REHABCON IPS-2000-00063

ANNEX H
Patching

EC DG ENTR -C-2
Innovation and SME Programme
IPS-2000-0063
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REHABCON
Strategy for maintenance and
rehabilitation in concrete structures
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CONTENTS

1 DESCRIPTION ……………………………………………………… ………………… 4

2 DESIGN CRITERIA …………………………………………………………………… 5

2.1. Design requirements ...………………………………………………………………….. 5
2.1.1. Bearing capacity and structural considerations …………………………………. 5
2.1.2. Serviceability state: Deflection and cracking …………………………………….. 8

2.2. Performance requirements …………………………………………………………….. 8

2.2.1. Structural safety & serviceability ………………………………………………. 8
2.2.2. Durability ………………………………………………………………………. 8
2.2.3. Costs ……………………………………………………………………………. 10
2.2.4. Health and safety ……………………………………………………………….. 11
2.2.5. Serviceability and functionality ……………………………………………….. 11
2.2.6. Environmental impact and sustainability ………………………………………. 12
2.2.7. Aesthetics ………………………………………………………………………. 12

3 EXECUTION ………………………………………………………………………… 12
3.1. Material selection ……………………………………………………………………. 12
3.2. Preliminary works …………………………………………………………………… 16
3.2.1. Requirements of concrete substrate …………………………………………… 16
3.2.2. Preparation of concrete substrate ……………………………………………… 17
3.2.3. Cleaning of concrete substrate ………………………………………………… 19
3.2.4. Preparation of reinforcements ………………………………………………… 21
3.3. Replacement of concrete ……………………………………………………………. 23
3.3.1. Shotcrete ……………………………………………………………………….. 24
3.3.2. Pre-pack ………………………………………………………………………... 25
3.3.3. Pumping ………………………………………………………………………... 25
3.3.4. Cast-in-place …………………………………………………………………… 25

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3.3.5. Grouting … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .. 26
3.3.6. Hand applied cement based mortars … … … … … … … … … … … … … …. 27
3.3.7. Hand applied organic based mortars … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 28
3.3.8. Curing …………………………………………………………………………… 29
3.3.9. Surface protection ………………………………………………………………. 30

4 QUALITY CONTROL ……………………………………………………………… 32

4.1. Previous control on the supplied materials ………………………………………….. 32
4.2. Controls during practical execution …………………………………………………. 33
4.3. Controls after practical execution ……………………………………………………. 34

5 NORMATIVE AND REFERENCES ………………………………………………. 35

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1 DESCRIPTION
Patch repair is a technique which involves the removal of deteriorated concrete to replace it with a
traditional or special mortar, a grout, a new made concrete, or another material. Where concrete is
reinforced this technique also involves the cleaning and protection of the reinforcements, if they
have been affected by corrosion. The basic objective of patching is, therefore, the restoration of the
physical and chemical properties to an acceptable condition.

Patch repairs are generally reactive and are carried out where deterioration becomes apparent.

“Patching” is defined as any repair which involves replacement of deteriorated concrete irrespective
of the size of the repair, therefore in some cases these repairs will be large and meant to be
loadbearing. Although those large repairs are much more complex than the purely cosmetic ones,
the basic processes of patching can be resumed in the following figures:

Figure 1. Stages of patch repair

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Pre-treatment of the structure consists in the removal of the unsound concrete and the cleaning of
the concrete substrate. Surface treatment is the wetting of the substrate and/or the application of a
bonding agent to improve adherence between the repair material and the substrate.

2 DESIGN CRITERIA

2.1 Design requirements

2.1.1 Bearing capacity and structural considerations

Assuming the need for repair is not derived from inadequate strength there is some controversy
about the required structural performance for many repairs. Evaluation of the repair system with
regard to the structural stability is considered on Annex 6.3 but some overview is provided here:

Usually it is taken for granted that the structural performance of the structure would be the same
that was before deterioration through the replacement of corroded reinforcements and the
recuperation of structural continuity. Anyway, the reduction in the load bearing capacity of the
structure due to the removal of the deteriorated concrete should be taken into account in the design
of the repair method and consequent application. It may be necessary to remove the dead and live
loads of the structure and to provide additional support, especially if the reinforcements are to be
removed due to excessive corrosion. Propping the structure during the repairs can result in the
cracking of the patch after depropping while the lack of propping may lead to overstresses in other
parts of the structure. The order of the repair can be designed specifically to accommodate the
redistribution of loads.

Compatibility of repair material with the original concrete is another factor that will affect the
structural behaviour of the structure since the use of repair mortars should introduce changes in the
stiffness of the structure and the distribution of cracking. Ready mixed mortars, either inorganic or
organic based usually have considerable tensile stress capacity with respect to the original concrete.
Common tensile resistance of concrete varies from 2, 5 to 4, 5 MPa whereas for ready mixed
mortars the tensile resistance varies from 9 to 10 MPa. This increment shall affect two sensible
details:

a) Minimum reinforcement for avoiding brittle fracture: Codes provides minimum

reinforcement provisions for avoiding brittle fracture. The basic concept is to employ
enough reinforcement for withstanding the tensile block that appears before the concrete
cracking. Thus, due to the increment in the tensile resistance in the patch repair mortar,
the minimum reinforcement shall be incremented. Using a value of fct = 10 MPa the
minimum provisions are:

i. For sections supporting bending:

W1
AP f pd + AS f yd ≥ 23
h

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ii. For sections supporting tensile stress

AP f pd + AS f yd ≥ 18,5 AC

Where: AP and AS are the active and passive reinforcement,

fpd and fyd are the design yield stress of active and passive reinforcement,
W1 is the resistant modulus of concrete section with respect to the most stressed fiber
h is the height of the concrete section
AC is the concrete section
All the values in mm and N.

b) Variations in the moment – curvature diagram. The stiffness increment produced by

the inclusion of a high tensile strength mortar may affect dramatically the elastic or
redistributed diagram of bending moments in a whole frame or a continuous beam, as is
shown in next figure. In this aspect is essential to take into account the tension stiffening
effect of reinforcement in order to evaluate correctly the transition between cracked and
not cracked section.

Figure 2. Redistribution of bending moments due to patch repair

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500
450
400
350

Moment [kN]
300
250
200
150
100 Patched section
50 Original Section
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Curvature [1/m]

Figure 3. Moment – Curvature Diagram for patched and original section

These curves have been calculated not taking into account the Tension – Stiffening
effect (collaboration of concrete between cracks). This contribution can be considerably important
taking into account that tension capacity of concrete if high, as can be seen in Figure 4 where the
same sections are calculated. In the patched section, the transition from ideal stiffness (non –
cracked) to the cracked one is done softer and therefore, the differences between the moment
resisting for the same curvature are practically maintained until high levels of rotation.

600

500

400
Moment [kN]

300

200

100 Patched Section

Original Section
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Curvature [1/m]

Figure 4. Moment & Curvature Diagram for patched and original sections (adding Tension –
Stiffening Effect).

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2.1.2 Serviceability state: deflection and cracking

As was explained before, the use of high tensile strength mortars induces section stiffening and
therefore a reduction in the whole deflection of the structure (a possible reduction in the live
load caused deflection of the structure). Other effect that should be taken into account is the
distribution in the crack pattern of the element. Two aspects should be studied:

a) The first is the distribution of bending moments or efforts through the element,
taking into account the stiffening of the patch repair. As was mentioned patch repair may
induce a non-elastic distribution of efforts and therefore of cracks induced by these
efforts.

b) The second aspect is the calculation of crack width according to models. The
important effect of tension stiffening produces an irregular distribution of crack spacing
and width that does not correspond to those prescribed in mathematical models in codes.

2.2 Performance requirements

In this chapter the repair method is analysed in order to determine how it suits the different
requirements and indicators that have been established in the evaluation/optimisation process to
evaluate the alternative options for any given repair (Manual, chapter 5.4).

2.2.1 Structural safety & serviceability

Patching is a well known method and its reliability is high when the execution is correct. Another
advantage of patching is that it is easy to detect possible failures of the small repairs after they have
been carried out. In most cases a visual inspection and hammer tapping of the structure can be
enough to provide a quick assessment of the overall condition of the structure; for example, a
hollow noise indicates that there is an insufficient bond between the repair material and the
concrete. Since the failures are ductile they can be detected early before there is an ultimate failure.

When the repair is large and/or loadbearing, these methods won’t be appropriate to evaluate the
outcome of the repair and other techniques shall be used (see chapter 4).

2.2.2 Durability
If the execution has been carried out correctly patching can perform fifty years or longer. A good
cleaning and preparation of the substrate is absolutely essential for the durability of the repair. Most
of the failures come from a deficient execution of these works.

The requirements of durability are two: To reduce the rate of the prevailing system of deterioration
and to obtain compatibility between the repair material and the concrete substrate defined as the
balance of their physical, chemical and electrochemical properties. For example, due to the restraint

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of repair materials provided through bond between the material and the concrete substrate, cracking
and debonding are to be expected if they are not physically compatible.

Cracking, due to restrained volume changes, can promote corrosion since it increases the
permeability of the material and thus allows the penetration of aggressive elements and water.
Although tensile cracks may be favourable when considering the stress distribution in the repair
material, the absence of cracking will influence greatly the durability of the repair.

The performance is also influenced by the surface preparation, placement method and curing of the
repair material. A poor bonding of the patch is critical for its durability while the placement method
and curing influence the pore structure of the concrete core. Even the type of form and the level of
vibration influence the quality of the concrete cover.

Maintenance and exposure are other factors that influence the durability. Exposure classes are
defined in the European standard EN-206-1. High environmental aggressiveness increases the need
of protecting measures and a good maintenance. Depending on the characteristics of the structure
there are several recommendations that should be made in order to prevent failures, like the control
of the pressure of the water used for cleaning, the limitation of the use of de-icing salts, etc. Finally,
the repair works shall be repaired, extended or replaced as a result of damage or deterioration.

The general factors that affect the durability of concrete repairs are shown in the following figure:

Figure 5. Factors of durability in concrete repairs

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2.2.3 Costs
The cost of patching varies depending on the circumstances of the structure and the means involved
getting access to the damages. It is completely different working on a structure where it is easy to
get to the sections in need of repair, or where these sections are close to one another than working
on a structure where it is extremely difficult getting to the damages and/or they are separated from
one another. Cost depends too on the amount of concrete that have to be removed and the methods
used to put in place the repair grouts or mortars.

The cost of the repair materials is also variable. Cement mortars mixed in situ are cheaper but
require more manual labour than the ready mix mortars that are sold by some manufacturers. The
epoxy mortars are more expensive than the Portland based but are easier to apply and need no
curing.

The time required to carry out the repair will depend on circumstances and the products that have
been used. Polymer mortars will harden faster than cement based products. After the work is done it
is strongly recommended to protect the repairs if not the entire structure with a water-proof painting
since these are vulnerable point where the corrosion agents have attacked once and can be expected
to do it again. This painting has to be renewed every X years (see manufacturer’s specifications).

There are some restrictions on the application of products due to weather conditions that have to be
considered. Curing of the cement based products shall be made very carefully if the weather is hot
and/or windy. Organic mortars and resins can not be applied if the substrate temperature is higher
than the highest temperature indicated by the manufacturer or below the minimum. These
temperatures are different for every product but usually application of polymers is not
recommended if the temperature is below 5 º C or higher than 30 º C. Cement based products are a
bit less vulnerable to extreme temperatures. If the temperature is too high or too low the work shall
stop completely or special measures shall be taken in order to allow the use of mortars (heating of
the formwork, for example), therefore rising the cost of the repair.

An example of a possible cost of a patch repair executed with concrete is shown here as a reference
of how much a patch repair can cost and which means should be involved. These costs are valid
nowadays in Spain and must be modified in order to be applied to other countries:

Amount Unit Description Unitarian Cost

Cost

M2 Patch repair

0,35 H CRAFTSMAN 15,01 € 5,25 €

0,35 H WORKER 12,93 € 4,52 €
1,00 M2 SAND BLASTING 20,50 € 20,5 €
0,03 KG PRIMER FOR REINFORCEMENTS 3,16 € 0,09 €

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1,10 M2 FORMWORK 5,83 € 6,41 €

0,300 M3 HA-25 CONCRETE 71,16 € 21,35 €
0,16 H CONCRETE VIBRATOR 2,04 € 0,33 €
0,033 Month SCAFFOLD 7,78 € 0,26 €

TOTAL 58,71 €

2.2.4 Health and Safety

Patching does not disturb the users of the structure after it is done. When carrying out a patch repair,
there is a certain safety risk for the workers while removing the concrete or cleaning the
reinforcement bars so they have to use protecting glasses, leather gloves and half masks. Any
contact of the mortars, grouts or resins with the exposed skin will result in burns and allergies.
Solvents are extremely flammable: no smoking or fire should be allowed next to them.

The scaffolds, elevating work platforms, mobile ladders, etc, needed to get to the zones to repair
shall fulfill the requirements of the health and safety regulations of the country where the repair is
carried out.

2.2.5 Serviceability and functionality

Where the repairs are small, disturbance to the users is low since the means involved are limited and
the repair is carried out in a short time. When the repair is structural, disturbance can be as much as
it was when the structures were originally built if not higher due to the removal of unsound
concrete. That’s why repairs which are carried out close to residential areas must choose the least
noisy removal methods available. Scaffolds, elevating platforms, materials, etc, will occupy some
space that has to be considered too.

Special care has to be taken with repairs on bridges that are placed over roads, rivers, etc, since they
can affect the traffic. Scaffolds must be designed in order to reduce disturbance the most, and risks
of falling materials must be completely avoided. The cleaning and removal methods should be
chosen so they generate the least dust possible as it reduces visibility.

Patching does not modify the original section of the structure, only restores it. Therefore it does not
change the characteristics that the structure had before the repair is carried out.

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2.2.6 Environmental impact and sustainability

Patching consumes little energy and water but the waste of resins and mortars with additives are
highly toxic and need a special treatment. The removed concrete and reinforcements can be
considered as conventional rubble. The amount of materials needed depends on the extension of the
damage but is usually relatively small.

2.2.7 Aesthetics
The aesthetic of the repair depends a lot on the execution and the materials that have been used. If
the repair has not been carried out carefully and the colour of the repair materials is very different
from the concrete’s the repair will look like ugly patches stuck to the structure. On the other hand, if
the repair material is similar in appearance to the concrete (manufacturers can be asked to produce
mortars with a specific colour) and some efforts have been devoted to imitate its texture it will be
difficult to detect the repaired areas, especially as time goes by, even if the structure is not painted
afterwards. Where appearance is a major concern, cement based materials with formulations similar
to those of the original concrete are the best choices. It is important that entirely exposed surfaces
are done at the same time to avoid a non-uniform appearance.

If a protection method is applied on the repair it must be considered how does it improve or
deteriorate the appearance of the repair and how will it look over the years considering the
environmental factors that will affect the protective system.

3 EXECUTION

3.1 Material selection

Usually concrete is the first choice to carry out a repair on a concrete structure (specially on large
repairs) but nowadays there is a big variety of products which have been specifically designed to be
used on this kind of repairs, having some specific properties different from those of the concrete.
Conventional concrete should not be used for repairs if the aggressive factor that deteriorated the
original concrete still remains. Some requirements that any repair material shall comply are:

 High adherence to the substrate (in any other case a bonding agent should be needed)
 Shrinkage must be low (or almost non existent).
— Creep should be similar to that of the concrete although a higher creep will aid in
relaxation of stresses induced by restrained shrinkage and therefore reduce cracking.
 The strength of the material should be similar to that of the concrete (a greater
compressive strength is useless unless a high abrasion is expected).

One aspect that has to be specially controlled in these mortars is the heat of hydration. It has to be
kept under 60 ° C because greater temperatures will cause shearing stresses in the union between

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patch and concrete. It should be kept in mind that the hydration temperature is related to the volume
it is going to be filled. The bigger it is, the higher the temperature.

As it was seen in point 2.2.1, dimensional compatibility is crucial for the sake of the repair. The
properties of the repair material that are most important for dimensional compatibility are the drying
shrinkage, thermal expansion, modulus of elasticity and creep. The repair material must be
shrinkage-free or be able to shrink without losing bond with the substrate. When concrete is used as
the repair material is favourable to choose as large particle size as possible to reduce the water
content and thereby the shrinkage. Drying shrinkage is related to the heat of hydration. If the
coefficient of thermal expansion differs considerably from the one of the substrate it will probably
result in cracking or delamination through expansion and contraction of the repair material with
changes in temperature.

The modulus of elasticity is vital to achieve uniform load transfer along the union, a lower modulus
than that of the old concrete will reduce the potential for cracking due to lower internal stresses. If
the modulus of elasticity of the material is too low the substrate will get overloaded. If it is too high
the patch will have more than its share of the load and finally pop out. Whatever the case, it is also
important how the external loads are applied: if the load is perpendicular to the bond line the
difference in elasticity will not be a problem while a load parallel to the bond line may transfer the
load to the material with the highest modulus of elasticity. If this load transfer is too extensive it can
harm the repaired structure and even fracture it.

The pH of the materials shall be over 10 because a high pH will help to passivity the reinforcements
embedded in them and thus prevent corrosion. Cement based materials provide an alkaline reserve
which protects the reinforcements from the attacks of chlorides and carbonation. The inclusion of
additives reduces this alkaline reserve but provides several new and valuable properties.

Most of the repair materials can be classified within these four groups:

Materials for repairing

Group Type Comments

Inorganic cement based Portland cement: - Already known
(Traditional mortars) -Cement grout materials.
-Mortars - Cheap but require more
-Micro-concrete manual labour
-Concrete - Have to be cured
Should be taken care of:
-Bonding
-Retraction
-Quality

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Inorganic cement based Portland cement with -Compensated shrinkage

(No traditional mortars) the following additives:
-Expansive agents
-Phosphates, Mg, Al
-Aluminate cements
-Sulphoaluminate
-Quick-setting
-High mechanical
strength in short term

Organic based -Epoxy resin - Expensive

(Resins and polymers) -Polyurethane - Good bonding
-Polyester resin - Barrier effect
- No alkaline
- Fast ageing due to UV
rays
- Vulnerable to high
temperatures (>70ºC) and
acids

Mixed based -Acrylics -High strength

(Polymers and Portland -Acrylamides -Waterproofing
cement) -Estherineo-Buthadieno -Good bonding
-Acetate -No vary time-working

The cement based mortars are the best choice for most cases since they match the properties of
the concrete better than other materials. But Portland-cement materials will spall if placed in
very thin layers and are vulnerable to acids and sulphates attacks. The organic, resin-based
materials are the most interesting if the repair material has to be applied on thin layers in non-
structural repairs, if a high abrasion resistance is necessary, curing is impossible, or the structure
has to return to service in a short period of time. When used on large patches these materials can
cause problems since they are impermeable and will trap moisture between them and the old
concrete, saturating the substrate and causing failures in the bond.

Although most epoxy resins must be used on dry concrete they can be formulated for use on
damp concrete. Below 10 º C a heating of the material and the substrate may be necessary to
ease application. Epoxies applied in thick layers are likely to crack.

The products with polymer have higher coefficients of thermal expansion and higher resistance
to water vapour but lower resistance to fire and high temperatures than cement based mortars.

Where vibration is expected during the setting of the repair concrete or mortar, the selected
product should be capable of withstanding the vibrations without adverse effects. If a cathodic
protection is going to be applied afterwards the repair material must have a compatible
resistivity.

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There is discussion about which material properties are required for any given repair
material. In the next table there are listed some properties and the values that have been
proposed for them by the USACE and EN 1504 standards:

Property Requirement Test

Working time (at 20 ºC) At least 1 hour —

Compressive strength ≥ 20, 7 MPa (or equal to the structural BS 1881

concrete ± 10 %)

Tensile strength, 28 days ≥ 2,8 MPa CRD-C 164

Modulus of elasticity ≥ 20 GPa (or ratio of the repair material to ASTM C 469
that of the substrate of 1,3)

Drying shrinkage: ASTM 157

- 28 days 400 µm/m
- 1 year 1.000 µm/m
Restrained shrinkage: Ring method
- Cracking No cracks within 14 days
- Implied strain at 1 year 1.000 µm at first year

Coefficient of thermal 13 µm/m/º C CRD-C 39

expansion

Creep ≤ 0,1 %

Chloride ion content ≤ 0,05 % EN-1015-17

Adhesive bond ≥ 1,5 MPa EN 1504

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3.2 Preliminary works

Before executing the repair, there are some operations to be done in order to remove the
deteriorated and unsound concrete and to eliminate the contaminants. There are, as
usual, different systems to achieve that goal. Some are independent of the method of
applying mortars and the nature of them while others are not and should not be chosen
depending of the kind of mortar we are going to employ.

3.2.1 Requirements of concrete substrate

The repair must be done on sound concrete, without any trace of old grouts, oil, grease,
curing products, paint, etc. All the concrete that falls into the following categories shall
be removed to an extent that depends on the extension of damages, the depth of
contamination and the corrosion of the bars:

a) Visible spalled concrete with exposed reinforcements

b) Areas which sound hollow when tapped lightly with a hammer.
c) Areas where the cover of the reinforcements is less than 10 mm although it
can be probed that the uncarbonated cover is enough to provide the demanded
remaining service life.

d) Honeycombed concrete
e) Areas where the half cell potential value exceeds -200 mV. Nevertheless, this
method will only show areas of active corrosion.

Also, it is not appropriate to follow the boundaries of the unsound concrete too close as
it will result in an excessive edge length of the repair and acute angles that can cause
shrinkage stress conditions. The shape of the repair must be as simple as possible and
the edges should be cut at a minimum angle of 90 º and a maximum angle of 135 º with
top surface of the replaced concret. Featheredges must be avoided

A simple method to determinate the depth of carbonation is to cut perpendicularly the

concrete and spray the cut with diluted phenolphthalein. The colour of the concrete still
not carbonated will turn into pink but the carbonated concrete will not change. The
mean value of several measures plus 1 mm will give us the depth of carbonation in the
concrete

If an area of steel has been corroding under the influence of chloride contamination and
a patch repair is applied without removing the chloride from the whole area, new
corrosion cells will spring up on the sides of the repair ensuring an untimely failure. The
content of chlorides can not be detected in situ and requires site sampling and chemical
analysis.

It is essential that the reinforcements have an uncontaminated cover on all sides after
the repair is done.

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Save for the reinforcements, all metal embedded in the concrete (nails, wire, etc) should
be removed.

Once the reinforcements are visible, if more than 30 % of the perimeter is corroded the
removal of concrete must be increased until the whole bar is exposed. The distance
between the reinforcement and the concrete should be at least 20 mm or the maximum
aggregate size of the repair material (an easy way to comply this requirement is that it is
possible to get one’s finger behind the steel).

Even if the concrete is in good conditions a previous roughening of the surface is

convenient to improve the bond between old and new concrete or repair products by
increasing the adherent surface.

3.2.2 Preparation of concrete substrate

The selection of the best concrete removal method depends on many parameters, such
as cost, site restrictions, and time restraints, magnitude of removal and characteristics of
the old concrete. Often there are several techniques that look suitable for the removal. In
these cases, the final selection is based on cost.

This table shows the specific removal methods:

Concrete removal methods

Category Description Comments

Crushing Uses hydraulically powered jaws to crush and - Appropriate for large, horizontal
remove the concrete surfaces.
- Bulky machinery

Cutting (water Empty full-perimeter cuts to disjoint concrete for - Extremely expensive.
jet cutting, removal as an unit - Bulky machinery
diamond
blade cutting,
stitch drilling,
etc)

Milling Abrasion or cavitation erosion techniques to - Appropriate for large surfaces.

(hydro remove concrete - Bulky machinery
milling, rotary - Generates lots of dust
head milling)

Needle gun Metal needles strike perpendicularly the surface - Only useful for flat (even) or
at high speed (3.000 to 6.000 impacts per min.), almost flat (even) surfaces
removing the weakened concrete

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Sandblasting A sand jet impact the substrate removing both - Mostly ineffective for concrete
(dry sand) dirt and deteriorated concrete but not in a big removal
depth. - Requires experienced staff
- Dusty method

Hydro Water jets at very high pressures demolish the - Transmit few vibrations to the
demolition concrete concrete
- Requires few manual labour
- Trouble with slurry management
- Bulky machinery
- Can be ineffective if concrete
contains extremely coarse aggregate

Flame Removes layers of concrete not bigger than 5 mm - It must be followed by another
removing due to thermal shock surface treatment
- Dangerous
- Pneumatic hammers should be not
Impacting Repeated striking of the surface with a hammer, so powerful that they microcrack the
(hammers, a chisel or/and a pneumatic hammer to fracture surrounding sound concrete
pneumatic and spall the concrete - After it is done is good to brush the
hammers) surface with a wire brush
- Can’t work closer than 10 cm to
the reinforcements

Impacting Similar to the method mentioned above but using - Excellent finishing
(bush a bush hammer - Pneumatic bush hammers are
hammer) faster but less effective

Pre-splitting Employ wedging forces in a designed pattern of - Expensive

(chemical boreholes to produce a controlled cracking of the - Ineffective on reinforced concrete
expansive concrete to facilitate removal
agents)

Photo 1. Needle gun

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The roughness of a water-jetted surface is a 50 % higher than the roughness of a surface

prepared with a pneumatic hammer, and a 1000 % higher than the roughness of a
sandblasted surface.

The figure below evaluates the concrete removal methods from the point of view of the
environmental effects and the ergonomics of the workmen. The higher the number is in
the figure, the higher the negative effects. If the number is higher than 3 (shaded areas),
it is unacceptable.

A B C D E

Pressure on workmen

Pressure on back, arms, legs

Dust from concrete
Noise

Vibrations and shakes

Wet

A= Blasting
B= Diamond blade cutting, vertical structure
C= Hammer on carrier
D= Manual chiselling on vertical structure
E= Crushing (hydraulically powered jaws), diamond drill cutting

Figure 6. Ergonomic effects of concrete removal methods

3.2.3 Cleaning of concrete substrate

The purpose of cleaning is to improve the bond between the substrate and the material
applied by eliminating loose particles and remove the stains that are on the surface of
concrete. Dust and loose fine material existing on the substrate may contain enough
unhydrated cement to set in the presence of moisture and it has to be removed before
setting could occur. The most common cleaning methods are:

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Superficial cleaning methods

Methods Features Comments
Water washing Washing should be done from the A mist spray is
top structure down. If water alone is recommended
not enough to clean the concrete the
following materials can be added: a
mild soap, a stronger one, ammonia
or vinegar.

Steam cleaning Steam is good for removing dirt of Expensive

atmospheric origin

High pressure Pressure vary from 150 to 1.000
water (water atm. Tests are recommended to
jetting) determine the optimal pressure.
Water can be heated or include
additives to maximize the effects.
- Requires experienced stuff
- Water must be very clean
- Incompatible with epoxy
mortars
- Transmit no vibrations to
the concrete
- Fast and cheap
- Yields the highest bond
strength

Sandblasting A sand jet impact the substrate - Opens the pore structure of
(dry sand) removing both dirt and deteriorated concrete
concrete but not in a big depth. - Requires experienced stuff
- Generates lots of dust

Sandblasting Same as above but wetting the sand - Much less dust
(wet sand) with water before it leaves the pipe. - Slower than dry
- Lot of clean-up needed

Flame cleaning Will remove organic materials that Can cause scaling of the
do not respond to solvents concrete surface and may
produce fumes

Mechanical Some tools like grinders, buffers or Can remove more concrete
cleaning brushes may be required to remove than is desirable
the more stubborn stains from
concrete

Chemical Organic solvents can be used with Manufacturer’s

cleaning little dissolution. Inorganic solvents recommendations about use
such as ammonium hydroxide can and safety must be carefully
be purchased in ready-mixed followed
solutions. Acid based cleaners soften
the stain making them easier to
remove with a brush

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Photo 2. Sand
blasting

Photo 3. Water jetting

3.2.4 Preparation of reinforcements

There is no gain in restoring the geometry of the structure if the corrosion existing in the
reinforcements has not been eliminated or neutralized. Any repair technique that does
not protect the corroded reinforcements from further corrosion will be of no use in a
very short time.

The reinforcements have to be free from dust, dirt, grease, oil or any contaminant that
decrease the adherence of the metal and the repair material. Alcohols and fast
evaporating solvents are useful against them. It is also necessary to clean the
reinforcements of corrosion products to comply with Swedish standard SA 2½. The
whole surface of the bar must be clean. After the corrosion products are removed, if the
reinforcements have lost as much as the 10 % of its diameter they should be replaced or
overlapped with new steel bars. To joint the old and new bars welding is better than
overlapping with wire because the length of overlapping required is higher although a
high degree of skill is required to perform a full penetration welding.

Soon after cleaning the reinforcements they should be coated with a primer to provide
active galvanic protection. The coating must be applied as soon as possible. If more
than four hours pass, the reinforcement shall be cleaned again before coating could be
applied. Coating may prevent future corrosion despite defects in the repair or the
substrate.

If the repair is structural the reinforcements will be completely encapsulated by the

concrete as it would occur in a new structure.

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The most common methods of cleaning the reinforcements are listed here:

Cleaning the reinforcements

Method Comments

Wire brush Good for small areas. All rust shall be removed.

High pressure water Useful for large areas. Water is not recommended if epoxy
or Sand jet materials are going to be used as a primer. An oil-free
compressor must be used to avoid that the steel or the concrete
gets contaminated with oil drops. If corrosion has been
produced by chlorides a water jet should follow the removing
of rust.

And the most usual primers are:

Types of primers for reinforcements

Material Mechanism of protection

Cement based Restoring the alkalinity to ensure repasivation of steel

Inhibitor coating Acts as a partial barrier and provides corrosion inhibition by

presence of high level of hydroxyl ions adjacent to steel

Rust converters Converts rust resulting in a barrier against further corrosion

Sacrificial cathodic The zinc corrodes in the alkaline environment and as a

sacrificial anode

Barrier coating Provides a barrier against the ingress of chlorides, moisture

and oxygen

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Photo 4. Application of primers

3.3 Replacement of concrete

There are several techniques which can be used for restoring the cross-section of a
concrete structure. These techniques are resumed in the following figure:

Figure 7. Placement of repair material

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3.3.1 Shotcrete
Shotcrete is recommended for placing concrete on large and irregular surface areas. It is
also advantageous where formwork is impractical, access to the area is difficult,
variable thickness is required or conventional casting techniques are not applicable.
There are two different ways to spray the concrete over a structure: Slow and fast.

In slow speed, thixotropic mortars are applied with the same spraying machines used
when plastering. After the mortar is sprayed it has to be shaped, distributed and pressed
against the surface of the old concrete with a trowel.

The fast way is also known as guniting. It can be dry-mix or wet-mix.

The first one is the more common. Cement and aggregate are mixed and delivered in a
dry condition or mixed and delivered directly to the gun. In both process, the mixture is
fed to a pneumatically operated gun that delivers the material through the delivery hose
to the nozzle. In the nozzle, there is a water ring that uniformly injects water into the
mixture before it is propelled against the surface.

In the wet-mix shotcrete, concrete, aggregate, water and additives are mixed as it would
be to produce a traditional concrete mixer, and then fed to a concrete pump that propels
the mixture through the delivery hose. As the mixture is made before pumping it, the
content of water is perfectly known.

Bond strength of shotcrete to the existing concrete is higher with dry-mix shotcrete than
wet-mix although both offer bond strength much higher than those of the conventional
concrete. The production rate of dry-mix shotcrete is much lower than wet-mix. The
rebound of shotcrete material from the surface is lower in wet-mix shotcrete than in dry-
mix. Finally, the strength performance of the wet-mix shotcrete is similar to
conventional concrete but the performance of dry-mix shotcrete is much higher.

There are some other items to be considered when guniting:

a) There must be no vibrations on the structure when spraying and before the
mortar is hardened.
b) Shotcrete needs curing.
c) The thickness of the first layer will be from 0, 5 to 1 cm. It must have a
brilliant appearance but not so much water that it can fall.
d) Next layers should be between 3 and 15 cm.
e) Areas with reinforcements should be gunned at a slight angle from each side.
f) If the nozzle is not correctly moved (a steady circular or elliptical movement
is recommended), areas of well-compacted materials will form adjacent to
poorly compacted areas.
g) Shotcrete is not allowed to be carried out if the temperature is below 5 º C

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3.3.2 Pre-pack
Pre-pack concrete is most used for underwater repairs and it is produced by placing a
coarse aggregate in a formwork and injecting later a Portland cement grout. As it is
pumped inside the form, the grout will fill the voids and displace the water.

Pre-pack is usually used when work has to be done in areas where the conventional
placing of concrete would be difficult. The cross sections to recast should be deeper
than 15 cm. One advantage of this method is that the point-to-point aggregate contact
results in low shrinkage.

The amount of cement in the grout shall vary from 600 to 900 kg/m3. It must be liquid
(flow cone of 20 ± 2 cm) and the size of the aggregate must be over 35 mm.

3.3.3 Pumping
This technique is used when is necessary to recast large sections of a structure or fill big
holes in difficult-to-reach areas. Use of formwork is often needed and it requires more
planning and work than formwork for new structures. Forms must be watertight, so
leaching at the repair edges is avoided, and well braced to resist the pressure from the
pumps. The pumping forces will press the new concrete against the old one, increasing
the bond between them.

This method demands certain characteristics from the concrete which is going to be
pumped. The amount of cement should be of 400 to 700 kg/m3. Maximum size of
aggregate shall be 2, 4 mm. Water content should be enough to allow a flow cone of 10
± 2 cm.

Surface of old concrete have to be wet in order to prevent that it absorbs water from the
new concrete but there must not be free liquid at the surface when the concrete is
applied. Care must be taken to trim the concrete surfaces that may entrap air. The repair
concrete should be compacted by means of external or internal vibration after it has
been placed. Care must be taken to trim the old concrete surface that may entrap air.
The upper edge at vertical surfaces shall also have a slope to avoid entrapped air when
filling with concrete. If this is not possible venting holes shall be arranged. In order to
prevent microcracking, a mesh of fiber-glass or steel placed one or two cm from the
substrate is useful.

3.3.4 Cast-in place

This technique is applied where a high volume of concrete has to be replaced and
spraying techniques are not available or uneconomical. Access must be granted so lorry-
mounted concrete mixers can get to the structure or the concrete can be discharged into
a hopper that will place the concrete where it is needed.

Forming will usually be required in vertical surfaces. If a back form is required, both
front and back must be well braced and mortar tight. Sometimes the front form can be
constructed as placing progresses in order to allow the concrete to be placed in lifts. The

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surface of the old concrete should be dry at the moment of patching and a previous
bonding coat may be necessary if the layers are too thin (< 50 mm).

Concrete of the repair should be similar to the old concrete in maximum size of
aggregate and water/cement ratio in order to minimize strains due to temperature and
moisture changes, drying shrinkage, etc. Each lift of concrete must be vibrated and, if
accessibility and size of the repair does not allow internal vibration, external vibration
should be used instead.

3.3.5 Grouting
Grouting is the use of a grout than can be hydraulic cement grout or a chemical grout.
Hydraulic cement grouts are less expensive and better suited for repair of concrete
structures. The degree of skill needed for its satisfactory use is lower, too. The
water/cement ratio should be as kept as low as practical to maximize strength and
minimize drying shrinkage. The grout can be poured by hand into the form or by a
manual injection gun.

Figure 8. Formwork

Photo 5. Grouting and vibrating

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3.3.6 Hand applied cement based mortars

This kind of application is usually limited for small repairs as it will be uneconomical
for large ones. When no previous cleaning have been carried out he surface of the old
concrete has to be blown with compressed air so all the loose particles disappear. If no
bonding agent is specified, the original concrete must be wetted until the surface is
saturated but eliminating any stream or pool that should appear. This way the old
concrete will not absorb water from the mortar, grout or new concrete, causing poor
hydration. Depending on the manufacturer’s instructions a bonding primer may be
applied instead but only if it is not sure that the bond between the mortar and the
concrete will be good since it will lead to two planes of weakness instead of one if the
bonding agent is not correctly applied. The bonding agent can be a cementitious
product, an acrylic adhesive or an epoxy resin in a layer of approximately 1 mm. The
application of subsequent products must be done before the bonding coat sets or, as it
was explained before, the bond between the repair material and the substrate would be
decreased instead of increased. In most cases a previous roughening (see 3.2.2.) and
saturation with water of the surface shall be enough. The surface should not be allowed
to dry out before the application of the products.

If the situation of the damage allows the use of a formwork, the material can be a grout,
mortar or concrete. When using a grout the formwork shall be watertight at all joints to
prevent grout leakage. If internal or external vibration of the material is difficult it
would be necessary to use a high flow mortar intended to be self compacting. The
formwork must be free from obstructions to the free flow of the material. The repair
material shall be introduced in the formwork in a way that allows the air and bleeding
water to escape.

Using of a mortar mixer is better than mixing the mortar by hand. The mixing has to be
careful in order to avoid the appearance of excessive foam. If the formwork is sealed
with gypsum all of it has to be removed after taking out the formwork and should be 3
cm over the top level of the mortar. Mortar will be poured into the form until the void is
completely filled. After that it will be covered with water at least 24 hours to avoid
drying shrinkage. Products that contain polymers have special curing requirements
because a balance is necessary between the need to retain moisture to cure the cement
and the need to reduce it to allow film forming of the polymer. One to two days of
moisture curing is usually enough.

Mortar can be applied too with a trowel or a small shovel. This kind of application is
mainly used in shallow depth areas. The consistence of the mortar must be thick and
should be free from lumps. The mortar should be applied in successive layers as they
are still wet and its thickness can not be bigger than 1 cm. An effective way to prevent
cracking is to put a mesh of fiber glass or galvanized steel fixed to the void. In any case,
anchors are needed if the patch is going to be thicker than 38 mm. After executing every
layer it is recommended to slash it several times with the shovel to increase the bond
between the successive layers. Once the patch is done and the repair material is still wet,
it would be the right time to apply a float finishing.

Surface of the mortar must be wet at least 10 hours for curing. Curing products are not
recommended since they can be incompatible with a later coating. Mortars with
phosphates are dangerous because they harden very quickly when the weather is hot.

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Photo 6. Applying a
repair mortar by hand

3.3.7 Hand applied organic based mortars

In this case the surface must be completely dry and it is imperative the previous
application of a bonding agent that can be an epoxy primer. The bonding agent and the
mortar have a pot life, the time we have left since the agent is applied until it loses its
bonding properties or the mortar loses its workability. Pot life depends on weather
conditions so the hotter the temperature the smaller the pot life.

These mortars are sold in ready mix packing and have to be mixed in the proportions
recommended by the manufacturer: the hardener is thrown over the base material and
both have to be mixed until they get a uniform colour but not so fast that too much foam
appears. An excess of occluded air will diminish the strength and permeability of the
mortar. There is also an interval of temperatures out of which no work with resins
should be done. If the temperature is too low the viscosity will be too high reducing the
workability and the penetration capacity of the mortar. High temperature affects the pot
life.

Mortar is applied with trowel or a small shovel in layers of about 2 cm. Tixotropic
mortars are recommended when working on ceilings; in this case the layers can be more
thick but always under 10 cm. First layer should be applied when the primer is still
sticky. As the epoxy-based materials rely on the exclusion of oxygen and water they can
develop crevice corrosion if some water remains or penetrates between the bars and the
coating.

It is not necessary to wet the mortar after the geometry is completely restored, no further
curing is needed. This kind of mortars is fast to harden and they will not take more than
a few hours to get a high strength.

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3.3.8 Curing
After they have been applied, and before they harden, concrete and cementitious
products have to be cured. Curing is necessary for the accurate hydration of the repair
material as it reduces the loss of moisture due to surface evaporation, therefore
preventing early volume changes, the subsequent stresses in the substrate-repair
interface and cracking due to plastic shrinkage. Curing is also needed to keep concrete
cool because too much heat will lead to a fast strength gain but an ultimately weaker
concrete. Properly cured concrete is less porous than uncured concrete due to a denser
cement paste, therefore making it more difficult for water and salts to penetrate and
more resistant to freezing and thawing. Properly cured concrete is more wear resistant,
too, and less susceptible to dusting and scaling.

Curing process will depend on the selected material and the manufacturer’s instructions
but a minimum of five days of curing is recommended. During those days the surface of
the repair must not dry out. The method used to prevent drying will depend on the
material, the situation of the repair, the weather, etc. The most common curing
techniques are:

Curing
Category Method Comments
Cotton maps - Mats are wetted with a sprinkler or soaker hoarse
Moist curing - If the mat is allowed to dry it will absorb water from
the concrete
- Mats must be weighed down so they are not blown
away
Sprinkling - Air temperature must be well above freezing
- Alternate drying and soaking of concrete is not
acceptable
Ponding water on a - Excellent method
slab - Water must be no more that 10º C cooler than the
concrete
- Must be secured against leaks

Liquid membrane - Application: one hour from the finishing

Membrane forming - White pigment on liquid will add reflective properties
curing - Single coat may be enough but two are desirable for
even coverage
- Compound must be compatible with future surface
treatments

Plastic sheets - At least 4 mm thick

-Dark or coloured sheets are recommended for
temperatures below 15º C
- White sheets are better for temperatures over 30 º C
- Edges of sheets should be overlapped and fastened
- Sheets must be weighed down to avoid blowing away
- Plastic sheets can mar the appearance of concrete

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Waterproof paper - Like plastic sheets bur does not mar the surface
- Consists on two layers of paper cemented together
and reinforced with fiber

In cold weather, when freezing temperatures are anticipated, is better to use curing
methods that retain moisture rather than the methods which use wet curing. Sometimes
the moisture remaining on the formworks can be enough for a proper curing of the
concrete.

3.3.9 Surface protection

As it was indicated in chapter 3.2.4, the durability of the repair will increase if its
surface is protected after execution. This protection has the objective of preventing the
passage of contaminant agents, chemical attacks, water and water vapour. If coating is
thick enough it may even protect the concrete from physical damage. There are several
techniques and materials that can be used and their properties are given in this table:

Surface protection treatments

Type Material Mechanism of Properties Comments

action

Hydrophobic Silane/siloxanes Chloride barriers Water-repellent - Pores and

Impregnation surface capillaries are not
filled.
- No film produced
- Does not affect the
appearance of
concrete
- Not good for
horizontal surfaces

Impregnation Organic Anti-carbonation Reduce surface - Pores and

polymers and barrier porosity capillaries are
resins partially filled
- Thin film
- Suitable for
horizontal surfaces

Coating Cement based. Anticarbonation Protective - Thickness is

Organic and chloride layer on typically of 0,1 to 5
polymers barriers concrete mm
Epoxy resins surface.
Increase
physical and
chemical
resistance

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Hydrophobic Resins Waterproofing Surface of - Allow passage of

impregnation concrete repels water vapour and
water gases
- Not very effective
against carbonation
and lixiviation
Painting Bituminous. Waterproofing Avoid the -A film formation
Synthetic resins moisture -Requires
ingress homogenous and
plain substrate
-Can’t absorb
further cracking
bigger than 0,1 mm

When deciding which of these systems is chosen some factors to consider are the
environmental conditions like weather, exposure to UV rays, probability of small
impacts and use of the structure (as in potable water reservoirs, for example). No fungus
or bacteria should grow on them. The products have to be chemically stable to avoid
efflorescences since the alkalinity of the substrate is high.

Coatings with low permeability cause more harm than good as they trap the water that
enters the concrete from the not coated side. Coatings that transmit water vapour are
better since they reduce the level of moisture inside the concrete.

Before any of these products can be applied there are some conditions that have to be
met:

• Curing of repair materials must be completed. Any trace of curing compounds

(if used) shall be removed.

• Surface to be coated must be sound, clean and dry.

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4 QUALITY CONTROL

4.1 Previous control on the supplied materials

The relevant characteristics that should be tested on the supplied materials before they
can be applied on the repair are:

Characteristics Test Parameters Frequency

Identity of Visual and written Before use

product certification

Cement identity Visual and written Before use

certification

Aggregate Written certification Before use

identity

Water identity Chemical analysis or Before use

written certification

Addition identity Visual and written Before use

certification

Polymer identity Visual and written Before use

certification

The storage conditions and periods of use of products shall comply with the
manufacturer’s specifications in order to avoid undesirable changes in their
properties. Epoxy resins are especially vulnerable to moisture and low or high
temperatures.

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4.2 Controls during practical execution

The relevant characteristics to be tested in order to determine the condition of
substrate:

Characteristics Test Parameters Frequency

Delamination Hammer tapping Once before

application
Cleanliness Visual or wipe test Before application

Roughness Visual, sand test or

profile meter
Before application
Temperature of Thermometer 5-30 º C
substrate

Surface tensile Pull-off test > 1,5 MPa

strength

Compressive Crushing test or rebound

strength hammer (see ASTM C 805)

Vibration Accelerometer

Carbonation Phenolphthalein test

Chloride content Site sampling and

chemical analysis

Other Site sampling and

contaminants chemical analysis

Crack movement Mechanical or electrical

gauges

Resistivity GECOR, Wenner test

Moisture Visual

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Requirements to comply before application:

Characteristics Test Parameters Frequency

Ambient Thermometer Daily

temperature

Precipitation Visual Daily

Consistence Flow table test Daily

Air content Pressure method

Time before Clock Pot life as During

resins set specified by application
manufacturer

4.3 Controls after practical execution

The final hardened condition of the repair can be determined by application of the
following tests:

Characteristics Test Parameters Frequency

Compressive Rebound hammer Once to judge

strength efficiency of the
repair

Adhesion Pull-off > 1,5 MPa Once to judge

efficiency of the
repair

Shrinkage Visual Once to judge

cracking efficiency of the
repair

Delamination Hammer tapping Once to judge

efficiency of the
repair

Resistivity GECOR, Wenner test Once to judge

efficiency of the
repair

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Voids Ultrasonic test or Once to judge

radiography efficiency of the
repair

Density Oven dry method One after the repair is

done

Thickness of Core and visual or Once to judge

cover covermeter efficiency of the
repair

Permeability to Penetration test Once to judge

water efficiency of the
repair

5 REFERENCES AND NORMATIVE

The main standards related with the repairing of concrete structures and their specific
products in Europe are:

• EN 206:2000. Concrete-Part 1: Specification, performance, production and

conformity
• EN 13306. Generic terms for all types of maintenance and maintenance
management.
• EN 990.Test methods for verification of corrosion protection of reinforcement.
• EN 1504. 1-9. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures.
• EN 1542. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Measurement of bond strength by pull-off.
• EN 1543. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Determination of tensile strength development for polymers.
• EN 1776. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Test methods. Reference concretes for testing.
• EN 1770. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Determination of the coefficient of thermal expansion.
• EN 1767. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Reference concretes for testing.
• EN 1799. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Test to measure the suitability of structural bonding agents for
application to concrete surface.
• EN 1877. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Reacted functions related to epoxy resins.

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• EN 12188. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Determination of steel-to-steel for characterisation of structural bonding
agents.
• EN 12189. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Determination of open time.
• EN 12190. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Tests methods. Determination of compressive strength of repair mortar.
• EN 12192. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Test method for fillers for polymer bonding agents
• EN 12615. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Tests methods. Determination of slant shear strength of repair mortar.
• EN 12636. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Determination of adhesion of concrete to concrete.
• EN 13395. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Determination of workability.
• EN 13687. Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete
structures. Test methods for determining of thermal compatibility.
• BUILD 351. Shotcrete, concrete base: Bond strength
• BUILD 352. Shotcrete: Shrinkage in sprayed sample slabs
• BUILD 355. Concrete, mortar and cement based materials: Chloride diffusion
• BUILD 356. Concrete, repairing materials and protective coating: Embedded
steel method, chloride permeability.
• BUILD 357. Concrete, repairing materials and protective coating: Carbonation
resistance
• BUILD 364. Shotcrete: Frost resistance
• BUILD 365. Concrete, repairing materials and protective coating: Bond
strength, direct pull-off test
• BUILD 366. Concrete, repairing materials and protective coating: Shrinkage
and swelling
• BUILD 367. Concrete, repair materials: Coefficient of thermal expansion
• BUILD 368. Concrete, repair materials: Capillary absorption
• BUILD 369. Concrete, repair materials: Water diffusion
• BUILD 370. Mortar, hardened: Cement content and aggregate-binder ratio
• BUILD 372. Surface coating, cement mortar: Anti-carbonation effect
• BUILD 377. Protective painting coatings on steel: Accelerated corrosion test in
high humidity air containing small accounts of sulphur dioxide
• BUILD 440. Mortar, hardened: Compressive strength by indentation test
• BUILD 483. Mortar, hardened: Frost resistance
• BUILD 489. Concrete, hardened, repair: Chloride penetration resistance of
paint on concrete
• BUILD 492. Concrete, mortar and cement based materials: Chloride migration
coefficient from non-steady state migration experiments.
• ISO 2811. Methods of tests for paints.
• ISO 4628. Evaluation of degradation of paint coating.
• SIS 05 5900: 1967

There are also several UNE standards in Spain about the rehabilitation of concrete
structures:

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• UNE 83.701-94. Epoxy mortars for concrete repairs.

• UNE 83-702-94. Preparing of reinforced concrete surfaces for repair.

And the bibliographic references that have been used in the making of this document
are:

• SIKA Concrete Repair Manual

• Manual for evaluation and repair of reinforced concrete structures. Colegio de
Aparejadores de Barcelona.
• Engineering and Design - Evaluation and Repair of Concrete Structures. US
Army Corps of Engineers.
• REMR-CS-60. Performance criteria for concrete repairs. US Army Corps of
Engineers. 1998.
• GEOCISA Procedures for concrete repairs
• Market Review REHABCON WP 2.1. Final draft. Dec. 2002
• RILEM 124 SRC. Strategies for repair of structures damaged by steel
corrosion.
• HPMS. Performance criteria for dimensionally compatible repair materials. Jan
2000.
• NISTIR 6042. Predicting the performance of concrete repair materials. 1999.
• Bond strength between repair material and substrate in concrete patching
repairs. Johan Wilberg, 2003
• Curing-in-place. National Ready Mixed Concrete Association. 2000.
• Performance specifications for durable patch repairs in reinforced concrete.
Fosroc. Sept. 2000.
• Strategy for maintenance and rehabilitation in concrete structures. Deliverable
D2 of WP 2.2. BRE and SNRA. Nov. 2002.

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