Biology Notes

Plasma membrane

B) Electrogenic pump
-Proton pump/hydrogen ion pump
 Actively transports H+ out of the cell
 Generate voltage (unequal distribution of charges in the plasma membrane)
 Creates two things: electrochemical gradient and voltage
 Stored energy in the plasma membrane (energy can be used in cotransport)
 Pumps hydrogen ions out of the cytoplasm but doesn’t let hydrogen ions enter the
cytoplasm.

 Sucrose concentration is higher in cytoplasm (against concentration gradient) whereas

the concentration of hydrogen ions is higher in the extracellular fluid.
 Cotransport: Two substances simultaneously transported across a membrane by a
transport protein.
 Animal cell- sodium ion (down the concentration gradient) and glucose (against the
concentration gradient hence it needs energy)
 Plant cell- hydrogen ion (down the concentration gradient) and sucrose (against the
concentration gradient hence it needs energy from the plasma membrane)
 Concept can be used to treat dehydration due to diarrhoea

C) BULK TRANSPORT
 Bulk means large molecules are transported across the membrane in bulk via vesicles
 Requires energy
ENDOCYTOSIS (Entering the cytoplasm) (remember EN=ENTER)
 Phagocytosis (cellular eating) (solids)
 Pinocytosis (cellular drinking) (liquid)
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis (only solids)

Phagocytosis (solid)
1. The solid substances are taken into a cell by invagination.
2. A food vacuole is formed
3. The food vacuole fuses with a lysosome to begin digestion.
4. Ex: Unicellular organism (Amoeba) and white blood cell engulfs a disease-causing
fungal cell. Neutrophils, leukocytes and monocytes (types of white blood cells)
Pinocytosis (liquid)
1. A dimple forms in the plasma membrane.
2. A deepening pit encloses a fluid from the outside of the cell
3. The plasma membrane then forms a vesicle that buds into the cytoplasm.
4. Pinocytic vesicles are smaller than phagocytic vacuoles

Receptor-mediated endocytosis
1. Has receptor proteins that are embedded on the plasma membrane of the cell.
2. Coated pit= a pit rich with receptor proteins
3. Coated vesicle=vesicle coated with coating protein
4. Invagination happens
5. Emptied receptors are recycled to the plasma membrane
6. Ex: the intake of cholesterol molecules for synthesis of membranes a precursor for the
synthesis of other steroids
7. Cholesterol travels in the blood in particles called LDL (low-density lipoproteins)
8. Hypercholesterolemia= Characterized by a very high level of cholesterol in the blood.
Defective receptor proteins for LDL, hence the cholesterol cannot bind to any
receptors due to the absence or insufficient number of receptors and cannot enter the
cell. This will result in the cholesterol accumulating in the blood and contributes to
early atherosclerosis.
9. Severe disease- when receptor proteins are not found on the surface of the plasma
membrane

Endocytosis and exocytosis

1. Occurs continuously and yet the area of the cell membrane remains constant. This is
because the addition of membrane by one process (exocytosis) offsets the loss of membrane
by the other (endocytosis). The net movement is constant; hence the cell membrane does not
change. Summarizing, one goes out, one goes in.

EXOCYTOSIS (Exiting the cytoplasm) (remember EX=EXIT)

 Transport vesicles migrate to the membrane and fuses with it and release their
contents outside the cell.
 Can be found in the nerve cells, plant cells, and pancreatic cells.
 DESCRIBE WHAT THE GRAPH SHOWS
(HOW TO DESCRIBE THE GRAPH)
1. Look at the line and state the trend. Analyse the differences. Explain the graph.
(Uptake of glucose increases as the incubation time increases)
2. Go more detailed by stating the instantaneous rate and compare with another rest
of data. (At 20 minutes, the glucose uptake by the 15-day old pig is higher than
the 1-month old pig)
3. Take one data at the beginning, the middle and the end.

Explain the difference between glucose uptake and the incubation period
 15-day old guinea pig have more carrier proteins and require high concentration of
glucose because the glucose is needed in cellular respiration in growth.
 Glucose as nutrients
 Glucose for cellular respiration
 CHAPTER 4: ENZYMES
4.1 Catalysis and concept of activation energy
Characteristics of enzymes
 Globular proteins
 Catalysts (Speed up chemical reactions)
 Not consumed or changed
 Substrate binds to the complementary active site of the enzyme to form enzyme-
substrate complex
 Catalyse reactions by lowering activation energy barrier in correct orientation,
favourable conditions, bonds in reactants stretched to achieve transition state.
 Form temporary covalent bond with substrate.
ACTIVATION ENERGY AND FREE ENERGY
1. Activation energy: the initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction.
2. Free energy(G) is available energy to do work. It is also called the Gibbs Free Energy.
The thermodynamic potential that can be used to calculate the maximum of reversible
work that may be performed by a thermodynamic system at a constant temperature
and pressure.
3. Activation energy and free energy are different.
Without enzymes, the initial energy that is needed to start a chemical reaction is high, hence
what happens at the transitional state is that old bonds are broken, and new bonds are formed.
If enzymes are present, the activation energy needed will be lower because the enzymes
lower the activation energy in order to start chemical reactions.
Free energy (G) is not affected. The value is the same. Hence, enzymes lower the activation
energy without affecting the free energy (G) value.

Induced Fit Model

In this model, the substrate is not complementary to the active site. Even so, it can bind to the
active site as the active site is able to change the shape of its active site following the shape of
the substrate (induced fit). So, now the bond is called enzyme-substrate complex. Old bonds
are broken, new bonds are formed. This will produce a new substance called enzyme-product
complex. After this, the enzyme will release the product from the active site and after that,
the enzyme’s active site will return to its original shape.
4.2 Mechanism of enzyme action: Lock and Key Model
 The shape of the active site is complementary to the shape of the substrate.
 Forms enzyme-substrate complex
 Old bonds broke; new bonds are formed
 Product has different shape
 Released from the enzyme
Lock Key Model and Induced Fit Model
Lock and Key Model Induced Fit Model
Substrate is complementary to the active Substrate is not complementary to the active
site of enzyme site of enzyme
Binding of substrate with enzyme Binding of substrate with enzyme
Enzyme-substrate complex Enzyme-substrate complex
Old bonds break; new bonds form Old bonds break; new bonds form
Enzyme-product complex Enzyme-product complex
Products are released Products are released
Enzyme binds to other substrates Enzymes returns to its original shape, then
only it can bind with other substrates.
Products are different from substrate Products are different from substrate