flow through the transistor is defined as the ratio of collector current to the base current
IC/IB. This ratio is also called as “DC current gain” and it doesn’t have any units. This ratio is generally
represented with β and the maximum value of β is about 200. In common base NPN transistor the
total current gain is expressed with the ratio of collector current to emitter current IC/IE. This ratio is
represented with α and this value is generally equal to unity.

α, β and γ Relationship in NPN Transistor

Now let us see the relationship between the two ratio parameters α and β.

α = DC current gain for common base circuit = Output current/Input current

In common base NPN transistor output current is collector current (IC) and input current is emitter
current (IE).

α = IC/IE ………..(2)

This current gain (α) value is very close to unity but less than the unity.
We know that the emitter current is the sum of small base current and large collector current.

IE = IC + IB

IB = IE – IC

from equation 2, the collector

IC = αIE

IB = IE – αIE

IB = IE (1-α)

β = DC current gain for common emitter circuit = Output current/Input current

Here output current is collector current and input current is base current.

β = IC/IB

β = IC/IE (1-α)

β = α/(1-α)

From the above equations the relationship between α and β can be expressed as

α = β (1-α) = β/(β+1)

β = α (1+β) = α/ (1-α)

The β value may vary from 20 to 1000 for low power transistors which operate with high
frequencies. But in general this β value can have the values in between the range of 50-200.

Now we will see the relationship between α, β and γ factors.

In common collector NPN transistor the current gain is defined as the ratio emitter current IE to base
current IB. This current gain is represented with γ.

γ = IE/IB

We know that emitter current

IE = IC + IB

γ = (IC + IB )/IB

γ = (IC/IB) + 1

γ = β +1

Hence the relationships between α, β and γ are given as below

α = β / (β+1), β = α / (1-α), γ = β +1

 Leakage current is the unintended loss of electrical current or electrons. The term is often
applied to computer microprocessors, which are the chips that perform calculations and
process data. In fact, leakage is a problem that inhibits faster advancements in computer
performance. The term also applies to electronics and consumer electronics devices.
 Semiconductors make use of millions of transistors to perform calculations and store data in
computer microprocessors. Transistors are devices used to amplify and switch electronic
signals. Leakage current in semiconductors occurs at the transistor level. As semiconductor
manufacturers continue to make transistors smaller to squeeze more onto a chip, problems
with leakage increase. Smaller transistors have thinner insulating layers, causing more
leakage current.
 Leakage in transistors causes semiconductors to require more power to operate, as they
must replace the current lost to leakage. The leakage current also generates heat as it leaks
away, which leads to degraded performance for the semiconductor. When the heat from
leakage is combined with the heat generated by the semiconductor's normal operation, it
can become a significant problem. Excessive heat can eventually cause circuit failure.
Designers may take a number of different approaches to reduce the amount of leakage.
 For bipolar transistors with increasing temperature:

1. Vbe decreases

2. Turn-off leakage increases (with a constant voltage below Vbe-on; )

3. Current gain ẞ increases

Different Configurations of Transistors

We know that generally the transistor has three terminals – emitter (E), base (B) and collector. But in
the circuit connections we need four terminals, two terminals for input and another two terminals
for output. To overcome these problems we use one terminal as common for both input and output
actions. Using this property we construct the circuits and these structures are called transistor
configurations. Generally the transistor configurations are three types they are common base (CB)
configuration, common collector (CC) configuration and common emitter (CE) configuration. The
behavior of these three configurations with respect to gain is given below.

i. Common Base (CB) Configuration: no current gain but voltage gain

ii. Common Collector (CC) Configuration: current gain but no voltage gain
iii. Common Emitter (CE) Configuration: current gain and voltage gain
1. Common Base Configuration

 In this configuration we use base as common terminal for both input and output signals. The
configuration name itself indicates the common terminal. Here the input is applied between
the base and emitter terminals and the corresponding output signal is taken between the
base and collector terminals with the base terminal grounded. Here the input parameters
are VEB and IE and the output parameters are VCB and IC. The input current flowing into the
emitter terminal must be higher than the base current and collector current to operate the
transistor, therefore the output collector current is less than the input emitter current.
 The current gain is generally equal or less than to unity for this type of configuration. The
input and output signals are in-phase in this configuration. The amplifier circuit configuration
of this type is called as non-inverting amplifier circuit. The construction of this configuration
circuit is difficult because this type has high voltage gain values.
 The input characteristics of this configuration are looks like characteristics of illuminated
photo diode while the output characteristics represents a forward biased diode. This
transistor configuration has high output impedance and low input impedance. This type of
configuration has high resistance gain i.e. ratio of output resistance to input resistance is
high. The voltage gain for this configuration of circuit is given below.

AV = Vout/Vin = (IC*RL) / (IE*Rin)

Current gain in common base configuration is given as

α = Output current/Input current

α = IC/IE

 The common base circuit is mainly used in single stage amplifier circuits, such as microphone
pre amplifier or radio frequency amplifiers because of their high frequency response. The
common base transistor circuit is given below.
Input Characteristics

Input characteristics are obtained between input current and input voltage with constant output
voltage. First keep the output voltage VCB constant and vary the input voltage VEB for different points
then at each point record the input current IE value. Repeat the same process at different output
voltage levels. Now with these values we need to plot the graph between IEand VEB parameters. The
below figure show the input characteristics of common base configuration. The equation to calculate
the input resistance Rin value is given below.

Rin = VEB / IE (when VCB is constant)

Output Characteristics
The output characteristics of common base configuration are obtained between output current and
output voltage with constant input current. First keep the emitter current constant and vary the
VCB value for different points, now record the IC values at each point. Repeat the same process at
different IE values. Finally we need to draw the plot between VCB and IC at constant IE. The below
figure show the output characteristics of common base configuration. The equation to calculate the
output resistance value is given below.

Rout = VCB / IC (when IE is constant)

2. Common Collector Configuration

In this configuration we use collector terminal as common for both input and output signals. This
configuration is also known as emitter follower configuration because the emitter voltage follows
the base voltage. This configuration is mostly used as a buffer. These configurations are widely used
in impedance matching applications because of their high input impedance.
In this configuration the input signal is applied between the base-collector region and the output is
taken from the emitter-collector region. Here the input parameters are VBC and IB and the output
parameters are VEC and IE. The common collector configuration has high input impedance and low
output impedance. The input and output signals are in phase. Here also the emitter current is equal
to the sum of collector current and the base current. Now let us calculate the current gain for this
configuration.

Current gain,

Ai = output current/Input current

Ai = IE/IB

Ai = (IC + IB)/IB

Ai = (IC/IB) + 1

Ai = β + 1

The common collector transistor circuit is shown above. This common collector configuration is a no
inverting amplifier circuit. The voltage gain for this circuit is less than unity but it has large current
gain because the load resistor in this circuit receives both the collector and base currents.

Input Characteristics
The input characteristics of a common collector configuration are quite different from the common
base and common emitter configurations because the input voltage VBC is largely determined by
VEC level. Here,

VEC = VEB + VBC

VEB = VEC – VBC

The input characteristics of a common-collector configuration are obtained between inputs current
IB and the input voltage VCB at constant output voltage VEC. Keep the output voltage VEC constant at
different levels and vary the input voltage VBC for different points and record the IB values for each
point. Now using these values we need to draw a graph between the parameters of VBC and IB at
constant VEC.

Output Characteristics

The operation of the common collector circuit is same as that of common emitter circuit. The output
characteristics of a common collector circuit are obtained between the output voltage VEC and
output current IE at constant input current IB. In the operation of common collector circuit if the base
current is zero then the emitter current also becomes zero. As a result no current flows through the
transistor

If the base current increases then the transistor operates in active region and finally reaches to
saturation region. To plot the graph first we keep the IB at constant value and we will vary the
VEC value for various points, now we need to record the value of IE for each point. Repeat the same
process for different IB values. Now using these values we need to plot the graph between the
parameters of IE and VCE at constant values of IB. The below figure show the output characteristics of
common collector.
3. Common Emitter Configuration

In this configuration we use emitter as common terminal for both input and output. This common
emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit. Here the input is applied between base-emitter
region and the output is taken between collector and emitter terminals. In this configuration the
input parameters are VBE and IB and the output parameters are VCEand IC.

This type of configuration is mostly used in the applications of transistor based amplifiers. In this
configuration the emitter current is equal to the sum of small base current and the large collector
current. i.e. IE = IC + IB. We know that the ratio between collector current and emitter current gives
current gain alpha in Common Base configuration similarly the ratio between collector current and
base current gives the current gain beta in common emitter configuration.

Now let us see the relationship between these two current gains.
Current gain (α) = IC/IE

Current gain (β) = IC/IB

Collector current IC =α IE = βIB

This configuration is mostly used one among all the three configurations. It has medium input and
output impedance values. It also has the medium current and voltage gains. But the output signal
has a phase shift of 1800 i.e. both the input and output are inverse to each other.

Input Characteristics

The input characteristics of common emitter configuration are obtained between input current
IB and input voltage VBE with constant output voltage VCE. Keep the output voltage VCEconstant and
vary the input voltage VBE for different points, now record the values of input current at each point.
Now using these values we need to draw a graph between the values of IB and VBE at constant VCE.
The equation to calculate the input resistance Rin is given below.

Rin = VBE/IB (when VCE is at constant)

Output Characteristics

The output characteristics of common emitter configuration are obtained between the output
current IC and output voltage VCE with constant input current IB. Keep the base current IBconstant and
vary the value of output voltage VCE for different points, now note down the value of collector IC for
each point. Plot the graph between the parameters IC and VCE in order to get the output
characteristics of common emitter configuration. The equation to calculate the output resistance
from this graph is given below.

Rout = VCE/IC (when IB is at constant)

Current Components of BJT Transistor

When BJT transistor is not biased, that is, there is no voltage drop across its junctions and thus, no
current flows through it. If Emitter-Base junction is forward biased and Collector-Base junction
is reverse biased, the voltage across the device causes electrons from emitter to flow to collector. In
this, electrons pass through P type lightly doped base region and some of the electrons recombine
with holes. Therefore, collector current is less than that of emitter current. Emitter current, Base
current and Collector current can be related by.

Emitter current = Base current + Collector current

Mainly three parameters are used to define BJT transistor performance. Current Amplification
factor, Base Transport Factor, Emitter Injection Efficiency parameters shows the performance of
NPN transistor and PNP transistor.

(a). Current Amplification Factor

Current amplification factor in a BJT transistor is defined as the ratio of output current to its input
current. In a common base configuration, current amplification factor is the ratio of collector current
to the emitter current.

α = Ic / Ie

(b). Base Transport Factor

It is defined as the factor of base current required to transfer emitter current to collector of the BJT
transistor. Base transport factor is the ratio of collector current to base current of a BJT transistor.
That is, it is the ratio of output current to input current in common emitter configuration.

β = Ic / Ib

(c). Emitter Injection Efficiency

Emitter injection efficiency in a BJT transistor defines the efficiency of majority carrier injection from
emitter. It is the ratio of current due to emitter majority carriers to the total emitter current. It
defines the injection capability of an emitter. Heavily doped region will have high injection factor.

TRANSISTOR as AMPLIFIER

A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak signal. The DC bias voltage applied
to the emitter base junction, makes it remain in forward biased condition. This forward bias is
maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal. The below figure shows how a transistor looks like
when connected as an amplifier.
The low resistance in input circuit, lets any small change in input signal to result in an appreciable
change in the output. The emitter current caused by the input signal contributes the collector
current, which when flows through the load resistor RL, results in a large voltage drop across it. Thus
a small input voltage results in a large output voltage, which shows that the transistor works as an
amplifier.

Performance of Amplifier

As the common emitter mode of connection is mostly adopted, let us first understand a few
important terms with reference to this mode of connection.

1. Input Resistance

As the input circuit is forward biased, the input resistance will be low. The input resistance is the
opposition offered by the base-emitter junction to the signal flow.

By definition, it is the ratio of small change in base-emitter voltage (ΔVBE) to the resulting change in
base current (ΔIB) at constant collector-emitter voltage.

Input resistance, Ri=ΔVBEΔIBRi=ΔVBEΔIB

Where Ri = input resistance, VBE = base-emitter voltage, and IB = base current.

2. Output Resistance

The output resistance of a transistor amplifier is very high. The collector current changes very slightly
with the change in collector-emitter voltage.

By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) to the resulting change in
collector current (ΔIC) at constant base current.

Output resistance = Ro=ΔVCEΔICRo=ΔVCEΔIC

Where Ro = Output resistance, VCE = Collector-emitter voltage, and IC = Collector-emitter voltage.

3. Effective Collector Load

The load is connected at the collector of a transistor and for a single-stage amplifier, the output
voltage is taken from the collector of the transistor and for a multi-stage amplifier, the same is
collected from a cascaded stages of transistor circuit.

By definition, it is the total load as seen by the a.c. collector current. In case of single stage amplifiers,
the effective collector load is a parallel combination of RC and Ro.

Effective Collector Load, RAC=RC//RoRAC=RC//Ro

=RC×RoRC+Ro=RAC=RC×RoRC+Ro=RAC

Hence for a single stage amplifier, effective load is equal to collector load RC.

In a multi-stage amplifier (i.e. having more than one amplification stage), the input resistance Ri of
the next stage also comes into picture.

Effective collector load becomes parallel combination of RC, Ro and Ri i.e,

 Effective Collector Load, RAC=RC//Ro//RiRAC=RC//Ro//Ri
RC//Ri=RCRiRC+RiRC//Ri=RCRiRC+Ri

As input resistance Ri is quite small, therefore effective load is reduced.

4. Current Gain

The gain in terms of current when the changes in input and output currents are observed, is called
as Current gain. By definition, it is the ratio of change in collector current (ΔIC) to the change in base
current (ΔIB).

Current gain, β=ΔICΔIBβ=ΔICΔIB

The value of β ranges from 20 to 500. The current gain indicates that input current becomes β times
in the collector current.

5. Voltage Gain

The gain in terms of voltage when the changes in input and output currents are observed, is called
as Voltage gain. By definition, it is the ratio of change in output voltage (ΔVCE) to the change in input
voltage (ΔVBE).

Voltage gain, AV=ΔVCEΔVBEAV=ΔVCEΔVBE

=Changeinoutputcurrent×effectiveloadChangeininputcurrent×inputresistance=Changeinoutputcurre
nt×effectiveloadChangeininputcurrent×inputresistance

=ΔIC×RACΔIB×Ri=ΔICΔIB×RACRi=β×RACRi=ΔIC×RACΔIB×Ri=ΔICΔIB×RACRi=β×RACRi

For a single stage, RAC = RC.

However, for Multistage,

RAC=RC×RiRC+RiRAC=RC×RiRC+Ri

Where Ri is the input resistance of the next stage.

6. Power Gain

The gain in terms of power when the changes in input and output currents are observed, is called
as Power gain.

By definition, it is the ratio of output signal power to the input signal power.

Power gain, AP=(ΔIC)2×RAC(ΔIB)2×RiAP=(ΔIC)2×RAC(ΔIB)2×Ri

=(ΔICΔIB)×ΔIC×RACΔIB×Ri=(ΔICΔIB)×ΔIC×RACΔIB×Ri

= Current gain × Voltage gain

Hence these are all the important terms which refer the performance of amplifiers.

DC LOAD LINE
When the transistor is given the bias and no signal is applied at its input, the load line drawn under
such conditions, can be understood as DC condition. Here there will be no amplification as the signal
is absent. The circuit will be as shown below.
The value of collector emitter voltage at any given time will be
VCE=VCC−ICRCVCE=VCC−ICRC

As VCC and RC are fixed values, the above one is a first degree equation and hence will be a straight
line on the output characteristics. This line is called as D.C. Load line. The figure below shows the DC
load line.

To obtain the load line, the two end points of the straight line are to be determined. Let those two
points be A and B.

To obtain A

When collector emitter voltage VCE = 0, the collector current is maximum and is equal to VCC/RC. This
gives the maximum value of VCE. This is shown as
VCE=VCC−ICRCVCE=VCC−ICRC
 0=VCC−ICRC0=VCC−ICRC

IC=VCC/RCIC=VCC/RC

This gives the point A (OA = VCC/RC) on collector current axis, shown in the above figure.

To obtain B

When the collector current IC = 0, then collector emitter voltage is maximum and will be equal to the
VCC. This gives the maximum value of IC. This is shown as
VCE=VCC−ICRCVCE=VCC−ICRC

=VCC=VCC

(AS IC = 0)

This gives the point B, which means (OB = VCC) on the collector emitter voltage axis shown in the
above figure.

Hence we got both the saturation and cutoff point determined and learnt that the load line is a
straight line. So, a DC load line can be drawn.

The Junction Field Effect Transistor

 We saw previously that a bipolar junction transistor is constructed using two PN-junctions in
the main current carrying path between the Emitter and the Collector terminals.
The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JUGFET or JFET) has no PN-junctions but instead has a
narrow piece of high resistivity semiconductor material forming a “Channel” of either N-type
or P-type silicon for the majority carriers to flow through with two ohmic electrical
connections at either end commonly called the Drain and the Source respectively.
 There are two basic configurations of junction field effect transistor, the N-channel JFET and
the P-channel JFET. The N-channel JFET’s channel is doped with donor impurities meaning
that the flow of current through the channel is negative (hence the term N-channel) in the
form of electrons.
 Likewise, the P-channel JFET’s channel is doped with acceptor impurities meaning that the
flow of current through the channel is positive (hence the term P-channel) in the form of
holes. N-channel JFET’s have a greater channel conductivity (lower resistance) than their
equivalent P-channel types, since electrons have a higher mobility through a conductor
compared to holes. This makes the N-channel JFET’s a more efficient conductor compared to
their P-channel counterparts.
 We have said previously that there are two ohmic electrical connections at either end of the
channel called the Drain and the Source. But within this channel there is a third electrical
connection which is called the Gate terminal and this can also be a P-type or N-type material
forming a PN-junction with the main channel.
 The symbols and basic construction for both configurations of JFETs are shown below.
  The semiconductor “channel” of the Junction Field Effect Transistor is a resistive path
through which a voltage VDS causes a current ID to flow and as such the junction field effect
transistor can conduct current equally well in either direction. As the channel is resistive in
nature, a voltage gradient is thus formed down the length of the channel with this voltage
becoming less positive as we go from the Drain terminal to the Source terminal.
 The result is that the PN-junction therefore has a high reverse bias at the Drain terminal and
a lower reverse bias at the Source terminal. This bias causes a “depletion layer” to be
formed within the channel and whose width increases with the bias.
 The magnitude of the current flowing through the channel between the Drain and the
Source terminals is controlled by a voltage applied to the Gate terminal, which is a reverse-
biased. In an N-channel JFET this Gate voltage is negative while for a P-channel JFET the Gate
voltage is positive.
 The main difference between the JFET and a BJT device is that when the JFET junction is
reverse-biased the Gate current is practically zero, whereas the Base current of the BJT is
always some value greater than zero.

Biasing of an N-channel JFET

 The cross sectional diagram above shows an N-type semiconductor channel with a P-type
region called the Gate diffused into the N-type channel forming a reverse biased PN-junction
 and it is this junction which forms the depletion region around the Gate area when no
external voltages are applied. JFETs are therefore known as depletion mode devices.
 This depletion region produces a potential gradient which is of varying thickness around the
PN-junction and restrict the current flow through the channel by reducing its effective width
and thus increasing the overall resistance of the channel itself.
 Then we can see that the most-depleted portion of the depletion region is in between the
Gate and the Drain, while the least-depleted area is between the Gate and the Source. Then
the JFET’s channel conducts with zero bias voltage applied (ie, the depletion region has near
zero width).
 With no external Gate voltage ( VG = 0 ), and a small voltage ( VDS ) applied between the
Drain and the Source, maximum saturation current ( IDSS ) will flow through the channel from
the Drain to the Source restricted only by the small depletion region around the junctions.
 If a small negative voltage ( -VGS ) is now applied to the Gate the size of the depletion region
begins to increase reducing the overall effective area of the channel and thus reducing the
current flowing through it, a sort of “squeezing” effect takes place. So by applying a reverse
bias voltage increases the width of the depletion region which in turn reduces the
conduction of the channel.
 Since the PN-junction is reverse biased, little current will flow into the gate connection. As
the Gate voltage ( -VGS ) is made more negative, the width of the channel decreases until no
more current flows between the Drain and the Source and the FET is said to be “pinched-
off” (similar to the cut-off region for a BJT). The voltage at which the channel closes is called
the “pinch-off voltage”, ( VP ).

JFET Channel Pinched-off

In this pinch-off region the Gate voltage, VGS controls the channel current and VDS has little or no
effect.

JFET Model

The result is that the FET acts more like a voltage controlled resistor which has zero resistance
when VGS = 0 and maximum “ON” resistance ( RDS ) when the Gate voltage is very negative. Under
normal operating conditions, the JFET gate is always negatively biased relative to the source.
It is essential that the Gate voltage is never positive since if it is all the channel current will flow to
the Gate and not to the Source, the result is damage to the JFET. Then to close the channel:

 No Gate Voltage ( VGS ) and VDS is increased from zero.

 No VDS and Gate control is decreased negatively from zero.

 VDS and VGS varying.

The P-channel Junction Field Effect Transistor operates exactly the same as the N-channel above,
with the following exceptions: 1). Channel current is positive due to holes, 2). The polarity of the
biasing voltage needs to be reversed.

The output characteristics of an N-channel JFET with the gate short-circuited to the source is given
as:

Output characteristic V-I curves of a typical junction FET

The voltage VGS applied to the Gate controls the current flowing between the Drain and the Source
terminals. VGS refers to the voltage applied between the Gate and the Source while VDS refers to the
voltage applied between the Drain and the Source.

Because a Junction Field Effect Transistor is a voltage controlled device, “NO current flows into the
gate!” then the Source current ( IS ) flowing out of the device equals the Drain current flowing into it
and therefore ( ID = IS ).

The characteristics curves example shown above, shows the four different regions of operation for a
JFET and these are given as:
  Ohmic Region – When VGS = 0 the depletion layer of the channel is very small and the JFET
acts like a voltage controlled resistor.

 Cut-off Region – This is also known as the pinch-off region were the Gate voltage, VGS is
sufficient to cause the JFET to act as an open circuit as the channel resistance is at
maximum.

 Saturation or Active Region – The JFET becomes a good conductor and is controlled by the
Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) while the Drain-Source voltage, ( VDS ) has little or no effect.

 Breakdown Region – The voltage between the Drain and the Source, ( VDS ) is high enough to
causes the JFET’s resistive channel to break down and pass uncontrolled maximum current.

The characteristics curves for a P-channel junction field effect transistor are the same as those
above, except that the Drain current ID decreases with an increasing positive Gate-Source
voltage, VGS.

The Drain current is zero when VGS = VP. For normal operation, VGS is biased to be somewhere
between VP and 0. Then we can calculate the Drain current, ID for any given bias point in the
saturation or active region as follows:

Drain current in the active region.

Note that the value of the Drain current will be between zero (pinch-off) and IDSS(maximum current).
By knowing the Drain current ID and the Drain-Source voltage VDS the resistance of the channel ( ID )
is given as:

Drain-Source channel resistance.

Where: gm is the “trans-conductance gain” since the JFET is a voltage controlled device and which
represents the rate of change of the Drain current with respect to the change in Gate-Source
voltage.

MOSFET
The MOSFET is an important element in embedded system-design which is used to control the loads
as per the requirement. Many of electronic projects developed using MOSFET such as light intensity
control, motor control and max generator applications. The MOSFET is a high voltage controlling
device provides some key features for circuit designers in terms of their overall performance. This
article provides information about different types of MOSFET applications.
 MOSFET

MOSFET and Its Applications

The MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) transistor is a semiconductor
device which is widely used for switching and amplifying electronic signals in the electronic devices.
The MOSFET is a three terminal device such as source, gate, and drain. The MOSFET is very far the
most common transistor and can be used in both analog and digital ckt.

The MOSFET works by varying the width of a channel along which charge carriers flow (holes and
electrons). The charge carriers enter the channel from the source and exits through the drain. The
channel width is controlled by the voltage on an electrode is called gate which is located between
the source and drain. It is insulated from the channel near an extremely thin layer of metal oxide.
There is a different type of MOSFET applications which is used as per the requirement.

Types of MOSFET Devices

The MOSFET is classified into two types such as;

 Depletion mode MOSFET

 Enhancement mode MOSFET

Depletion Mode: When there is zero voltage on the gate terminal, the channel shows its maximum
conductance. As the voltage on the gate is negative or positive, then decreases the channel
conductivity.

Depletion Mode MOSFET

Enhancement Mode
When there is no voltage on the gate terminal the device does not conduct. More voltage applied on
the gate terminal, the device has good conductivity.

Enhance Mode MOSFET

MOSFET Working Principle

The working of MOSFET depends upon the metal oxide capacitor (MOS) that is the main part of the
MOSFET. The oxide layer presents among the source and drain terminal. It can be set from p-type to
n-type by applying positive or negative gate voltages respectively. When apply the positive gate
voltage the holes present under the oxide layer with a repulsive force and holes are pushed
downward through the substrate. The deflection region populated by the bound negative charges
which are allied with the acceptor atoms.

MOSFET Block Diagram

P- Channel MOSFET

The P-Channel MOSFET consist negative ions so it works with negative voltages. When we apply the
negative voltage to gate, the electrons present under the oxide layer through pushed downward into
the substrate with a repulsive force. The deflection region populates by the bound positive charges
which are allied with the donor atoms. The negative voltage also attracts holes from p+ source and
drain region into the channel region.
N- Channel MOSFET

When we apply the positive gate voltage the holes present under the oxide layer pushed downward
into the substrate with a repulsive force. The deflection region is populated by the bound negative
charges which are allied with the acceptor atoms. The positive voltage also attracts electrons from
the n+ source and drain regions into the channel. Now, if a voltage is applied among the drain and
source the current flows freely between the source and drain and the gate voltage controls the
electrons in the channel. In place of positive voltage if we apply a negative voltage (hole) channel
will be formed under the oxide layer.

MOSFET Applications

The applications of the MOSFET used in various electrical and electronic projects which are designed
by using various electrical and electronic components. For better understanding of this concept,
here we have explained some projects.

Comparison between BJT and FET

BJT FET

High voltage gain Low voltage gain

Low current gain High current gain

 Low input impedance Very high input impedance

Low output impedance High output impedance

Medium Noise Generation Low Noise generation

Medium switching time Fast switching time

Robust Easily damaged

Requires zero input to turn it "OFF" Some need an input to turn it "OFF"

It is a Current controlled device. It is a Voltage controlled device.

Cheap More expensive than BJT.

Easy to bias Difficult to bias

Summary:

1. The BJT is a current-controlled device since its output is determined on the input current, while
FET is considered as a voltage-controlled device, because it depends on the field effect of the applied
voltage.

2. The BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) uses both the minority and majority carriers (holes and
electrons), while FETs, which are sometimes called unipolar transistors, uses either holes or
electrons for conduction.

3. BJT’s three terminals are named the base, emitter, and collector, while FET’s are named the
source, drain, and gate.

4. BJTs are the first type to be commercially massed produced.