DC Machines

POLITECNICO DI MILANO - DIPARTIMENTO DI INGEGNERIA AEROSPAZIALE
AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS – LECTURE NOTES, VERSION 2004

Chapter 4 – Electrical System
Chapter 4
Electrical System
These lecture notes are available for the students of the Polytechnic of Milan for free download. 4.1
No commercialisation allowed.
Queste dispense possono essere gratuitamente scaricate da Internet dagli studenti del Politecnico di Milano.
E’ vietata la commercializzazione.
4.1 Introduction
The electrical system on aircraft is necessary for a series of uses:
• control of movable parts by means of transformation of electrical energy (tension

and intensity) into mechanical energy (force and stroke);
• internal and external lighting;
• heating of some parts (ice protection);
• electric and electronic instruments supply.
As seen before, also this system is made of 4 stages: generation, control, transfer
and use. Generation is obtained by electric tension generators; devices acting on the
generators and their output current control the energy delivered, or tension; wirings
distribute energy to all necessary areas of the vehicle; motors operate the final
conversion of energy for the use in movable parts, electric resistors convert to light or
heating, or other devices make use of the electric current for operation.
An electrical system is present on all airplanes, in a more or less developed form

depending on the aircraft category. In the simplest form, it supplies power to the radio
on a glider. In the more complex form, it operates all the uses listed above.
4.2 System characteristics

It is possible to realise systems operating in direct or alternate current, and with
different tensions and frequencies. Theoretically it would be possible to optimise a
system with its own parameters (voltage and frequency), but this is not practically
feasible because the components
Type of current Tension (V) Frequency (Hz) should be manufactured ad hoc.
DC 28 - Then some standards are currently
AC 115/200 Variable or 400 used, as indicated in tab. 4.1, and
Tab 4.1 – Electrical system parameters are a balance of different needs and
restrictions. From Ohm’s laws:
V = R⋅I
L,
R=ρ
S
where:
V = tension or voltage;
R = resistance;
I = intensity or current;
ρ = resistivity;
L = length of conductor;
S = area of conductor.
The power is given by:
W =V ⋅I .
Combining the laws a simple relationship between the wire area and the power is
found:
WρL
S= .
V2
This formula states that, if high power must be transferred, the wire area (and then
weight) can be limited if a high voltage is used for the current.
A 115 VAC can be easily obtained from relatively low weight three-phase generators.
Higher voltage can also be easily obtained, with further reduction of the wiring areas,
but then isolating problems arise, with a consequent increase of thickness of the
sheath, voltage loss (proportional to the current) and power loss (proportional to the
current squared). A high voltage DC could also be generated, but since the DC
branch should also be connected to accumulators, high voltage accumulators would
be dramatically heavy. Then 28 VDC is considered to be a good balance of needs,
even if at present 270 VDC systems (with conversion to 115 VAC and 28 VDC) are
being considered, because they seem to be more efficient for the “more electric
aircraft” configurations.
As far as AC frequency is concerned, this is function of the rotating speed of the
generator. A high-speed
Actuators Heating Lighting Avionics Storage generator is normally lighter
AC ` ` ` ` than a low speed one, fixing
DC ` ` ` ` `
the power; but high rotational
Tab 4.2 – Uses of AC and DC speeds involve structural
problems; then 400 Hz was a
suitable balance of needs, even if present technology could bring to a revision of the
standard.
It is clear from tab. 4.2 that, in general, DC is absolutely necessary on an aircraft,

because it may operate all uses on board and can be stored. On the other hand, 28
VDC are too low for an efficient transfer of high power: the limit of a DC system
intensity is 400 A, for generator
AC AC and protection sizing; 28 V and
GENERATOR USES
400 A mean a power of 11 kW,
AC → DC DC that is low with respect of many
CONVERSION USES on board requirements for large
aircraft. Then commonly both
AC PRIMARY BATT
types of current are available on
board. Normal practice is to
DC PRIMARY generate one type of power,
BATT called primary, and convert to
the other, called secondary. Fig.
DC DC
GENERATOR USES 4.1 shows the two possibilities
(AC and DC primary power).
DC → AC AC The choice to have either an
CONVERSION USES
AC or DC primary electrical
power depends on the electrical
Fig. 4.1 – Primary and secondary power
generation and conversion
loads, or aircraft category:
general aviation and small
transport aircraft, including executive and small turboprop regional transport, use
commonly a DC primary power. Some use a mixed DC and AC generation (ATR-42).
Turbofan airliners, as well as combat aircraft, use primary AC power.
4.3 Electric power generation

A DC generator in its simplest form is represented in fig. 4.2: a conductor armature
(rotor), or wire loop, rotates in a magnetic field (stator) and this induces an
electromotive force in the wire. Sliding brush contacts connect the wire to the
external circuit load. The commutator indicated in figure is made of two semi-
cylindrical parts, each sensing one semi-
sinusoid current. The result is then a
sinus modulus current. When many
armatures are used (coils), the effect is a
sum of the contributions to a steady
tension output, function of the rotating
speed and magnetic field.
More commonly used DC generators
have the magnetic field electrically
generated; the advantage is the
regulation of the tension output by
Fig. 4.2 – Elementary DC generator feedback to the magnetic field, so that
also a non-constant speed generator may
supply constant voltage.
This basic generator has the advantage of being reversible, i.e. if a tension is applied
the coil is subject to a torque and tends to rotate: a DC motor. In any aviation
applications this device is used as DC generator and engine starter. As engine
starter the torque and power is sufficient for small engines, typically turboprop, and
APU’s.
The main disadvantage is the brush sparkling, which wears and degrades the
contacts, especially in rarefied atmosphere, that is a very common working condition.
Then if a reversible generator-starter is not required, a rectified AC generator is
preferred, that is an AC generator with output AC converted and transformed into
DC.
AC generators, often called alternators, are based on the same principles of DC

generators, i.e. on the induction of an electromotive force into an armature. If the
armature is the rotor, like in the previous case, then the only substantial difference
with respect to the DC generator is that
in the AC version there is no
commutator, but a couple of complete
slip rings that bring the current through
brush contacts to the external load. Of
course this kind of alternator suffers
from the same disadvantage of the DC
generator, which is brush wear.
If the armature is a stator and the
magnetic field changes, then a
brushless alternator comes out.
Practical rotating field AC generators
are made of an alternator coupled with
a small DC generator (exciter). The
alternator output supplies the external
load, the DC output generates the
magnetic field. The armature is wound
for a three-phase output, and the
Fig. 4.3 – 3-phase alternator voltage in one phase is displaced 120°
with respect to the other two (fig. 4.3).

A group of 6 leads coming out from the generator is not practical. Normally the
corresponding leads of each output phase are connected together (Y- or Wye-
connection) to form the neutral phase. Then 4 wires come out from the generator:
one neutral and three phases. Thus both single- and three-phase voltage is
available; the first one is obtained from any phase and the neutral.
The output frequency f of the alternator is directly proportional to the rotation speed n
and number of poles p:
np
f= ,
120
where n is expressed in revolutions per minute and f in Hz.

The output voltage depends on the number of windings of the coil, the rotational
speed and the intensity of the magnetic field. Since a constant frequency requires a
constant speed, the only possible control for the voltage is through the magnetic field.
In many cases the generators work in parallel, so that a subsystem fault does not
compromise the function of some electrical or electronic devices.
In the case of a DC system, the voltage regulation must of course be precise. The
regulators of each parallel generator must then be interlinked for proper adjustment
of any load difference (equalising system).
In an AC system the problem is even more complex, because beyond the voltage
equalisation there is also a problem of synchronism, since also frequencies and
phases must be coupled. The goal is reached by a refined trimming of the speed and
magnetic field excitation on the basis of measures of load imbalance from the
different alternators.
4.4 AC frequency control

In most cases, especially in some avionics power supply and AC motors, the AC
system must have a constant frequency. This has been fixed conventionally to 400
Hz. There are different ways to obtain a constant frequency from a device that has
varying speed power source (the engine).
A common solution is the IDG, or integrated drive generator, that is an alternator

interfaced with a CSD, or constant speed driver. This one is a hydro mechanical
device whose mechanical part is a differential gear and hydraulic part a pump-motor
assembly. This system is capable to generate a constant output speed when the
input is in the wide range of 3000 – 9000 rpm.
Another option is the use of VSCF (variable speed constant frequency) converter.
This is a solid-state electronic component that can be based on two principles:
1. DC link: the variable frequency AC is rectified to an intermediate DC and then
electronically converted to 115 V 400 Hz 3-phase AC; this has civil applications;
2. cycloconverter: the alternator generates a 3-phase frequency considerably in
excess and delivered on 6 lines; electronically the phases are switched to select a
constant 400 Hz output; this has, up to now, only military applications.
The possibility to have wild frequency generation is recently considered. This means
that the electric system must not have any constant frequency use, or that local
controllers must be installed, typically AC motor speed regulators.
4.5 AC/DC conversion

As mentioned in section 4.2, there is usually a primary power generation in one type
of current and conversion to secondary power.
AC to DC conversion is obtained by transformer rectifier units (TRU), which are

based on a winding transformer and semi-conductor rectifier of the three-phase wave
to a plain single phase DC.
DC to AC is obtained by solid-state inverters, which are limited to single-phase

operation. Previous transforming devices were DC motors linked to an alternator.
In few occasions it is necessary a plain transformation of voltage, by normal

autotransformers.
4.6 Electric motors

Electric motors may have different applications on board. Beyond the use as linear
and rotary actuator for the control of movable parts, motors can be used for the
operation of hydraulic and pneumatic valves, engine starters, pumps, gyroscopic
instruments and fan cooling systems.
A first choice is between DC and AC motors.
A DC motor, as already stated, is made like a DC generator but works inversely: by

applying a voltage to the input leads, a torque is generated on the coil (rotor) by the
magnetic field (stator). The rotational direction depends on the voltage (or magnetic
field) sign; the speed on the voltage (or magnetic field intensity). DC motors are
mostly used for non-continuous or variable speed functions, such as linear and rotary
actuation, valve operation and starter functions.
AC motors are instead more
convenient for constant speed and
continuous applications, such as
operation of fuel pumps and
gyroscopic instruments.
An AC motor can also be seen as a
reversed alternator: by input of a
variable current, the magnetic field is
alternating (stator) and a torque is
generated on the armature (rotor).
This kind of motor is called series
motor and has characteristics similar
to those of the DC version, but with
speed depending on the input
frequency.
A synchronous three-phase motor is
more commonly used. It operates on
Fig. 4.4 – Stator magnetic field
for synchronous and induction motors
the principle of rotating magnetic
field, as indicated in fig. 4.4. The
three phases are excited by the input three-phase alternating current in such a way
that two opposite windings generate a strong magnetic field, with minor aid from the
other two couples of windings. During one complete cycle of the input current, the
resulting magnetic field in the stator has done a complete rotation too. If a rotor coil is
suspended in the stator and excited by a DC current, the stator field will attract the
rotor field into rotation. The problem of this system is that the start-up is not natural,
because the moment of inertia of the rotor is such that this is not able to spin up and
follow the rotating field; in other words a synchronous motor in its purest form has no
starting torque; it has torque only when it is running at synchronous speed. An
additional rotor is then used, where the stator field induces another rotating magnetic
field that, by interaction, spins up the rotor; when the rotor is near the synchronous
speed, the DC coil is excited and the two fields are locked together. This motor
allows very high torque but is rather heavy and mostly used for ground and
continuous applications.
An induction motor is commonly used on aircraft. The stator is the same of a
synchronous motor; the rotor is a laminated cylinder with copper bars inserted in
slots of the cylinder surface and connected, then creating a sort of cage included in
the cylinder. The stator magnetic field induces a magnetic field in the rotor cage. The
interaction between the two fields causes the rotor to turn.
According to this functioning principle, there must be a differential speed between the
rotor and the stator speed, otherwise there is no induction in the rotor. This difference
is called slip. Higher slip brings to higher torque, but actually small slip variations
compensate for high torque variations, so that the induction motors are considered
constant speed motors.
The induction motor is much more simple than the synchronous one; it does not need
a DC excitation for the spin up of rotor, has easily a rugged construction and has
relatively low costs and maintenance.
4.7 Electric power storage

The primary task of the battery is energy storage, but has actually another secondary
advantage on the system, that is the damping of voltage rippling (like the
accumulator in the hydraulic system).
Energy storage has two purposes
1. to start-up the systems when the aircraft is parked with no ground assistance;
2. to supply short-term emergency power to primary controls in case of electrical
system failure.
Start-up depends on the aircraft category. For piston engine aircraft and turboprop of
moderate power, the battery is able to operate a DC starter on the engine. In the
other cases, the battery will operate a DC starter on the APU (with all services
disconnected, to reduce the speed-up torque); once this is on, the hydraulic,
electrical and pneumatic generation is activated, then providing enough energy for all
system checks and engine start up.
Main battery performance indices are the capacity and storage density.
The capacity is expressed in Ampere-hours, i.e. indicates the current and time it can
deliver. As a matter of fact, efficiency must be taken into account, which increases as
discharge time increases. This means that a 50 Ah battery can actually deliver 2.5 A
for 20 hours (usually the capacity is indicated for a 20 hours discharge time), but its
real capacity will decrease for higher discharge rates. Similar observations can be
made for the battery charge.
The storage density is expressed in unit mass, typically Wh/kg and is of course a
figure of utmost importance for aircraft applications.
A battery is made of a group of cells connected in series; a cell is a device able to

transform chemical energy into electrical energy. In its basic form, the cell is a
container that holds an electrolyte (salt, acid or alkaline solution in liquid or jelly form)
and two immersed conductors, anode and cathode.
Two main types of battery are available: lead acid and Nickel-Cadmium.
The lead acid battery has a 2.1 V cell with two electrodes made of lead dioxide
(PbO2) and sponge lead (Pb) and the electrolyte made of a water solution of
sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
The reversible reaction that takes place during discharge consists in the combination
of the lead of the two electrodes with the acid; the net reaction is as follows:
PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 ⇔ 2PbSO4 + 2H2O,
but at the electrodes it is not balanced and generates electrons:

+ -- -
PbO2 + 4H + SO4 + 2e ⇔ PbSO4 + 2H2O
-- -
Pb + SO4 ⇔ PbSO4 + 2e
The Ni-Cd battery has a 1.2 V cell with the two electrodes made of cadmium (Cd)
and nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH) and the electrolyte made of a water solution of
potassium hydroxide (KOH). The net reaction is as follows:
Cd + 2H2O + 2NiOOH ⇔ 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2.
At the Cd electrode (anode) the atoms dissolve spontaneously into ions in the
-
electrolyte and then combining immediately with the OH ions present in the
electrolyte, as follows:
++ -
Cd ⇔ Cd + 2e
++ -
Cd + 2OH ⇔ Cd(OH)2
At the cathode there is another spontaneous reaction as follows:

- -
2NiOOH + 2e + 2H2O ⇔ 2Ni(OH)2 + 2OH
This battery is commonly used because has many advantages with respect to the
classic Pb battery:
• less maintenance;
• higher efficiency at high discharge
rates (and then also shorter charge
times);
• steadier voltage during discharge (fig.
4.5)
• lower self-discharge when not used;
• high cycle life (2000 charge-
discharge cycles against 500 of the
Fig. 4.5 – Discharge history of
lead acid); Pb and Ni-Cd batteries
• higher energy density (60 Wh/kg
against 30 Wh/kg of the Pb battery).
On the other hand it is more expensive and has higher memory effect, which needs a
full discharge-recharge to almost reset the original capacity.
Silver-Zinc batteries are used for power emergency equipment: they are expensive,
have short cycle life (less than 100 cycles) but have higher energy density than the
lead-acid and Ni-Cd batteries (200 Wh/kg).
The plot in fig. 4.5 says also that a measure of the residual battery capacity can
hardly be done on the voltage, because it does not change significantly during the
discharge. Measuring the density of the electrolyte, which has a variation of more
than 10% from full charge to full discharge in the Pb battery, lower for Ni-Cd, does a
correct measure, for liquid electrolyte batteries.

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POLITECNICO DI MILANO - DIPARTIMENTO DI INGEGNERIA AEROSPAZIALE

AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS – LECTURE NOTES, VERSION 2004

• control of movable parts by means of transformation of electrical energy (tension

An electrical system is present on all airplanes, in a more or less developed form

4.2 System characteristics

The power is given by:

It is clear from tab. 4.2 that, in general, DC is absolutely necessary on an aircraft,

4.3 Electric power generation

AC generators, often called alternators, are based on the same principles of DC

with respect to the other two (fig. 4.3).

where n is expressed in revolutions per minute and f in Hz.

4.4 AC frequency control

A common solution is the IDG, or integrated drive generator, that is an alternator

4.5 AC/DC conversion

AC to DC conversion is obtained by transformer rectifier units (TRU), which are

DC to AC is obtained by solid-state inverters, which are limited to single-phase

In few occasions it is necessary a plain transformation of voltage, by normal

4.6 Electric motors

A DC motor, as already stated, is made like a DC generator but works inversely: by

4.7 Electric power storage

A battery is made of a group of cells connected in series; a cell is a device able to

PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 ⇔ 2PbSO4 + 2H2O,

but at the electrodes it is not balanced and generates electrons:

Cd + 2H2O + 2NiOOH ⇔ 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2.

At the cathode there is another spontaneous reaction as follows:

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