Flood

A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry.[1] The European
Union (EU) Floods Directive defines a flood as a covering by water of land not normally covered
by water.[2] In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide.
Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river, lake, or ocean, in
which the water overtops or breaks levees, resulting in some of that water escaping its usual
boundaries,[3] or it may occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an areal
flood. While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes
in precipitation and snow melt, these changes in size are unlikely to be considered significant
unless they flood property or drown domestic animals.
Floods can also occur in rivers when the flow rate exceeds the capacity of the river channel,
particularly at bends or meanders in the waterway. Floods often cause damage to homes and
businesses if they are in the natural flood plains of rivers. While riverine flood damage can be
eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies of water, people have traditionally lived
and worked by rivers because the land is usually flat and fertile and because rivers provide easy
travel and access to commerce and industry.
Some floods develop slowly, while others such as flash floods, can develop in just a few minutes
and without visible signs of rain. Additionally, floods can be local, impacting a neighborhood or
community, or very large, affecting entire river basins.
Floods occur in all types of river and stream channels, from the smallest ephemeral streams in humid zones
to normally-dry channels in arid climates to the world's largest rivers. When overland flow occurs on tilled fields, it
can result in a muddy flood where sediments are picked up by run off and carried as suspended matter or bed
load. Localized flooding may be caused or exacerbated by drainage obstructions such as landslides, ice, debris,
or beaver dams.
Slow-rising floods most commonly occur in large rivers with large catchment areas. The increase in flow may be
the result of sustained rainfall, rapid snow melt, monsoons, or tropical cyclones. However, large rivers may have
rapid flooding events in areas with dry climate, since they may have large basins but small river channels and
rainfall can be very intense in smaller areas of those basins.
Rapid flooding events, including flash floods, more often occur on smaller rivers, rivers with steep valleys, rivers
that flow for much of their length over impermeable terrain, or normally-dry channels. The cause may be
localized convective precipitation (intense thunderstorms) or sudden release from an upstream impoundment
created behind a dam, landslide, or glacier. In one instance, a flash flood killed eight people enjoying the water
on a Sunday afternoon at a popular waterfall in a narrow canyon. Without any observed rainfall, the flow rate
increased from about 50 to 1,500 cubic feet per second (1.4 to 42 m3/s) in just one minute.[5] Two larger floods
occurred at the same site within a week, but no one was at the waterfall on those days. The deadly flood resulted
from a thunderstorm over part of the drainage basin, where steep, bare rock slopes are common and the thin soil
was already saturated.
Flash floods are the most common flood type in normally-dry channels in arid zones, known as arroyos in the
southwest United States and many other names elsewhere. In that setting, the first flood water to arrive is
depleted as it wets the sandy stream bed. The leading edge of the flood thus advances more slowly than later
and higher flows. As a result, the rising limb of the hydrograph becomes ever quicker as the flood moves
downstream, until the flow rate is so great that the depletion by wetting soil becomes insignificant.

Earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the
Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic
waves. Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to
those violent enough to toss people around and destroy whole cities. The seismicity or seismic
activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a
period of time.
Earthquakes are measured using measurements from seismometers. The moment magnitude is
the most common scale on which earthquakes larger than approximately 5 are reported for the
entire globe. The more numerous earthquakes smaller than magnitude 5 reported by national
seismological observatories are measured mostly on the local magnitude scale, also referred to
as the Richter magnitude scale. These two scales are numerically similar over their range of
validity. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7
and over potentially cause serious damage over larger areas, depending on their depth. The
largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9, although there is no
limit to the possible magnitude. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale.
The shallower an earthquake, the more damage to structures it causes, all else being equal.[1]
At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes
displacement of the ground. When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the
seabed may be displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also
trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity.
In its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event — whether
natural or caused by humans — that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly
by rupture of geological faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine
blasts, and nuclear tests. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter.
The epicenter is the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter.
Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere in the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive
fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a fault move past each other smoothly
and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the fault surface that increase the frictional
resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behavior. Once the
fault has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored
strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break
through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored
energy.[2] This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of
the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build-up of strain
and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the elastic-rebound theory. It is
estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the
earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by
friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available elastic potential energy and raise its temperature,
though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the Earth's
deep interior.[3]

Landslide
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the geological phenomenon. For other uses, see Landslide (disambiguation).
A landslide, also known as a landslip, is a form of mass wasting that includes a wide range of
ground movements, such as rockfalls, deep failure of slopes, and shallow debrisflows.
Landslides can occur underwater, called a submarine landslide, coastal and onshore
environments. Although the action of gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur,
there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope stability. Typically, pre-conditional
factors build up specific sub-surface conditions that make the area/slope prone to failure,
whereas the actual landslide often requires a trigger before being released. Landslides should
not be confused with mudflows, a form of mass wasting involving very to extremely rapid flow of
debris that has become partially or fully liquefied by the addition of significant amounts of water
to the source material.

Debris landslide[edit]
A debris slide is a type of slide characterized by the chaotic movement of rocks, soil, and debris mixed with water
and/or ice. They are usually triggered by the saturation of thickly vegetated slopes which results in an incoherent
mixture of broken timber, smaller vegetation and other debris. [3] Debris avalanches differ from debris slides
because their movement is much more rapid. This is usually a result of lower cohesion or higher water content
and commonly steeper slopes.
Steep coastal cliffs can be caused by catastrophic debris avalanches. These have been common on the
submerged flanks of ocean island volcanos such as the Hawaiian Islands and the Cape Verde Islands.[4] Another
slip of this type was Storegga landslide.

ypes of volcanic eruptions

.

Several types of volcanic eruptions—during which lava, tephra (ash, lapilli, volcanic
bombs and volcanic blocks), and assorted gases are expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure—
have been distinguished by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes
where that type of behavior has been observed. Some volcanoes may exhibit only one
characteristic type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may display an entire
sequence of types all in one eruptive series.
There are three different types of eruptions. The most well-observed are magmatic eruptions,
which involve the decompression of gas within magma that propels it forward. Phreatomagmatic
eruptions are another type of volcanic eruption, driven by the compression of gas within magma,
the direct opposite of the process powering magmatic activity. The third eruptive type is
the phreatic eruption, which is driven by the superheating of steam via contact with magma;
these eruptive types often exhibit no magmatic release, instead causing the granulation of
existing rock.
Within these wide-defining eruptive types are several subtypes. The weakest
are Hawaiian and submarine, then Strombolian, followed by Vulcanian and Surtseyan. The
stronger eruptive types are Pelean eruptions, followed by Plinian eruptions; the strongest
eruptions are called "Ultra-Plinian." Subglacial and phreatic eruptions are defined by their
eruptive mechanism, and vary in strength. An important measure of eruptive strength is Volcanic
Explosivity Index (VEI), an order of magnitude scale ranging from 0 to 8 that often correlates to
eruptive types.

Eruption mechanisms[edit]

 Gas release under decompression causing magmatic eruptions

 Thermal contraction from chilling on contact with water causing phreatomagmatic eruptions
 Ejection of entrained particles during steam eruptions causing phreatic eruptions
There are two types of eruptions in terms of activity, explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions. Explosive
eruptions are characterized by gas-driven explosions that propels magma and tephra.[1] Effusive eruptions,
meanwhile, are characterized by the outpouring of lava without significant explosive eruption.[2]
Volcanic eruptions vary widely in strength. On the one extreme there are effusive Hawaiian eruptions, which are
characterized by lava fountains and fluid lava flows, which are typically not very dangerous. On the other
extreme, Plinian eruptions are large, violent, and highly dangerous explosive events. Volcanoes are not bound to
one eruptive style, and frequently display many different types, both passive and explosive, even in the span of a
single eruptive cycle.[3] Volcanoes do not always erupt vertically from a single crater near their peak, either. Some
volcanoes exhibit lateral and fissure eruptions. Notably, many Hawaiian eruptions start from rift zones,[4] and
some of the strongest Surtseyan eruptions develop along fracture zones.[5] Scientists believed that pulses of
magma mixed together in the chamber before climbing upward—a process estimated to take several thousands
of years. But Columbia University volcanologists found that the eruption of Costa Rica’s Irazú Volcano in 1963
was likely triggered by magma that took a nonstop route from the mantle over just a few months. [6]

Drought
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Drought (disambiguation).
A drought is a period of below-average precipitation in a given region, resulting in prolonged
shortages in the water supply, whether atmospheric, surface water or ground water. A drought
can last for months or years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days.[1] It can have a
substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region[2] and harm to the
local economy.[3] Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a drought
developing and subsequent bush fires. Periods of heat can significantly worsen drought
conditions by hastening evaporation of water vapour.
Many plant species, such as those in the family Cactaceae (or cacti), have drought
tolerance adaptations like reduced leaf area and waxy cuticles to enhance their ability to tolerate
drought. Some others survive dry periods as buried seeds. Semi-permanent drought produces
arid biomes such as deserts and grasslands.[4] Prolonged droughts have caused mass
migrations and humanitarian crises. Most arid ecosystems have inherently low productivity. The
most prolonged drought ever in the world in recorded history occurred in the Atacama
Desert in Chile (400 Years).[5]

Consequences of drought[edit]
The effects of droughts and water shortages can be divided into three groups: environmental, economic and
social consequences. In the case of environmental effects: lower surface and subterranean water levels, lower
flow levels (with a decrease below the minimum leading to direct danger for amphibian life), increased pollution of
surface water, the drying out of wetlands, more and larger fires, higher deflation intensity, losing biodiversity,
worse health of trees and the appearance of pests and den droid diseases. Economic losses include lower
agricultural, forests, game and fishing output, higher food production costs, lower energy production levels in
hydro plants, losses caused by depleted water tourism and transport revenue, problems with water supply for the
energy sector and technological processes in metallurgy, mining, the chemical, paper, wood, foodstuff industries
etc., disruption of water supplies for municipal economies. Meanwhile, social costs include the negative effect on
the health of people directly exposed to this phenomenon (excessive heat waves), possible limitation of water
supplies and its increased pollution levels, high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, etc. This is why
droughts and fresh water shortages may be considered as a factor which increases the gap between developed
and developing countries.[41]

natural hazard [1]

is a natural phenomenon that might have a negative effect on people or the environment. Natural hazard events
can be grouped into two broad categories.[2]Geophysical hazards[3][4] encompass geological and meteorological
phenomena such as earthquakes, volcanic eruption, wildfire, cyclonic storms, flood, drought, and coastal
erosion. Biological hazards can refer to a diverse array of disease and infestation.
Many geophysical hazards are related;[5] for example, submarine earthquakes can cause tsunamis,
and hurricanes can lead to coastal flooding and erosion. Floods and wildfires can result from a combination of
geological, hydrological, and climatic factors. It is possible that some natural hazards are intertemporally
correlated as well.[5][6] An example of the division between a natural hazard and a natural disaster is that the 1906
San Francisco earthquake was a disaster, whereas living on a fault line is a hazard. Some natural hazards can
be provoked or affected by anthropogenic processes (e.g. land-use change, drainage and construction).[7]

Tornado
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of
the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. They are
often referred to as twisters, whirlwinds or cyclones,[1] although the word cyclone is used in
meteorology to name a weather system with a low-pressure area in the center around which
winds blow counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern.[2] Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, they are often visible in the form of
a condensation funnel originating from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud, with a cloud of
rotating debris and dust beneath it. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per
hour (180 km/h), are about 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers)
before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles
per hour (480 km/h), are more than two miles (3 km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for
dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[3][4][5]
Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout.
Waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large
cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellulartornadoes
that develop over bodies of water, but there is disagreement over whether to classify them as
true tornadoes. These spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to
the equator, and are less common at high latitudes.[6] Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in
nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, and steam devil.
Tornadoes have been observed and documented on every continent except Antarctica.
However, the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the Tornado Alley region of the United States,
although they can occur nearly anywhere in North America.[7] They also occasionally occur in
south-central and eastern Asia, northern and east-central South America, Southern Africa,
northwestern and southeast Europe, western and southeastern Australia, and New
Zealand.[8] Tornadoes can be detected before or as they occur through the use of Pulse-Doppler
radar by recognizing patterns in velocity and reflectivity data, such as hook echoes or debris
balls, as well as through the efforts of storm spotters.
There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes. The Fujita scale rates tornadoes by
damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita
Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, but not substantial
structures. An F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and
can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak
tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[9] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry,
and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and
assign a rating.[10][11]