Second Edition

Optoelectronic
Devices and
Systems

S.C. Gupta
Optoelectronic Devices and Systems
SECOND EDITION

Dr. S.C. GUPTA

Senior Professor and Director (Academic)
Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology
Ghaziabad

Delhi-110092
2015
OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES AND SYSTEMS, Second Edition
S.C. Gupta

© 2015 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the
publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-5065-6

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Fifth Printing (Second Edition) ... ... .... November, 2014

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj Industrial Estate,
Delhi-110092 and Printed by Raj Press, New Delhi-110012.
Dedicated to my wife Manju,
sons Navneet, Vineet and
daughter Shalu
 CONTENTS

Preface xv

1. WAVEGUIDES AND OPTICAL FIBRE 1–77

1.1 Dielectric Slab Waveguides 1
1.1.1 Modes in the Symmetric Slab Waveguide 4
1.1.2 Mode Condition 4
1.1.3 TE and TM Polarization 5
1.1.4 TE Mode Chart 6
1.1.5 Higher-ordered Modes 7
1.1.6 Mode Pattern 10
1.1.7 Modes in the Asymmetric Slab Waveguide 11
1.2 Classification of Fibres 13
1.3 Description of Modes 16
1.3.1 Types of Modes 16
1.3.2 Guided, Radiation and Leaky Modes on w–b Plane 17
1.3.3 Parameters of Monomode and Multimode Fibres 18
1.3.4 Modes in Mono and Multimode Fibres 19
1.4 Step Index Fibres: Numerical Aperture and Multipath Dispersion 21
1.4.1 Propagation and Multipath Dispersion in Graded Index Fibre 23
1.5 Ray Optics and Its Applications 24
1.5.1 Critical Angle 25
1.5.2 Electromagnetic Waves 25
1.5.3 Material Dispersion and Pulse Distortion 26
1.5.4 Solitons 32
1.5.5 Information Rate 33
1.6 Single Mode Fibre 37
1.7 Numerical Aperture 37
1.8 Different Types of Monomode Fibres 38
1.9 Signal Degradation 40
1.9.1 Attenuation Loss 40
1.9.2 Absorption 42
v
 vi CONTENTS

1.9.3 Rayleigh Scattering 43

1.9.4 Rayleigh Scattering Coefficient 44
1.9.5 Non-linear Scattering in Fibres 45
1.10 Optical Fibre Manufacturing and Drawing 47
1.10.1 Double-crucible Method 47
1.10.2 Inside-Vapour-Deposition (IVD) Method 49
1.10.3 Outside-Vapour-Deposition (OVD) Method 49
1.10.4 Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) Method 50
1.10.5 Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition (MCVD) Method 51
1.10.6 Plasma Enhanced MCVD (PMCVD) Method 55
1.10.7 Plasma Activated CVD (PCVD) Method 56
1.10.8 Plasma Outside Deposition (POD) Method 57
1.10.9 Vapour Phase Axial Deposition (VAD) Method 57
1.10.10 Drawing of Optical Fibres 60
1.10.11 Comparison of Performance 61
1.11 Loss Mechanism 62
1.11.1 Insertion Loss 62
1.11.2 Return Loss 62
1.11.3 Connection Losses (Intrinsic Losses) 64
1.11.4 Extrinsic Losses 65
1.11.5 Reflection Loss 67
1.11.6 Splicing Techniques 68
1.11.7 Procedure of Splicing 69
1.11.8 Types of Splicing 70
1.11.9 Fusion Splicing 70
1.11.10 Fusion Splice Protection 74
Exercises 75
References 76

2. PHOTON SOURCES AND DETECTORS 78–145

2.1 Semiconductor Photon Optical Sources 78
2.2 Light Sources and Transmitters 78
2.3 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 79
2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Light Emitting Diodes 81
2.5 Light Emitting Diodes 82
2.5.1 Burrus LEDs 82
2.5.2 Edge Emitting LED (ELED) 84
2.6 LED Analog Transmission 88
2.7 LED Digital Transmission 91
2.8 Introduction to Lasers 94
2.8.1 Black Body Radiation 95
2.8.2 Boltzmann Statistics 95
2.9 Einstein Coefficients for Absorption and Emission 96
 CONTENTS vii

2.10 Characteristic of Laser Radiations 101

2.10.1 Directionality 101
2.10.2 Intensity 102
2.10.3 Monochromaticity 103
2.10.4 Coherence 104
2.11 Semiconductor Laser Diode 105
2.11.1 Heterostructure Semiconductor Lasers 106
2.11.2 Single-frequency Semiconductor Lasers 111
2.11.3 The Semiconductor Injection Laser 113
2.11.4 Quantum Well Lasers 116
2.11.5 Index Guided Lasers 117
2.11.6 Single-frequency Injection Lasers 118
2.11.7 The Cleaved-Coupled-Cavity (C3) Laser: A Technique for
obtaining Narrow Spectral Linewidth 120
2.12 Photon Sources Packaging 122
2.12.1 LED Packaging 123
2.12.2 Laser Diode Packaging 123
2.13 Frequency Chirping 124
2.14 Optical Detectors 125
2.14.1 PIN Photodiodes 125
2.14.2 Avalanche Photodiode 128
2.14.3 Photovoltaic Diode 131
2.15 Detector Performance Parameters: Noise Sources 136
2.15.1 Noise in Optical Detector 141
2.15.2 Quantum Noise 142
Exercises 144
References 145

3. ELECTRO-OPTICAL DEVICES 146–290

3.1 The Electro-Optic Effect 146
3.1.1 The Kerr Effect 146
3.1.2 The Pockels Effect 148
3.1.3 The Faraday Effect 149
3.2 Q-Switching 151
3.2.1 Rotating Mirror Method 152
3.2.2 The Electro-optic Q-switch 153
3.3 Modulation of the Laser Output 154
3.3.1 Internal Modulation 154
3.3.2 Mechanical Modulators 154
3.3.3 Acoustic Modulation 154
3.3.4 Absorption Modulators 156
3.3.5 Electro-optic Beam Deflection 156
3.4 Electro-Optic Modulators 157
3.4.1 Birefringence and the Electro-Optic Effect: Application to
Phase Modulation 157
viii CONTENTS

3.5 Electro-Optic Amplitude Modulation 161

3.6 Kerr Modulators 166
3.6.1 Optical Frequency Kerr Effect 167
3.7 Scanning and Switching 167
3.8 Magneto-Optic Devices 169
3.8.1 Faraday Effect 169
3.9 Acousto-Optic Effect 171
3.10 Non-linear Optics 175
3.10.1 Background of Non-linear Optics 180
3.10.2 Second Harmonic Generation 181
3.10.3 Experimental Results of Earlier Workers and
Their Theoretical Analysis 182
3.10.4 Conclusions from the Investigations of Earlier Workers 185
3.10.5 Multiphoton Absorption Processes 188
3.10.6 Intensity Dependent Refractive Index 190
3.11 Second Harmonic Generation 193
3.11.1 Introduction 193
3.11.2 Experimental Technique and Data 196
3.11.3 General Theory 204
3.11.4 Formation of Contours 210
3.11.5 Edge Fringe Pattern 212
3.12 Multiphoton Absorption Processes 219
3.12.1 Two-photon Absorption Process 220
3.12.2 Experimental Technique and Data 221
3.12.3 Two-photon Absorption in Organometallic Materials 229
3.12.4 Three-photon Absorption Process 232
3.12.5 Theory of the Three-photon Absorption Process 234
3.12.6 Evaluation of the Cross-section 240
3.12.7 Spin Analysis for Three-photon Absorption Process 244
3.12.8 Experimental Results and Discussion 252
3.12.9 Theory of Multiphoton Absorption Processes 257
3.12.10 Evaluation of Cross-section 260
3.12.11 Evaluation of the Wave Function and the Spin Coefficient
for the Four-photon Absorption Process 262
3.12.12 Experimental Results and Discussions 265
3.13 Parametric Oscillation 272
3.14 Non-linear Materials 274
Appendix 3.1 276
Appendix 3.2 278
Appendix 3.3 279
Exercises 283
References 284
 CONTENTS ix

4. FOURIER OPTICS AND HOLOGRAPHY 291–346

4.1 Fourier Transform 291
4.1.1 Existence of Fourier Transform 292
4.1.2 Gaussian Pulse Transform 292
4.2 Properties of Fourier Transform 295
4.2.1 Time-scaling Property 295
4.2.2 Linearity Property 297
4.2.3 Duality or Symmetry Property 297
4.2.4 Time Shifting Property 298
4.2.5 Frequency Shifting Property 299
4.2.6 Time Differentiation Property 300
4.3 Image Forming Propertis of Lenses 301
4.3.1 Spherical Lenses 301
4.3.2 Convex and Concave Lenses 302
4.3.3 Lens Power—Dioptres 304
4.3.4 Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors and Lenses 305
4.3.5 Conjugate Points 308
4.3.6 Chromatic Aberration 309
4.3.7 Reflectance 311
4.3.8 Cementing 312
4.3.9 Anti-Reflection Coatings 313
4.4 Holographic Optical Element 313
4.4.1 What is HOE? 313
4.4.2 Design Aspects 314
4.4.3 Resolution 316
4.4.4 Aberrations and Alignment Sensitivity 316
4.4.5 Applications of HOEs 318
4.5 HOE Fabrication Materials 320
4.6 Vibration and Motion Analysis by Holographic Techniques 321
4.7 Hologram Interferometry 322
4.8 Superposition of Ramp Motion and Sinusoidal Vibration 324
4.9 Stroboscopic Holography 325
4.10 Modulated Beam Holography 325
4.11 Holographic Measuring Systems and Evaluation of Holographic Interferograms 326
4.11.1 Experimental Stress Analysis 327
4.11.2 Environment Stability 327
4.11.3 Light Source 327
4.11.4 Exposure Time and Beam Ratio 328
4.11.5 Recording Medium 328
4.11.6 Diffraction Efficiency 328
4.11.7 Resolution 329
4.11.8 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 329
4.11.9 Scattering 330
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