PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS TRAINING

Physical fitness training exists because man who, aside from having a mind and soul,
is also a physical being. Man wants to be developed physically through participation
in various forms of bodily activity. That is why physical fitness training works towards
broad goals of overall health and well-being, rather than narrow goals of sport
competition, larger muscles, or concerns over appearance.

A simple definition of training would be that is the process of improving physical

fitness by exercise and diet. As with many definitions, however, there is considerable
flexibility, depending on how one looks at it. Webster sees it as an instruction, which
is carried out not only methodically but also regularly. Trainings is also seen as both
an art and science to bring an individual to a condition of being physically fit for the
performance of an athletic exercise or contest.

Hence, to design programs that ensure specificity and safety, coaches follow
some basic training principles. Aside from focusing on fitness training, these
principles also apply to practical (technical), procedural (tactical), and psychological
training.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

This principles states that people vary in their ability to develop fitness
components (Robbins, Powers, and Burgess, 2002). Athletic foundations differ from
one athlete to the other based on the following: heredity, maturity, nutrition, rest,
sleep, level of fitness, illness/injury, motivation, and environmental influence. It is
because of these differences that it is somehow expected that athletes or individuals
who exercise may respond differently even to a similar training program. It is
therefore important to note that since differences in training response is essential,
coaches or trainers should be able to formulate a training program that is
appropriate to the individual in terms of his/her preferences, fitness level, and
lifestyle.

ADAPTAION/USE

This is the principle that emphasizes the body’s increasing ability to cope with
the load being brought about by the training program. If the body part is regularly
used or actively stressed during exercise, then it adapts to those stresses that lead
to an increase in performance.

REVERSIBILITY/DISUSE

This is the principle that states that changes occurring with exercise are
reversible and if a person stops exercising, the body will de-condition and adapt to
the decreased activity (Robbins, Powers, and Burgess, 2002). If a person stops
exercising, fitness improvements can be lost. Fitness is not something that is stored
and may last forever. Thus, to avoid this reversal of fitness improvements, an
individual should not stop exercising but may adopt to decrease the frequency of
exercise and maintain the intensity level. What training can achieve, disuse can
undo. Use it, or lose it!

OVERLOAD

The most basic of all training principles, the Overload principle states that
doing more than normal is necessary if benefits are to occur (Corbin, Welk, Corbin,
and Welk, 2006.) In order for a muscle for a muscle (including the heart muscle) to
get stronger, it must be overloaded or worked against a load greater than the usual.
If muscular endurance should be improved or increased, muscles must sustain
exercises for periods longer than the normal. If flexibility must be increased, then
muscles must be stretched longer than the usual. If the body during exercise will not
be stressed with a load that is greater than the normal, then it will not cause any
improvement in fitness. Therefore, for improvements in fitness to occur, the body
must be stressed beyond its current limits.
The acronym FIT is appropriate guides in helping an individual apply the
overload principle. Fit stands for Frequency Intensity and Time and is considers as a
formula in achieving health, fitness and wellness.

 Frequency answers the question how often an individual should exercise in a

week. According to Corbin, et al. (2006), most benefits require 3-6 days of activity
per week but frequency depends on the desired benefit.

 Intensity answers the question how hard the exercise should be. The more
intense the activity is, the more effort is exerted; hence, may result to greater
benefits. However, intensity level still depends on the goal of exercising individual. A
high-level performance will need a higher or greater cardio respiratory fitness that
will surely increase heart rate above normal.

 Time/Duration answers the question how long exercise program is executed. An

activity must be programmed with an adequate amount of time. The length will
depend on the type of activity. Normally, if the activity is high in intensity, the time
or duration is not that long or if the activity will require longer periods to finish, then
the intensity is decreased.

PROGRESSION

This is the principle that indicates the need to gradually increase overload to
achieve optimal benefits (Corbin, Welk, Corbin and Welk, 2006). The overload
imposed on an athlete must be progressive. To keep developing, the individual must
keep on overloading. This means that there is a gradual increase in the training load;
hence, there is progress.

During the initial stage of a beginner’s training, the individual should be given
mild to moderately intense exercise. Moreover, by virtue of the principle of
adaptation, the FIT formula may be increased to keep up with the improvement of
the body.

It is important to progress slowly with consideration and emphasis on the FIT

formula to minimize occurrence of overuse injuries.

SPECIFICITY

This is the principle that states that only the muscles or body systems being
exercise will show beneficial changes (Robbins, Powers, and Burgess, 2002). This
means that an individual must train specific energy system and specific muscle
groups in order for them to improve. A strength-building exercise may not do or
flexibility exercises may do little in changing body composition. This is to say that for
improvements in cardiovascular fitness to occur, the heart and lungs must be
specifically exercised trough aerobic activities, stretching exercises must be don’t to
specifically improve flexibility, and lifting weights should be considered to improve or
have little effect on the others.

Specificity is classified into two (2) types: metabolic, which is training a

specific energy system and neuromuscular, which is training a specific muscle group.

Moreover, training for a sport will require specific training for that particular
sport. For example, runners should practice running, swimmers should have a
training program specifically for swimming, and tennis players should regularly play
tennis. This means that the fitness level attained in one sport may not be enough for
play in other sports. Perfecting a skill involves biological programming as practicing
means constant repetition of the movement that will eventually eliminate conscious
control.

The specificity simply states that a training program should be specific in

terms of the sport and the individual using it.
VARIATION

This is the principle that considers maintaining the interest of the exercising
individual. Training should be accomplished in various ways because one training
becomes repetitions to an individual; the tendency is to feel bored that could lead to
losing of interest and motivation.

TIME PATTERN

This is the principle that considers the preferred time of the exercising
individual. Exercise or training should be done anytime of the day when it is
convenient for the individual.

However, in relation to digestion, exercising one to two hours after a heavy

meal is not advised because it may result to indigestion. Digestion takes place one to
two hours after a heavy meal and if an individual chooses to exercise during this
time, blood and oxygen needed for digestion will not be enough, thus, indigestion
may likely be experienced.

RECUPERATION/RECOVERY

This is the principle that states that the body requires recovery periods
between exercise training sessions in order to adapt to the exercise stress(Powers
and Dodd, 1996). It is during this period that the adaptation to training takes place
by increasing endurance or becoming stronger. If the body is allowed to have these
recovery sessions, the greater chance of achieving optimum benefits.

To be more specific, an exercise program should allow the body to have at

least 1-2 days of rest(Powers and Dodd, 1996) in between training days to allow
muscles to recover from the immediate effects of training and thereby avoid a
fatigue syndrome known as overtraining, a condition that may lead to injuries or
chronic fatigue.

OVERVIEW OF PHYSICAL FITNESS TRAINING

PROGRAMS

THREE-PART WORKOUT

A workout in whatever form must include the following sequence of activities:

warm-up, conditioning bout or activity/exercise proper, and cool down.

Warm-up is defined as the preparation of the body physically and mentally

for the conditioning bout. This means that the heart, lungs, and muscles are being
set for an increased workload, an activity that is of higher intensity and which will
last for about 5-15 minutes enough to produce slight sweat indicating at the body is
ready for the activity/exercise proper. This also means lesser chances of injury
occurrences while exercising.

There are three(3) activities that may be included in the warm-up phase:
calisthenics, mild stretching exercises, and a short period of task specific activity.

Stretching has two(2) types static, where a stretch is held for about 10-30
seconds, and ballistic, jerky and bouncy movements. It is concluded that static
stretching is best while ballistic is not recommended because it can strain cold
muscles(Robbins & Burgess 2002).

Conditioning Bout or Exercise Proper is the phase that follows the warm-up part.
This is when vigorous aerobic activities/exercises happen that stimulate the cardio
respiratory system. This may include activities that are enjoyable for the individual
such as walking, cycling, dancing, or other preferred activities. This phase may last
for bout 15-45 minutes.

The final phase is the Cool Down. This is when the body tries to return to its
normal or resting state. This is may be the latter phase of the conditioning bout but
done at a lower intensity level followed by light stretching exercise. This may take
about 5-15 minutes, enough time for the body to prevent muscle soreness and
stiffness, and blood pooling that may result to a person’s feeling of dizziness and
faintness. The guide that will indicate that cooling down has served its purpose is if
the heart rate is approximately 100-110 bpm or even less.

Sample Warm-up and Stretching Exercises

1. Cardiovascular Exercise (jog for 2-3 minutes)

2. Calf Stretch
3. Hip and Thigh Stretch
4. Sitting Stretch
5. Legg Hug
6. Trunk Twist
7. Arm Stretch
8. Quadriceps Stretch

CALISTHENICS

Calisthenics are exercises that are performed without equipment and use
body weight as the resistance. It has two (2) types: static and dynamic. Static
calisthenics are movements without bounces such as flexion or extension of a body
part to the limit of its range of motion and thus is held for a number of seconds.
These stretching exercises develop flexibility. Dynamic calisthenics on the other
hand are bouncy movements where muscular endurance is developed. The
contractions involved in calisthenics exercises are enough to increase body and
muscular temperatures.

Calisthenics exercises may be performed repeatedly(such as 16 times/counts)

for 5-10 minutes and should involve the major muscle groups.

The following are examples of basic calisthenics:

 Jumping jacks
 Stationary run
 Push-ups
 Curl-ups
 Leg lifts/raises
 Squats/squat thrusts/squat bender
 Body twist

PULSE-RATED SYSTEM

This is a training system, which raises an individual’s pulse rate from 60% to
80% of his Maximal Heart Rate (MHR). This is the same as getting the Target Heart
Rate (THR).
The following are examples of activities that can make use of the pulse-rated
system:

 Walking
 Jogging
 Running
 Swimming
 Skipping Rope
 Cycling
 Aerobic Dancing

Aerobic Dancing is one of the popular types of fitness workout because it combines
the benefits of a cardio activity and the joy of dancing. The variety of movements not
only strengths the cardio respiratory system but also increases flexibility, tones
muscles, and enhances body composition (Robbins, Powers and Burgess, 2002). A
session of dance aerobics may last for 5-10 minutes for beginners, and 20-45
minutes for well-trained individuals. Throughout this period of time, the performer is
expected to maintain the rate of his heartbeat within the prescribed percentage of
his maximum heart rate (MHR). A frequency of three sessions a week is generally
preferred.

However, no matter how beneficial aerobic dancing is, it could also lead to injuries
and discomforts. Therefore, certain techniques and safety tips should also be taken
into consideration.

PHASES OF AN AEROBIC WORKOUT

1. Warm-up phase. Beginning exercises that are geared towards increasing body
temperature and stretching the muscles to facilitate freer movement and safer
conduct of the workout session.

2. Aerobic routines. Combination of low and high impact or slow to fast movement
exercises that will stress the cardio-vascular and respiratory system. Duration and
intensity levels will depend upon the fitness level of the participants. Common
exercises include marching, knee-lifts, leg curls, body twist, light jogging, kicks,
lunges, grapevines, and various dance movements.

3. Cool-down phase. The last phase of the workout that allows the body to slowly
return to its normal rate of metabolism. Activities may include stretching, lunges and
floor exercises.

Techniques and Safety Tips

1. Always wear proper clothing

2. Begin with warm-up and stretching exercises.
3. Avoid excessive twisting and hyperextension of elbows, knees, and lower back.
4. Bend the knees a bit when landing from jumps.
5. Monitor heart rate.
6. Never forget to perform cool down exercises.
7. Listen to body signals of over exercise.

Basic Arm and Foot Movements

 Arm Swing  Claps  Step close  Jogging

 Jab  Arm circling  Side Step  Marching
 Body Twist  Arm stretch  Grapevine  Leg Curl
 Arm cross  Arm Curl  Knee lift  Kicks

Sample of an Aerobic Dancing Workout/Routine

ROUTINE 1

1. March with arm swing

2. Step close
3. Side Step
4. Easy step with jab
5. Grapevine
6. Grapevine with body twist
7. V-step
8. Knee lift
9. Knee lift with arm cross
10. Inverted V-step with clap
11. Jog in place
ROUTINE 2

1. March
2. Step point with arms sway forward
3. Heel step
4. Side step with clap
5. Leg Curl
6. Step close with overhead clap
7. Step close with arms circling
8. Body twist with knee lift
9. Easy step with arms stretched
10. Squats with arm curl
11. Squats with jab
12. Step forward and kick
13. Knee lift with bent elbows and sidekick

ROUTINE 3

1. March
2. Point foot(R, L) to front, side and back
3. Walk sideward to right and left
4. Bend knees, point foot (R & L alternately sideward)
5. March
6. Repeat # 4 and extend arms(R & L alternately) sideward
7. Raise knee forward(R & L alternately) while simultaneously raising the R &
L fists.
8. March
9. Repeat #8-single, double
10. Raise foot (R & L alternately) forward, fists downward
11. March
12. Single side step, arms in sideward lateral position
13. Double side step, arms in sideward lateral position(double)
14. March
15. Walk forward and backward
16. March

CIRCUIT TRAINING

This type of training program involves movement from one station to another.
Each station presents a different exercise from the other stations. The goal is to
complete all stations at shorter periods. This type of training program aims to
improve muscle fitness, but when done frequently, with enough intensity, and
inclusion of aerobic exercise such as those that use treadmills and stationary bikes,
would also improve cardiovascular fitness.

WEIGHT TRAINING

Weight training (also called strength or resistance training) is the use of

variety of methods, including exercises with free weights and weight machines, to
increase muscular strength, endurance, and/or power for sports participation or
fitness enhancement. An essential concept in understanding weight training is
knowledge of RM or repetition maximum and set. RM is the measure of exercise
intensity, hence, the maximal load that a muscle group can lift a specified number of
times before training. 15 RM for example of repetitions consecutively performed
without resting.

It is said that a weight training program using low repetitions and high
resistance results in the greatest strength gains, whereas a weight training program
using high repetitions and low resistance results in the greatest improvement in
muscular endurance (Powers and Dodd, 1996). Thus, the strength training program
should be carefully tailored to the individual’s strength and desired strength level.

Below are suggested guidelines and precautions to follow prior to beginning a

strength-training program taken from the book of Powers and Dodd, 1996.
 1. Warm-up before beginning a workout. This involves 5-10 minutes of
movement (calisthenics), using all major muscles groups.
2. Start slowly. The first several training sessions should involve limited
exercises and lightweight.
3. Use the proper lifting technique. Improper technique can lead to injury.
4. Follow all safety rules.
5. Always lift through the full range of motion. This not only develops strength
throughout the full range of motions but also assists in maintaining flexibility.

Lastly the following three (3) stages of a Strength Training Program should be
carefully considered before coming up with an individualized strength training
program: starter, slow progression and maintenance phase.

The goal of the starter phase is to gradually build strength without developing undue
muscle soreness or injury. This may be done with light weights, a high number of
repetitions, and a maximum of 2 sets per exercise, Frequency is twice per week with
duration of 1-3 weeks, with consideration to the initial strength level of the
individual.

The slow progression phase is to gradually reach the desired muscle strength level.
Thus, this phase may need 4-20 weeks, again depending on the initial strength and
strength goal of the individual. This phase entails increase in frequency of training
increase in the amount of weight, increase in the number of sets performed, but with
a decrease in the number of repetitions.

The last phase is the maintenance phase. This is the period where it is assumed that
the desired strength level has been achieved already and that the problem is how to
maintain. Therefore, the maintenance phase is that phase where strength training
becomes a lifelong activity but that the effort exerted is less than the initial effort
exerted during the beginning of the problem.

Here are some basic weight training exercises and the major muscle or muscle
groups developed.

 Bicep Curl-Biceps  Bench Press-Pectorals Deltoids

 Triceps Extension-Triceps  Calf Raise-Gastronemies, Soleus
 Leg Curl-Hamstring  Lateral Arm Raise-Deltoids, Trapezius
 Leg Extension-Quadriceps  Side Bend-Obliques

Table below presents a suggested training routine for a basic fitness program.
Encompassing the three (3) phases, frequency sets, reps, and weight.

Week No. Phase Frequency Sets Reps Weight

1-3 Starter 2/Week 2 15 15RM
4-20 Slow 2-3/Week 3 6 6RM
Progression
20+ Maintenance 1-2/Week 3 6 6RM

The following is a sample of a weight-training program:

Basic Eight (8) Free Weights

1. Bench Press
2. Overhead Military Press
3. Biceps Curl
4. Triceps Curl
5. Wrist Curl
6. Dumbbell Curl
7. Half Squat
8. Lunges
 PE 101: FOUNDATION OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

Definition of Physical Education:

A. It is a planned sequential instruction that promote lifelong physical activity

designed to develop basic movement skills, sports skills, and physical fitness
as well as to enhance mental, social and emotional activities.

B. It is the integral part of the educational program designed to promote the

optimum development of the individual physically, mentally, socially and
emotionally through total body movement in the performance of properly
selected physical activities.

I. Introduction to Physical Fitness

Definition of Terms:

A. PHYSICAL ACTIVITY - it involves any bodily movement caused by

muscular contractions that result in the expenditure of energy.

B. EXERCISE - it is a planned program of physical activities usually designed

to improve physical fitness.

C. PHYSICAL FITNESS - the ability on an individual to perform one’s daily

task with vigor and alertness without undue fatigue, with reserve energy to
attend to other tasks, with readiness to meet unforeseen emergencies, and
with enough energy for leisure time activities.

D. WARM-UP - is a term used to describe activities to prepare your body for

more strenuous exercise in the stimulus period; the usual technique involves
the use of less intense levels of the actual exercise you will do during the
stimulus period, followed by some gentle stretching exercises.

E. COOL DOWN - is done immediately after the conclusion of the stimulus

period, like the warm-up, it involves milder exercises than those used during
the stimulus period.

II. Exercise and Physical Inactivity

A. Benefits of Exercise:
1. Improves psychological functioning
2. Improves appearance
3. Increased efficiency of the heart and lungs
4. Increased muscle strength and endurance
5. Protection from lower back problems
6. Maintenance of proper body weight
7. Possible delay in the aging process
8. Reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases
9. Reduce stress response
10. Naturally induced fatigue and relaxation

B. Problems of Inactivity
1. Obesity - excessive fats which guides the person to be overweight
 2. Back Pain
3. Tension Syndrome
4. Emotional Instability
5. Hypertension (high blood pressure) - is abnormally or chronically
elevated blood pressure. This is associated with heart attack.
6. Diabetes - too much sugar
7. Prone to Cardiovascular Diseases

C. Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD’s)

- refer to any disease that affects the heart or blood vessels

*Major Forms:

1. ATHEROSCLEROSIS - hardening and thickening of arterial wall

caused by fatty deposits known as plaque.
 Three main reasons for fatty build-up, all controllable:
 smoking and other tobacco use
 unhealthy diet
 physical inactivity

An early form of fatty deposits known as “fatty streaks” can even be

found in some children younger than 10 years.

 Signs and Symptoms:

Often there are no symptoms of the underlying disease of blood
vessels. A heart attack and stroke may be the first warning of the
underlying disease.

2. HEART ATTACK / MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION - Stoppage of

blood flow to the heart, resulting in the death of heart cells.
 Signs and Symptoms:
Symptoms of a heart attack includes pain or discomfort in the
center of the chest, pain or discomfort in the arms, the left
shoulder, elbow, jaw or back. In addition, the person may
experience difficulty in breathing or shortness of breath, feeling sick
and becoming pale.

3. CORONARY HEART / ARTERY DISEASE - result of

atherosclerotic plaque forming a blockage of one or more coronary
arteries.

4. STROKE - brain damage that occurs when the blood supply to the
brain is reduced for a prolonged period of time.

5. HYPERTENSION - blood pressure is chronically above the normal.

BLOOD PRESSURE - force exerted by the blood against blood vessel

walls by the pumping action of the heart.
The 1st number: systolic pressure is the pressure generated when the
heart contracts.
The 2nd number: diastolic pressure is the blood pressure when the
heart is relaxed.

 HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE SYMPTOMS- stressed, sedentary,

bloated, weak, failing
SYSTOLIC-DIASTOLIC

210-120 - stage 4 high blood pressure

180-110- stage 3 high blood pressure
160-100- stage 2 high blood pressure
150-- Stage 1 high blood pressure
140-90- borderline high
130-85- high normal
120-80- normal blood pressure
110-75- low normal
90-60- borderline low
60-40- too low blood pressure
50-33- danger blood pressure

 LOW BLOOD PRESSURE SYMPTOMS- weak, tired, dizzy, fainting,

coma

III. Physical Fitness Components

A. Health - Related Fitness Components

1. CARDIORESPIRATORY ENDURANCE - is the body’s ability to deliver

oxygen and nutrients to all of its vital organs in order to sustain prolonged,
rhythmical exercise.

1. HEART RATE - is defined as the number of heartbeats per

minute (bpm).
Anatomical Sites:
 temporal site - front of ear
 radial site - wrist part
 carotid site - neck
 brachial site - arm joint
 ulnar site - wrist part, end of small finger
 femoral site - leg joint and body
 popliteal site - leg joint (back)
 posterior tibial - upper heel joint
 dorsalis pedis - a little above big thumb feet finger

2. FREQUENCY - is the number of times an individual should exercise

in a week. How often - at least 3 times a week.

3. INTENSITY - is the difficulty level of the exercise. How hard - as

recommended that a little over half to at least three quarters effort allows
adequate stimulation of the cardio respiratory system to produce training
effect habit.

4. TIME - is the duration of the exercise. How long should the exercise
last? It is recommended that for benefits to occur, a person must exercise for
about 20-30 minutes, exclusive of the warm-up and cool down exercises.

5. TYPE - is the mode of exercise. What activity to engage in.

Ex. step test, 12 min. run test, walking test
 6. MUSCULAR STRENGTH - is the ability of the muscles to exert one
maximal force against a resistance.

Weight training is a non-competitive activity that involves a

resistance to improve muscular strength, muscular endurance and flexibility.

Types of Contractions:
1. Isotonic is a type of muscle contraction in which the muscle
changes length either shortening or lengthening.
2. Isometric contraction is when the muscle remains the same
length or the muscle contracts at a fixed angle. (Ex. pushing the wall)
3. Isokinetic (constant speed) contraction is an isotonic-concentric
contraction that is done with a machine that regulates the velocity or speed
of the movement and resistance.

3. MUSCULAR ENDURANCE - is the ability of the muscle to exert

repeated force against a resistance or to sustain a muscular contraction.
Activity tests to measure muscular endurance:
 Abdominal curl-ups
 Push ups
 Modified Push-up
 Pull-ups

4. FLEXIBILITY - is the movement of a joint through a full range of

motion or the range of movement possible at various joints.
It involves four basic movements:
 Flexion - bending o body segment
 Extension - straightening of body segment
 Abduction - moving a limb away from the body
 Adduction - moving a limb toward the body
Example of Flexibility Tests:
 Shoulder Flexibility Test
 Modified Sit and Reach
 Sit and Reach Wall Test

SKILLS-RELATED COMPONENTS

These are performance-related fitness components that are vital for athletic
success and are not crucial to health. The six (6) skills-related fitness components
are speed, agility, power, power, balance, coordination, and reaction time.

1. Speed is the ability to perform a movement in a short period of time (Lacy &
Hastad, 2007). Examples of sports activities where speed is essential are sprinters is
a track event and receivers in a football team.

Activity tests to measure speed:

 50-meter Sprint
 100-meter Dash
 Double Heel Click

2. Agility is defined as the ability to rapidly and accurately change the position of the
body in space (Lacy & Hastad, 2007). Example of sports activities where agility is
essential are wrestling and springboard diving.

Activity tests to measure speed:

 Ilinois Agility Run
 Squat Thrust
 Paper Ball Pick-up

3. Power is the ability to exert maximum force in a minimum length of time ( Lacy &
Hastad, 2007). Strength + Speed = Power. Examples of sports activities where
power in essential are weight lifting and throwing in track events.

Activity tests to measure speed:

 Vertical Jump
 Standing Long Jump
 Softball Throw for Distance

4. Balance is the maintenance of equilibrium while stationary (static balance) (Lacy &
Hastad, 2007). It is a special kind of coordination involving reflexes vision, the inner
ear, the cerebellum, and the musculo-skeletal. Examples of sports activities where
balance is essential are walking on a balance beam in gymnastics and golf swing.

Activity tests to measure speed:

 Balance Beam Walk
 Stork Stand
 One-foot Stand Test

5. Coordination is the ability to simultaneously perform multiple motor tasks

smoothly and accurately (Lacy & Hastad, 2007). Examples of sports activities where
coordination is essential are dribbling a basketball and batting a pitched baseball.

Activity tests to measure speed:

Paper Ball Balance
 Body Coordination Test

6. Reaction Time is the duration between the stimulation and the response to the
stimulation (Lacy & Hastad, 2007).Examples of sports activities where reaction time
is essential are track player’s response to a gun firing, jump ball in basketball and a
fast serve in tennis.

Activity tests to measure speed:

 Paper Drop
 Hand Reaction Time Test

EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON SELECTED

BODY SYSTEMS
EFFECTS ON THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system is known as the transport system of the body due to
the fact that is a close loop composed of the heart and the blood vessel in which the
heart is the pumping organ that will generate the pressure to move the blood
through the system. The amount of blood pumped by the heart per minutes is called
cardiac output; the number of heartbeats per minute is the heart rate, while stroke
volume is the amount of blood pumped per heartbeat that is expressed in milliliters.

Below is a summary of the effects of exercise on the circulatory system:

 Increase in cardiac output and stoke volume

 Increase in blood pressure
 Increase heart rate
 Heart becomes stronger so it can pump more blood throughout the body with
every beat and can continue working at maximum level
 Improves heart health
 Lowers the risk for heart disease
 Resting heart rate is slower because less effort is needed to pump blood
 Faster recovery heart rate
EFFECTS ON THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system is the body’s system that is responsible for the
replacement of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide from the blood. Through
inhalation, oxygen-rich air is brought from the lungs to the blood, while carbon
dioxide is moved from the blood through the lungs through exhalation.

EFFECTS ON THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The muscular system, specially the skeletal muscles, are the ones responsible in
producing locomotor movements, giving specific shape to the different parts of the
body as well as providing postural support. They produce heat during periods of cold
stress.

During exercise, there are immediate effects on the muscles such as muscle pain,
muscle stiffness, muscle soreness, and muscle fatigue, all of which are caused by the
body’s physiological responses to exercises.

However, continued use of the muscles during exercise may bring about positive
benefits such as the following:

 Stronger and leaner muscles

 Increase in muscle fiber size; hence, increase in muscle strength
 Lowers risk of chronic back pain in the future
 Beneficial for osteoarthritis patients