Gen Hse Module 1

DEXTER & HEROS
CONSULTING LTD
HEALTH SAFETY &

ENVIRONMENT (HSE)
LEVEL 1 & 2 COURSE
Module 1 Scope
1. Introduction: Occupational Hazards
2. Accident In Workplace
3. Hazard & Effect Management
Process (HEMP)
4. Job Hazard Analysis (JHA)
DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 2

OBJECTIVE
To learn and apply the

global standards in
managing workplace/
occupational hazards
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WORKPLACE
HAZARDS

Every Workplace Has Hazards.
 There is no one establishment
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across every industry that has

no hazard in their operations.
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 Hazards are usually associated

with the activities involved in
company’s operations.

 These hazards, sometimes called
occupational hazards, have the
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capacity to cause injury on the

people within the company.
 Aside harming people, occupational
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hazards can also impact adversely the

environment within which the
operations are being carried out
(host environment).

What is a Hazard?
A hazard is a situation that
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poses a level of threat to life,

health, property, or environment.
 A workplace hazard is
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anything or situation in the

workplace that has the potential
to cause harm to people or
damage to the environment and
organization’s assets.
 From the definitions, we can
deduce that hazards in
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workplace can impact the

following adversely;
◦ People within the workplace
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◦ Host environment of the

workplace
◦ Assets of the workplace
◦ Reputations of the workplace.
People Environment
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Assets Reputation

People
 The class of people that
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hazards in a workplace can

harm include;
◦ Yourself
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◦ Your colleagues (co-workers)

◦ Customers/Contractors/Clients
◦ Visitors
◦ Others (this may include any
other person aside the ones
mentioned above)
Environment
 The human race and vast
number of other living
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things cannot survive

without the environment.
 The elements that support
or sustain us as humans are
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basically offered by the

environment.
 Knowing pricelessness of
our environment, human
has overtime continued to
tailor their activities in a
manner that is damaging to
the environment.
 It is important to note that the current
environmental issues that we face today as
humans, are as a result of the impact of our
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hazardous activities.
 Today we are faced with environmental
issues that could have been avoided,
including;
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◦ Ozone Layer Depletion

◦ Global warming
◦ Climate change
◦ Loss of bio-diversity
◦ Deforestation and Desertification
◦ etc
 Assets are
Assets organization’s
properties, tools or
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equipment with
which operations are
carried.
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 Hazards in our
operations can
create situations in
which the safety of
these assets are
threatened.
 When hazards in
Reputation workplace are not
effectively managed,
accidents will be the
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resultant effect.
 The effects of
workplace accidents
both to the people in
the organization, and
the host environment
brings about
reputation damage to
company.
Types Of Hazards
 Thereare four (4) main types of
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hazards
i. Physical hazards
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ii. Biological hazards

iii. Chemical hazards
iv. Ergonomic hazards

Biological hazards Chemical hazards
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Ergonomic hazards
Physical hazards

Physical Hazards
 Physical hazards are the most common and will be
present in most workplaces at one time or another.
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 They include unsafe conditions that can cause

injury, illness and death.
 They are typically easiest to spot but, sadly, too
often overlooked because of
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◦ familiarity (there are always cords running across the

aisles),
◦ lack of knowledge (they aren't seen as hazards),
◦ resistance to spending time or money to make
necessary improvements or
◦ simply delays in making changes to remove the hazards
(waiting until tomorrow or a time when "we're not so
busy").

Examples Of
Physical Hazards
 Electrical hazards: frayed cords, missing ground pins,
improper wiring
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 Unguarded machinery and moving machinery parts.

 Constant loud noise.
 High exposure to sunlight, heat or cold
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 Working from heights, including ladders, scaffolds,

roofs, or any raised work area
 Working with mobile equipment such as fork lifts
(operation of fork lifts and similar mobile
equipment in the workplace requires significant
additional training and experience)
 Spills on floors or tripping hazards, such as blocked
aisle or cords running across the floor.
Biological Hazards
 Biological hazards come from working
with animals, people or infectious
plant materials.
 Work in day care, hospitals, hotel
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laundry and room cleaning,

laboratories, veterinary offices and
nursing homes may expose you to
biological hazards.

 Thetypes of things you
may be exposed to include:
◦ Blood or other body fluids
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◦ Fungi
◦ Bacteria and viruses
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◦ Plants
◦ Insect bites
◦ Animal and bird droppings.

Ergonomic Hazards
 Ergonomic hazards occur when the type of
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work, body position and working conditions

put strain on your body.
 They are the hardest to spot since you don't
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always immediately notice the strain on your

body or the harm these hazards pose.
 Short-term exposure may result in "sore
muscles" the next day or in the days
following exposure, but long term exposure
can result in serious long-term injuries.
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www.dexterheros.com Ergonomics Hazard

Examples Of
Ergonomic Hazards
i. poor lighting
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ii. improperly adjusted workstations and

chairs
iii. frequent lifting
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iv. poor posture

v. awkward movements, especially if they are
repetitive
vi. repeating the same movements over and
over
vii. having to use too much force, especially if
you have to do it frequently.
Chemical Hazards
 Chemical hazards are present when a
worker is exposed to any chemical
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preparation in the workplace in any form

(solid, liquid or gas).
 Some are safer than others, but to some
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workers who are more sensitive to

chemicals, even common solutions can
cause illness, skin irritation or breathing
problems.

Beware of:
 Liquids like cleaning products, paints, acids,
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solvents especially chemicals in an

unlabelled container (warning sign!)
 Vapours and fumes, for instance those that
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come from welding or exposure to

solvents
 Gases like acetylene, propane, carbon
monoxide and helium
 Flammable materials like gasoline, solvents
and explosive chemicals.
 The Workplace Hazardous
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Materials Information System

(WHMIS) is designed to make
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sure you have the information

you need to evaluate any hazards
and take action to protect
yourself.

 Some hazards, such as unguarded machinery,
pose immediate dangers: a worker could lose
a finger or arm.
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 Other types of hazards, such as ergonomic

hazards can injure a worker over a long period
of time, but the full extent of the damage
(such as chronic strain or a muscle
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impairment) may not show up until after

several months or years of exposure to the
hazard.
 Both types of hazards need to be managed
 Some require immediate attention because
exposure to them can cause injury to you and
fellow workers NOW.
The Need For HSE
In Workplace
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 It is therefore evident that hazards exist in

our workplaces, as such, there is a need for
a conscious effort to manage them.
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 This is what Health Safety and

Environment (HSE) is all about.
 HSE is a discipline that focuses on
managing workplace hazards in order to
prevent possible impact of the same on
people, environment, asset and reputation.
 More so, Health Safety &
Environment (HSE) offers an
opportunity to design safety for all
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the four (4) vulnerable factors of our

operation.
i. People
ii. Environment
iii. Asset
iv. Reputation
HSE is sometimes referred to as,
Occupational Health & Safety or
Workplace Safety & Health.
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What Is Occupational
Health And Safety?

 Occupational health and safety is a
discipline with a broad scope involving
many specialized fields.
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 In its broadest sense, it should aim at:

i. the promotion and maintenance of the
highest degree of physical, mental and
social well-being of workers in all
occupations;
ii. the prevention among workers of
adverse effects on health caused by
their working conditions;
iii. the protection of workers in their
employment from risks resulting from
factors adverse to health;
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iv. the placing and maintenance of workers in an

occupational environment adapted to
physical and mental needs;
v. the adaptation of work to humans.
 In other words, occupational health and
safety encompasses the social, mental
and physical well-being of workers,
that is the “whole person”.

Importance Of HSE
 Work plays a central role in people's
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lives, since most workers spend at

least eight hours a day in the
workplace, whether it is on a
plantation, in an office, factory, etc.
 Therefore, work environments should
be safe and healthy.Yet this is not the
case for many workers.
 Every day workers all over the world are
faced with a multitude of health hazards.
 Unfortunately some employers assume
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little or no responsibility for the protection

of workers' health and safety.
 In fact, some employers do not even know
that they have the moral and often legal
responsibility to protect workers.
 As a result of the hazards and a lack of
attention given to health and safety, work-
related accidents and diseases are common
in all parts of the world.
 Work-related accidents or diseases
are very costly and can have many
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serious direct and indirect effects on

the lives of workers and their families.
 For workers some of the direct
costs of an injury or illness are:
◦ the pain and suffering of the injury or
illness;
◦ the loss of income;
◦ the possible loss of a job;
◦ health-care costs. DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 35
 It has been estimated that the indirect
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costs of an accident or illness can be four

to ten times greater than the direct costs, or
even more.
 An occupational illness or accident can have
so many indirect costs to workers that it is
often difficult to measure them.
 One of the most obvious indirect costs is
the human suffering caused to workers'
families, which cannot be compensated with
money.
 The costs to employers of occupational
accidents or illnesses are also estimated to
be enormous.
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 For employers, some of the direct

costs are:
◦ payment for work not performed;
◦ medical and compensation payments;
◦ repair or replacement of damaged machinery
and equipment;
◦ reduction or a temporary halt in production;
◦ increased training expenses and administration
costs;
◦ possible reduction in the quality of work;
◦ negative effect on morale in other workers.
 Some of the indirect costs for employers
are:
◦ the injured/ill worker has to be replaced;
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◦ a new worker has to be trained and given time

to adjust;
◦ it takes time before the new worker is producing
at the rate of the original worker;
◦ time must be devoted to obligatory
investigations, to the writing of reports and filling
out of forms;
◦ accidents often arouse the concern of fellow
workers and influence labour relations in a
negative way;
◦ poor health and safety conditions in the
workplace can also result in poor public relations.

 Overall, the costs of most work-
related accidents or illnesses to
workers and their families and to
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employers are very high.

 In reality, no one really knows the
total costs of work-related accidents
or diseases because there are a of
indirect costs which are difficult to
measure besides the more obvious
direct costs.
 For all of the reasons given above, it is crucial
that employers and workers are committed
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to health and safety and that:

◦ workplace hazards are controlled - at the
source whenever possible;
◦ records of any exposure are maintained for many
years;
◦ both workers and employers are informed about
health and safety risks in the workplace;
◦ there is an active and effective health and safety
committee that includes both workers and
management;
◦ worker health and safety efforts are ongoing.
 Effective workplace health and safety
programmes can help to save the lives of
workers by reducing hazards and their
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consequences.
 Health and safety programmes also have
positive effects on both worker morale and
productivity, which are important benefits.
 At the same time, effective programmes
can save employers a great deal of money.

Extent Of The
Problem Globally
A. Accidents
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 In general, health and safety in the

workplace has improved in
most industrialized countries over the
past 20 to 30 years. However, the situation
in developing countries is relatively unclear
largely because of
◦ inadequate accident and disease recognition,
◦ record-keeping and
◦ reporting mechanisms.

 It is estimated that at least 250
million occupational accidents
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occur every year worldwide.

 335,000 of these accidents are
fatal (result in death).
◦ Since many countries do not have
accurate record-keeping and reporting
mechanisms, it can be assumed that the
real figures are much higher than this.

 The number of fatal accidents is
much higher in developing countries
than in industrialized ones.
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 This difference is primarily due to

◦ better health and safety programmes,
◦ improved first-aid and medical facilities
in the industrialized countries, and
◦ active participation of workers in the
decision-making process on health and
safety issues.

If a task or an activity…
 Is not safe for you ------ do not do it
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 Not safe for your workers --- do not allow it

 Not safe for others ----- tell them
 Possess serious hazard --- stop it
immediately
 Has unknown consequences – stop & find
out
Take Personal Responsibility For HSE

Chris Adigo
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ACCIDENT
IN WORKPLACE
Module 2
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Introduction
 In 18th centuries, machines were invented.
This invention affected the traditional
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techniques for producing goods.

 These invented machines had dangerous
moving parts, drive belts, exposed cutting
blades and reciprocating shafts, etc;
including poor lighting and ventilation in
rooms were they were being operated
 This situation produced injuries, ill-health
and deaths to workers.
 Industrial activities generally
involve people, machines,
materials, chemicals and the
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environment.
 In operations, these elements
interact with each other, it does
happen that one or more of the
elements can be impacted upon
adversely causing damage or
injury. DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 49
 An accident is said to had
occurred when any of the
elements is adversely impacted
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resulting to injury/damage.
 The impact or situation are usually
unplanned, unexpected and
produces unwanted outcome.
 Usually, the adverse impacts are
initiated by either unsafe acts or
unsafe conditions.
What is Accident
 Anis an unplanned and
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unwanted occurrence, caused by

unsafe acts and unsafe conditions
which result in;
i. injury or damage,
ii. sometimes both injury and
damage or
iii. neither injury nor damage (the
near miss)
 Accident is an unplanned and
unintended occurrence in the
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course of an activity or
operation in the workplace,
which cause or could cause
personal injury or asset
damage, or interference with
production or other business
activity. DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 52
Definition:
Occupational Accidents
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 Occupational Accidents are

accidents that occurs in the
course of a person's
employment and is caused by
the hazards that are inherent in,
or are related to, it.

Definition: Near Miss
A near miss is an
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unplanned event that did

not result in injury, illness,
or damage – but had the
potential to do so.

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Accident Ratio Study
(Frank E. Bird, Jr.,1969)
At the top we have Serious accident

1
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For every serious

10 Minor injuries
accident there are
For every serious Accidents leading
accident there are 30 to property

damage
For every serious

Near Misses
accident there 600
are
Causes Of Accident
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Are accidents inevitable?

Do accidents occur as a
natural consequence of a
daily routine?
Can accidents be avoided?

All Accidents
Are Caused.
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 Research has established that

accidents are caused by :
i. Unsafe Acts and
ii. Unsafe Conditions.
 Unsafe acts and unsafe
conditions are fundamentally
the causes of every accident.
What Is
Unsafe Act?

Unsafe Acts….
 Unsafe acts are actions taken or
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performed by someone without due

regard for personal safety, that of
colleagues or other persons in the
vicinity.
 Unsafe acts usually contrary to rules
and regulations, or accepted standard
practices and procedures - they are
illegal acts. DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 60
Examples Of
Unsafe Acts:
i. Operating without qualification or
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authorization.
ii. Lack of or improper use of PPE.
iii. Failure to tag out/lockout.
iv. Operating equipment at unsafe
speed.
v. Failure to warn.
vi. Bypass or removal of safety devices.
Examples Of
Unsafe Acts …cont.
vii. Using defective equipment.
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viii. Use of tools for other than their

intended purpose.
ix. Working in hazardous locations without
adequate protection or warning.
x. Improper repair of equipment.
xi. Horseplay.
xii. Wearing unsafe clothing.
xiii. Taking an unsafe position.
Unsafe Conditions
 Unsafe conditions are such
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work place conditions or

equipment and materials
conditions that can cause
accidents.
 Unsafe Condition is an existing
state or condition that has the
capacity to cause an accident.
Examples Of Unsafe
Conditions
Defective tools, equipment, or
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i.
supplies.
ii. Inadequate supports or guards.
iii. Congestion in the workplace.
iv. Inadequate warning systems.
v. Fire and explosion hazards.

Examples Of Unsafe
Conditions …cont.
vi. Poor housekeeping such as
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slippery floor and improper

storage
vii. Hazardous atmospheric condition.
viii. Excessive noise.
ix. Poor ventilation.
x. Misuse of fire protection
equipment
Effects Of Accident
 Accident impact adversely on the
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industry (asset & reputation), its

people and the environment within
which the industry is located.
 When an accident occurs in an
industry, some element are directly
affected while some receives an
indirect impact

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Direct &
Hidden
Cost of
Accident

 Accidents are more expensive
than most people realize
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because of the hidden costs.

 Some costs are obvious — for
example, Workers’
Compensation claims which
cover medical costs and
indemnity payments for an
injured or ill worker. These are
the direct costs of accidents.
 But what about the costs to train and
compensate a replacement worker,
repair damaged property, investigate
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the accident and implement corrective

action, and to maintain insurance
coverage?
 Then there are the costs related to
schedule delays, added administrative
time, lower morale, increased
absenteeism, and poorer customer
relations. These are the indirect costs of
accidents.
Accidents:
Those Directly Affected
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 The injured employee:

◦ physical pain,
◦ mental agony,
◦ disability (temporary or
permanent),
◦ loss of leisure, earning and life.

Those Directly Affected…
cont.
 The Company:
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◦ Economic loss,
◦ Production loss, (Loss Time
Injury (LTI), Man Hour)
◦ Reputation damage
◦ Possible litigation.

Those Indirectly Affected
 Family of injured employee:
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◦ loss of breadwinner
 Community:
◦ Contributions ( financial, mental,
physical)
 The nation:
◦ taxes paid by the company and the
employee.

Reasons Accidents Are
Undesirable
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 Humanitarian.
 Economic.
 Legal.
 Morale.
 Reputation.

 Since these consequences of
accidents are undesirable it is
important that effort should be
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directed at preventing them.

 This can be achieved through an
understanding of the factors
responsible for the occurrence of
accidents and eliminating /
controlling them or mitigating the
effect of the occurrence.
Workplace Accident
Prevention
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 Accidents don’t just happen. They are

caused, chiefly by people.
 With the acceptance of the assertion
that accidents are caused, it is also
accepted that identifying the causes
and eliminating them or controlling
them can prevent the occurrence of
accidents. DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 75
 People– workers, supervisors,
management,
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customers/contractors/clients, -
have been identified as being
responsible for unsafe acts and the
creation of unsafe conditions.

Why Do people carry out
unsafe acts and creates
unsafe conditions?
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1. Ignorance (not trained, not

instructed or informed)
2. Physically or mentally unable
3. Wrong Attitude ( does not
want to)
Measures For Accident
Prevention
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 Measures to prevent accidents

seek to identify and correct the
unsafe acts of people and the
unsafe conditions in the work
environment, as well as identify
and correct the defects in the
people.
There are 4 Measures For
Preventing Accident
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4EOf Accident
s
Prevention
The 4Es
1. Engineering Measures
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2. Education Measures
3. Enforcement Measures
4. Encouragement
Measures
Engineering
Engineering takes the

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unsafe conditions out

of the work
environment.

Education
Education takes the defects
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out of the people through

training, induction,
instruction, rules, policies,
procedures, seminars,
legislation, etc.
Enforcement
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 Enforcement ensures that

people comply with and
apply all that they have been
taught and instructed
through effective supervision,
inspections, audits, and
reports;
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Encouragement
 Encouragement by recognition,
incentives, awards, and
promotion, boosts the morale of
employees and makes them
respond more positively to the
requirements of the employment,
which has a valuable effect on
production.
Benefits Of
Safe Operations
 Safety pays great dividends to all
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stakeholders.
 The company has the continued
service of a healthy, competent and
efficient workforce, which ensures
achievement of targeted quality and
quantity of production, conservation
of funds that would otherwise have
been spent on medical, compensation,
and lost time bills, and greater profits.
 The employee remains healthy and fit and
is in a position to achieve his life ambition.
 He is able to fully enjoy the company of
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his family and associates his leisure and

hobbies.
 He remains in employment and is
employable in an appropriate job with full
earning capability.
 He has full hope of improved conditions
and elevation if he continues to give good
service unhindered by injury or ill health.

 The family is happy the breadwinner
is always available to provide for
them the pleasures and necessities
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of life.
 The community continues to reap
the benefits of the contributions of
a worthy member.
 Government earns increased from
the increased profits earned by the
company, and from the employee
who pays tax from his earnings.

Conclusion
 The risk to have a fatality is
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dramatically reduced if one controls

the less severe accidents.
 It is a good practice to treat small
accidents, near misses and
observation of unsafe situations with
care as this has a risk reducing effect
on all classes of incidents.
 The ultimate goal in
accident prevention is
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"zero" disabling injuries and

no lost work-time.
 However, there are many
barriers to achieving this
goal, the most important of
which is the human attitude.
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HEMP: HAZARDS AND EFFECTS
MANAGEMENT…..
INTRODUCTION
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•HEMP is an acronym for Hazard and Effect

Management Process. It is the heart of the
Health and safety Management System because
it helps in controlling all risk in the workplace and
also in managing the impacts failures in control.

• Hazard and effect management
process(HEMP) is one of the
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hazard management tools which

ensures that hazards are
identified, assessed and control
measures in place should any
accident happens so that the
company can quickly go back to
business. DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 92
DEFINITION: HEMP
HEMP is a risk management process which
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ensures that Hazards/Risks to workforce,

equipments, properties and environments
are properly controlled and reduced as low
as reasonably practicable (ALARP). In cases
of failure in controls, it helps manage the
impacts of incidents as well.
•HEMP is an iterative process
(repetitive process) because the
risk picture in every environment is
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subject to change.
• HEMP is achieved using four (4)
processes.
•Identify
•Assess
•Control
•Recover
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IDENTIFY
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NOTE: Hazard is defined as the potential to cause harm, ill health or

injury, damage to property, plant, products or the environment,
production losses or increase liabilities.

•To identify simply entails finding
out if the people, assets or
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environment is expose to potential

hazard
•It consist reviewing all activities in
that particular environ and
determine the hazard associated
with the activities carried out.
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IDENTIFY
•Continual hazard identification and
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risk reduction is required to maintain

and improve HSE performance.
•Most importantly a formal

documentation of HEMP processes
has to be maintained to create a risk
history.
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TOOLS TO ASSIST IN
IDENTIFYING THREATS,
HAZARDS
• Knowledge AND EFFECTS
and Judgment of experience staffs in
giving direct feedback from incidents, accidents,
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near misses and Job Safety plans
• Checklist are a useful way of ensuring that

known threats and hazards have all been
identified and assessed
•Using regulations and standards which contains

specific information on hazards and their
management for particular operations and
activities.
Structured
Review
Techniques
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Increasing level of detail Codes / Standards
Checklists
Experience /
Judgement
IDENTIFY ASSESS
HEMP
RECOVER CONTROL

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ASSESS

ASSESS
•This helps locate the cause of the hazard
and assist in the assessment of
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consequences.
• Consequences of the hazard are
documented in the hazard register, and
then each consequence is risk ranked
using an internal risk assessment matrix.
NOTE: A hazard register is a document that contains hazards identified, the
consequences related to the hazard and the risk associated with the hazard and
actions used to control the risk.
N OT E : A r i s k m a t r i x i s a m a t r i x t h a t i s u s e d d u r i n g r i s k
assessment to define the level of risk by considering the category of probability
or likelihood against the category of consequence severity.

ASSESS
To assess the risk and cause of a
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hazard, two methods are used,

namely…
• Qualitative Risk Assessment
•Quantitative Risk Assessment

ASSESS: Qualitative
Risk Assessment.
Qualitative risk assessment is a
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technique concerned with discovery

the probability of a risk event
occurring and the impact the risk
will have if it does occur

•Qualitative methods are best used for risk assessments
of simple facilities or operations, where the exposure of
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the workforce, public, environment, and/or asset is low.
•Qualitative risk assessments are typically a combination

of judgment, opinion, and experience, and using structured
review techniques with as much available risk information
as possible.
•Qualitative risk assessments should be carried out with

input from those people directly involved with the risk,
using a team approach. The logic here is that those
directly involved with the risk have the greatest self
interest and “buy-in” to subsequently control it.
KEY POINTS ABOUT QUALITATIVE RISK
ASSESSMENT
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• RECQUIRES LESS TIME AND IS LESS COSTLY

• FINDINGS ARE SIMPLE IN NATURE
• VALUE OF LOSS ARE PERCIEVED NOT QUANTIFIED
• FOCUS IS ON VULNERABILITIES TO THE AFFECTED
ASSESTS
• QUALITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT INVOLVES MAKING A
FORMAL JUDGEMENT ON THE CONSEQUENCE AND
PROBABILITY USING

QUANTITATIVE RISK
ASSESSMENT
• QUANTITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT IS USE OF MEASURABLE, OBJECTIVE
DATA TO DETERMINE ASSET VALUE, PROBABILITY OF LOSS, AND
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ASSOCIATED RISK(S)
•THIS RISK ASSESMENT HELPS IN IDENTIFYING THE GREATEST RISK

BASED ON FINANCIAL IMPACT.
• ONLY STAFF WITH ADEQUATE TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE SHOULD

UNDERTAKE QRA, ALTHOUGH IT IS CRITICAL THAT PERSONNEL
FAMILIAR WITH THE OPERATION OR FACILITY ARE INVOLVED IN THE
STUDY.
• QRA IS MOST COMMONLY USED IN THE PROCESS INDUSTRIES TO

QUANTIFY THE RISKS OF ‘MAJOR HAZARDS.
• QUANTITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENT METHOD USES NUMERICAL

M E A S U R E S TO E S T I M AT E T H E VA L U E S O F F R E Q U E N C Y O F
O C C U R R E N C E O F I N C I D E N T S A N D T H E P RO B A B I L I T Y O R
SUSCEPTIBILITY OF EVENTS.
EXAMPLES OF QUANTITATIVE
ASSESSMENT SOFTWARES
•ANALYTIC SOLVER SIMULATION - Risk Analysis, Monte Carlo
Simulation and Stochastic Optimization
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•ARAMAS - Enterprise database driven integrated system for Offshore QRA

from DNV GL
•EFFECTS - Consequence Analysis and damage calculation software from TNO
•HAMSAGARS - QRA software HAMS-GPS
•IMESAFR – Institute of Makers of Explosives Safety Analysis for Risk [1] – for

consequence and risk modeling for explosives safety professionals
•iQRAS (ITEMSOFT Quantitative Risk Assessment System) from ItemSoft
•MODELRISK - Risk analysis in Excel from Vose Software
•PELICAN - Quantitative enterprise risk management system from Vose

Software
DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING
110
BOW-TIE TECHNIQUE
• HIGH RISK HAZARD ARE ASSESSED USING THE BOW-TIE TECHNIQUE
• THE BOW-TIE TECHNIQIUE IS DESIGNED TO GENERATE THE

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FOLLOWING THREE (3) OUTCOMES
• A framework for each hazard that identifies incident scenarios and

associated stress that leads to one or more consequences. The framework
associates control measures to the threat and consequence lines and relates
these to the critical tasks and activities.
•An action list of the status of controls and/or critical tasks and activities in
the actual project, site or production unit.
•A link between the management system of the site or production unit to

the necessary controls and/or critical tasks and activities.

BOW-TIE TECHNIQUE
• THREATS ARE WRITTEN AT THE LEFT SIDE OF THE

BOW-TIE WHILE THE CONSEQUENCES ARE
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WRITTEN AT THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE BOW-TIE.
•THE TOP EVENT IS WRITTEN AT THE MIDDLE.
•CONTROL MEASURES ARE REVIEWED FOR EACH

THREAT.
•RECOVERY MEASURES ARE IDENTIFIED FOR EACH

CONSEQUENCES.
• TASK AND ACTIVITIES ARE RELATED TO THE

CONTROL MEASURES OR RECOVERY MEASURES TO
ENABLE THE INDIVIDUALS ACCOUNTABLE FOR
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ADVANTAGE USING RISK
ASSESSMENT MATRIX
• Enhance appreciation of HSE risk and help
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reduce the residual risk to As Low As

Reasonably Practicable (ALARP)
• Assist in setting clear risk matrix as a

product of likelihood (probability) and
Consequence (Impact).
•Frequency is a major influence on probability

and this can be traced with the records kept.
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CONTROL
•Risk controls should include prevention, mitigation,
and recovery measures. The following table illustrates
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the difference among these various types of controls

• Hierarchy of Risk Controls
In all cases, risk controls should be developed and
established so that risk reduction achieves a level
that is ALARP.
•The Risk Assessment Matrix is to be used as a
standard to identify controls that reduce risk to
ALARP. This Matrix for Risk Management is on the
next slide

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CONTROL
ELIMINATE: Eliminate the
hazard
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SUBSTITUTE: use processes

or methods with lower risk impact
ISOLATE/SEPARATE:
Segregate hazard and/or target
ENGINEER: Prevention or
Recovery
ORGANIZATION: Training, competency

and communication.
PROCEDURE: Operating procedure, Work

instruction, Permits maintenance regime, Emergency
response procedure.
PPE: Protect the person

ALARP (As Low As Reasonably
Practicable)
• The word ALARP arises from UK Legislation Health and
Safety at work act 1974 which requires “ Provision and
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maintenance of plant and systems of work that are, so far as

is reasonably practicable” but the phrase was later changed to
“As Low as Reasonably Practicable”
•This can be defined as when the residual risk (this is the amount
of risk left after the Inherent risk [Raw Risk] have been reduced by risk control) is
reduced as far as reasonably practicable.
•For a risk to be ALARP, it must be possible to demonstrate

that the cost involved in reducing the risk would be grossly
disproportionate to the benefit gained

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RECOVER
• This helps recoup from the release of hazards should the
controls that have been put in place fail to prevent its release
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• This also aid to mitigate the consequences of the hazard.
• It can reduce the likelihood that the hazard will develop

further consequences and provide life saving capabilities
should the top event escalates further.
• For recovery method to be successful formal

documentation has to be made. This records give an idea of
how the control failed and what to do so such mishap won’t
repeat itself

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RECOVER
Effective recovery procedures also require testing and review.
For instance, all procedures for recovery from high risk and
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emergency scenarios shall be in place and subject to testing

and defined review periods. In between the defined review
periods, recovery procedures should be reviewed, and
possibly updated, for the following situation:
• An incident has occurred.
• Following analysis of drills and testing.
• Any changes in the operational environment occur.
• There are changes in legal and other requirements and/or industry best
practice.
GAP ANALYSIS
• This is the comparison of actual performance with potential

or desired performance.
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• Gap analysis involves determining, documenting, and

improving the difference between health requirement and
current capabilities
•This helps to determine if each of the identified controls are

in place and if individuals responsible for maintaining the
controls are aware of their responsibilities.

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125
DEXTER & HEROS
DEXTER CONSULTING
& HEROS CONSULTING 125
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RECORD
• It is important to establish, manage, maintain, review, and

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update HEMP-related records to demonstrate traceability and

compliance with the entire HEMP process itself, the HSE MS,
and/or other requirements.
• This includes creating, making available, maintaining, and

reviewing / updating the documentation for Safety Critical
Equipment, including data and drawings that are critical to
managing
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RECORD
• The following documents should be kept to describe the

hazards and effects identification, analysis, controls results, and
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their monitoring requirements.
ØA HAZARD AND EFFECTS REGISTER: Demonstrates that

all hazards and effects have been identified, are understood, and are
being properly controlled.
Ø MANUAL OF PERMITTED OPERATIONS (MOPO):

ü The level and number of barriers put in place initially and the recovery
measures to be put in place.
ü The limit of safe operation if the barriers and/or recovery measures
are reduced, removed, bypassed, and/or purposefully defeated.
ü The limit of safe operation permitted during periods of escalated risk
in likelihood, consequences, or both.
ü Which activities may or may not be carried out concurrently, often
referred to “Simultaneous Operations”.
"DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 129
RECORD
• HSE CASE: The HSE Case must demonstrate that:

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vAll threats, hazards, and effects have been identified.

vThe likelihood and consequences of a hazardous event
have been assessed.
vControls to manage potential causes (threat barriers)
are in place.
vRecovery / emergency preparedness measures to
mitigate potential consequences have been taken.
"DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 130

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JOB HAZARD ANALYSIS
ØA job hazard analysis is a technique that focuses on
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job tasks as a way to identify hazards before they

cause an accident.
Ø It focuses on the relationship between the worker,

the task, the tools, and the work environment. Ideally,
after you identify uncontrolled hazards, you will also
take steps to eliminate or reduce them to an
acceptable risk level and then communicate these
findings to all of your employees in a documented
format.
JOB HAZARD ANALYSIS
ØThe purpose of the JHA is to identify hazards
associated with the workplace. It serves as a tool for
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super visors to implement controls needed to

improve working conditions or develop
administrative controls that reduce workplace
hazards.
Ø The primary focus of JHA is the development of

o p e r a t i o n a l e m p l oye e p ro t e c t i o n p ro g r a m s ,
identifying and eliminating hazards in the workplace,
a nd to iden tif y e m p l oye e s re q u i r in g m e dic a l
surveillance due to work related factors.
MERITS OF JOB
HAZARD ANALYSIS
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ØIt assists super visors in determining

personal protective equipment (PPE)
requirements.
Ø This is likely to result in fewer worker

injuries and illnesses; safer, more effective
work methods; reduced workers’
compensation costs; and increase worker
productivity.
STEPS TO BEGIN JOB
HAZARD ANALYSIS
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Ø Involve your employees

Ø Review your accident history
Ø Conduct a preliminary job review
Ø List, rank, and set priorities for hazardous
jobs.
Ø Outline the steps or tasks

INVOLVE YOUR
EMPLOYEES
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Ø It is very important to involve your employees

in the hazard analysis process. They have a unique
understanding of the job, and this knowledge is
invaluable for finding hazards.
Ø Involving employees will help minimize

oversights, ensure a quality analysis, and get
workers to “buy in” to the solutions because they
will share ownership in their safety and health
program.
REVIEW YOUR
ACCIDENT HISTORY
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Ø Review with your employees your worksite’s

history of accidents and occupational illnesses that
needed treatment, losses that required repair or
replacement, and any “near misses” —events in
which an accident or loss did not occur, but could
have.
Ø These events are indicators that the existing
hazard controls (if any) may not be adequate and
deserve more scrutiny.

CONDUCT A PRELIMINARY
JOB REVIEW
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Ø Discuss with your employees the hazards they

know exist in their current work and surroundings.
Brainstorm with them for ideas to eliminate or
control those hazards.
Ø If any hazards exist that pose an immediate
danger to an employee’s life or health, take
immediate action to protect the worker.
Ø For those hazards determined to present
unacceptable risks, evaluate types of hazard
controls.
LIST, RANK, AND SET
PRIORITIES FOR HAZARDOUS
JOBS
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Ø List jobs with hazards that present

unacceptable risks, based on those most
likely to occur and with the most severe
consequences.
Ø These jobs should be your first priority

for analysis.

HAZARD
Ø A hazard is the potential for harm. In

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practical terms, a hazard often is

associated with a condition or activity
that, if left uncontrolled, can result in an
injury or illness.
Ø Any problems that can be solved easily

should be corrected as soon as possible.

HOW TO IDENTIFY
WORKPLACE HAZARD
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Ø A job hazard analysis is more like being a

detective
Ø The goal is to get answers for the
following questions
ü What can go wrong?
ü What are the consequences?
ü How could it arise
ü What are other contributing factors
ü How likely will that hazard occur.
COMMON HAZARD
• Chemical (Toxic): A chemical that exposes a person by absorption
through the skin, inhalation, or through the blood stream that causes
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illness, disease, or death.
• Chemical (Flammable): A chemical that, when exposed to a heat

ignition source, results in combustion. Typically, the lower a chemical’s
flash point and boiling point, the more flammable the chemical.
• Excavation (Collapse): Soil collapse in a trench or excavation as a

result of improper or inadequate shoring. Soil type is critic
al in determining the hazard likelihood.

• Fall (Slip,Trip): Conditions that result in falls (impacts) from height or
traditional walking surfaces (such as slippery floors, poor housekeeping,
uneven walking surfaces, exposed ledges, etc.)
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• Fire/Heat: Temperatures that can cause burns to the skin or damage to

other organs. Fires require a heat source, fuel, and oxygen.
• Mechanical/ Vibration (Chaffing/Fatigue):Vibration that can cause
damage to nerve endings, or material fatigue that results in a safety-critical /
failure. (Examples are abraded slings and ropes, weakened hoses and belts.)
• Mechanical Failure: Self-explanatory; typically occurs when devices
exceed designed capacity or are inadequately maintained.

• Mechanical: Skin, muscle, or body part exposed to crushing, caught-between,
cutting, tearing, shearing items or equipment.
• Noise: Noise levels (>85 dB 8 hr) that result in hearing damage or inability to
communicate safety-critical information.
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• Chemical (Corrosive): A chemical that, when it comes into contact with skin,
metal, or other materials, damages the materials. Acids and bases are examples of
corrosives.
• Explosion (Chemical Reaction): Self-explanatory.
• Explosion Over Pressurization: Sudden and violent release of a large amount of
gas/energy due to a significant pressure difference such as rupture in a boiler or
compressed gas cylinder.
• Electrical (Shock/Short Circuit): Contact with exposed conductors or a
device that
(Shock/ is incorrectly or inadvertently grounded, such as when a metal ladder comes
into contact with power lines. 60Hz alternating current (common house current) is
very dangerous because it can stop the heart. DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 144
• Radiation (Ionizing): Alpha, Beta, Gamma, neutral particles, and X-rays
that cause injury (tissue damage) by ionization of cellular components.
• Radiation (Non-Ionizing): Ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, and
microwaves that cause injury to tissue by thermal or photochemical means.
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• Struck By (Mass Acceleration): Accelerated mass that strikes the body

causing injury or death. (Examples are falling objects and projectiles.)
• Struck Against: Injury to a body part as a result of coming into contact
of a surface in which action was initiated by the person. (An example is
when a screwdriver slips.)
• Temperature Extreme (Heat/Cold): Temperatures that result in heat
stress, exhaustion, or metabolic slow down such as hypothermia.
• Visibility: Lack of lighting or obstructed vision that results in an error or
other hazard.
• Weather Phenomena (Snow/Rain/Wind/Ice): Self-explanatory.
• Electrical (Fire): Use of electrical power that results in electrical overheating or
arcing to the point of combustion or ignition of flammables, or electrical component
damage.
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• Electrical (Static/ESD): The moving or rubbing of wool, nylon, other synthetic

fibers, and even flowing liquids can generate static electricity. This creates an excess
or deficiency of electrons on the surface of material that discharges (spark) to the
ground resulting in the ignition of flammables or damage to electronics or the
body’s nervous system.
• Electrical (Loss of Power): Safety-critical equipment failure as a result of loss of
power.
• Ergonomics (Strain): Damage of tissue due to overexertion (strains and
sprains) or repetitive motion.
• Ergonomics (Human Error): A system design, procedure, or equipment that is
error-provocative. (A switch goes up to turn something off).
146
GOOD HAZARD SCENERIOS
WOULD ANSWER THE
Ø Where is itFOLLOWING:
happening (Environment)
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ØWho or what it is happening to

(Exposure)
Ø What precipitates the hazard (Trigger)
Ø The outcome if the hazard occurs

(Consequences).
ØAny other contributing factors.

JOB HAZARD ANALYSIS
FORMAT
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Ø Different companies have their individual

JHA form but all must follow this format
1. Basic job step
2. Hazards- Possible injuries
3. Preventive measures

JOB HAZARD ANALYSIS
FORM FORMAT
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JOB:
S/N BASIC TASK STEP HAZARDS- PREVENTIVE

POSSIBLE INJURIES
INJURIES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
SAFE JOB PROCEDURE

SOURCES TO HELP IDENTIFY
HAZARDS
Ø Safety Data Sheets (SDSs)
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Ø Experienced workers
Ø Accident and incident reports
Ø First aid statistical records
Ø Behavior Based Safety (BBS) reports
Ø Safety Inspection reports
Ø Previous JHAs
Ø Existing Work Procedures
Ø Equipment manuals
Ø Preventive/ corrective maintenance records
HOW DO I CORRECT OR
PREVENT HAZARDS
After reviewing your list of hazards with the employee, consider what
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control methods will eliminate or reduce them.

For each potential accident cause or hazard identified, consider the
following questions:
• How should workers perform the task step to avoid the accident or
eliminate the potential hazard?
• What can be done to eliminate or mitigate the hazard by redesigning
the work area or equipment?
• How can the procedure be modified to eliminate the hazard?

HIGH RISK THAT INCREASE
THE PROBABILTY OF AN
ØWorking at an elevation
INJURY
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ØLifting, lowering, pushing, pulling, and other manual handling

operations
ØOthers working above or below the work area
ØUse of bridge cranes, man lifts or other heavy equipments
ØWorking alone or in isolated workplaces
ØOperating vehicles (i.e. trucks, forklifts, etc.)
ØWorking within a confined space or under temperature extremes

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RISK ANALYSIS
ØRisk is the probability or threat of quantifiable

damage, injury, liability, loss, or any other negative
occurrence that is caused by external or internal
vulnerabilities, and that may be avoided through
preemptive action.
ØOnce the tasks that require JHA is identified, it is
important to prioritize each task
ØInherent risk is an assessed level of raw or
untreated risk
RISK ANALYSIS
ØThe inherent risk in a job is a function of three
variables
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ØProbability
ØSeverity
ØDuration
ØTherefore :
Risk= Probability x Severity x Exposure
ØThe greater the probability, severity and
exposure, the higher the risk while doing the job

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RISK ANALYSIS

PROBABILITY
ØProbability describes the likelihood that a
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worker will be injured or become ill if exposed to

a hazard.
ØCommon terms used to describe probability are:
üUnlikely- Injury from exposure has low
probability. Less than 50% chance
üLikely- Injury from exposure has moderate
probability. 50/50 chance.
üVery Likely- injury from exposure has high
probability. Greater than 50%
SEVERITY
ØThis is an estimate of how serious the injury or
illness will be as a result of an accident.
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ØThe severity of an injury or illness for any given

exposure is largely fortuitous ( a matter of chance or
luck)
ØThe common terms used to describe severity are-
•Minor- Other than serious physical harm that
does not prevent the employee from coming to
work
•Serious- Serious physical harm that prevents the
employee from continuing to work in the same job
•Death- Fatality

EXPOSURE
ØThis is the condition of being exposed to hazard
such that the employee is somehow affected by
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the hazard
Ø Exposure can be divided into 2
•Physical exposure which is otherwise known
as arms-length exposure to physical hazards. It
can be much farther if a biological hazard exist.
If the employee can get injured or ill as a result
of proximity, physical exposure exists.
•Environmental exposure when the employee
can suffer some kind of injury or illness as a
result of a hazardous environment. Distance
doesn’t matter. DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 158
FACTORS TO JUSTIFY LEVEL OF
RISK
ØThe number of employees exposed to hazards
ØThe number of hazards in the procedure
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ØThe number of opportunities for unsafe behaviors

ØThe frequency of exposure to hazards
ØThe employee’s belief about the hazard
ØThe duration of the exposure to specific hazards
ØThe proximity of employees to the point of danger
ØThe complexity of the procedure
ØPotential severity of the injury or illness when
exposed
ØUnreasonable workload(Physically or Mentally)
ØWorking under distress(Hurry, fatigue, illness and
personal problems)
RISK ASSESSMENT
ØThis is a simple MATRIX
process to determine the risk
level of each job
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ØIn carrying out Risk Assessment Matrix, you

embark on the following
•List all the jobs that you are analyzing
•‘Estimate the probability and severity of each
job
•Next place the task in the appropriate section
of the risk matrix.
ØOnce you have entered all tasks, you can easily
prioritize each job to determine which jobs to
analyze first.
RISK ASSESSMENT
MATRIX
ØTo precisely determine risk , using numerical
values is advised.
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ØQuantifying risk helps justify how you have to

prioritized jobs.
Ø Risk (R) = Severity x Probability x Exposure or
R=SxPxE
Identify specific hazards and assign them a value
for each element below.
The higher the number, the greater the Severity,
Probability or Exposure.

RISK ASSESSMENT
MATRIX
Ø Severity: Scored 1 to 5. Describes the potential loss or
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consequence or a mishap. Protective devices or procedures,

engineering controls, and PPE are used to mitigate Severity.
1=none or slight 2=Minimal 3=Significant 4=Major 5=Catastrophic
Ø Probability: Scored 1 to 5. The likelihood that given the Exposure, the

projected consequences will occur.
1=Impossible or remote under normal conditions 2=Unlikely under
normal conditions 3=50/50 chance 4=Greater than 50% chance 5=Very
likely
ØExposure: Scored 1 to 4. The amount of time, number of cycles,
number of people and resources (equipment) involved.
1=None or below average 2=Average 3=Above average 4=Great
ØCompute the value of Risk (R = S x E x P) to evaluate the
effectiveness of mission and risk of execution.

RISK ASSESSMENT
VALUES (%)
MATRIX
RISK LEVEL ACTION
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80-00 VERY HIGH DISCONTINUE/

STOP
60-79 HIGH IMMEDIATE
CORRECTION
40-59 SUBSTANTIAL CORRECTION
REQUIRED
20-39 POSSIBLE ATTENTION
NEEDED
1-19 SLIGHT POSSIBLY
ACCEPTABLE
ü Compute the Risk Value for each hazard identified. Focus attention from
highest values down.

RISK ASSESSMENT
MATRIX
ØAfter assessing risk using numbers, you prioritize the
most hazardous job first
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ØIf JHA is required for many task in a workplace, priority

should go to the following types of job in order of priority
üJobs with the highest injury or illness rates
üJobs with the potential to cause severe or disabling
injuries or illness, even if there is no history of previous
accidents
üJobs in which one simple human error could lead to
severe accident or injury
üJobs that are new to your operation or have
undergone changes in processes and procedures
üJobs complex enough to require written instructions

QUIZ
1. Any problem that can be corrected easily should be
corrected
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a. Within the same day

b. As soon as possible
c. Immediately after the JHA is completed
d. In a timely manner after the JHA is complete
2. All the following are factors that increase risk of injury,

except;
a. Proximity of employees
b. Lack of stress inherent in the job
c. Frequency and duration of exposure
d. Number of employees exposed
QUIZ
3. Why is it important to involve employees in the hazard analysis
process?
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a. Ensure they are held accountable

b. They have common sense about work
c. They feel ownership in the process
d. Ensures a generic approach
4. Which of the following job categories would be considered the

highest priority for a JHA?
a. Jobs that are new to the operation
b. Jobs that have undergone changes in process
c. Jobs that could cause a severe or disabling injury
d. Jobs with the highest injury or illness rates

ANALYSIS
ØAnalysis includes breaking the whole
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procedure down into basic steps

ØThe idea is to carefully describe
actions and hazards within each step
and how to mitigate those hazards
through control strategies
ØEach step of a procedure describes the
worker (actor) does (action)

ACTOR
Ø The actor is an individual or object that directly participates or assists
in the procedure. The actor initiates a change by performing or not
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performing a particular action in a step
ACTIONS
Ø An action is the something that is done by an actor. Actions may or
may not be observable. An action may describe a behavior that is
accomplished or not accomplished. Not performing an action should
be thought of as important as performing an action when developing a
step

ANALYSIS
ØIt is important to understand that when describing a step in
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writing, first identify the actor ( if two or more workers are

involved in the step) and then what the actor is supposed to
do.
Example: Maintenance team leader: “Attach the lookout device
to the office”
ØIn this example , the actor is identified because a team of
maintenance workers is performing the task. The actor
(maintenance team leader) is identified first and then the
action (attach) is described.
TIPS TO CONDUCT A JHA
ØBe sure to record enough information to describe each job action without
getting overly detailed at this point. You will include ,ore detail later in the safe job
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procedure.
ØAvoid making the breakdown of steps so detailed that it becomes unnecessarily
long. On the other hand, don’t make it so broad that it does not include basic
steps.
ØGet input from other workers who have performed the same job
ØReview the job steps with an employee to make sure to have not omitted
something .
ØPoint out that you are analyzing the task, not evaluating the employee’s job
performance
ØInclude the employee in all phases of the analysis--- from reviewing job steps and
procedures to discussing hazards and solutions
ØIt may be helpful to photograph or videotape the worker performing the job.
170
Remember, Accidents do
not just happen!
www.dexterheros.com
“The cautious seldom err."

- Confucius
171
DEXTER & HEROS
www.dexterheros.com
CONSULTING LTD
Suite 104, NCWS Building, By FCDA,
Area 11, Garki, Abuja
info@dexterheros.com
www.dexterheros.com
www.facebook.com/dexterherosng
Tel: 08130624951

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DEXTER & HEROS

HEALTH SAFETY &

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 2

To learn and apply the

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 4

across every industry that has

 Hazards are usually associated

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 5

capacity to cause injury on the

hazards can also impact adversely the

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 6

poses a level of threat to life,

anything or situation in the

workplace can impact the

◦ Host environment of the

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 9

hazards in a workplace can

◦ Your colleagues (co-workers)

things cannot survive

basically offered by the

◦ Ozone Layer Depletion

ii. Biological hazards

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 15

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 16

 They include unsafe conditions that can cause

◦ familiarity (there are always cords running across the

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 17

 Unguarded machinery and moving machinery parts.

 Working from heights, including ladders, scaffolds,

laundry and room cleaning,

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 19

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 20

work, body position and working conditions

always immediately notice the strain on your

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 22

ii. improperly adjusted workstations and

iv. poor posture

preparation in the workplace in any form

workers who are more sensitive to

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 24

solvents especially chemicals in an

come from welding or exposure to

Materials Information System

sure you have the information

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 26

 Other types of hazards, such as ergonomic

impairment) may not show up until after

 It is therefore evident that hazards exist in

 This is what Health Safety and

the four (4) vulnerable factors of our

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 30

 In its broadest sense, it should aim at:

iv. the placing and maintenance of workers in an

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 32

lives, since most workers spend at

little or no responsibility for the protection

serious direct and indirect effects on

costs of an accident or illness can be four

 For employers, some of the direct

◦ a new worker has to be trained and given time

DEXTER & HEROS CONSULTING 38

employers are very high.

to health and safety and that: