CHAPTER 3

CRITICAL REVIEW OF TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION

3.1 INTRODUCTION:

Because of the ever increasing demand for electrical power,

the transmission voltages are increasing rapidly for economic

transmission of large power and the power systems are

interconnected for better reliability. System security, stability

and higher fault levels in interconnected power systems have

promoted the development of highly reliable and accurate

protective relays. The protective relays should be adaptable to

changes in the system and should achieve faster operating time

with absolute discrimination between normal and abnormal

conditions so as to ensure the reliability of the supply. The

conventional protection schemes are not adequate enough to fulfil

the requirements of a complex power system. These relays are slow

and also lack flexibility. The development of static relays using

solid state devices has eliminated some of these problems. But

due to their hardwired nature, their flexibility is limited and

the requirement of a large number of components reduces the

reliability of such a relay. To meet the greater demands on

protective and control equipments associated with modern power

system, the investigators in many countries such as Australia

[80, 179], Canada [94, 180], U.K. [82, 181], Japan [182, 183],
U.S.A. [88, 89, 97] and India [184, 185] have been showing

significant interest in studying the feasibility of using the

digital protection techniques instead of the conventional

techniques.
 38

The development of modern digital technology has resulted in

fast, compact, reliable and efficient schemes for the protection

of transmission lines. The bulk of the recent literature on

digital protection of transmission lines is devoted to the

software implementation of various algorithms developed in order

to predict their theoretical performance.

3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERIZED TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION

RELAYS:

The topic of digital computer relaying in general and

digital transmission line relaying in particular, has been the

subject of a large number of investigations over the past twenty

four years, [1-5, 126-133, 137, 186, 141, 143, 264]. Many

electric utility organisations and electric equipment

manufacturers are actively engaged in research and development of

the computerized transmission line protection. With a view to

having a computerized distance relay feasible, various algorithms

have been proposed by different researchers to calculate the

apparent impedance of the transmission line as seen by the relay,

using digitalized voltage and current samples. The experimental

and field test of these algorithms have been carried out mostly

by the electric utility organisations or by the electric

equipment manufacturers. A brief review of the historical

progress and significant developments in this area are presented

here.

After G.D. Rockefeller [1] reported the feasibility of

protecting all the equipments in an EHV sub-station and the

 39

transmission lines emanating from it, in 1969, E.Patrick [187]

was the first to note that the use of an independent computer in

each sub-station to carry out the function of protective relaying

provides reliability greater than that obtained using the

conventional relays. He has given the main concept of interfacing

the computer with the power system to implement the distance

relay function. Mann and Morrison [87, 255] developed an

algorithm to evaluate the impedance of the transmission line.

This work was a major breakthrough in the use of asynchronous

sampling. It was centered around an equation which yields the

peak value and phase position of a sinusoidal waveform from a

group of three arbitrary consecutive and uniformly spaced samples

of the waves. In 1972, the first digital computer relay used for

distance protection of transmission lines was developed as a

joint project of the Pacific Gas and Electric Corporation and

Westinghouse Electric Corporation [89]. The system, called Prodar

70, was used to monitor 230 KV Tesla-Bellota about 61 kilometer

line to perform phase and ground distance protection. The system

responded as expected to a large number of external faults and

distrubances and it did not give any false trip during the six
years of operation in the field [188]. This project proved the

feasibility of using a computerized relaying technique in

protective scheme. Figures 3.1 and 3.2 show the system block
diagram and the overall relaying program respectively of this

project. The hardware used in this project alone was about 10

times as expensive as the conventional static relays. Because of

this high cost, only five additional experimental systems were

FIGURE 3-1 PRODAR 70 SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM
FIGURE 3.2 PRODAR 70 OVERALL RELAYING PROGRAMME
 42

designed all over the World during 1971 to 1980 [97,179,189-191]

which are described in the next section.

3.3 EARLY EXPERIMENTAL SCHEMES OF DIGITAL TRANSMISSION LINE

RELAYS:

1. In 1971, The American Electric Power Services Corporation

started their digital relaying project jointly with the IBM

Corporation [97, 189]. Alarm monitoring, data logging, control

oscillography and relaying programs were developed. The specific

relaying functions developed and tested include three phase

distance protection, high set current relaying and directional

relaying.

2. The General Electric Company and the Philadelphia

Electric Company established a joint project in 1973 with the

objective of investigating the feasibility of digital computer

techniques for the protection of the transmission lines using a

mini-computer. The transmission line protection system first

developed and tested in the laboratory [192] was then installed

at both ends of a 116 KM, 500 KV transmission line of

Philadelphia Electric Company system. The system remained in

operation for one year in a monitoring mode. This project

successfullydemonstrated the capability and performance of

digital techniques for transmission line protection. Figures 3.3

and 3.4 show the system block diagram and the fault processing

flow chart of this project.

3. In 1978, The Electricity Commission of New South Wales

installed a digital computer for line protection scheme at Sydney
FIGURE 3.3 GE/PE SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM
FIGURE 3.4 GE/PE FAULT PROCESSING FLOW CHART
 45

West 330/132 KV sub-station [179]. The central processing unit

was a digital equipment type PDF 11/33 computer with a 16 bit

word size and special hardware floating point mathematics

facility. The digital relay remained in operation for one year in

a monitoring mode. The system detected all the faults which

occured within a year accurately.

4. Tokyo Electric and Toshiba Corporation researchers

developed a digital differential relaying system for primary

protection of transmission line in 1977 [189]. In this scheme,

the sample values of current and voltage at each terminal were

transmitted by using Pulse Code Modulation via microwave

channels. The micro-computer was applied for the relay

computation at each end. The system was installed at both ends of

a 275 KV, 150 KM transmission line for ten months and the test

results showed successful performance. Fig. 3.5 shows the block

diagram of the protective relaying equipment.

5. Since 1971, Kansai Electric Power Co. and Mitsubishi

Electric Corporation in Japan have been studying the feasibility

of using the digital protective scheme in power system with the

help of mini and micro-computers [182, 191]. They have designed a

complete digital control and protective system for a substation

using a minicomputer and microprocessors. Fig. 3.6. shows the

block diagram of this system. This system was tested in the field

from May 1977 through January 1980 on 500 KV line. In this

system, the optical fibre cables were used to transmit the

digital signals between the protected element and the relay. The
 PROTECTIVE RELAYING EQUIPMENT

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FIGURE 3-6 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF KANSAI DIGITAL PROTECTIVE

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47
 48

real time results proved that the relay has successfully

performed the protection functions. Due to the high cost and huge

efforts needed for these types of projects, the researchers have

concentrated their work to develop a calculation process ie.

algorithms for evaluating the apparent impedance between the

relay point and the fault location. Many algorithms which differ

in both performance and complexity have been proposed [2, 3], but

it is difficult to determine which is the best algorithm [193,

194] where accuracy and speed requirements need be specified.

The cost of computers has become cheaper over the years and

also with the advent of mini and microcomputers, researchers and

utilities have taken keen interest in the design of computer and

microprocessor based relaying schemes. The development of

computerized relay for power system in general and the

development of computerized distance relays in particular have

become the present subject of almost all researchers.

3.4 FUNCTIONS OF A DIGITAL PROCESSOR IN TRANSMISSION LINE

PROTECTION:

A simplified hardware schematic of a digital relay is given

in fig. 3.7. The analog relaying signals from power system are

converted to the desired lower levels by transducers such as

current transformers and potential transformers. These signals

are processed so as to band limit the signals to a desired

frequency. These are then digitised at a preselected sampling

rate. The digitised data of the relaying signals is transferred

to the digital processor. The processor stores, organizes and

processes the data and makes decisions based on the processed

FIGURE 3.7 SIMPLIFIED DIGITAL RELAY CONFIGURATION
49
 50

information. The processor outputs a trip command to the circuit-

breaker when it senses a fault on the protected power system

component. It also outputs any additional control commands and

data. The processor executes all these functions under an

elaborate program control. At the core of this program is a

signal processing algorithm which processes the incoming

digitised relaying data to extract the fault discriminants. The

accuracy, speed and reliability of the trip decisions issued by

the relay depend on the signal processing algorithm, assuming

that the data acquisition system is accurate.

The main issues associated with the application of digital

processors in the distance protection schemes can be classified

as follows:

i) Fault detection and identification

ii) Retaining the correct identification and decision of

the relay, if the fault is close to the relay

iii) Development of algorithms and their performance

evaluation.
The facades are discussed in the following subsections.

3.4.1 ‘THE FAULT DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES:

The use of digital processor to perform the relaying

functions commanded attention of the investigators in developing

fault detection techniques through a processor. These techniques

avoid the calculation of six impedances, which pertain to three

phase-to-phase and three phase-to-ground faults after each set of

samples.
 51

Some of the fault detection and identification techniques

reported by researchers are

i) G.D.Rockfeller's scheme [1]

ii) Mann - Morrison scheme [88]

iii) Prodar 70 scheme [89]

iv) The travelling wave fault detection technique [153]

v) Canadian Electrical Association Technique [180]

3.4.2 RETAINING THE CORRECT IDENTIFICATION AND DECISION OF THE

RELAY FOR CLOSE-UP FAULT:

The above problem has been discussed by various researchers

using different ways, some of the ways are

3.4.2.1 TRACKING OF THE MEASURED REACTANCE:

After the fault has been detected and classified, the

processor will calculate the resistance and reactance of the line

as seen by the relay. Ranjbar and Cory [195] have pointed out

that if the fault is inside the protected zone, the tracking of

reactance reaches near zero from the positive side, but if the

fault is outside the protected zone, the reactance approaches

from the negative side. This method of implementation is

relatively straight forward but it is important to track the

direction of the computed reactance towards the tripping zone,

otherwise incorrect tripping may occur.

3.4.2.2. MEMORY VOLTAGE ACTION:

In 1971, Mclnnes [80] has pointed out that the application

of memory voltage principles is ideally suited to digital

 52

protection scheme. Sampled values of voltage preceding the

occurrence of the fault will be available in the memory. This

memory voltage is used in the calculation of the impedance to

determine the direction of the close-up fault instead of the

actual collapsed voltage sample. Holden [196] has used this

technique with the help of Mclnnes algorithm to calculate the

impedance as seen by the relay. It is found that the measured

impedance evaluated by this method is a function of the. positive

sequence impedance behind the relay.

3.5 REQUIREMENTS OF A PROTECTION ALGORITHM:

The digital signal processing algorithm employed for

extracting the fault discriminants must satisfy the following

three chief requirements.

i) The algorithm should have good filtering characteristics.

Power 'system signals during a transient are highly distorted,

with a predominant harmonic noise and an exponentially decaying

d.c. shift. The algorithms which provide fast trip decision are

more susceptible for these noise signals. In such algorithms,

good noise immunity built into the signal processing technique is

essential to obtain accurate estimates of the fault

discriminants.

ii) The algorithm should provide a fast trip decision during

a system abnormality.

iii) The algorithm should be computationally simple, taking

less amount of intersample time for computations. A

 53

computationally efficient algorithm provides more time for the

relay logic and other control logic.

A large number of signal processing algorithms for power

system protection have been reported in the technical literature.

3.6 CLASSIFICATION OF THE TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION

ALGORITHMS:

The technical literature on protective relaying consists of

a large variety of techniques for fault identification on a

transmission line. A detailed relative evaluation study of some

of the significant algorithms has been reported in references [4,

188, 11, 197]. The published algorithms can be grouped into two

distinct classes based on their approach for computing the

apparent impedance as seen at the relay location. One group

extracts the fundamental frequency information from the relaying

signals and then calculates the impedance (resistance and

reactance) seen at the relay location. The other group

approximates the post-fault system by a linear differential

equation model so as to estimate the impedance (in general, the

•parameters R and L seen at the relay location) based on this

model. The significant algorithms that fall under the first group

can be classified into four sub-groups depending upon the digital

signal processing technique employed for extracting the

fundamental frequency components. They are:

1) Algorithms based on the assumption that the relaying

signals are pure sinusoids, free from transient noise [87,

89, 90, 198, 199].

*■
 54

2) Algorithms using Fourier analysis and its variations [94,

97, 184, 200-202] or Walsh-Fourier transformation [203,

204 ] .

3) Algorithms using odd and even square wave or sample and

derivative techniques [89].

4) Algorithms based on general curve fitting techniques [205,

101].

The second group, in which the line differential equation is

numerically solved to obtain the line R and L, also has some

variations in the approach as reported in the references [80, 82,

84, 190].

3.7 DISTANCE RELAY ALGORITHMS:

Distance relays are designed and developed with the primary

aim to extract the fundamental power frequency components of

voltage and current signals from the complex post fault wave

forms using suitable filters. From the fundamental components the

apparent impedance seen by the relay is calculated. Based upon

the magnitude of this impedance, the relaying decisions whether

to trip or block are taken. A number of algorithms have been

proposed by several authors [80-104, 106, 206, 250]. Some of the

algorithms are

1 The impedance calculation by calculating peaks

2 Fourier analysis with one cycle data window

3 Fourier analysis with shortened window

 55

4 Symmetrical components algorithm

5 Differential equation algorithm

6 Least square fitting algorithm

7 A correlation technique algorithm

8 Full cycle Walsh function algorithm

9 Half cycle Walsh function algorithm

10 Haar function algorithm

3.7.1 THE IMPEDANCE CALCULATION BY CALCULATING PEAKS:

The method of calculation of line impedance involves

predictive calculation of peak current and peak voltage, the line

impedance being determined by division of peak voltage by peak

current. Three methods have been developed to predict the peak

value of the waveforms from a group of three arbitrary,

consecutive and uniformly-spaced samples of the wave, which are

described in the following sub-sections.

3.7.1.1 MANN-MORRISON METHOD [87 , 88 ]

In this method, the voltage and current wave forms are

assumed to be pure sinusoids. The sampling value and its first

derivative are used to evaluate the magnitude of impedance Z and

phase angle a.

Let v, be the voltage sample data at any time t,

v = V Sin ut (3.1)
pk
whose derivative V'is given by

v *= wV Cos wt (3.2)
pk
 56

Where v'is determined numerically. From equations (3.1) and

(3.2), we get,

V* = v2 + (v'/ w)2 (3.3)

£>k
For a point on the voltage cycle, the angle 6 is given by,
v
0 « wt = tan ^ ( wv/v') (3.4)
v
If the current wave form i is represented as

i = I Sin ( wt- a) ' (3.5)

pk

then, in a similar fashion, we get

I^ =i2+(i'/w)^ (3.6)
pk
0 = a + tan"'*' ( wi/i1) (3.7)
i
Z = (V2 / I2 )1/2 (3.8)
pk pk

and the impedance angle as

a = tan ^ ( wv/v') - tan ^ ( wi/i') (3.9)

This algorithm has a fast response to the incoming data, but

it suffers from the defect that it does not recognize the

possible existence of an exponentially decaying d.c. transient,

or of higher harmonics in the voltage and current signals

associated with the faults. The higher harmonics have to be

filtered out using a low pass filter which results in a time

delay. Also the calculation of the derivative invariably gives

truncation errors in a digital processor. In general, the

accuracy of this method is not high. The frequency response of
 57

this algorithm is given in fig- 3.8 which shows the

i
susceptibility of the algorithm for d.c. and harmonic noise [4].

3.7.1.2. PRODAR - 70 ALGORITHM [89]

This nlnorithm also assumes the relaying signals to be pure
sinusoids of fundamental frequency. But, this algorithm uses
first and second derivatives for computing the peak amplitude and
phase instead of sample and first derivative used in the Mann-
Morrison algorithm to reduce the error due to the presence of the
D.C. offset. The equations for computing the peak and phase are,
L^L
vz = (V ' / to ) 1 + (V”/ to (3.10)
pk
6 = arc tan ( coV'/V") (3.11)
V

Similarly for the current signal, hence

2 , 2 2, 2
I = (i ' / w ) + (i"/co ) (3.12)
pk
and wt = - arc tan ( toi'/i") (3.13)
L
2 2 2 ^ 2 2 2
Thus| %\ = [(V ' / to ) + (V "/ u> ) ] / [(i '/ w)+(i "/ w) ] (3.14)
k k k k
4> = arc tan ( ooi '/i ") - arc tan ( ooV '/V ") (3.15)
L k k k k
Where V ' = (v - V ) /2h (3.16)
k k+1 k -1
L
and V " = (V - 2V + V ) / h (3.17)
k k+1 k k-1
Where h is the sampling interval.

The first and second derivatives of the current i can be

defined in identical manner.
 58

FIGURE 3.8 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF MANN-

MORRISON ALGORITHM.
( 12 SAMPLES PER CYCLE )
 59

This algorithm reduces the effect of d.c. offset but it can

not remove completely as evidenced from the frequency response

shown in fig. 3.9. It also attenuates subnormal frequency

components. But the errors due to harmonic noise are more

significant in this case.

As filtering of the higher harmonics is a great necessity,

the algorithm based on integration must be used to obtain

accurately stable results [193].

3.7.1.3 GILBERT, SHOVLIN METHOD [90]

This algorithm developed by Pennsylvania Power and Light

Company uses voltage and current samples to calculate apparent

resistance and reactance to the fault location directly. The

computation is based on fitting data to fundamental sinusoidal

quantities (voltage and current) using three consecutive samples.

The proposed method makes use of trigonometric identities

beginning with the assumptions,

V = V Sin ( wt - $ + 6 ) (3.18)
pk

i = I Sin ( wt + 5 ) (3.19)
pk

In order to obtain the resistance and the reactance of the

transmission line as seen by the relay, the signals are sampled

at known time intervals. The angle equivalent to this time

interval will be referred to as A . Using the three consecutive

voltage and current samples given by equation (3.18) and __

at times t , t -A and t
k k k
R can be given as,
/ 4 i r> jf
 60

FIGURE 3-9 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF PRODAR-70

ALGORITHM.
(12 SAMPLES PER CYCLE )
 61

i - V i ) / (i2
X = (V 1 i ) Sin A (3.20)
L k-1 k k k-1 k-1 k-2 k

and R = (2V i V V l ) /
k-1 k-1 k-2 k k k-2

i ) (3.21)
k-2 k

where V and i are the latest samples at t .

k k k

The algorithm responds rapidly to changes in the incoming

data, but is susceptible to high frequency and d.c. offset

transients associated with the fault.

3.7.2 FOURIER ANALYSIS WITH ONE CYCLE DATA WINDOW [207]:

The main feature of this method lies in extracting the

fundamental components of signals from the transient state

signals and calculating the impedance from these extracted

components. As only the fundamental components remain after the

post-fault steady state is reached, the impedances calculated

from this approach are close to the true post fault steady state

impedance values. The application of this scheme in the

computerized relay has been described in the following sub­

sections .

3.7.2.1. RAMAMOORTY'S APPROACH [92, 184]

Here, the incoming samples for voltage and current are

correlated over one cycle with the stored samples of reference

(fundamental) sine and cosine waves in order to extract the

complex value of the fundamental component in rectangular form.

 62

The general expression for the sine and cosine components of

voltage at a sample point K are,

N-l

V
s
= (1/N) [ 2
L=1
l V
k-N + L
Sin (2tt/N)L] (3.22)

N-l
V
c
= (1/N) [V
k-N
+ V + 2
k L=1
l V
k-N+L
Cos (2tt/N)L] (3.23)

Where V and V are sine and cosine components of the

s c
fundamental frequency voltage samples and N is the number of

samples taken per fundamental cycle. Similar expressions are

evaluated for current components I and I . These four results

s c
are used to calculate the phase impedance value.

The phase impedance value is

2 2 2 2
Z = Square root of (V + V ) / (I + I ) (3.24)
sc sc

and 4> = arc tan (V /V ) - arc tan (I /I ) (3.25)

L sc sc

The frequency response of this algorithm is given in fig. 3.10.

This method requires many mathematical computations like

multiplications and divisions. Also it takes a full cycle to

converge to the post-fault steady state result. Hence this method

is slow, but in general, the output responds accurately to

severely distorted fault wave forms. This method is modified to

achieve faster computational speed. The modifications proposed

are given in the next sub-sections.

 re f

FIGURE 3.10 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF FOURIER

ALGORITHM.
(12 SAMPLES PER CYCLE )
 64

3.7.2.2. McLaren AND REDFERN METHOD [ 200 ]:

Me Laren and Redfern developed an algorithm to evaluate the

apparent impedance as seen from the relay location using fourier

series technique. They used a mini-computer to evaluate the

complex values of the fundamental component of the current and

voltage signals using equations (3.22) and (3.23). A sampling

rate of 128 samples per cycle was used to demonstrate the

fundamental behaviour of this technique. The values of cos (wLh)

and sin ( o> Lh) for values of L ranging from 1 to N are stored in

the memory location in a serial order, h is the sampling

interval. Then, for any time t, there are N samples stored in N

serial locations for the previous one cycle period of (t-20)

milliseconds. As each new sample enters in the last of the N

locations, all the previous samples move one location ahead, and

the sample in the first location is discarded. The contents of

these locations are multiplied by the appropriate weighting

factors, namely cos ( wLh) and sine (wLh). The summation of the

product gives the appropriate values of real and imaginary

components of the fundamental signals, by using equations (3.22)

and (3.23). Then the impedance as seen from the relay location

can be obtained from equation (3.24).

The authors tested the proposed algorithm using the

waveforms generated from a single-phase power system in series

A

with a line. When X/R ratio is high, the results showed that the

apparent impedance of faults cause the spiralling effect till the

calculated impedance settles to the true post fault impedance

 65

value. The spiralling effect: was due to the presence of a large

exponential D.C. component in the current signals during the

fault. The elimination of the spiralling action was done by-

processing the current signal across a mimic-impedance.

The authors suggested the use of low-pass filter preceding

the processor to allow a reduction of the sampling rate to

approximately twice the cut-off frequency of the filter. This

technique requires many fractional multiplication processes which

need special multiplier chip to perform them. In addition, it

takes a full-cycle to converge to the post-fault steady-state

value. The need of the multiplier chip has been avoided by Carr
and Jackson [201] who applied the Fourier transform approach

using a sampling rate 4 samples/cycle. An R-C low pass filter

with an 85 H2 cut-off frequency was used to allow this reduction

of sampling rate. This low-pass filter has 1/4 cycle delay time.

This approach has two advantages, firstly, it makes enough

intersampling time available for computing as the sampling rate

is low, secondly, its advantage is that the weighting factors are

either +1 or -1. This minimizes the number of multiplications

required. These advantages are not all that attractive against

some of the disadvantages such as;

i) The use of the R-C low-pass filter will give quarter cycle

delay.

ii) The use of low sampling rate (ie. 4 samples/cycle) may

produce a further delay of one sample period (1/4 cycle) if

 66

a sampling pulse immediately precedes the incidence of the

fault.

iii) In addition, the use of low sampling rate increases the

error in the evaluated impedance due to the presence of the

transient components.

iv) Generally, to prevent false detection, atleast three

consecutive calculations are necessary to produce impedance

values within the protective zone before a trip initiation

signal can be reliably sent to the circuit breaker. Thus in

this approach, the relaying time is at least 2 cycles.

3.7.2.3. HOPE, MALIK AND RASMY METHOD [94]

G.S.Hope, O.P.Malik and M.E.Rasmy investigated the use of

Fourier series approach to estimate the two fundamental

orthogonal components of voltage at a line terminal and current

in the line. The estimated pliasor voltages and currents were then

used to determine the real and imaginary components of the

impedance as seen from the relay location. As before, sine-

cosine waves were used as weighting functions. As such, the

fundamental component of a periodic signal X(t) can be written in

vector form as

X(t)=X+jx (3.26)
d q
where the components X and X can be evaluated in discrete form
d q
from the following equations
N-l
X = (1/N) £ x (Lh) Sin ( wLh) (3.27)
d L=1
 67

N-l
and X = (I/N) [ x (Lh) . Cos ( toLh) (3.28)
q L=1

using equations (3.27) and (3.28) for each input signal, the

voltage and current can be written as

V = V + j V (3.29)
d q

and I = I + j I (3.30)
d q

From these values the real and imaginary components of the

apparent impedance can be determined by using following

equations.

R = [ (V I + V I )] / (I 4* i ) (3.31)
d d q q d q

2 2
and X = [(VI- V i )] / (I + I ) (3.32)
q d d q d q

A mini -computer is used as an on line impedance relay, by

using the above impedance algorithm . The input stage f or the

computerized relay consists of six 450 HZ 6 pole Butter worth

low-pass filter, six sample and holds with sampling rate of 16

samples/cycle, and 10-bit A.D. converter. The input to the

filters were the voltages and currents from the three phase

source. Tests' on real time indicated that this method operates in

less than three-quarters of a cycle, with about 10 percent error

in the evaluated fault impedance. Therefore the method is quite

accurate but the calculations are still lengthy.

 68

3.7.3. FOURIER ANALYSIS WITH SHORTENED WINDOW:

Since the use of full cycle Fourier algorithm yields the
rejection of the D.C. off-set as well as the harmonic components
that are present in the input signal, it provides an accurate
estimation of the apparent impedance of the faulty system. But it
takes nearly a full cycle to converge to the post-fault steady
state result, and also the impedance calculations are lengthy
which are resulting in a slow response. A compromise between
speed of response and sharpness of filtering has been achieved
A

effectively by A. Wiszniewski [98, 208], A.G.Phadke et.al. [96],

A.T.Johns and M.A. Martin [106] and M.A.Martin and A.T.Johns
[209 ] .

The basis for these approaches are the same as for the full-
cycle Fourier scheme, with an additional advantage of shortened
data window.

3.7.3.1. ALGORITHM BY WISZNIEWSKI [98, 208]

In this method, the digital impedance relay determines the
complex value of the physical quantity voltage or current by
sampling two orthogonal functions of the variable time. Two sets
of such orthogonal functions ie. cosine/sine functions and
even/odd square functions are used. If the extraction of the
fundamental frequency components is done by means of correlating
the signal with sine and cosine functions of the fundamental
frequency, and the data window is shorter than one cycle, the
presence of a periodic component in the signals gives rise to
large errors.
 The author suggests that in order to reduce the errors, the
signals ought to be correlated with sine/cosine functions which

have periods equal to the data window length.

Let current and voltage input signals are,

I(t) = I Cost oo t - of) h- I e ^ ^ a+ I e^/p^

11 a p

Cos C co t - B ) (3.33)
P

V(t) = V Cos ( (jo t - a ) + V e’(t/Ta3+ V e’^V

1 1 a p

Cos (to t - B) (3.34)

P

The first, second and third terms correspond to the steady state,
a periodic (ie. dc) components decaying with time constant ta

and decaying oscillations induced by the fault.

The real and imaginary components of voltage and current are

calculated for the angular frequency of to corresponding to a

2
data window for which the spectrum of a periodic component

reaches minimum. It is known that,

V = V + j V (3.35)
1 d q

and I = I + j I (3.36)
1 d q

Let, t = t - (t + T /2) (3.37)

I w
where t 1 is the beginning of the data window T W .
 70

According to Fourier transform theory and correlating the

signal with sine/cosine functions which have period eqaual to

data window T , that is w = 2 tt / T , we have,

w w
T /2
w

V = (k/T ) V ( T) COS W T d T (3.38)

d w 2
-T /2
w
T /2
w
V = (P/T )
r V ( ) Sin to ( ) d
t t t (3.39)
q w J 2
•T /2
w
T /2
w
I = (k/T ) I ( T ) Cos w T d T (3.40)
d w 2
•T /2
w

T /2
/• w
I = (P/T ) I ( t) Sin w id t (3.41)
q w 2
-T /2
w
Where coefficients K and P are,

(1- r ) -n(I-r.2 ) wi
K ; P = .......... ..... and r =-----
r Sin u r Sin it r to2

(3.42)

Here, w , is the normal power frequency and w , the angular

1 2
frequency corresponding to data window.
 71

Taking data windowequal to half the period, that is, half

cycle (ie T= n/ id ) , the coefficients K and P can be

w 1
written as

K = 3 tt/2 ; P = - 3 tt/4 (3.43)

Substituting the values of coefficients K and P in the above

equations and using trapezium method of integration, the above

values of V , V , I and I are evaluated,

d q d q

The impedance seen by the relay is obtained by dividing the

peak of voltage by the peak of current, that is

V V + j V
Id q

I I + j I
1 d q

* V I + V I V I - V I
d d q q q d d q

2 2 2 2
I + I I + I
d q d q

Since Z = R + j X

Therefore R = (V I + V I ) / (I + I ) (3.44)
d d q q d q
2 2
X = (V I -VI) / (I + i ) (3.45)
q d d q d q
Compared with the standard practice of extracting the

fundamental components by means of correlating the signals with

the sine/cosine functions of the fundamental frequency, the above

method minimizes errors due to the presence of aperiodic

components in the signal, but increases errors which result from

oscillatory components.
 72

3.7.3.2. ALGORITHM BY PHADkE et.al. [96] AND HOPE et.al. [94]:

Phadke et.al. [96] developed and demonstrated the use of

half cycle Fourier algorithm to estimate the two fundamental

orthogonal components of voltage and current signals at the relay

location. This method is the same as Hope et.al. [94] method, but

the data window is shortened to half cycle plus one sample for

faster response. The general expression for a pair of two

orthogonal functions of the voltage signal at sample K can be

written as,
N/2

V d = (4/N) l V [k-(N/2)+i) sin [(2 tt/NK] (3.46)

i=l

and
N/2

V
q
= (4/N) l V
[k-(N/2)+i]
cos [(2 tt / N) i ] (3.47)
i=l

The voltage and current signals can be represented as given

in equations below,

V = V + j V (3.48)
d q

Similarly for current signal

I = I + j I (3.49)
d q
Using equations (3.44) and (3.45), the apparent parameters

of the faulty line can be determined. In this method, the

accuracy of result is more affected by off-normal frequency

components, and also the d.c. off-set presents a specific
 73

problem. The authors remedied the latter problem by assuming that

the fault waveform contains a d.c. off-set of unknown magnitude

but with time constant determined by the known X/R ratio of the

line.

The proposed algorithm effectively finds the magnitude of

the off-set and subtracts it from the fault waveform samples

prior to the Fourier analysis itself. This algorithm was tested

on line by using an IBM 5/7 mini computer, and its accuracy was

found to be adequate. The input signals to the mini computer were

the t*hree line currents and three phase-to-neutral voltages. An

R-C low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 360 HZ was used

.for all the signals. Here 12 samples per cycle was selected to

demonstrate the algorithm. The response time of the algorithm is

greater than one-half cycle after the instant of fault

occurrence. This attempt has successfully reduced the response

time of the relay and evaluated the apparent impedance of the

faulty line accurately. But the computational requirement is

still large. The frequency response of Fourier algorithm with

shortened data window is shown in fig. 3.11.

3.7.3.3. ALGORITHM BY JOHNS AND MARTIN [106, 209]:

The Finite Fourier transform is used in this method as the

basis for the measurement of the impedance of transmission line.

This algorithm is tested by using a digital computer and it is

shown that the acceptable accuracy can be achieved within three

quarters of a cycle. Subsequently in 1980, the authors modified

this algorithm to provide a fast discriminative measurement using

observations made over one quarter of a power frequency cycle. In

 74

FIGURE 3.11 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF SHORTENED

DATA-WINDOW FOURIER ALGORITHM-
( 12 SAMPLES PER CYCLE )
 75

this modification, the effect of d.c. off-set component is

reduced by differentiating the simplified transmission line model

equation,

V' = R i• + L d/dt (i•) (3.50)

Where V' = dv/dt

and iu = di / dt

On differentiation, the finite fourier transform is applied

to equation (3.50) using the analog differentiator. This is to

provide the new set of voltage and current samples for evaluating

the system parameters. The main disadvantage of this scheme is

that, it requires a large number of multiplications. In addition,

use of differentiation in the modified algorithm produces high

order frequency components which affect the accuracy of the

algorithm. These weak points have been successfully overcome by

developing an improved algorithm based on Walsh functions

discussed in a later section.

3.7.4. SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS ALGORITHM [97]:

A.G. Phadke et.al. developed the formulation of distance

relay equations in terms of symmetrical components rather than

phase voltages and currents using their sampled values. The most

significant feature of this algorithm is the single performance

equation which is used to determine the distance of a fault point

from a transmission line terminal regardless of the type of

fault. This scheme is based on the evaluation of fundamental

frequency components of voltage and current signals by using a

 76

discrete Fourier transform. The procedure of this algorithm can

be summarized as follows:

i) The incoming data samples are used to evaluate the

symmetrical components of the fundamental frequency of voltage

and current signals. The symmetrical components of voltage are

given by the following equations.

N-1

E0 = (1/3) l W k (e ak + e bk + e ck ) (3.51)
k=0

N -1

E
1
= (1/3) 1 (We
k ak
+ W e
k-4 bk
+ W e)
k+4 ck
(3.52)
k=0

and
N-l

E = (1/3) £ (W e + W e +W e) (3.53)
2 k ak k+4 bk k-4 ck

k=0

- j ( 2k tt /n)
where W = [(2j)/nj2]e
k

A similar procedure can be used for evaluating the

symmetrical components of the current signals.

ii) All the current sequence components are pre-mult ipl ied

by appropriate impedances of the protective line to provide the

voltage drops of each sequence component as given below:

&E = AI Z (3.54)
0 0 0
 77

A E * H l (3.55)
1 1 1
AE AL Z (3.56)
2 2 1

and AE = Z I (3.57)
1 lpre-fault

where

AE = the zero, positive and negative drop voltage

0,1,2
AI = the change in zero, positive and negative sequence
0,1,2
of line current due to fault which is given by

[I ] - [ I ]
0,1,2 0,1,2
Fault pre-fault

Z the zero, positive and negative sequence impedances

0,1,2
of the protective line per unit length.

I = the pre-fault positive sequence current component

IPre
A E = the pre-fault drop voltage in the line

iii) The sequence components E , E , E and Ae , AE , AE

0 12 0 12
as obtained from the previous consideration are used-as the relay

inputs to evaluate the following ratios:

K E / AE (3.58)
0 0 0

K E / AE (3.59)
1 1 1

K E / AE (3.60)
2 2 2
K AE / AE (3.61)
L

K ■ ’ AE / AE e-1(W (3.62)
0 0 1
 78

and K ' = 1, if f AE [ ~ [ AE (
2 2 1
= 0 otherwise

Where and 0 8 are the phase angles of Z and Z respectively.

0 1 0 1
Using these values, in the equation of the symmetrical component

distance relay developed by the author, the fractional distance

of a fault point from the line terminal is calculated as follows:

K + K K ' + K K '
1 2 2 0 0
D = ......................... (3.63)
1 + K ' + K ' + K ’
0 2 L

It can be seen that this algorithm requires several sequential

A
calculations in a digital relay using one cycle sample. Therefore

this algorithm does not offer any speed advantage over any other

methods mentioned earlier.

3.7.5 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION ALGORITHM [80,82,83,210]:

In this method, the apparent resistance and inductance or

reactance of the faulted line can be evaluated by solving the

differential equation of the transmission line model. This method

has the advantage of recognizing d.c. off-set as valid component

of fault current, rather than processing them as unexpected

transients [80].

Many researchers have attempted to improve the accuracy of

this scheme (i) by using digital filter, to filter out any number
of harmonics associated with the fault [82], (ii) by representing
the transmission line as single equivalent r section [83], (iii)

applying the least square technique to solve the modelling

equation [210]. The main concept of these algorithms are

discussed in the following subsections.

 79

3.7.5.1. McINNES - MORRISON ALGORITHM [80]:

Mclnnes and Morrison developed this technique in 1971, to

calculate the apparent resistance and inductance of the faulted

line. The authors proposed that the line being protected be

modelled as a series R-L circuit resulting in the following

equation

V = Ri + L (di/dt) (3.64)

The solution for R and L parameters is accomplished by

integration over two successive time periods and the solution of

the resulting simultaneous linear equations. The integrations are

performed using the trapezoidal rule. The solutions yield the

estimated values of resistance and inductance of the faulted line

as,

(V +V )(i -i
)(i -i )
) - (V +V
k-1 k-2
k k-1 k-1 k-2 k k-1
R = ---------------------------------------- (3.65)
(i +i)(i -i )-(i +i )(i-i )
k-1 k k-1 k-2 k-1 k-2 k k-1
and

(V +V )(i -i ) - (V +V )(i +i )
k-1 k-2 k-1 k-2 k-1 k k-1 k-2
L = (h/2) -------- ----------------------------------- (3.66)
(i +i)(i -i ) - (i +i Hi-i )
k-1 k k-1 k-2 k-1 k-2 k k-1

The above equations assume a perfectly transposed

transmission line and it does not account for the shunt

capacitance or series compensation. The fault resistance and the

effect of power flow on the transmission line at the moment of a

fault is also ignored. The data window is one cycle.

 80

Here the data window sample which consists of three

consecutive samples provides a fast response to the changes in
the incoming data. In addition, the number of mathematical
computations are considerably reduced. But this algorithm is
seriously affected by the presence of high frequency components
which * are mostly associated with the fault. Due to the
limitations of the algorithm mentioned above, some attempts have
been made to improve the performance of this algorithm when the
signals ai b distorted by t li<- harmonics. The frequency response of
differential equation algorithm is shown in fig. 3.12.

3.7. 5.2. RANJBAR - CORY MODIFICATION ALGORITHM [82]:

In 1975, Ranjbar and Cory have shown that the Mclnnes
Morrison algorithm is particularly sensitive to low order
harmonics which may be present in the voltage and current
waveforms under the fault condition. To overcome this, they have
developed an improved algorithm using a digital filter. The
modified algorithm is based on the solution of two equations of
the form

V=Ri+L(di/dt) (3.64)

The R-L parameters can be calculated from the equations (3.67)

and (3.68) given below by selecting overlapping limits of
integration to eliminate specific low order harmonics. For
example, to eliminate harmonics, K, M and N, the authors suggest
the following

L ( l f di) + R ( l i idt) = \ J vdt (3.67)

 81

and

2 ir/k ( 2 n/k) + ( tt/M) (2 TT/k) + ( tt/N)

£ J vdt = j" vdt + j" vdt + J vdt

0 ( tt/M) (tt/N)

(2ir/k) + ( tt/M) + ( tt/N)

+| vdt (3.68)

( tt/M) + ( tt/N)

The quantities li di and l S idt can be calculated in

the same way. The ability of this technique to properly process

the d.c. off- set is retained and the errors due to low order

harmonics are thus minimized. For complete suppression, the

sampling ■ rate must be an integral multiple of the highest

harmomic order to be eliminated. This modified algorithm has

generally a longer data window. Also it tends to ring on fault

inception so that the results oscillate severely until the window

is completely filled with the fault data [4, 188]. The frequency

response of differential equation algorithm with Ranjbar - Cory

modification is given in fig. 3.13.

3.7.5.3. SANDERSON et.al. APPROACH [211]:

In I'./mO, Sanderson et. al. succeeded in improving to some

extent the performance of the Mclnnes - Morrison algorithm

against errors associated with the harmonics in the voltage and

current signals during the fault. Here the differential equation

of a lumped line model and its first derivative are proposed for

evaluating the resistance and the inductance of the line. The

model equations can be written as,

 82

FIGURE 3.12 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATION ALGORITHM.
(12 SAMPLES PER CYCLE )

FIGURE 3.13 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF DIFFERENTIAL

EQUATION ALGORITHM WITH RANJBAR-CORY
MODIFICATION.
(12 SAMPLES PER CYCLE )
 83

V = iR + Li' (3.69)

and V' = i'R + Li" (3.70)

solution of equations (3.69) and (3.70) yields

2
L = (Vi'-v'i) / (i' -i"i) (3.71)

and

2
R = (V'i' - vi") / (i' -i" .i ) (3.72)

The authors have applied the least square criterion curve fitting

method to evaluate the smoothing values of V, i, V', i' and i"

from the incoming sampled values. The output of this algorithm

using seven sample data window is given by

Y (1/21)[-2(y +y ) +3(y +y )+ 6(y +y )+7y ] (3.73)

0 3 -3 2 -2 1-1 0

Y ' = (l/28h)[3(y -y ) +2(y -y )+ (y -y ) (3.74)

0 3 -3 2 -2 l -l
(l/42hZ)[5(y +y
Y " = ) -3(y +y ) - 4y ) (3.75)
0 3 -3 2 -2 0

Where Y , Y , Y , Y , Y ,Y ,Y are the seven sample values

-3-2-10123
of the current or voltage. The subscript 0 on the left hand sides

indicates estimates of Y, Y' and Y’' corresponding to the

centre of the seven sample window.

The final formulation of L and R are as follows:

L = (K V I ' - V ' I ) / (I 'K I " I ) (3.76)

100 00 0 200
2
R = (V • I ’ - K I " V )/ (I ' - K I " I ) (3.77)
00 200 0 200
 84

where K and K are constants.

1 2

This algorithm does not need much computational time to

evaluate the line parameters, but it still requires prefiltering

of the signals to provide an accurate estimation.

3.7.5.4. SMOLINSKI APPROACH [83]:

Smolinski [83] proposed an algorithm in 1979, which

accomodates both the d.c. transient and transient in high

frequency components of line voltage and current signals without

any additional filtering for these transients. The transmission

line model used in this algorithm in a single it equivalent

section for the protection of the line from the relay location to

the point of fault. The approach used in this algorithm is

therefore one of including the sources of transient components of

the line voltage and the current signals in the impedance

calculation algorithm, rather than one of filtering the transient

components out and then calculating the line impedance from the
filtered signals. The procedure used in deriving this algorithm

is in fact the same as suggested by G.D. Rockefeller and E.A.

Udren [89] which has used central finite difference for each of

two successive set of samples to evaluate R and L.

During post fault conditions, this single n section model is

described by equations.

V = R (i -i ) + L [d(i - i ) / dt] (3.78)

c c
i C dv/dt (3.79)
c
 85

So, the equation (3.78) can be written in the form of equation

(3.80) as below

2 2
V = R i + L (di/dt) - R C (dv/dt) - LC (d V/dt ) (3.80)

By selecting four successive sets of voltage and current samples

and replacing the derivatives in equation (3.80) by corresponding

finite differences, one gets the value of R and L by a matrix

L L
reduction technique, and the unknown line capacitance C is

eliminated In the process as well.

The author has tested the algorithm and found that 36

multiplications and 62 additions and shift instructions are

required for calculating the apparent line impedance from ten

samples which form the data window. These computational

requirements are approximately six times as great as that of a

corresponding algorithm based on a series impedance transmission

line model. From the point of view of computational requirements,

this algorithm can not be effectively implemented in a

microprocessor based distance protection relaying.

3.7.6. LEAST SQUARE FITTING ALGORITHM [212]:

This algorithm is based on solving the simultaneous

equations of the post fault waveforms to obtain the real and the
imaginary components of the fundamental frequency of the current

and voltage phasors. These quantities are used to evaluate the

impedance as seen from the relay location. Here the post-fault

waveforms are assumed to be of the following form:

 86
-t/ T
V (t ) = K e + K Sin (u t + 9 ) + .......
10 1 111

+ K Sin ( co t + 0 ) (3.81)
n n 1 n
- t/ T
Representing e by the first three terms of its Taylor series

and the a.c. components by their real and imaginary components,

equation (3.81) can be written as

V(t )=a x+a x+a x+a x+a x

1 11 1 12 2 13 3 14 4 15 5

+ax+ax (3.82)
16 6 17 7

Where a = 1; a = Sin (to t ); a =Cos( co t )

11 12 1 1 13 11

a = Sin (w t ); a = Cos (to t ); a = t ;

14 n 1 15 n 1 16 1

a = t
17 1

x = k ; x = k 'Cos 0 ;x = k Sin 0 ;
1*021 131 1
x = k Cos 0 ; x = k Sin 0 ; x = -k /x
4 n n5n n60
x = k / (2 x2)
7 0

In the above equation, the value of L.H.S. is known, which

represents the sample value. The values of coefficients a in

ij
the R.H.S. are also known, which are dependent on the sampling

frequency. The quantities to x are denoted by the term x

1 7
unknown. If seven samples are used, the equation can be expressed

in matrix form as

[A] [X] [V] (3.83)

 87

where [X] is the desired parameter vector, [V] is the sample

vector, and [A] is a square matrix. On rearranging equation

(3.83), the values of X can be computed.

-1
[X] = [A] [V] (3.84)
7-1 7 xm m-1
Where m 72- 7

Consequently, the real and the imaginary components of the

fundamental frequency voltage phasors, V Cos & , and V Sin 0 ,

1111
(ie. X and X
respectively) can be obtained. The real and
2 3
imaginary components of other voltages and currents can be

obtained in a similar manner. These values are used to calculate

the resistance and reactance components of the transmission line

as seen from the relay location using the following equations.

V Cos 0 I Cos 0 + V Sin 0 I Sin 0

1 VI 1 il 1 VI 1 il
R = --- --- (3.85)
2 , „ 2
(I Cos 0 ) + (I Sin 0 )
1 il 1 il

and

V s in 0 I Cos 0 - V Cos 0 I Sin 0

1 VI 1 ill VI 1 il
x = -- - - - (3.86)
0 ) 2 + 2
(I Cos (I Sin 6 )
1 il 1 il

The advantage of this approach is that, the decaying d.c.

component is explicitly filtered out from the input data without

assuming the X/R ratio of the system.

This algorithm needs a large number of multiplication and

division operations for calculating each set of R and X values.

This is more time consuming for the present day microprocessors

 88

as the authors [97] have indicated. Since the impedance

measurement method should be implemented by a straight forward

software program which does not involve more of computation or

memory storage or both. As such, this algorithm is not adoptable

for the microprocessor protection schemes. But very high speed

computers can be utilized for this scheme and studied.

3.7.7 A CORRELATION TECHNIQUE ALGORITHM [213, 214]:

In 1979, G.S. Hope et.al. [213] have developed an algorithm

based on the correlation technique to evaluate the impedance or

the admittance of a transmission line. In this approach, the

voltage and the current signals are correlated to determine the

power of the line and self correlation of the current or the

voltage waveforms, to obtain the square of the signals magnitude.

Then the impedance of the transmission line can be evaluated by

taking the ratio of the power and the square of the current.

Since the principle of impedance measurement here is based on the

steady state conditions of the voltage and current associated

with that impedance, the low-pass filter must be used to

eliminate the harmonics and the noise which appear with the

fault. If the voltage and the current signals at the relaying

point are given by

i (t) = (V / Z) . Sin ( a) t + a - 4> ) (3.87)

pk
V (t) = (V Z /Z) . Sin ( w t + a - 4> + 4> ) (3.88)
pk L L
The cross-correlation of equations (3.87) and (3.88) can be

written as
 89

T/2
y ( T ) = (1/T) f i (t) . V(t + t ) dt (3.89)
xy 1 J 1

-T/2

2 2
¥ ( t ) = (1/2) (V 1/1). Cos ( 4> + wt ) (3.90)
xy 1 pk L L

Where

T is the time period of integration (time window) = one cycle

t = Time delay
1
The self-correlation of the current wave form can be given as

T/2
¥ ( t ) = (1/T) f i(t).i(t+ t )dt (3.91)
XX 1 J 1
-T/2

¥ ( t ) = (1/2) (V /Z) Cos wti (3.92)

xx 1 pk

Dividing equation (3.90) by (3.92) yields

¥ = Z Cos $ - Z Sin <t> . tan w x

1 L L L L 1

= R - X tan ojt (3.93)

L L 1

By using another delay time x^ to find out second equation

similar to equation (3.93) and solving them together, the

resistance and the reactance of the transmission line can be

obtained. Assuming that the second delay time is x^ , then the

cross and self-correlation yields

¥ = R X tan ux (3.94)
T 2
2 L
 90

From equations (3.93) and (3.94), the resistance and reactance of

the transmission line can be obtained as

u/ . tan got Y tan got

2 1 1
R = .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.95)
L
tan got
1
- tan got
2

Y2 Y2
X = -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (3.96)
L
tan got
1
- tan got
2

By choosing proper values of t and t^, the above equations can

be further simplified. This technique can be used also to

evaluate the admittance of the line by using the self correlation

of the voltage waveform in place of self correlation of the

current waveform, but due to the pronounced higher order

harmonics occupying the voltage signals during the fault, the

self correlation of voltage produces significant error in the mho

algorithm. Therefore it is preferable to use the current self

correlation technique. The authors have found that this algorithm

produces about 15.5 percent error in the computed value of the

impedance. From the above derivation, it can be seen that this

algorithm needs large number of mathematical computations and

processing, and the time response of it is more than one cycle.

3.7.8. FULL CYCLE WALSH FUNCTION ALGORITHM [215,185,216,247]:

In 1976, J.W. Horton succeeded in using Walsh functions in

digital distance relay design. The full cycle Walsh algorithm

[217] is closely related to and performs verymuch like the full

cycle Fourier algorithms. The orthogonal functions which are

correlated with the fault wave form, however are not the

fundamental sine and cosine waves, but odd and even square waves.
 91

As a result, the real time computation is simplified since the

reference square waves assume values of +1 or -1 only. Therefore

this technique is desirable for application with the

microprocessor based distance relay. This algorithm has been

discussed with test results by various authors [218,215,185] and

it is found that it estimates successfully the apparent impedance

of the faulty line with a good accuracy but after a complete

cycle of post fault samples. This leads to delay the relay

decision by more than one cycle. The frequency response of Walsh-

Function algorithm is shown in fig. 3.14.

3.7.9. HALF CYCLE WALSH FUNCTION ALGORITHM [204]:

This algorithm has been developed and tested by Gabr Md. Abd
el-Salam [204]. This algorithm has been used as the main core of

a microprocessor based distance relay. The mathematical concept

of the algorithm based on half-cycle Walsh functions is

explained. An approach has been used for rejecting the D.C. off­

set components from the incoming raw data samples before they

pass through the Walsh function filters. The main effect in this

algorithm is to determine the phasor representation of the

current and the voltage signals from their sampled data. The real

and imaginary components of phasors of the fundamental frequency

components of voltage and current signals can be calculated from

the appropriate Walsh co-efficients by analysing the signal in

terms of its Walsh functions.

This algorithm has been tested to evaluate the real and the

imaginary components of the fundamental frequency phasors of

FIGURE 3.14 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF WaLSH
FUNCTION ALGORITHM.
(8 SAMPLES PER CYCLE )
 93

voltage and current from their data samples after rejecting the

d.c. off-set components from the current samples. Using this, the

resistance and reactance of a transmission line for fault at the

mid-point of the line in a model [ 2©4,] are obtained for two
• •
inception angles of fault viz., 90 and 22.5

From the test results obtained, the author has reported the

main features of this algorithm as follows:

i) It can be applied as a core of the microprocessor based

distance relay since it needs a small amount of

mathematical operations.
ii) It needs less memory location and operation time than full

cycle Walsh function algorithm.

iii) It can be implemented by a straight forward program with

the help of the d.c. off-set filter.

iv) It is superior to, and more stable than the Prodar-70

algorithm.
v) It estimates the transmission line parameter after a half­

cycle of the on set of a fault.

vi) It has good immunity against the odd harmonics.

3.7.10. HAAR FUNCTION ALGORITHM [217]:

This algorithm has been developed and tested by

D.B.Fakruddin [217]. Haar function is a complete orthogonal

function set of rectangular waveforms, known to possess superior

convergence features compared to the Walsh functions. It requires

comparatively smaller number of terms to synthesize a waveform

from the Haar series and it requires only 2 (N-l) arithmatic

operations for the computation of the transform. The accurate

 94

Haar algorithms with full cycle data window, for extracting the

fundamental requires only 2 multiplications per signal and its

accuracy is comparable with that of the Fourier algorithm. Full

cycle Haar algorithm requires one cycle at 50 HZ to converge to

post fault information. Half cycle window Haar algorithm with

signal prefiltering by digital replica impedance filter provides

acceptable accuracy and the convergence time to post fault values

is about half a cycle at 50 HZ.

Protection schemes have been developed for transmission

line, transformer, induction motor and synchronous generator

using this signal recognition Haar algorithm, and tested.

Transmission line protection schemes, both switched and non

switched, have been developed and tested with simulated relaying

signals. These signals have been obtained from the off-line

transient analysis conducted on a model 400 KV power system using

electromagnetic transients package (EMTP).

The evaluation test results showed that the signal estimates

converge to post fault values in about one cycle in the case of

full cycle window Haar algorithm and in about half a cycle in the

case of half-cycle window Haar algorithm. The frequency response

of the modified Haar-Fourier algorithm is shown in fig. 3.15 and

the frequency response of the half-cycle window Haar-Fourier

algorithm is shown in fig. 3.16.

 f /fa x

FIGURE 3-15 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE MODIFIED

HAAR-FOURIER ALGORITHM
ss
 f / fac

FIGURE 3.16 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE HALF CYCLE WINDOW

HAAR- FOURIER ALGORITHM
96
 97

3.8 FURTHER DISTANCE RELAY PRINCIPLES:

Numerous numbei of authors have done extensive works in the

field of transmission line protection using different techniques,

not covered in the above principles or in modified principles of

the above techniques. Some here.

In 1977, Miki et.al. [220] proposed a method of high speed

distance relay using microcomputer. In 1979, W.J.Smolinski [221]

described a procedure for designing, testing and evaluating

digital lowr-pass filters for the removal of high frequency

transients from transmission line short circuit voltage and

current waveforms, as is required for certain digital distance

relays and may be useful in other similar applications.

Girgis [102, 222] proposed the use of Kalman filters to

estimate the fundamental frequency component from the corrupted

voltage and current signals to determine apparent distance (ie.

impedance) as quickly as possible satisfying the security of the

first zone demands. Here Kalman filters, as recursive optimal

estimators, are used optimally to eliminate the fundamental

components of voltage and current.

In 1982, Takagi et.al. [223] explained a digital fault

location scheme based on the transient analysis of a faulted

network. The theoretical basis is described using the Laplace

transform technique and its relation to the Fourier transform

scheme.
i

Bornard [248] described the design and realisation of a

digital relay using four 16-bit microprocessors for EHV systems.

 98

The test results are produced. Further more, single phase

tripping, directional discrimination and power swing detection

are also provided.

In 1983, M.T. Sant and Y.G.Paithankar [224,225] had reported

further performance evaluation of the digital and analog fault

locators of their earlier report applied to long EHV transmission

lines. For such long lines the effect of shunt capacitance must

always be taken into account. In addition, they have reported the

basic principle of a new type of fault locator based on the

distributed parameter line model and hence suitable for long EHV

transmission lines.

Jeyasurya et.al. [226-230] described many methods of digital

distance relays and digital filter algorithms for transmission

line protection. They proposed the possible combination of the

third order recursive low pass filter algorithm and distance

relay algorithm to determine the transient apparent impedance

based on the solution of differential equation representing the

transmission line model. However, they had not considered in

their formulation the frequency dependence of line parameters.

The operating time of first zone in this case is equal to half

cycle.

In 1985, Leif Eriksson et.al. [231] described a

microprocessor based fault locator with compensation for apparent,

reactance in the fault resistance resulting from remote-end

infeed.
 99

In 1986, Hui-Yung Chu et.al. [232] described two algorithms

to calculate the apparent impedance of a transmission line fault.

They calculated the apparent impedance using the integral and

difference operations from sampled data sets. The data window of

the basic algorithm requires only two samples. In the same year
R.Ramaswamy et.al. [233] proposed algorithms employing sparse

techniques for coordinating directional over current and distance

relays on transmission network with an example system. M.A.H. El-

Sayed and M.Fikri [234] presented an algorithm for accurate fault

location by including the line capacitance in the circuit model,

for high resistance earth-fault distance protection.

In 1988, G.C. Kakoti and H.K.Verma [235] described two

algorithms based on the Hartley transform. They are

computationally simple, have good frequency response and give

fast convergence in the calculation of resistance and reactance.

In the same year P.K.Dash et.al. [236] presented two new

algorithms for power system measurements for computer relaying.

The algorithms involve the design of a discrete-time digital

filter which interpolates the signal samples and generates
Fourier coefficients either by using spectral observations or a

functional expansion technique.

In 1989, Mustahsan Mir and Hasan Imam [237] explained a

mathematical technique to determine quantitatively the optimum

reach setting of the first zone of a distance relay by

considering the simultaneous effect of various system

uncertainties. In the same year, K.Srinivasan and A. St. Jacques

 100

[238] explained a new fault location algorithm for radial

transmission lines with loads. The fault distance is obtained by

solving an implicit equation taking all types of faults into

account. K.S.Prakash et.al. [239] presented a high speed

directional comparison relay based on the evaluation of the

locally measured deviations of the voltage and the phase shifted

current from their prefault values. Ohura [138] presented a

microprocessor based digital distance relay with improved

performance in relation to low-frequency transient oscillations.

In 1990, A.T.Johns and S.Jamali [186] described a very

accurate fault location technique which used post-fault voltage

A

and current determined at both line ends. Fault location is

independent of fault resistance and the method does not require

any knowledge of source impedance. It maintains high accuracy for

untransposed lines and no fault type identification is required.

This paper presented the theory of the technique and the results

of simulation studies to determine its performance.

The advantages of the newly developed relay schemes using

mini and micro computers for distance protection possesses some

important features such as modularity, flexibility, accuracy,

availability, reliability, security, compatibility and self­

checking capability.

3.9. TRAVELLING WAVE RELAY ALGORITHMS:

There has been an increasing awareness of the benefits of
very fast clearance of faults. The ultra high speed (UHS)

clearing of faults improves the transient stability of a power

 101

system. The fault clearing time depends on the speed of. both the

protective relay and the associated circuit breaker.

Many Researchers have focused their attention on the

development of U.H.S. protective relays also because of the

recentdevelopment of U.H.S. circuit breakers [240]. The

development of UHS relays has been possible with the utilization

of the concepts of the travelling wave phenomena. The travelling

wave relays reported in the literature can be classified into the

following categories in broader sense.

i) Amplitude comparison relay

ii) Directional comparison relay

iii) Phase comparison (correlation technique) relay

3.9.1 AMPLITUDE COMPARISON RELAYS

After the occurrence of a fault, the voltage and current at

any point in a power system can be regarded as the sum of

prefault and fault generated components. During the first few

milliseconds after the occurrence of a fault, the fault generated

components may be represented by the travelling waves. Takagi

et.al. [154,155] have described a D'Alambert relay which computes

the travelling waves at the local and remote ends and then uses

their difference to detect an internal fault. This relay signal

is zero if no internal fault exists and is finite only if an

internal fault takes place. For the protection of three phase

lines, the model components of voltages and currents and

appropriate model surge impedances are used. Also, three relaying

signals, one for each mode,

 102

that it requires the exchange of quantitative information between

the ends of the protected line.

Walker [241] and fellow researchers had established that the

first and the most prominent high frequency fault component along

with the other frequency components are inversely proportional to

the distance to a fault on a plain feeder.

A directional comparison blocking scheme had been proposed

by John's [160] which assesses the direction to the fault at both

zone boundaries by determining the sequence in which the forward

(V+IZ) and reverse (V-IZ) travelling wave signals exceed a pre­

set threshold. Dommel [153] derives a travelling wave directional

discriminant that is independent of fault initiation angle and

line termination. In this relay, the fault discriminant has been

derived from the sampled data available at the local end only. If

the voltage and current changes produced by the fault point are

A V and A i , then,
F F
A V (t)-Z Ai(t)=AV(t+x)-Z Ai (t+ x) (3.97)
FcF F F c A F
For a Line-to-Line fault occuring at time t = 0,

A V (t) - Z Ai Ct) = V ’ Sin ( cut + ) (3.98)

F c F F

Where V ' is the peak fault line voltage

F
Subtracting the two equations, we get,

A V (t+ x ) - Z A i (t + t ) = -V ' Sin ( to t + 4 ) (3.99)

F F c A F F
This equation is valid at the end A from time tpto 3xp.

After 3 x , successive reflections from the fault point will

F
 103

corrupt the equation. For a faulc inception at the zero-crossing

of the voltage ( $= 0 ), the equation [3.99] becomes ■V Sin

w t and hence is difficult to detect in the time interval x to

3 x . To avoid this problem, the derivative of equation [3.99]
F
is taken as shown,

d/dt [ AV (t+ x )]-Z d/dt[ Ai (t+ T )]

A F c A F
- a) V ' cos( w t+ <j> ) (3.100)
P

From equations [3.99] and [3.100], the fault discriminant is

derived as shown

2
D = [ AV (t + x ) - Z Ai (t + x ) ]
F A F c A F
+ 1/ a) ^[d/dt AV (t + x ) - Z d/dt Ai (t+ x )]
A F c A F
2
= V ' (3.101)

for x iz. t ^ 3 x _
F F

Here, the author has described the basic analysis for

various types of faults by using model transformation.

The distribution of the fault discriminant following

internal and external faults in a typical power system is shown

in fig.3.17. The relay uses a transfer trip/block scheme. The

equation to evaluate the fault discriminant is quite complex and

hence is not suitable for implementation with microprocessors.

The results are also erratic for close-up faults where rapid

build-up of multiple reflections occurs.

 I u

—►Dp PROTECTED LINE Df-»—

-^o

(a) FAULT INSIDE PROTECTED ZONE

FIGURE 3.17 DISTRIBUTION OF FAULT - DISCRIMINANT Dp

 105

Mansour and Swift [173,242] proposed the discriminant

function based on travelling wave phenomena for both forward and

backward waves. For a single phase line, the discriminant

function is defined to be the square root of the one defined as

2 2 1/2
D = [(d) + (d ' / w ) 1 (3.102)

Where d is the wave characteristics at the relay point, d'is its

derivative with respect to time, and co is the power frequency.

d = AV - Z A i (3.103)
R R
for the forward wave characteristics, and

d = AV + Z A i (3.104)
F R
for the backward wave characteristics, where Z is line

characteristic impedance and

and A i are the Ay changes in
R R
the voltage and current at relay location.

From the forward discriminant components, they compared with

the threshold value, to detect the existance of fault, its

direction and then, if the fault is in the foward direction, then

selecting the faulted phase and/or classifying the type of fault.

If none of the checked forward discriminant components exceeds

the threshold, the backward components are checked. If any one

exceeds the threshold, it indicates a backward fault.

The evaluation of equations (3.101) and (3.102) using

microprocessors is very difficult. The authors suggested the use

of four microprocessors at each end of the line resulting in a

very complex hardware and hence reduced reliability. For closeup

 106

faults, multiple reflections will cause ambiguity in the fault

detection.

3.9.2 PHASE COMPARISON RELAYS:

In this, the relays perform correlation of a forward and

backward travelling wave at the relay location. The correlation

peak occurs at a time equal to twice the travel time to fault.

The distance to fault is obtained from this time. Paithankar and

Sant [166] proposed an algorithm for fault distance calculation

based on auto-correlation of travelling wave transient signals.

The wave signals are defined as,

a (t) = (1/2) [ AV (t) + Z Ai (t) ] (3.105)

A c A
b (t) = C1 / 2) [ - AV (t) + Z Ai (t)) (3.106)
A c A

The forward travelling wave a(t) gets reflected at the fault

point and returns to the relaying location after a time 2t .

Hence,

b(t)=r.a(t-2r) (3.107)
F

Where r is the reflection coefficient at the fault point.

To find the time 2 x

, the authors suggested auto-
F
correlation of a (t) with a time shifted b(t) signal. The auto­

correlation peak occurs when the time shift of b(t) is equal to

2 t .
F
 107

The algorithm implementation involves evaluation of the following

integrals.

4 x
First integral = j* a(t) b(t) dt (3.108)

t=0

4t

Second integral = j t=0

a(t) b(t-T) dt (3.109)

and so on. The integration process is carried out until value of

Nth integral is less than the value of (N-l)th integral.

Now travel time to fault is

tF = (N-2)T /2 (3.110)

The relay issues trip signal if

T < T
F

Here, the algorithm requires the sampled value of the signals

a(t) and b(t) for a period of 4 and 6 milli seconds respectively,

hence an inherent delay is always there.

A similar algorithm for fault location based on auto­

correlation of travelling waves has also been reported by

Crossley and McLaren [165]. The accuracy of both travelling wave

distance algorithms using correlation technique is dependent on

the voltage angle of fault inception, since there is no obvious

travelling wave signal at relay point in the case of a fault

inception at zero voltage.

 108

Rajendra and Me Laren [169, 171] also worked on similar

lines and proposed an algorithm for the protection of double

circuit lines and teed circuits. Results obtained through

computer simulation indicate that in case of external faults the

evaluated distance is not accurate and effect of fault inception

angle is not discussed for the distance estimate.

Vitins [151] developed a method, by means of which the

fault can be determined through a time delay equal to twice the

travel time of the travelling waves between fault and relaying

points, He proposed the application of a correlation technique for

the determination of this time delay. Computer simulation results

indicate a fault location time of about 10 millisecond and

directional discrimination time of 6.16 millisecond. It is

suggested that low pass and d.c. off-set filters are necessary,

though their requirements are minimum.

3.9.3 a DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON RELAYS:

These relays are extensions of the amplitude comparison

relays discussed earlier and the signal which represents the

forward and backward travelling waves are derived in a similar

manner at the relay location.

Johns [160] and Johns and Aggarwal [150] have reported the

development of an UHS directional comparison relaying scheme.

They developed three pairs of relaying signals, one for each
propagation mode. The signals of each pair are formed from the

corresponding model components of the fault generated components

of the relaying point voltages and currents. The direction to the
 109

fault -was determined by the sequence in which the relaying

signals of each mode exceed a preset level. The qualitative

information about the direction to the fault is exchanged through

an ultra high frequency carrier communication channel.

The main features of this relay were;

1. The relay was analog circuitry based and did not involve

extensive filtering of the input signals.

2. Close-up faults were difficult to sense because of

multiple reflections.

3. The relay setting procedure was easy.

4. Typical relay operating time of 4 milliseconds on a 128

KM long line had been reported.

5. The relay did not identify the phases involved in a

fault.

6. The authors suggested the use of charge-coupled-device

for the extraction of superimposed components.

To overcome the limitations of this relay, a microprocessor

based amplitude comparison relay had been proposed by Johns
et.al. [243]. The important feature of this relay was to use
suitable filters to counter the poor (high frequency) response of

the signal transducers.

The relaying decision was based upon the two signals as

shown,
 no
D = [ a(t) [ - [ b(t) | (3.111)

D = I a'(t) | - f b' (t) | (3.112)

2 ■

where a'(t) and b'(t) were time derivatives of a(t) and b(t)

respectively. To take care of fault occuring near voltage zero,

D had been incorporated. They suggested that following a

2
forward fault, and D both D
were never simultaneously be
1 2
negative. Similarly, following a reverse fault, both D and D
1 2
were never simultaneously be positive.

A similar approach for determining the direction to the

fault has been proposed by vitins [164]. In this scheme, the

direction to the fault is determined by the sequence in which two

relaying signals exceed a threshold level. Here, the signals of a

pair are formed from the fault generated components of a phase

voltage and corresponding line current. Ramamoorty and Verma

[162] described a relaying principle in which a discriminant is

used to determine the direction to the fault. The discriminant is

a function of fault generated backward wave voltage and current.

It exceeds a preset value for an internal fault. The

implementation of amplitude comparison relay based on John's Work

[150] was extended by Desikachar and Singh [167, 168]. They also

presented a digital algorithm for the location of fault. It has

been shown that, following a forward fault when the first

travelling wave arrives at the relay location, its maximum slope

is 2
w V ', where V 'is the peak-pre-fault voltage at the fault
F F
point. After a time of 2 x , the wave arrives back with a maximum
F
slope of 2 f a) V ' where f is the reflection coefficient at the
s F s
 Ill

source. Based upon the above theory, the authors presented a

fault locating scheme by taking derivatives of the super - imposed

components and checking for their magnitude. Performance of the

algorithm for faults occuring near voltage zero and close-up

faults has not been discussed in detail. Only offline computer

simulation of the algorithm has been reported.

The directional comparison relay conbined with a distance

relay for remote and back-up protection was developed by

Giuliante et.al.[244]. Also, a neutral current monitor to

identify very high resistance earth faults has been provided. The

relay integrates multiple functions to provide better performance

by mutual support where by the inherent strengths of each

technique are used to improve the characteristics of the other.

3.10 FAULT LOCATOR SCHEMES:

This scheme was proposed by String field, Marihart and

Stevens [245] for overhead transmission lines. The various types

of fault locators under this category are given below.

3.10.1 TYPE A FAULT LOCATOR:

In this type of fault locator, the time taken by the fault

initiated travelling wave to travel from the relaying point to

the fault location and back is recorded on an oscilloscope as

shown in fig.3.18. Fault distance is evaluated from this time.

3.10.2 TYPE B FAULT LOCATOR:

The fault initiated travelling waves, on reaching one end of

the transmission line starts a counter and on reaching the other

end, triggers a communication channel as shown in fig.3.19. The

 112

FIGURE 3.18 TYPE-A FAULT LOCATOR

FIGURE 3.19 T Y P E -B FAULT LOCATOR
113
 114

counter is stopped on receiving the communication channel data.

The time interval measured by the counter is used to calculate

the fault distance.

3.10.3. TYPE D FAULT LOCATOR:

Here, as shown in fig.3.20, the arrival of travelling waves

at both the ends of the line stop electronic counters at the ends

which are previously running under synchronism. The difference in

the counter contents at both the ends is used to locate the

fault.

The type A fault locators assume a definite discontinuity in

the surge impedance of the line behind the fault locators at

either ends of the line. This may not be the case always.

The type B fault locators require a fast communication

channel.

The type D fault locators overcome the above limitations but

the problem associated with this fault locator is a carrier

signal transmitter.

3.11. CONCLUSIONS:
The year by year development of computerized relays for the

protection of transmission line is explained.

The experimental schemes set up in different parts of the

world for the digital protection of transmission lines using

computers are reported.

FIGURE 3 .2 0 T Y P E -D FAULT LOCATOR
I 1 9
 116

The different functions of a digital processor used in

computer protection of transmission line is described.

The important requirements of a protective algorithm used

for digital transmission line protection schemes are outlined.

The very broad classification of the transmission line

protection algorithms are given.

Various types of distance relay algorithms are explained in

detail with their principles involved.

The principles of travelling wave relaying algorithms are

also explained briefly.

The exhaustive study of the literature available on the

digital relays for the protection of transmission lines leads to

the following conclusions.

1 The estimate of impedance measurement in the distance

relaying scheme is related with data window [98].

2 Certain non-fault conditions such as power swing and

short time over-loading of the line may cause the

calculated impedance to encroach into the stored relay

characteristics leading to relay malfunctions.

3 The increased fault levels and system time constants of

the EHV transmission lines may result in early

saturation of the C.T.s. This may lead to error in

impedance calculation.
 117

The algorithms with long data-windows [184,185,215,200]

take long time to converge to the post-fault steady-

state value, but they have good immunity against the

high frequency harmonics.

Conversely those with short windows respond rapidly to

the change in the incoming data, but the presence of the

transient components produce transient errors in the

evaluated result [88-90].

The accuracy of measurement and speed of a digital relay

depend upon the ability of the implemented algorithm to

filter out, with in minimum delay, the unwanted harmonic

components in the fault wave forms.

The impedance measurement method should be implemented

by a straight-forward software programme which does not

involve more of computation or memory storage or both.

The travelling wave relays based on fault discriminant

technique involve complex equations to be evaluated and

require model decomposition and the current differential

relays [154,155] impose severe requirements on the

communication channel and other relays in this category

[153] and yield ambiguous results for closeup faults

and have not been implemented and tested in

applications.

The correlation technique relays [164-166, 169-171]

necessarily depend on the presence of high frequency

 118

components in the fault signals and hence impose severe

requirements on the instrument transformers. Sensitivity

of the relays for faults occurring in the vicinity of

voltage zero, is very poor. The relay requires model

decomposition. One advantage offered by the relay is

that no communication link is necessary between the ends

of the line.

The UHS relaying algorithm of amplitude comparison [150,

160] is relatively easy and simple. The relay needs

model decomposition also. Sensitivity is poor for faults

occuring near voltage zero crossing.

The UHS relaying algorithm is easiest in case of the

directional comparison relays [152,243,246]. Here the

relay does not require model decomposition and hence,

faulted phase identification is easy.

Therefore, the travelling wave relays based on

directional comparison principle with correlation

technique for time calculation are likely to be suitable

for UHS relaying of EHV transmission lines provided all

the problems mentioned above are taken care of.

It seems certain with the present computer technology

that the travelling wave relays cannot be implemented

entirely with digital computers because of the very high

frequencies associated with travelling wave phenomena.

It remains for the present a non-digital relaying

application.