MR2

MATERIALS OF DECORATION
3. FLOORS, WALLS, AND CEILINGS

3.1. DEFINITION
3.1.1. Floors – often dominates the visual field and can have a
tremendous impact on the acoustics of a space. No other
finish is subjected to as much wear as flooring. It is usually the
most expensive finish selected, in maintenance cost alone,
and often is the only material that the inhabitants of a space
actually touch.
3.1.2 Walls – since these mark the confines of a room, they are the
most conspicuous architectural elements and probably
deserve first consideration in the study of interior design. The
walls are the vertical surfaces that contain the doors and
windows, and which furnish the background for the principal
pieces of furniture. They define space and provide a palette
on which a finish is applied. They also serve as complex
systems, concealing the building services, elevators, power,
communication, HVAC, and plumbing, within them.
In most commercial interiors, the wall is composed of light-

gauge steel studs that form a frame supporting a substrate
finished with paint, wall covering, tile, paneling, stone or an
upholstered system. Its character is expressed by structural
materials, brick and stone, or by natural materials, marble
and wood, not imitating masonry construction but employed
purely as facing and applied in thin panels or slabs with
unbroken joints, or by the application of paper, cloth, or
leather to walls by means of paste or tacks.
Finishing interior walls for a house is one of the important steps

in home building. It is wholly a decorating problem, one in
which decisions have to be made regarding color, texture,
and pattern. Today’s wall-surface materials offer more than
appearance alone. There are fire proof materials to make the
home safer, acoustical material to soundproof ceilings and
walls between rooms, materials that increase comfort, and
those that are easily cleaned and maintained.
3.1.3. Ceilings – contain the volume of a space and breathe life

into it by shaping the diffusion of sound and light. It is a
prominent design element, making a substantial contribution
to the ambience of a room. Ceilings serve as an
important functional part of the design because
they conceal the distribution of conditioned air,
artificial light, and the fire suppression system,
especially in commercial interiors. The space
between a finished ceiling and the structure
above, referred to as the plenum, is the main
thoroughfare for the heating, air conditioning, fire
suppression, and lighting systems in
contemporary commercial interiors; crowning
glory of a room
1. Plenum – this is defined as the space between a

finished ceiling and the structure above. It serves
as the main thoroughfare for the heating, air
conditioning, fire suppression, and lighting
systems especially in contemporary commercial
interiors.
3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FLOORING MATERIALS
Flooring Materials can be classified according to their hardness or rigidity.

They can also be further classified according to their ability to absorb
moisture and liquids.
3.2.1. Classifications according to hardness or rigidity
1. Hard Flooring – these more closely resemble elements

found in nature (wood, stone or clay) than resilient or
soft coverings. Durable and practical, hard floorings
establish a sense of permanence and, if properly
selected, can last the life of the building.
Some hard floorings are substantially heavier than other

flooring materials. Normal movement resulting from
deflection, thermal stresses, and shrinkage can present
problems with the inherent rigidity of hard flooring
types. Existing structural conditions should be verified to
ensure their stability and adequacy in supporting the
additional flooring load.
2. Resilient flooring – it combines the comfort underfoot

and quietness associated with textile floor coverings,
with the imperviousness of hard floorings. The resilient
surface resists indentation while providing a dense,
relatively easy-to-clean surface.
Today, vinyl composition tile is the most often specified

type of resilient flooring because of its ease of
installation and affordability. Vinyl sheet flooring is
popular for applications in which a monolithic surface is
required to prevent the penetration of dirt or moisture.
3. Soft Floor Covering – carpet is unmatched among floor

coverings for a luxurious feel underfoot. It has become
an essential element in the modern design palette:
When properly selected, carpet is durable enough to
last the life of most leases and is relatively easy to
maintain.
3.2.2. Classification according to ability to absorb moisture and

liquids.
1. Nonporous floors (slate, ceramic and quarry tiles) –

There is no point in putting a seal on a non-porous floor;
it is already waterproof and impervious to most
household liquids. Anyway, sealers would soon peel or
chip. Non-porous floors are usually the most durable,
but they are resilient and china or glass is more likely to
break when dropped.
2. Semi-porous floors (marble, terrazzo, rubber, most

linoleums, vinyl, vinyl asbestos, thermoplastic) –
Waterproof and resistant (not impervious) to oil and
grease, they tend to react badly to spirit solvents such
as petrol. Paraffin and white spirits, and most of them
should not be sealed as this can irreparably damage
the finish.
3. Porous floors (unsealed wood, cork, concrete,

chipboard some older linoleum) – These are not
waterproof or greaseproof and are likely to stain.
Sealed, this kind of floor becomes a non-porous
surface. The softer and more porous the floor, the more
sealer is needed.
3.3. MATERIALS FOR FLOORS AND WALLS
3.3.1. Brick – it is usually buff, and comes in a

variety of browns. Most types of hard brick
make good floor surfaces and some pre-
war houses without damp-proofing have
this kind of floor. As bricks can be used
both inside and out, they look well in rooms
that open into the garden or courtyard.
Block of ceramic material used in masonry
construction made from clay, soft slater,
calcium -icate concrete quarried stone
2 ¼ - 4x8x2 ½ 2 ¼”x3x ¾”x8”-- brick size
3.3.2. Ceramic Tile – made from clay or a mixture

of clay and ceramic materials, pressed into
tiles and fired at a high temperature.
Natural clay is most commonly used, but
porcelain is also available. Porcelain tile is
fine grained and smooth. It can be formed
into sharply detailed designs. Tiles differ
principally in a. Composition of the body,
b. Surface finish whether glazed or
unglazed, c. Process of manufacture, and
d.The degree of Vitrification or the fusion of
the tile body after firing, as indicated by
the extent to which it absorbs moisture.
Tiles are made of compounded and natural clay bodies. Those

made of compound bodies contain three principal constituents;
a. The Plastic – usually clays having high bonding power and

some fluxing ability.
b. The Filler – this reduces shrinkage in drying and firing and

imparts to the body a certain rigidity which prevents
deformation under heat.
c. The Flux or Solvent – melts under intense heat and fuses the
heat resisting elements into one solid mass; most common-
feldspar
1. Specification of Ceramic tiles – The density and porosity of the

ceramic tile determines its ability to absorb moisture. They are
quantified into four levels of water absorption: non-vitreous, semi-
vitreous, vitreous, and impervious. In general, the lower the water-
absorption level of a tile material, the better able it is to resist
staining.
a. Impervious – this kind of tile has the lowest absorption level;

absorption 0.5% or n < 0.5%
b. Vitreous – meaning glasslike, describes a tile that is slightly
more absorptive than impervious tile, but still at a very low
rate; absorption less than 3.0%
Impervious and vitreous tiles are appropriate for use in exterior

applications exposed to rain and freezing temperatures or in
interior applications that require constant exposure to water,
such as swimming pools.
c. Semi-vitreous – tile has an absorption level of more than 3.0%,

but not more than 7.0%
d. Non-vitreous – is the most absorptive, at a rate of more than

7.0%
Semi vitreous and nonvitreous tiles should not be used in continually wet
locations.
2. Categories of Ceramic Tile – ceramic tile is categorized into five basic types:
wall, ceramic mosaic, quarry, paver, and special purpose.
a. Glazed Interior Tile – vitreous, from the dust-press process.
b. Ceramic mosaic tiles are usually 6 mm to

10 mm (1/4 in to 2/5 in) thick. The term
mosaic refers to the small size of the tile,
which has a face area of less than 150 sq.
mm (6 sq in). The most common sizes are
25 mm x 25 mm (1 in. X 1 in.) or 50 mm x 50
mm (2 in x 2 in). Ceramic mosaic tiles can be made of either porcelain
or natural clay and can be glazed or unglazed mounted on net
backing usually 12” x 12”.
c. Paver tiles are essentially large ceramic mosaic tiles. They are 150 sq
mm (6 sq in) or more in size and are made of unglazed porcelain or
natural clay. The slip resistance of pavers can be increased with
textured surfaces or raised surface patterns such as a diamond design.
These are generally weatherproof and are especially suitable for
heavy floor service.
d. Quarry tiles are unglazed, extruded and made from either natural clay
or shale. They are similar to bricks in material, performance, range of
colors, and methods of installation. They are known to be very durable
as a flooring material, being impervious to moisture, stain and dirt and
are resistant to abrasion usually 4” x 4”, also known as promenade tile.
3. Ceramic Tile Finishes
a. Unglazed tiles are composed of the same ingredients throughout and

derive their color and texture from the materials of which the body is
made homogenous.
b. Glazed tiles have a glassy surface of ceramic materials fused upon their
face to give them a decorative appearance and to make the surface
impervious to moisture.
Bright Glazes – having a highly polished surface and reflects

an image clearly.
Matte Glazes – those which do not reflect an image or are
entirely without sheen.
Stump Concrete (Bomanite)
3.3.3 Concrete Tiles – made of cement and aggregate. It comes in natural, or

gray and red colors. It usually square in shape. Although it is suitable for patios,
terraces, and showers, it can be very hard and cold. It is now being used in a lot
of the interiors such as kitchen and even living rooms, usually 8” x 8”, 12” x 12”,
16” x 16”, 1” thick.
3.3.4. Cork– Natural resilient flooring. Cork is actually the outer layer of the cork
oak tree, which is grown in Mediterranean regions.
Cork can be in rigid tile or as flexible wall covering, laminated to cotton or

backed with paper in continuous rolls. Cork tile is composed of granulated cork
and natural or synthetic resins that act as binders, then compressed and baked.
A protective finish coat is applied to the completed tile to give it the qualities of
color fastness and stain-resistance. Cork offers excellent acoustic and thermal
insulation. However, because of its absorptive nature, moisture and stains are of
concern. Also, tiles easily chip and crumble at the edges, and fades in strong
sunlight. Cork can also be used as an underlayment to increase the resiliency of
other types of finish floors.
Cork tiles are also available with a laminated top layer of vinyl which is aptly
called Vinyl Cork Tiles. This makes them tougher and non-porous. They can be
kept clean by damp mopping.
3.3.5. Fabric – oldest wall covering, and its warmth, richness, and beauty cannot
be matched by other wall finishes. The selection of this material must be
carefully considered because not all textiles are suitable for use as wall
coverings. Moreover, fabric wall coverings are not appropriate in applications
where wear resistance is a concern. Any type of fabric (including carpet) may
be used as a wall covering. It gives the feeling of being extraordinarily luxurious
because of its cost.
1. Backed Fabric – Most textiles must be back coated to be installed as

wall covering to provide a barrier to prevent adhesive from bleeding
through and ruining the finish face of the fabric. Backings also provide
the dimensional stability required for a textile to withstand the
stretching and smoothing operations of installation.
a. Paper-backed Fabrics – process involves laminating paper

to the reverse side of the textile. This process stiffens the
textile for easier installation and help to hide defects in the
wall. The textile assumes properties similar to those of
wallpaper. Paper-backed fabric shows the high-quality
look of a fabric wall covering but can be installed with the
ease of a vinyl-coated paper.
b. Latex-coated Fabrics- process involves stretching the

textile in a frame and applying a latex compound. The
textile retains some of its inherent flexibility and is much less
dimensionally stable than paper-backed text tiles. Latex
backing can also improve ravel resistance and seam
slippage.
2. Unbacked Fabrics – these are pre-treated to make them suitable for

sticking to the wall. It is one of the most difficult materials because you
have to work carefully to smooth out the fabric as you apply it to the wall.
3.3.6 Glass – it’s a chief application in contemporary architecture will likely

continue to be the windows, while its use as a transparent or translucent wall
recommends itself as a logical and final extension of the picture window. The
whole concept of the open interior achieved through picture windows, or sliding
glass panels, is one of flowing space, permitting access to the outdoors as one
desires, Ever increasing is the trend towards glass-clad or curtain-wall
construction- the extensive use of glass in exterior as well as interior walls.
3.3.7 Granolithic – usually used for floors, granolithic is a superior and less porous
kind of concrete made from cement, granite chippings and granite dust. It is
very hard-wearing. More often used in factories than in the home, but when
sealed is easy to maintain. It is used in workrooms, garage, etc. It is very hard
and not generally suitable for living areas.
3.3.8 Leather – the discovery of a process to reconstitute leather by breaking

down rawhide into a clear solution and bringing this solution back to fiber form
makes for leather in sizes and shapes no animal can grow. This derived form of
leather looks the same as any fine natural leather. It can be formed into heavy
blocks or made thin and soft and in any length desirable. Pigskin in tile form
makes for a long-wearing wall material that is resistant to acids and moisture
and may be maintained with a minimum of cleaning and waxing.
3.3.9 Linoleum – the predecessor to contemporary synthetic resilient flooring was

developed in England in the 1860s. There is, however, a renewed interest in
linoleum because it is produced mainly with natural materials from sustainable
crops and its waste is biodegradable.
The term linoleum is derived from the Latin

botanical terms for flax, “linum”, and for oil,
“oleum”. Linoleum is composed of oxidized
linseed oil or other resins, mixed with ground
cork or wood flour, mineral filter, and color
pigments. This mixture is bonded under heat
and pressure to a fiber backing, typically
burlap or felt, in various sizes and thicknesses.
Powdered cork is also added to impart
strength and hardness. Because of the air
pockets found naturally in cork (it is 50% air)
linoleum is a superior t hermal and acoustic
insulator
It is smooth, has a hard wearing surface and is available in a light gage, thus, it is
easily adapted to bathroom and kitchen walls. Thicker qualities have a high
resilience and are warm underfoot. Linoleum is sensitive to alkalis, and it is
inclined to rise, peel, and rot if water gets underneath.
3.3.10 Metal – lightweight, fire resistant, virtually damage proof are the semi rigid
vinyl plastics, laminated under pressure to sheet steel, aluminum, or other
nonferrous metals. These are available in a wide range of colors, in glossy,
matter, or textured finishes, and in leather-like or marble grains.
3.3.11 Paint – interior walls have traditionally been colored. The use of distemper,
whitewashing, and lime whiting is older than that of linseed oil, white lead, and
turpentine. At present, paints are made from a combination of pigments, oils,
resins, solvents, plasticizers, and additives. Paints will be specifically discussed in
another chapter.
3.3.12 Stone – together with wood and clay, stone is one of the basic building
materials of man. The history of architecture until late as 1900 was largely the
history of stone in Architecture due to the fact that it was the structural, material,
the exterior and interior finishing material, the flooring material, and in many
cases, the roofing material. It was also used for all types of sculpture, statuary
and decorative and ornamental applications. In present times it is basically as a
surface finishing material for both.
The exterior and interior of buildings, unlike most other construction

materials, stone does not lose its beauty with age and, like no other flooring,
conveys an enduring sense of timeless. Often selected for public spaces and
entry lobbies, stones and images of permanence.
Simply put, it is a piece of rock, quarried and worked into a specific size and
shape for a particular purpose.
1. Classes of Rocks
a. Sedimentary – rocks that are formed by the deposition of sediments.

b. Metamorphic – rocks that have undergone a change in the structure,
texture or composition. Changes that have been brought about by
natural agencies such as heat and pressure making the rock harder
and more crystalline.
c. Igneous – rocks that are formed by the crystallization of molten
magma.
2. Classification of Stone
a. Rubble Stone – also known as “fieldstone”. These

are loose, unfinished stones found on the surface or
in the soil.
(Quarries with rough irregular shape)
b. Dimension Stone – these are quarried and squared stones, cut into
specific sizes, squared to dimensions, and of specific thicknesses.
3. Kinds of Stone
a. Granite – is a hard, durable, low-maintenance

stone. It is a grainy igneous rock (formed by
volcanic action) that imparts a visual strength. Granite is relatively

uniform in color and texture. It is extremely durable and highly
resistant to stain, weathering and corrosion, and is not as porous as
other cladding stones. Patterns that can be formed panel
placement with highly veined stones such as marble cannot be
achieved with granite.
 Igneous (quartz, feldspar, mica)

 Contains quartz, feldspar and mica/grainy, spedled composition
b. Marble – has been a preferred material for

the overlaying of interior walls as veneer and
for flooring from the very earliest age. Marble
is any stone consisting of crystalline and
compact varieties of carbonate of lime, or
sometimes a carbonate of magnesia, and of
such color and texture as to permit a high
polish. Many of the ornamental stones, such as serpentine, alabaster,
and granite, are sometimes loosely designated as marble.
It is a metamorphic rock, white in pure form but is mostly enriched

with impurities giving it special colors and patterns. It is softer and
more brittle than granite, and is considered a luxury material prize for
its distinctive variegated appearance.
The quarries of England, France, and Italy yield a great diversity of

marbles each bearing a distinctive name. America, Belgium,
Canada, India, Ireland, and Mexico possess some valuable deposits.
Among domestic and imported marble, there are more than 250
kinds, varying in color, pattern, and texture, and available in thin tiles.
c. Limestone– it is a sedimentary rock chiefly formed by the

accumulation of organic remains such as shells and corals. The color
range of limestone is limited to a neutral palette of buff and gray.
More commonly used as exterior cladding for buildings, limestone is
susceptible to staining and should not be exposed to excessive soil.
d. Slate – a fine-grained homogenous metamorphic rock which through

metamorphism is derived from an original shale-type sedimentary
rock composed of clay or volcanic ash. It has been historically used
for roofing; slate is commonly used as a contemporary interior floor or
wall finish. It is a dense, non-porous stone which varies in color from
dark blue (Welsh) to the heather colors and Grey-green
(Westmoreland). Slate has two lines of breakability, cleavage and
grain, making it possible to split easily into thin sheets. The finish
resulting from the natural face is referred to as a cleft finish. Slate can
also be sand rubbed to a smooth finish or honed.
e. Travertine – is a sedimentary rock; a natural precipitate of carbonate

minerals, typically aragonite, which is deposited from the water of
mineral springs, especially hot springs, or streams saturated with
calcium carbonate. When pure, it is white, but is often brown to yellow
due to impurities. Extensive deposits exist at Tivoli, Italy, near Rome. This
stone is characterized by pitted holes and troughs in its surface.
Although these occur naturally, considerable wear and tear occurring
over many years is suggested by such to some eyes.
f. Sandstone – is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-size

mineral rock grains. In a similar way to sand, it varies in color, through
gray, yellow, red and white. Some Sandstone is resistant to
weathering, yet is easy to work with, making it a common building
and paving material. Because of the hardness of individual grains,
uniformity of grain size, and friability of its structure, it is an excellent
material for making grindstones, used for sharpening blades and
other implements.
3.3.13 Terrazzo – this is basically a flooring material. The

word “terrazzo” is derived from the Italian word
“terrassa”, meaning terrace. Fifteenth-century
Venetian stone cutters commonly used marble
scraps as floor surfaces for their patio terraces.
They imbedded the small stone pieces in
concrete and polished the surface to a level
finish. Terrazzo is a very low-maintenance
seamless floor finish with the luxurious look of stone
mosaic and a durability comparable to that of
concrete. Often selected for its decorative possibilities, terrazzo artistry
can produce striking medallions or intricate inlaid patterns.
3.3.14 Rubber Flooring – rubber sheet or tile is composed

of natural rubber, synthetic rubber (styrene
butadiene), or both, in combination with mineral
fillers and pigments. Rubber is highly resistant to a
wide variety of harsh chemicals and solvents.
Because of its high durability and natural resistance to cigarette

burns, rubber is a good choice for high-traffic public areas such as
airport terminals. But, natural rubber is difficult to lie. It reacts badly to
grease, fruit juices, and spirits.
3.3.15 Vinyl – is a kind of plastic. Simply by arranging atoms and molecules,

vinyl can be made hard and rigid or soft and spongy. It can be made
to withstand heat. Two types of plastic, polyvinyl chloride and polyvinyl
acetate, when blended or modified with other substances; produce
the vast array of vinyl products. There are five ingredients commonly
found in vinyl flooring; polyvinyl chloride, fillers, pigments, plasticizers,
and stabilizers.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) resin is the most important and most expensive
ingredient in vinyl flooring. It gives the flooring resistance and durability.
Plasticizers increase flexibility so that the flooring can be rolled without
cracking or breaking. Stabilizers provide color permanence and
stabilize the pigment against heat and light deterioration. Fillers are
sometimes added to supplement the bulk and thickness of the flooring,
Mineral fillers, and the most common, also serve to improve the
flooring’s fire resistance. Pigments are required for color because most
vinyl is clear.
1. Sheet Vinyl – unlike vinyl tile, sheet vinyl allows a continuous surface to be
formed. Because such flooring has fewer joints, it is popular for applicants
where spills, dirt, or bacterial growth is of concern (for example, in
hospitals). Sheet goods can also form an integral or monolithic wall base.
Sometimes referred to as flash cove, to simplify maintenance. It can
sometimes be as expensive as a medium grade carpet, has a wide range
of colors, patterns and texture.
2. Vinyl Tile – the advantages of tile over

sheet vinyl are lower installation costs and
easier replacement of damaged flooring.
Vinyl Composition Tile (VCT) is the most
popular and economical type of resilient
flooring. The tiles are composed mostly of fillers with comparatively small
amounts of binder and pigments. VCT is more brittle than vinyl sheet
flooring.
Originally, the fillers used in vinyl tile contained asbestos. The product was
called vinyl asbestos tile, or VAT. Because of the health risk associated with
asbestos, it is no longer used in construction materials.
Vinyl wall covering is second only to paint as the most popular choice for
commercial interior wall surfaces. They durable, easy to maintain, and provide a
wide variety of decorative effects in a myriad of patterns, textures, and colors.
Durability and ease maintenance are the main attractions for vinyl wall
coverings. They never need refinishing, they withstand stains, acid, food, lint,
and grease. They resist marking, scuffing, dents, scratches, and peeling. Most
are fire resistant.
3.3.16. Wood – More popular in residential applications, wood is

occasionally used commercially as a design statement in reception
areas, private offices, or high end retail spaces. Hardwood is by far
the most often specified type of wood flooring for commercial
applications. Because of wood’s natural porosity, moisture is often
the cause for failure in wood flooring installations. All subfloors
regardless of material, sealer should be tested for moisture content
before wood flooring installation begins. Hardwood flooring comes
in three basic forms: plank, strip, and parquet, all of which typically
have a nominal thickness of 19mm(3/4in).
1. Planks– the widest of these types, about 75mm to 75mm

(3in to10 in) wide, 2in to 5in thick. Varieties of widths are
usually combined in wood plank floors and are effective
when rustic look is preferred.
2. Wood strip flooring – the most popular choice, is between about

40mmand 60mm (1 ½ and 2 ½ in) wide.
MATERIALS OF DECORATIONS
3. Parquet flooring – consists of small lengths of wood strips, either

individual slats or preconfigured into tiles that are
arranged to form patterns.
4. Block flooring – composed of square units preassembled at the

mill , these are usually installed with a sealant, adhesive
or protective coating.
a. Unit block – made by joining short lengths of strip flooring

edgewise
b. Laminated block– made by bonding three or more wood
veneers with a moisture resistant adhesive, these are
usually toung-and-grooved to ensure proper alignment
and setting
c. Slat block – made by assembling narrow slats into larger
units.
As a wall-lining, wood was employed over the years in the form of

panelling, divisions and shapes in rhythmic patterns, and in the
carvings and mouldings with which panelling was enriched.
Hardwood used in panelling might be smooth or rough textured,
plain edged, flush jointed, or grooved. This traditional wall surface is
being revitalized to enhance the interior environment. Flexible in its
application, it is now used in large sheets of hard and soft wood
veneers.
Wood veneer is made by bonding veneer slices, about 0.39mm

(164in) thick, to a woven backing material. The resulting material is
thin enough to be pliable along the grain lines but too thick to be
flexible in the horizontal direction (perpendicular to the wood
grain). These are three major concerns because of this thinness:
finishing operations after installation, proper substrate preparation,
and moisture. Wood veneer wall covering is too thin to be sanded;
therefore, care must be taken during installation so that the surface
is not stained or damaged. Wall surface imperfections tend to

telegraph through the thin veneer.
3.3.17. Wallpaper - intended to create an atmosphere in a room because

a room has no virtue in itself. Wallpaper is essentially a pattern
product, a flattened form seen in two different dimensions instead
of three. Papers are available that tell the same story as the
furniture is telling and that decorate enough to suit the character,
size, and shape of the room.
Washables – can almost be done as cheap vinyls. It can bewashed or gently

scrubbed but not with abrasives. Cares must be taken over the soaking time as
the backing expand quicker than the front layer causing wrinkling. Undersoaking
will cause bubbles to form which may be difficult to remove. Over soaking will
cause the paper to stretch and then shrink when it dries showing up all the joints.
Comes in matte to glossy surface finishes. Harder to remove than standard
papers because it is usually hung with a paste containing anti-fungicide due to
its impervious surfaces. Cheap vinyl.
Vinyl – use adhesive which does not contain water. It is joined with a butt joint as
vinyl does not stick to itself. It usually has an obvious sheen. Light tints are
affected by fumes from such things like cigarettes or gas fires because they
react with the PVC coating and discolours it. It is easy to strip.
a. True Vinyl – this kind of fabric substrate laminated with a

solid vinyl decorative surface. It comes in a variety of
weights. The decorative layer is printed on the coating.
It is generally considered more “breathable” wallpaper
which makes it best for use in low moisture rooms, like
living areas.
b. Vinyl Coated – is the most common type of wallpaper,

made of paper but with a protective coat of vinyl
(either acrylic or PVC) that makes it ideal for kitchens,
bathrooms or wherever kids or pets might brush against
a wall, since they have better resistance to grease and
moisture than plain paper, it is printed with special inks
or dyes which fuse with the surface. Vinyl coated
wallpaper is usually classified as scrubbable and

stippable
1. Ready-pasted or pre-pasted – is designated for the do-it-yourself

market in mind. Backed with an adhesive coating and
supplied with a plastic through. This must be soaked in water
immediately before hanging to activate the paste. These are
more expensive than standard papers are easy to peel off.
2. Unpasted – the majority of wallcoverings are unpasted.

Adhesive must be applied according to the instructions on
the label. This adhesive is usually applied to the wall and not
the paper. It is suitable for kitchens and bathrooms because
of its steam and water resistance.
3. Relief – has raised texture that you can feel.
a. Ingrain Papers – recognized under the name Woodchip.

These are papers which contains small chips wood. It
comes in varying degrees of coarseness and is normally
used to hide defects in walls and ceilings but is quite
suitable for any decorating purpose. It is usually painted
when dry and can be a cheap and effective way to
give any room a facelift. It can be applied outside-in
for different effect.
b. Anaglypta and Lincrusta – trade names for wall covering

Whose patterns and textures are formed entirely by
surface embossing to various depths of reliefs.
i. Anaglypta – made from heavy white paper backed

with another layer of ordinary wood pulp and
embossed while damp so pronounced relief
patterns remain when hung. It is normally painted
over. It comes in a standard range of patterns such
as bubbles, squares, swirls, etc.
ii. Lincrusta – more rigid material made from a solid

paper backing, coated with putty-like mixture of
linseed oil and filler. It is a low-relief material that is
pressed while still soft into patterns and textures and
other effects resembling tiles and wood panelling

invented by Frederick Walton.
c. Embossed –are papers that have relief pattern which are

often colored and gold/silver leafed.
d. Vynaglypta – vinyl
e. Supaglypta– cotton
4. Fakes and Fantasies – wallcoverings made from and made to

looklike many materials other rhan paper.
a. Fake Fabric – a favourite, looks like fabric
b. Flock – one of the oldest forms of wallpapers. It is the type

of wallpaper (usually ornate and considered “old
fashioned”) which includes a raised pattern in left, fibre,
powdered silk or wool which looks and feels like the
alternate raise and flat pile pattern of velvet. Either
hand-made by dusting or blowing minute particles of
wool, silk or synthetic fibers onto an adhesive backing.
c. Burlap or Hessian – clean textured, Scandinavian feeling
d. Linen – look like linen papers
e. Moire – Paper is subtly shaded to look like watered silk or “
shot” taffeta.
f. Fake Leathers – suede and some very sophisticated reptile
skin effects.
6. “Hard Finish” looks
a. Foil Papers – has thin metal coating and is highly reflective. Some people
call it by the brand name “Mylar” (polyester); it can be difficult to work
with because it shows imperfections in the wall surface and because it
can get wrinkled easily. The silver, reflective surface and the patterns on
many foil wallpapers can be strikingly contemporary. The gold or silver
reflective finish is made by applying sprayed polyester to a paper
backing, and produced in many wide ranges, with the foil being
overprinted with design.
b. Wood Grain papers – photographically printed to resemble a variety of
wood types.
c.
d. Marble Papers – same process as wood-grain papers. Sometimes
handmade so that individuality of color and minimal pattern puts them a
completely different class.
7. Natural Materials
a. Cork – Tiny granules or slim strips of cork applied to paper-backing

materials. These are thicker because they have a surface of cork. They
make for a cozy, dark and woodsy effect and can often be seen in family
rooms or offices.
b. Wood Veneer – Fine films of wood veneer, silvers of wood woven together
with cotton and applied to a paper backing.
c. Grass cloth or Burlap – One of the most expensive and exclusive of these
types. Dried grass is woven together before being stuck to a paper
backing. Extremely fragile and difficult to clean, but is easy to work with
because they stay stiff while pasting on a wall. It requires a felt-covered
roller rather than a brush for hanging. They shouldn’t be used in high –
traffic areas or where there’s high humidity, because they may not wear
as well as other type since edges can lift and curl. They also easily stain.
8. Scenic Papers
a. Panel Picture
b. Panorama
c. Photomural
d. Repetitive
9. Lining – This type of paper is used to prepare walls and ceilings for painting or
papering. As a general rule lining paper should be hung in the opposite
direction to the top paper.
10. Hand-printed – Hand printed pulps are generally untrimmed and come from
small exclusive outlets. Not recommended for the amateur decorator as the
surface is easily damaged, special gloves need to be worn to prevent
fingermarks, adhesive must be applied with a mohair roller, paper must not be
creased during folding (booking), it must be fixed to the wall using a felt roller as
a brush will damage it. Trimming machines are not recommended for this type
of paper. It must be trimmed on a steel plate using a sharp blade cutting at a
35⁰ angle into the back of the paper.
11. Methods of Design Production

a. Machine – Cheapest types are called ‘pulps’ because the design is
printed directly onto the raw paper, the color of which forms part of the
pattern. Makes them difficult to hang because of their thinness (tends to

over-stretch when wet) and uneven shrinking. Better quality papers are
coated with aground color first before overprinting.
b. Surface Printing – accounts for the largest volume of printed papers.

Originally used were wooden rollers, now done with engraved metal
rollers.
c. Rotogravure Printing – Uses copper covered steel rollers, photographically
engraved to produce rotogravure patterns. The patterns cut into the roller
by an incised process. Depth of each determines the value of the color.
Each roller carries just one color, but can print varying shades of that
color. This type creates a technically consistent, flat machined-look and
feel.
d. Silk-Screen Printing – Purely mechanized or partly by hand. It was originally
meant as a substitute to the painstaking method of Block printing. Designs
are applied by individual screens. It utilizes one screen for each color in
the design. Color squeezed or brushed through the cutout portion of the
screen onto the wallpaper. Squeegee
e. Wood Block – Each motif in a repeat is imprinted by hand-pressing a
separate wooden block engraved with a portion of a pattern in the
proper position. A wooden block frame, the full size of a pattern, repeat is
made for each color of the pattern.
3.4 “COATINGS”/FILLERS/FINISHES
3.4.1 Sealers – domestic ones are usually oil-resinous containing oil and
slower to dry or polyurethane I one-can or two-can form. The two-pack
version has a separate hardener to mix the seal just before application,
and gives a tougher finish. Urea formaldehyde, which contains an acid
hardener (and will not do for concrete), is sometimes used instead. Some
varnishes and lacquers are suitable for floors, but not as tough.
 Oleo resinous – Soaks in the grains

 Polyurethane – Hardens on top
Most sealers have a gloss finish, but some are semi-gloss or matte and
preserve the original look of a material. Generally, any seal will change
the color slightly, oleo-resinous ones, particularly, tend to darken in time.
3.4.2Fillers – Basically used for wood. Its main purpose is to cover holes,
cracks and other imperfections in the wood, plaster or any construction
surface before actual finishing.
1. Paste Fillers – Composed of silex (stone dust), Japan-drier, linseed

oil, turpentine, and sometimes colors ground in oil Filler is applied
with the grain and allowed to dry “flat” for about 10 minutes. It is
then wiped off across the grain with burlap or some other coarse
material. Paste fillers require about 24 hours for drying before it
can be sanded.
1. Silex
2. Japan drier
3. Linseed oil
4. Turpentine
5. Color grounds in oil
Cover for grains – ducco/ masilya (example)
2. Crack Fillers – Plastic wood putty, stick shellac, etc. They are used
for filling nails holes, cracks and dents.
1. Plastic wood filler
2. Stick shellac
3.4.3 Polishes – these come in either spirit – based (liquid or solid wax) or in
emulsion (suspended in water) form. It is important to know which to use.
Plastic, asphalt or rubber materials do not like petrol, paraffin or white
spirit, and anything containing these chemicals should be avoided. Over-
application of spirit wax polishes lead to slippery build-up of dirt.
Polishes:
 Spirit Based (Liquid wax)

 Emulsion (Suspended in water)
Some emulsions are self-polishing; others are really water-based seals,

stronger and longer lasting which can considerably improve the look of
worn marble or stone. There are also a number of cleaners/polishes which
can be effective, but tend to build up if used too often, so that you end
up with a yellow layer of polish and dirt. If this happens, ask the makers of
the polish for advice on how to clean off. On no account try to tackle it
with wire wool, because doing so might ruin the surface.
3.4.4 Stains – are available in wood tones, and also in colors like blue, red
and green. There are various chemical dyes and water-based or sprint-
based stains. The latter contain oil and if the wood is also going to be
sealed, be very careful that the sealer is compatible with the stain,
otherwise you might land up with a sticky mess. On the whole, it is safest to
use a water-based stain, which can be sealed without chemical reaction.
It also has the advantage that you can thin it for a lighter stain, or mix it to
make your own colors. However, water-based stains will raise the grain of
the wood and it must be sanded smooth before and after sealing. If you
don’t seal water-based stains, they will eventually wash off.
1. Chemical dyes
2. Water-based
3. Spirit based (oil)
1. Oil Wood Stains-Pigments are derived from various earth clays. After
they are dissolved in linseed oil, the coloring particles remain
suspended between the oil molecules. For spreading the color
particles over large surfaces, the ground oil color is thinned with
turpentine.
2. Water Stains - These are made from aniline dyes and mineral extracts
which have been dissolved in hot water. It is the safest to use since it can
be sealed without any chemical reactions.
3. Spirit or Alcohol Stain - These are mixed with alcohol-solution aniline powders
and warmed alcohol.
3.4.5. Shellac - Shellac is made by refining seed lac and denatured alcohol. Its
natural color is orange; white shellac is obtained by bleaching. It is an under or a
preparatory coat for varnish and wax finishes, but is not satisfactory as an
independent finish because it is not durable and turns white from contact with
water. It is also used to cover wood knots before a priming lead and oil coat is
applied because it kills the resin in the knot and prevents discoloration.
3.4.6. Varnish - It is a resolution of resin in drying oil (oil varnish or in a volatile

solvent such as alcohol or turpentine (spirit varnish). It contains no pigment and
hardens into a smooth, hard and glossy coat by the oxidation of the oil or by the
evaporation of the alcohol. In general, oil varnishes are more durable than spirit
varnishes. Drying time is from 4-24 hours and it should never be applied when the
weather is moist or humid.
3.4.7. Paints - Although any gloss paint can be used on the floor, paints made
specifically for floors will dry harder and wear better. They usually contain
polyurethane, acrylic or epoxy resin and come in a fairly wide range of color.
(The kind used for yachts is particularly hard-wearing). There are also special
paints for concrete floors, made for industrial use, but most ordinary floor paints
can be used on concrete in a domestic situation. It is absolutely essential that all
grease, oil, dirt or old polish is thoroughly removed before the floor is painted, as
these may affect the adhesion and drying of the paint.
For the walls, a lot painting techniques are implored. These techniques,
commonly referred to as faux painting techniques, are used to simulate cloths,
metals, etc.
1. Faux Painting Techniques
a. Sponging - Sponging is undoubtedly the quickest, easiest and most

versatile of all the faux painting techniques. Sponging can be applied
surface,
even particle board, and mistakes can be easily rectified. This technique
adds texture to the walls by adding multiplayers of color in a random
pattern, building an intricate dimension that lends visual interest to the
walls. (Best sea sponges are expensive).
b. Ragging - rag rolling is a simple technique with a stunning effect.

Ragging produces a delicate, fabric-like texture with a soft variegated
appearance. It's the perfect way to create an intimate wood.
c. Dragging - this painted effect creates a feeling of

elegant silk fabric or wallpaper, which can be applied
on most reasonably smooth and properly prepared
surfaces. This technique can be used to portray a
luxurious look in the bedroom, an elegant living room
or a sophisticated, formal dining room. The effect is
achieved by pulling a dry brush or combing device
through wet paint to reveal fine lines or pinstripes of the base color. It is
extremely versatile and used on walls, moldings, doors and furniture.
d. Color washing - Color washing techniques lend

themselves to a rustic country look, but are
versatile enough in virtually any setting when
using appropriate colors. The effect works best
with earthly colors, such as Venetian red, raw
sienna and other natural soft colors.
For a casual appearance, nothing beats the translucent texture of color

washing. By simply using different color palettes with this versatile
technique, you can give your room a fluid calm or the Old World charm
of an aged fresco.
f. Combing - Combing is a fun technique that

creates a striated effect with paint and glaze.
Traditional combing produces vertical lines that
mimic the sheen of opulent silk. You can also use
this technique to create waves, horizontal stripes,
or checkered patterns for a more striking
impression.
f. Spattering - Spattering is a very simple and straight

forward technique, but the results can be fantastic. If
completed correctly, for example, spattering with a
variety of gray, black and white paints, it can add
depth to any painted object. By adding a brown
over the surface, the overall effect can even be
made to look like granite.
Although this effect can be created on walls, it is very

messy to execute. As a result, it is more often
completed on smaller objects, like furniture and other household items.
g. Wood graining - a shortage for both solid hard

woods as well as high quality veneers is what led the
industry to simulate the grains of woods with paint
and pigments, just as they had turned to simulating
marble in the face of its shortage and expense. Over
the last couple of centuries, artists have mastered the
recreation of the grains of many woods with paint.
The result is heightened demand for faux wood
graining.
h. Marbling - Marbling, when

completed effectively, is faux finish that
offers an alternative solution to costly,
genuine marble. Creating faux marble
that looks real takes practice and effort
to achieve.
i. Stenciling - this technique employs the use of stencils to add texture,

prints and designs to the wall. With this technique, printed wallpaper
designs can be easily copied.
j. Murals - basically is a painting on any

large surface, be it a wall or ceiling. It is
usually done on public buildings, and
employs many techniques among all the most well-known is “fresco”,

which uses water soluble paints with a damp line wash.
k. Trompe L’oeil - basically means “Trick the Eye” in French,

also called illusionism. These are actually murals that give
appearance of three-dimensional or photographic realism,
and when viewed from the right side, may deceive the
viewer into thinking it is real. It is an art technique that
creates and employs an apparently realistic image as a
type of optical illusion. It is a style of painting which gives
the appearance of three-dimensional or photographic
realism. If viewed from right place, it deceives the viewer into thinking it is real.
(Perspective-lend Trompe L’oeil discovered in Renaissance).
3.5. CEILINGS
Suspended ceiling systems are hung from the structure above and
incorporate such elements as sprinklers, lighting fixtures and speakers. For
the appearance of a traditional flat, smooth ceiling, gypsum board (or
metal lath with plaster can be attached to suspend furring channels. The
gypsumboard is taped and finished with the same procedures used for
walls, but because this must be done overhead, labor costs are significally
higher. A major drawback to a suspended gypsum board ceiling is that
there is no easy way to access the services behind the ceiling without
destroying part of it.
3.5.1. Glass ReinforcedGypsum - is a high-strength, high-destiny gypsum,

reinforced with continuous filament glass fibers or chopped glass fiber strands. It
is thin in shape, has high-strength and inherently flame-resistant. It is also suitably
lightweight and good for applications where weight is a concern, such as
ceilings. Installation procedure is same as that of regular drywall ceiling systems.
HANGER WIRE
WALL CHANNEL
DRY WALL
SCREW ATTACHMENT FURRING TEE
MAIN FURRING RUNNER
DRY WALL FURRING SYSTEM
3.5.2. Acoustical Ceilings - allow easy access to the variety of systems they
conceal.
1. Exposed Grid Systems - suspend square or rectilinear frames that hold
attached or loose laid panels.
Channel- or angle-shaped sections are attached to the wall to support
perimeter panel edges. Various decorative profiles are available for both
the exposed grid and the panel edge. These panels can be pushed and
temporarily moved out of place to gain access to the ceiling plenum.
HANGER WIRE
(12 GAUGE GALVANIZED STEEL WIRE)
WRAP 3 FULL TIMES
ACOUSTICAL
LAY-IN PANEL
EXPOSED GRID SYSTEMS
2. Concealed Grid Systems - sometimes called concealed spline systems,

provide the traditional look of a uniform ceiling, along with increased
acoustic performance. Ceilings tiles have a kerned (grooved or notched)
edge that slides into a 'T'- or NT-shaped bar. The methods by which
concealed grid systems allow access to the ceiling plenum vary among
manufacturer.
MATERIALS AND DECORATION
.
CONCEALED GRID
3.6. MODERN FLOORING
3.6.1. Raised Flooring - also known as Access Flooring. It is an elevated

flooring system comprised of panels which can be removed to give
access to the area immediately beneath it. Basically used widely in
commercial applications, these help reduce the cost and hassle of re-
arranging an office space which is usually altered on a regular basis.
VOCABULARY OF WALLPAPER
1. ALLOVERS - floral foliage, or scroll patterns, covering the entire paper.

2. APPLIQUES - applied laid on, as figures cut from paper and laid on to another
paper.
3. BLEEDING - the appearance of one color to another.
4. COLOR RUN - amount of rolls produced of a single color combination at one
time.
5. COMMEMORATIVE - designs that memorialize a historic event.
6. COMPANION PAPERS - a set of designs and colors to be used together in the
same or adjacent areas.
7. DOCUMENTARY - a design based on a document, an old paper, or a fabric
dating from an earlier century.
8. FLEXOGRAPHY - the printing surface is made of rubber, cut in relief.
9. FLOCKS - finely, powdered silk, wool or other fibers glued into paper.
10. FOILS - a thin sheet of flexible metal on paper, transparent or opaque color,
which can be printed.
11. GAUFRANES - paper printed from copper plates, leaving the design slightly
impressed.
12. GILDING - achieved by printing an adhesive to the areas that are to take the
metal dust. Also known as silvering.
13. GROUND - raw stock in which coat of pigment is applied before the top
colors are put on.

14. HAND-BLOCKED - a process of printing with blocks; in which a separate block
is needed for each color.
15. HANDPRINTS - produced by hand-screening.
16. INDIA - the trade name designating imported Chinese painted papers.
17. LINCRUSTA - widely used for imitating Spanish leather, ceramic tiles, and
paneling.
18. LUSTERS - powdered over with ground up paints, or having a thin metallic
glaze.
19. MURALS - any kind of wall painting printed on paper.
20. PANORAMAS - a series of papers with a comprehensive presentation of a
subject or area in every direction.
21. PHOTOGRAVURE - a process of photographic separation using copper or
steel cylinders.
22. PHOTOMURALS - an enlarged photograph used as a mural on the wall.
23. SCENIC - a pictorial design continuing over several strips of paper.
24. SCREEN PRINT - produced by the silk screen process.
25. SEMI-SCENIC - having scenes spaced at intervals.
26. SINGLE ROLL - containing 36 square feet of surface after trimming.
27. SIZE - sealer used to prepare the wall before paper is applied.
28. VINYLS - paper fused or coated with vinyl plastic, rendering it impervious to
steam and damp.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS FOR WALLS
1. AGGLOMERATE - pre-cast slabs containing small particles bonded together

into an integrated mass.
2. AGGREGATE - a pre-casting of stone, slab, sand and gravel bonded together
in an integrated mass.
3. APPLIED - pliant material such as cork, fabric, foil, leather, linoleum, paper,
rubber or vinyl used as wall covering.
4. BATTEN - a narrow wood strip used to cover joints between boards a
or panels.
5. BOISERIE - a French term designating a plain or carved wood-paneled wall.
6. BEARING PARTITION - a wall or partition that supports the portion of the
building above it according to its own weight.
7. CHAIR RAIL - a molding continuously extending around a room to protect the
wall from the backs of the chairs.
8. CURTAIN WALL - a thin wall supported by the structural frame of the building
and not dependent on the load-bearing quality of the wall below it.
9. CERAMIC - a wall faced with assorted shapes and sizes, glazed or unglazed,
of ceramic or terra cotta tiles.
10. DEMOUNTABLE - partitions that can be removed from its mounted position.
11. DIVIDER - a screen or partition separating one area within another with a
larger area.
12. FILIGREE - a divider with an openwork design.
13. FOLDING - partitions with joined sections that can be folded together like an
accordion.
14. GLASS BRICK - a hollow block of glass that is translucent but not transparent,
used mainly in conjunction with brick.
15. GRILLE - a lattice or trellis openwork screen or wall.
16. MOVABLE – can be replaced in storage. Or portable.
17. NON-BEARING – a wall or partition that supports only its own weight.
18. OPERATIVE – a movable wall that is hinged or slides serving as a room divider.
19. PANEL – a flat surface, raised or recessed, surrounded by rails and stiles, and
held in places with mouldings.
20. PARTITION – an interior partial wall dividing a larger area.
21. PERMANENT – to last indefinitely, fixed and changeless.
22. PLASTER – traditionally a mixture of lime, sand, and water, sometimes with
hair or other fiber added, used for coating walls and ceilings.
23. PORTABLE – easily movable.
24. PRESTIGE WALL – the prominent or accent wall.
25. RIGID MATERIAL – aggregate, ceramics, glass, marble, metal, plaster,

plastics, slate, terrazzo, or wood used as a finishing surface for a wall.
26. SCRATCH-COAT – the first coat of plaster or stucco, applied and scratched
to a wall or ceiling in three-coat work.
27. SCREEN – a movable partition intended to divide, conceal, or a part of a

room.
28. SECTION – a detailed working drawing of a wall that has been cut away to
show the interior assembly of the construction material. Also called ‘cross-
section’.
29. TREILLAGE – a pierced lattice effect in wood.

FURNITURE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
 SANDING MACHINE
Many types of power sanders: disc, belt, drum, spindle and sheet.
 ELECTRIC DRILL
Design primarily for drilling and boring, but with attachments, this could
also be used as sanders, buffers, polishers and drivers.
 ELECTRIC HANDSAW
A portable circular saw especially useful for cross cutting; ripping and
mitering
 ROUTER-SHAPER
A portable shaper that is moved through instead of the work being
moved through the cutter as in the regular shaper
Materials for Furniture and Furnishings
A. WOOD
Wood is the most prevalent raw material for furniture industries.
Designers and Craftsmen consider wood as a unique and valuable
medium taking advantage of the distinct and challenging qualities
and characteristics offered by numerous species of wood. Other than
beauty, richness, variety and warmth, tight weight and low cost, it has
a distinct advantage of feasibility to be converted into veneer,
plywood, and particle board which provides a defect-free, wide
dimensions and a table materials.
 LUMBER – Timer manufactured by sawing, resawing, planning, etc.

 TIMBER – Log; Unprocessed wood that can be used in construction
 ROUGH TIMBER – Straight sides and edges but is rough and spuntery
 DRESSED TIMBER – Smooth/ evenly cut boards
 WORKED TIMBER – Dressed timber that has a design cut for decoration
WOOD CLASSIFICATIONS:
1. Softwoods – coniferous or cone-bearing, needle-leafed, usually evergreen
trees
2. Hardwoods – deciduous or broad-leafed trees
- Trees that loose leaves during autumn
MOST COMMON PHILIPPINE WOOD SPECIES
1. Narra – most expensive, used for furniture and paneling, for expensive
floorings, door panels, stairs and plywood veneer and facings.
2. Yacal and Guijo – both hardwoods, used for post and girders, or jambs
attached to concrete and also for wooden decks having flooring and
railings exposed to weather, moisture resistant, for tropical style and not
for furniture, for posts only.
3. Pine Benguet – softwood, used for paneling, sidings, flooring and
furniture. Also used for framings, trusses.
4. Tranguile (Philippine Mahogany) and Apitong – the most common

lumber in the market. Used generally for framings, joints, trusses, nailers,
etc.
5. White and Red Lauan – for framings, chests, jewel boxes
6. Kamagong – hardwood for chests, jewels boxes, stair frames

7.Dao- used for panelings and plywood veneer
8.Almaciga – similar to pine, for paneling
Commercial species of Philippine wood suitable for furniture includes:
1. Palosapis 6. Ipil 11. Yakal 16. Supa

2. Phil. Ebony 7. Bagtikan 12. White Lauaan 17. Molave
3. Kamagong 8.Narra 13. Guijo 18.
Almaciga
4. Apitong 9. Akle 14. Red Lauaan
5. Dao 10. Tiaong 15.Tanguile (Phil. Mahogany)
PHILIPPINE WOOD SPECIES
NAME COLOR & CHARACTER USES

GRAIN
Almon Light Moderately hard to Low grade beams,

cut girders , rafters,
Interlocking Chords, purlins, flooring.
grain Moderately coarse
texture Veneer & plywood face
Reddish
Apitong brown Moderately hard to Medium grade beams,
cut girders , rafters,
Interlocking Chords, purlins
grains Coarse texture
Ribbon
figures
Light
Bagtikan Moderately hard to Low grade beams,
Interlocking cut girders, rafters, Chords,

grains purlins
Moderate coarse
Ribbon Flooring
figures
Reddish Moderately hard to Door panels, furniture

Balayong brown cut ,bowls
Light Soft to coarse Santos

Batikuling
Interlocking Moderate coarse
grain
Reddish Hard to cut Flooring , stair riser

Batis brown
Moderate fine
Straight texture
grain
Greenish or
Dao light brown Hard to cut High grade furniture &
w/ dark cab.
brown
bands Veneer & plywood face
interlocking,
wavy or
curly grain
Bentwood articles,
Guijo Reddish Hard to cut
brown Medium grade furniture
Moderate fine and cabinet, shelves
Interlocking texture
grain High grade beams ,
Ribbon girders , rafter , chords,
figure purlins
Flooring , stair riser ,tread

& railing
Ipil Reddish Hard to cut Bentwood articles,

brown
Moderate fine Medium grade furniture
Interlocking texture and cabinet, shelves
grain
High grade beams ,
Ribbon girders , rafter , chords,
figure purlins

& railing
Chest & jewelry boxes
Kamagong Black w/ Very hard to cut Counters
brownish
streaks Molding and ornaments

& railing
Door frames
House const.post and

other parts requiring
strength & durability
Lawaan (red) Reddish Moderate to hard Chest and jewelry boxes
brown
Counters
Interlocking Moderately coarse
Grain texture Door panel
Ribbon Molding and ornaments

figure
Low grade beams,
girders, rafters, chords,
purlins
Lawaan (white) Light Moderate to hard (same as red lawaan)
Interlocking Moderately coarse

grain texture
Mangachapul Yellowish Stair tread
flooring
. Mayapis Reddish Moderately hard to Bentwood articles,
cut furniture, cabinet
Interlocking
grain Coarse texture
Ribbon
figure
Molave Reddish Very hard to cut Showcase & counter
Interlocking Fine texture Moldings & ornaments

grain
House const: post, part
Ribbon requiring strength and
figure durability
Sidings, door panels,

window sills, stair riser
&treads end
. Narra Pale yellow Hard to cut High grade furniture &
to red Fine texture cab. and flooring,
sidings, stair railing
Door panels and frames
Veneer and plywood

face
Tanguile Red to dark Moderately hard to Chest & jewelry box
red, pinkish cut showcase and counters,
Interlocking Medium grade furn. &

grain cabinet
Ribbon Low grade beams,

figure girders, rafters, chords,
purlins, flooring, door
frames
Veneer and plywood

face
Yakal Yellowish to Moderately hard to House const: post, part
dark brown cut requiring strength and
durability;
Interlocking Coarse texture
grain Flooring, door frames,
Ribbon Shelves
figure
MOST COMMON IMPORTED WOODS
1. Oak – light grayish-brown to reddish brown. Striking grain figure and large
open pores. Heavy, strong and hard, durable under exposure, great wear
resistance
– Panelling, furniture cabinets
2. Maple – creamy white to light reddish-brown. Frequently straight-grained
and tiny wood pores. Bird’s eye pattern and special buri figures are also
available. Heavy, hard, strong and stiff; good shock resistance.
3. Walnut – light gray-brown to dark purple-brown. wide variety of plain and
highly figured patterns. Very strong and stable, only moderately heavy
and stiff. Good shock resistance
4. Pine – cream color to light reddish-brown. Visible resin canals and obvious
growth rings. Moderately light, soft and stiff. Good shock resistance.
5. Birch – Creamy white to light reddish-brown; extremely small pores. Heavy,
hard, strong and stiff with very good shock resistance. – Similar to oak
expect on grains.
6. Cherry – light to dark reddish-brown. Straight grain and small individual
pores. Moderately hard and heavy; good shock and weather resistance.
7. Ash – grayish through creamy white through to reddish-dark brown.
Distinct straight grains and open pores. Though, heavy and hard with
good shock resistance.
8. Mahogany – yellowish-brown through reddish brown to dark red.
Frequently highly figured grain pattern and open with wood pores.
Extremely stable, moderately hard, even textured, and heavy.
9. Beech – very light brown hardwood. Distinct straight grain and open
pores. Turns well and is easily worked; commonly used as bentwood.
10. Poplar – light yellow to brownish-yellow with green tinge. Even texture and
straight grain pattern with barely visible pores. Medium to light weight,
only moderately hard, stiff and shock resistant.
11. Teak – tawny yellow to dark brown with frequent lighterand darker streaks.
Pattern very similar to that of walnut. Heavy, strong, oily and tough.
KOMOPO TEAK – Outdoor/Nice to Engineered wood flooring
12. Pecan – Creamy white to reddish-brown; occasional dark streaks and
large wood pores. Very heavy, closed-grain, hard and strong.
13. Elm – light brown to dark brown often containing shades of red; straight
grain pattern with obvious light and dark boundaries. Moderately hard
and heavy; good shock resistance; excellent bending qualities.
14. Rosewood – various shades of dark brown to dark purple; conspicuous

dark streaks; large open wood pores. Very hard, very heavy, with an
extremely course texture.
15. Fir – creamy white to yellowish with obvious differences between spring
and summer growth. Moderately heavy, hard and stiff; pronounced resin
canal, and wild grain markings makes this a difficult wood to finish.
16. Redwood – deep reddish-brown with obvious alternating spring and
summer growth rings. Light, strong and stiff; moderately hard and
marginally shock resistant.
17. Cedar – light red with light colored streaks running throughout; knotty
pattern and other natural markings are always present. Highly aromatic
and moderately hard though brittle.
18. Sycamore – pale reddish-brown; obvious white growth pattern and small
wood pores. Moderately heavy and hard; finetextured and good shock
resistance.
19. Butternut- pale to dark brown with occasional red streaks running
throughout; large open wood pores. Soft to medium texture; only
moderate shock resistance.
20. Basswood – creamy white to creamy brown with frequent reddish
marking; faint growth rings and broad wood raise which are darker than
the background wood. Light weight and moderately stiff, very weak with
a low resistance to shock.
Commercial species of Wood (outside of the Philippines) suitable for furniture:
1. Ash 6. Chestnut 11. Walnut 16. Redwood 21. Black bean

2. Acacia 7. Elm 12. Agba 17. Rosewood 22. Laurel
3. Beech 8. Maple 13. Bubinga 18. Sapelewood 23. Satinwood
4. Cedar 9. Oak 14. Mahogany 19. Teak 24. Ebony
5. Cherry 10. Pear 15. Makore 20. Wengue 25. Tulipwood
Important Properties that should be considered on the choice of timber:
1. Strength and related properties of toughness, rigidity and hardness

2. Workability
3. Drying properties and its related tendency in shrinking and swelling
4. Bending qualifies – reaction to steam and ammonia
5. Grain structure and figure pattern as they affect the physical appearance
and physical structure
6. Finishing – easy to stain/varnish
7. Resistance to weathering and insect damage – termites, weathering

8. Gluing properties – joineries
Common Methods of Drying Wood
1. Natural drying commonly called air-drying or sun-drying – Lumber is strip-

piled at aslope on a solid foundation to allow air to circulate around every
piece while sloping allows water to run off quickly.
2. Kiln drying – Done in a dry kiln where lumber is artificially dried to correct
moisture content. Used for more expensive lumber, required for more
refined uses so as a wood will not move like furniture.
Unit of Measurement
Board Foot – A piece of lumber 12 inches wide and 1 inch thick and 1 foot long.
 FORMULA 1 18 pcs. – 1” x 12” x 20’ = 360 bd. ft.
12”
 FORMULA 2 = (D”-4) x L’ (Length of Log)
Main Types of Wood Grain Structure
1. Straight grain – fibers running in the same direction as the main axis of the
tree.
2. Inter-locked grain – grains are in successive layers and opposite direction.
3. Wavy or Curly grain – constantly changing in orientation so that a line
drawn parallel to their direction appears as wavy in
Diagonal Grain Spiral Grain Straight Grain

When a straight-grained When trees grow twisted; The board’s fibers run
log is not sawn along its spiral-grained logs and approximately parallel
vertical axis, diagonal subsequent boards are with vertical axis of the
grain is the result. produced. Fibers follow alog from which it
spiral course with a twist originated.
that is either left- or right-
handed.
Wavy Grain Irregular Grain Interlocked Grain

This type of grain results Boards of this type haveBoards with this grain
when the direction of fibers at directions that result from trees whole
wood fibers has constantly are varying and irregular result from trees
whole
changed. from the log’s vertical axis directions in each
growth
(for example: fibers around year.
knots)
58
WOOD DEFECTS
Every tree is a prey to defects from the mc it emerges as a seedling to the

last stages of seasoning, and these defects can be innate (inherent vice), such
as the characteristics natural shrinkage of wood: acquired defects occasioned
by seasonal checks, insect and fungal attack etc.; and artificial defects caused
by incorrect sawing and seasoning. As, however, any one defect may arise from
several causes it is more convenient to classify them as natural or artificial.
1. Natural defects
a. Knots – These are in effect the basal
stumps of incipient or cast-off branches in
the living tree. Where the tree itself
naturally prunes its branches owing to
lack of light caused by overcrowding, or
where such branches are artificially
pruned in controlled forestry and cleanly
sawn, then the cambium layers will heal
over the wound and the knot is then live
or embedded (17:1 A). Where, however,
a mature branch is broken off, leaving a long ragged stump, then the
59
cambium layer cannot heal the wound and the stump dies, forming a
loose knot, often rot affected (17:2A). All knots whether live or dead affect
the mechanical strength of the timber, owing to the abrupt change in the
direction of the fibers and constitute blemishes which detract from the
value. They are, therefore, graded as follows:
a.1 Pin knots – Small knots ½ in (12.5mm) or under,

often caused by the shedding of early
branches. Usually allowable in prime timber
a.2 Spike or splay knots – Knots sliced through their length during sawing, and
commonly known as ‘slash’ knots. They are difficult to plane up, especially
in softwood, where large
specimens are not permissible
in unless allowed for in the
measurement
a.3Encased Knots – Dead knots which are still sound and difficult to
dislodge, and often ringed with resin in softwood
60
a.4 Branched knots – two or three knots springing from a common center.
b. Shakes – Both the medullary ray and springwood cells of ring-porous

hardwoods are weaker than the remainder, and built-in tensions are
created which tend to level out, either in the growing tree under certain
adverse conditions or in the felled log during seasoning. Thus extensive
splitting may occur in the weakest links.
Various forms of shakes are common, as

follows.
b.1 Radial shakes – The log splits from the

pith or radially along the medullary rays,
usually indicating that the tree has
passed its prime. Sawing losses can be
minimized by placing the cuts either side
of the shake, always provided the growth of the tree does not twist upon
its axis, in which case the shakes becomes spiral, rendering the log useless
for long lengths. Where only one shakes is present it is known as a simple
“heart shake”, while to shakes in line impose a “double heart shakes”
(17:4), and several a “star shake”
(17:5).
b.2 Frost shakes – project inwardly from a

definite frost rib on the cambium and
are, as their name implies, the result of
severe weather.
61
b.3 Tangential shakes – The soft springwood of the log splits away from the
harder summerwood, either during seasoning or through shearing stresses
in the growing tree caused by old age, excessive bending under strong
winds, intense heat, etc. A frequent cause in oak is the depredations of
the tortrixviridana moth, whose caterpillars strip the young leaves in early
summer, with the result that growth is checked and the wood rings fail to
cohere. Where such shakes run along part of the annual ring only, then
they are known as “cup shakes” (17:6A), but where the log is completely
encircled then they become “ring shakes” (17:6B), Usually such shakes
seriously detract from the value of the timber, English walnuts are
particularly prone to cup and ring shakes, as the trees are rarely felled
until they are long past maturity.
b.4 Cross shakes – These failures are caused by compression and not by
splitting or shearing, while the actual rupture is across the grain and not with it as
with all other shakes. The probable cause is not thunder, as the name suggests,
but either felling shatter (the sudden impact as the felled log hits either hard
ground or another fallen log), or mechanical strain in the living tree. Chiefly
confined to the softer varieties of tropical hardwoods, and appearing either as a
definite fracture or an overriding of the fibers, showing only as a feint raised line
across the width of the wood, which will snap like a carrot under strain. This
particular type of shake often occurs with a soft condition in the heartwood,
known as “brittle heart”, carrot heart”, etc,, and agba is particularly liable to this
defect. End splitting and sun checking (see below) are usually regarded as
artificial defects due to errors, in seasoning, but a marked propensity to split and
check may he inherent in some species and such defects may be part natural
and part artificial.
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c. Pitch veins, pitch pockets, etc. – Sometimes known as resin pockets, they
can appear either as thin veins or shallow cavities filled with resin. Usually
caused by damage to the cambium layer in resinous woods, they may
remain hidden and thus constitute a serious danger if the wood is used
structurally.
d. Pitch flecks – Repeated damage to the cambium layer by small insects is
often healed over with bark, and may show as small dots or patches of
brown cork deeply buried in some woods, notably birch alder and
sycamore. They have no effect other than that of unsightliness.
e. Rind galls, etc. – Patches of ingrowing bark, probably caused by exterior
damage to the growing tree. Other natural defects include ‘callus’ or
tissue formed over a wound in a tree resulting in unnatural growth
incorporated in the normal wood growth: ‘canker, caused by fungoid
disease, and ‘cat face’.
f. Internal sapwood – Normally the sapwood dies ring by ring, forming

heartwood, but on occasion’s patches of sapwood survive within the
heartwood and show as lighter patches as sometimes seen in Rio
rosewood. It is not known how the condition arises. Sapwood also can be
prematurely killed by frost or other agents while the cambium is repaired
and continues to grow, forming new sapwood over the dead patches
which appear in later years as a dark ring. The wood usually separates
and breaks away along the ring during conversion.
g. Burls/Burrs – These are not usually classified as defects as they may

enhance the value of the timber considerately; they are. However. True
defects. They can be caused either by fungal or insect attack irritating
cambium layers. And resulting in large rapid growths usually at the vase of
the tree or by numbers of small twigs which fail to develop owing to
insufficient nourishment forming a dense mass. The knobs in severely
chopped or pollard trees, and the witch’s broom in birch trees, are typical
examples.
2. Artificial Defects
All woods shrink on drying, some pronouncedly so, thus creating internal
strains and stresses. Normally the natural elasticity of a healthy wood structure
will distribute these stress evenly, but if the structure is unequal or lacking in
elasticity (innate defect), and if incorrect seasoning imposes too great a
63
stain, then various forms of distortion, splitting, etc. will occur. Weighting down
during seasoning helps to reduce distortion.
a. Cupping or Rounding – The plank hollows across the width, forming a

rounding on the under face, often due to incorrect piling.
b. Bowing –The plank is curved like a bow throughout its length. A
succession of short bows is usually caused by sagging between too
widely spaced spacers or by spacers which are not placed exactly
over each other.
c. Springing or Crooking – Sometimes known as “edge bend”, the wood
remains flat but bends edgewise on its own plane.
d. Twisting – The plank twists on its longitudinal axis with the result that the
long edges are straight, but the diagonals are curved. Usually known
as “in winding”.
e. Warping or Casting – Synonymous terms for “distortion” in one or more
directions.
f. End splitting – The butt end of the plank splits open, usually caused by
too rapid drying, but some species will always split.
g. Sun Checking – The wood surface is covered with small splits along the
grain caused by too rapid drying in hot sun. Not serious unless the splits
penetrate deeply.
h. Flaking – The surface of the wood lifts in innumerable small flakes or
layers which spring under the cutting action, preventing a smooth
surface. Sometimes due to structural weakness, but can also be
caused by incorrect seasoning.
64
i. Diagonal grain - The grain runs obliquely to the longitudinal axis, usually
due to incorrect sawing, but some timbers exhibit marked deviations in
grain direction which cannot be avoided. Although the condition may
make surfacing more difficult it is not important, except in structural
members where the impact strength loss is high, and in bending where
a grain slope of 1 in 25 may mean a bending strength loss of 4 per
cent, and a 1 in 5 slope a loss of 45 per cent.
j. Case hardening - If the wood is kiln dried too quickly then the surfaces
dry out at a rate quicker than the rate of movement of moisture by
capillary attraction from the centre of the plank, with the result that the
dry outer layers are in tension, and the moist interior in compression.
Cuts which close ahead of the saw are often due to case hardening.
Provided the actual wood fibres are not ruptured the condition can be
cured by steaming and drying.
k. Honeycombing- If the kiln drying of case-hardened timber is continued
to dryness then the natural shrinkage movement of the moist interior as
it dries will be locked in by the rigid outer skin, resulting in severe
internal stresses and subsequent checking or disruption of the wood
fibres, not visible from the outside. There is no cure for the condition,
which severely depreciates the value of the timber.
l. Collapse- The too rapid kiln drying of green timber can result in a
flattening of the wood cells, caused by vacuums created by the with-
drawal of water to below fibre saturation point at a rate faster than it
can be replaced by either air or live steam. This condition is known as
‘collapse’ and is characterized by extensive shrinking and warping,
particularly in the springwood, giving a washboard effect. It can also
be caused by too slow drying at too high a temperature, or too high a
65
humidity rate, and can sometimes be remedied by steaming and reworking in

the dry kiln.
The final choice will probably be compromise, but whatever it is, have
good reason for it. Remember that the final quality of product depends in the
intelligent use and choice of materials.
WOOD FINISHES
These are chemicals belonging to such groups as acids, alcohols, resinous
substances, oils, dyes and pigments. These are applied to wood for its protection
and to enhance grain structure or alter its wood application.
Classification according to visibility of grain structure
1. TRANSPARENT - emphasize and enhance the charm of natural wood color

and grain.
a. PENETRATING FINISHES – soak into wood pores to give a natural look and feel.
b. SURFACE COATING – seals wood pores for protection against water and other
destructive elements.
Examples of Transparent Wood Finishes
a. Clear Lacquer – made from resins dissolved in ethyl alcohol. It forms a high-
gloss film on the surface when dried.
b. Varnish – made from various gums and resins dissolved in oil (oil varnish) or
alcohol (spirit varnish). It gives a relatively hard, tough and reasonably elastic
finish.
c. Shellac – a spirit varnish made by dissolving purified Lac flakes in denatured

alcohol. Lac is a resinous secretion of the female of the Lac insect.
d. Oil Stain Finish – can be achieved by simply using boiled linseed oil or various
other oils.
66
e. Polyurethane Finish – a transparent plastic finish made of polyhydric alcohol

esterifies with oleic, linoleic, palmetic and stearic fatty acids and modified with
tolyrenedisocynate and mineral spirits. It is a very tough, hard and flexible finish
which has superior resistance to chipping, abrasion and dirt retention. It resists
solvents, detergents, acids, and alkalis, hot and cold water.
f. Wax of Films – achieved by brushing, rubbing and spraying processed fatty

acids from animals and vegetables, mineral sources combined with alcohol. It
usually comes in paste form and liquid form, varies greatly in hardness and
durability. It may be applied in several coats over Shellac or varnish, but may
also be used independently.
g. Wood Stain Finish – dyes or pigments suspended in water or oil. I t alters

coloring of the wood or accentuates its natural color without covering the
grain.
h. Bleach – achieved by applying one of the various acids and chlorine

compound pertained to as bleaching agents. It results to lightening of the
wood color to yellowish white and naturalizes the color making it noticeable.
aa. Chlorinated laundry bleach

- comparatively weak
- excellent for removing chemicals, dyes, and ink and water strains from
wood surface if used full strength.
bb. Oxallic Acid

- best bleach to use not only on natural wood colors but also on many
water and chemical stains.
cc. Two-solution bleaches

- fairly expensive and extremely strong.
- can bring out really light tones on dark wood because of strength.
2. OPAQUE – gives a solid finish for protection and decoration.
67
a. Paints and Enamels- a mixture of a solid pigment suspended in a liquid

vehicle, which when applied to a surface, forms an adherent continuous film
which provides protection, decoration, sanitation, identification and other
functional properties.
aa. Driers – added to the paint to accelerate the oxidation and hardening of
vehicle.
b. OTHER DECORATIVE & FANCIFUL FINISHES – simulates appearances and

textures of natural materials such as marble granite and other stones. Fanciful
effects such as antique finish crackle or crazed finish and others.
B. PLYWOOD AND OTHER MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS

1. PLYWOOD – made of thin veneer sheets glued together one on top of
the other grain of the sheets arranged crosswise. The number of layers is usually
odd and the structure symmetric. For economical reasons, the inner core is
usually made of inexpensive specie. High quality veneer sheets are usually used
for parts that are exposed. As a sandwich of wood is equally strong in both
directions and therefore recommendable to use when considerable strength in
the structure is needed in the design of furniture.
2. PLYBOARDS – is a series of wood core strips glued together side by side

to form a slab which is sandwiched between outer layers of veneer or thin
plywood whose grains are crossed at right angles to the length of the core strips
3. PARTICLE BOARDS – composed of wood chips carefully graded, mixed

with synthetic resin glue and either pressed or extruded into rigid, self supporting
sheets of uniform thickness which are sanded down to close tolerances.
4. FIBER BOARDS – have been used extensively in the building industry for
many years in various densities, but until recently the only application for
furniture making was the dense hardboard used for back panels and drawer
bottoms.
5. MELAMINE BOARDS – same construction as fibreboards except that it has a

thin outer pressed-melamine finish.
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WOOD DESCRIPTION OPTIONS CARE &

MAINTENANCE
Low- Also called melamine, low Wide variety of colors Use water or
pressure pressure laminate is thinner, less and patterns. Flat- non-abrasives,
Plastic durable and less effective than panel door styles non- alcohol
Laminate its high pressure cousin. It is cleanser. Keep
often used in cabinet boxes. edges dry. Doors
Size: 4’ x 8’, 5’ x 10 chip or crack
rather easily.
Polyester Expensive but with a durable Full-range of colors Use water or a

color finish spayed on the (including some softer diluted non-
cabinetry usually over an MDM shades) in gloss and abrasive
substrate. Considered among matte finishes. cleanser. Be
the most durable of all gloss careful not to
finishes, but scratches and dents buff matte
can’t be repaired. finishes
Thermofoil A thermal-activated vinyl composition that forms to any Use non-

configurations with heat and glue. The material shrink- abrasives
wraps the entire door. Similar to laminate in terms of cleanser or
maintenance and color fastness. damp cloth.
Available in traditional and slab door styles. Various Safeguard from
colors, wood grains, textures. heat, which can
cause
delamination.
Hard Used as frames for its Can be stained or painted or Use mild diluted
Wood compressive strength pickled detergent and
Moisture cause to warp Large selection of door styles damp cloth but
and shrink not abrasives. Use
Example: Tanguile no-wax polish.
69
Softwood Pine and other soft Can be stained or painted Use mild diluted
woods come from Generally light color detergent and
coniferous trees. damp cloth.
Easy to scratch and dent Avoid abrasives.
compared to hardwood Use no-wax
Has wider grain polish.
Heat and moisture can
cause cracking and
warping
Plywood Layers of wood veneer Can be stained or painted Do not wet with
glued together usually Poor grain quality too much water
made of narra, tanguile, since top layer
almasiga, and lauan. will warp and
peel.
Sizes: 4’ x 8’ (1220 mm x
2440 mm)
4’ x 6’, 3’ x 10’
Thickness: ⅛” (3mm), ⅜”,
⅝”, 3/16”
¼” (6mm)
¾” (19mm)
1” (25.4mm)
Classification: Export A, B,
and C
Domestic C
Marine
Plywood
Plyboard Too heavy to use as Easy to paint

cabinet door Cannot routed
Requires more hinges to
carry weight
Particle Wood particles and
Board fibers pressed together
into durable and
inexpensive sheets
70
Wood A fine layer of wood is Can be curved but not Use mild, diluted
Veneers adhered to a substance. routed. Great grain matching detergent and
Veneer is often used for in various woods and colors. damp cloth.
center panels on Avoid abrasives
cabinet doors. Durable which expose the
and reliable, although substrate.
heat and moisture can
cause doors to crack or
warp.
Thin sheets or pieces of
richly grained or colored
woods, usually glued to
furniture to create a
superior finish. Veneering
is also an economical
way of using rare woods,
or an effective method
of dissimulating interior
lumbar.
High- Layers of compressed Fist-panel doors in assorted Use only non-

Pressure resin and paper are color, textures, finished. Can’t abrasive
Laminate adhered to a substrate. be carved or routed. cleansers and a
Popular for its easy damp cloth.
maintenance and Edges should be
durability; but scratched kept dry.
or chipped doors must
be refaced or replaced.
Whites are slow to yellow.
71
COMPARATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLID WOODS AND MANUFACTURED BOARDS
Advantages of MANUFACTURED WOOD

1. Plywood and Laminboards, etc. have no natural line of cleavage
and cannot be split across the length or width, as the grain
direction of each alternate layer is opposed to the direction of the
force. General stiffness and rigidity is also much greater, and a strip
of plywood is stiffer than a strip of steel of equal weight, and
therefore thickness as opposed to solid wood can be reduced by
as much as 25%.
Particle boards do not have much the same high strength weight
ratio and are relatively weak in all directions nevertheless they have
much the same dimensional stability, and sufficient strength and
stiffness for most purposes.
2. All prefabricated woods are available in large sheets, sanded

smooth to uniform standard thicknesses, thus no preparation is
necessary and much initial labor is saved.
3. Large sheets are always more economical in cutting, and waste
factors are much lower, while quality is consistent from sheet to
sheet.
4. Construction is balanced; therefore movement is negligible under
normal conditions, making them ideal for large or flush surfaces.
Plywood in particular possesses a natural resilience, which enables
it to be bent to reasonably small radii of curvature without
damage.
5. The utilization of common woods in plentiful supply, which can be
face veneered with decorative hardwoods, conserves stocks of the
more valuable timbers, which might otherwise be insufficient to
meet the demands of modern production. There are still some
lingering prejudices against the use of plywood but they have no
foundation whatsoever, and MOP particleboards are beginning to
emerge, not as cheap substitutes, but as logical extensions or
adaptations of wood in solid form.
72
Advantages of SOLID WOOD

1. Cost is often less than of plywood etc., in equivalent thickness,
except for the rarer hardwoods.
2. Solid wood can be joined with ease, shaped, molded, carved, and
bent to small radii.
3. Badly fitting joints and members out of alignment can be flushed off
level after assembly.
4. Edges do not have to be protected or disguised in anyway.
5. Solid wood has a natural elasticity without fatigue, thus, screws and
nails are securely gripped and will not work loose under normal
loading. It will withstand rough treatment and can always be
resurfaced; it has an effective life of many centuries.
6. It responds to careful finishing and has a depth of surface not
obtainable with thinly veneered or composite surfaces.
B. PLASTICS
In essence, plastics are long chain molecular structures evolved from
common elements and compounds- gases, lime, salt, coal, oil,
molasses, cotton, wood, etc.—by chemical synthesis. Heavyweight

molecules or monomers, usually but not invariably built up of carbon
atoms, are linked together in long chains with or without cross—links
become polymers, with the qualities of hardness, toughness, resilience,
stretch, mouldability, translucence, dielectric properties, heat, acid
and water resistance, etc., according to the type as determined by
the molecules and their arrangement. Thus, in theory at least, the
research chemist should be able to arrange the linkage of the
molecules to give the physical qualities he requires, although obviously
methods of achieving that linkage have to be evolved which are
possible, practical and economic.
TYPES OF PLASTICS
All plastics are polymeric and all polymers may be regarded as potential
plastics. Certain polymers occur naturally. All others are produced
synthetically and are divided into two types:
73
Thermoplastic – the necessary degree of polymerization have

been achieved; the long chain of molecular structure can then be
activated by heat to allow freer movement between the
molecules thus the plastic can be softened and resoftened without
deformation provided the degree of heat is kept below the point
of actual degrade of the material
1. Thermosetting – The polymerization has been arrested at a stage,

which produces relatively short chain molecules. Later application
of certain simple chemicals or simple heat carries the
polymerization a stage further producing cross linkage, which
destroys the mobility of the molecules, and the plastic sets into a
hard, infusible resin, which cannot then be resoftened. This latter
type is usually known as resin plastics. The major thermoplastics are
tough, resilient and can be given controlled flexibility either by
arranging the molecular structure accordingly or by added
chemical plasticizers, while the thermosets are either brittle solids
which can be extended with other materials to form molding
powders, or viscous syrups for use as surfacing materials,
impregnating liquids and glues, although here again the addition
of plasticizers or softeners will allow a limited degree of flexibility. It
should be emphasized that the chemistry of the various types of
plastic is very much more subtle than this brief r6sum6 might
suggest, and readers are referred to the standard works on the
subject for a thorough understanding of the principles involved. A
list of the more important plastics with their applications in the
furniture industry is given opposite.
74
Common or Chemical Names Uses
Phenol formaldehyde (PF) Wood glues, Bonding agents,

reinforced laminates, moldings
Urea formaldehyde (UF) Wood glues, chipboard, moldings
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) Wood glues, reinforced laminates,

moldings
Resorcinol formaldehyde (RE) Wood glues,
Phenol resorcinol formaldehyde (RPF) Wood glues,
Polyester Finishes, lacquers, laminates
Expoxide (epoxy resin) Glues (metal, glass, etc.),

castings…potting, etc.
Thermoplastics (see note below)
Acryllonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) Drawers, doors, knobs, legs, etc.
Casein Wood and paper glues, small

molded components
Cellulose acetate (CA) Sheet, film, small molded

components
Cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) High impact moldings
Cellulose nitrate (CN) Finishes, lacquers, small molded

components
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Rigid and flexible sheet; Extrusions

and coatings
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) Wood and paper glues; Contact

adhesives
75
Polyethylene LD (polythene) Low-density films, packaging

materials
Polyethylene High-density structural moldings
Polypropylene Sheet, structural moldings and

components, etc.
Polyurethane Lacquers and finishes; Rigid foam

structures
Polyurethane ester Flexible foam seating
Polyurethane ether Flexible foam seating
Polystyrene Sheet, film, expanded foam
Polystyrene I High density sheet. Rigid loam

structures
Polymethyl methacrylate (Perspex) Sheet, structural mouldings and
components
Polyacetal Door handles, hinges, etc.
Polyamide (nylon) Fibres, sheet, frictionless moulded

and shaped components, etc.
Note: Some plastics are also thermosels. Most plastics can now be foamed.
SOME PLASTICS APPLICATIONS
Plastics applications fall into three main categories: cast and moulded structures
and components; extrusions and extruded sections; and shaped foams and
fabrications. The appropriate method of manipulation is determined by the
plastic itself, whether it is thermosetting or thermoplastic, and the nature of the
required component.
76
1. Rigid foam plastic – Both polyurethane isocyanate and polystyrene can be

foams with suitable gassing agents to form rigid shell structures. If the
foaming is unrestricted then it becomes open-celled. But if restricted within
he the foamshell molds considerable pressures are created, then the foam
compacted, with a hard outer skin, which will conform to every fine detail in
the mold. Self-supporting chair shells, imitation moldings, and wood
carvings are made by these methods. The polyurethane foam is the more
expensive of the two but will accept staples if upholstered, whereas
polystyrene must have tacked strips applied. An example of the open-
celled polystyrene foam is the lightweight ceiling tile.
2. Polyester Resin Fiberglass laminates – Rapid molding techniques for the

production of rigid plastic shapes or shells (chair seats, etc.) require
specialist knowledge and advanced equipment beyond the resources of
the small workshop, but glass fiber laminates, familiarly known as GRP, offer
a simple method of forming rigid structures whose only disadvantage is that
one surface, inside or outside according to the type of former used, will be
smooth and the other rough. In essence, the shaped molding is composed
of laminations of chopped strand glass mat impregnated with polyester
resin. The resin must be thrixotropic, i.e. it must be fluid enough for brush
coats, but must be capable of building up so that it stays in position and
does not creep downhill. Assuming that a simple box shape is to be
molded, then an exact pattern (Figure 27.1) must be made of timber or

other suitable material, using waterproof bonding agents (Araldite epoxy
resin, etc.), with a generous overhang all around so that the rough edges of
the rim can be trimmed up afterwards. The sides of the box should be
tapered, if possible, as this will facilitate withdrawal, and sharp edges and
internal corners should be avoided, or the resin mat will tend to bulge over,
leaving a void in the structure of the finished mold. The working surfaces of
the mold must be filled (resin and talc, Polyfilla, Alahastine, etc.), sanded
down smooth, lacquered (polyester wax, polyurethane, sellac, etc.),
sanded down with 400 grit wet and dry paper, and burnished with cutting –
down paste to a high gloss, after which it is given a heavy coat of wax
polish and left to harden overnight.
3. GRP (Glass Reinforce Plastics) Former Mold – The former maid, from which
the finished molding will be struck, is now made up as in Figure 27.2. The
wax coat is first huffed off the pattern, which was then coated with a
polyester emulsion wax release, followed with an application of wax polish
buffed to a high gloss, then a layer of polyvinyl acetate (PVA) release
77
agent applied with a sponge. A gel coat composed of polyester resin,

catalyst (setting agent), and a small percentage of color paste was
brushed on, followed by a second gel coat immediately the first has cured.
The second gel coat should be of a contrasting color so that adequate
warning is given during any subsequent rubbing down. When this coat has
cured, a coat of catalyzed resin is brushed on and a layer of chopped
strand glass worked into it, adding more resin with a stiff-splitting brush until
the mat is ‘wet out’ or saturated. Two or more additional layers of glass mat
and resin are then added and the whole assembly stippled and rolled with
a split roller to consolidate the layers and eliminate all air bubbles. Then, the
mold is put aside to cure for at least four hours at normal room temperature,
any roughness smoothed out, washed over with warm soapy water, given a
thick coat of wax polish and allowed to age for a further 24 hours.
4. Finished mold – Exactly the same procedure is followed in preparing the

finished molding (Figure 27.3). The former mold is treated with emulsion wax,
wax polish, and release agent, then a single gel coat followed by the
requisite thickness of glass mat (minimum two layers) and resin. After curing
the mold to exact size, it should not required any further polishing. The
method described above gives a smooth surface on one side only, market
(A) on the drawings as the undersides will have been formed by the roller.
They can be ground off smooth if necessary, but will show the cut ends of
the glass fibers and should be painted or otherwise protected.
5. Perspex or acrylic sheet (polymethyl methacrylate) – Readily obtainable in

clear transparent, pastel shades, full color, and transfusing and fluorescent
colors in thickness from 1/25 in (1 mm) to ½ in (12.5 mm) in colors and up to
2 in ( 50 mm) in the clear sheet. It is also supplied in clear rod and tube up
to 1 in (25 mm) diameter. Although, not as hard as fused glass it has the
same clarity and appearance and can be cut very easily with circular saw,
handsaw or very fine-toothed handsaw, using low speed and light pressure
and feed. It is easily drilled with the normal twist – drill lubricated with a
trace of thin oil, and can be bent into simple curves at a temperature just
short of boiling water (201 F; 94 C). For accurate bending, a wood form
should be used, the Perspex sheet heated in front of an electric plate or
similar source of heat, bent over a form, covered with a cloth and held in
position for from one to two minutes to cool and set. Cut edges can be
bonded together with simple heat, chloroform or ether, or special Perspex
cement and frameless show cases are now made almost exclusively by this
method. With the meeting edges, either butted and polished ( wet and dry
paper, burnishing paste, etc.) or mittered together, both methods giving
78
invisible joints if well done. There is a growing tendency also to design

carcass furniture in flat sheets and simple chair forms in molded resin, for it is
an excellent structural material with outstanding qualities of clarity, strength,
rigidity, stability, and durability under quite severe conditions of wear, as
witness its use in aircraft-work. It is, however, relatively expensive, although
no doubt constant research and development, as with all other plastics, will
eventually cheapen costs.
6. Nylon (polyamide) – Has universal uses as a fiber material for it can be cold
drawn two times its original strength, thus straightening the chain molecules
and imparting great strength and excellent wear resistance. It is also
invaluable as a sheet material and for castings, moldings and extruded
sections for it is tough, resilient, and provides noiseless and frictionless
surfaces invaluable for furniture guides, sliders, rollers, etc. it is also used in
knock-down fittings, while barbed or serrated nylon dowel-pegs can be
glued into such loose-textured materials as chipboard to provide secure
anchorages for screws. As it is a thermoplastic without the hard brittleness of
the thermosetting resins it can be cut, shaped and drilled with normal hand-
tools. For particulars, manipulating data and sources of supply of other
plastics readers are referred to the manufacturers concerned, lists of whom
can be obtained from the various periodic journals devoted to the subject,
and to the standard textbooks available at most libraries.
7. Decorative plastic laminates – Familiarly known as Formica, Wilson Art,

Consulweld etc., these are composed of layers of craft paper impregnated
with phenolic resins while the surface pattern which can be purely
decorative in an infinite range of designs or an exact simulation of real
wood grains, is printed on a cover paper, and coated with a scratch-
resistant surface of melamine resin. Figure 29.1 shows (A) the craft papers,
(B) the cover paper and (C) the melamine coating. Heat pressing of the
assembled pack between stainless-steel platens polished to mirror finish
induces a chemical change or polymerization, resulting in a homogeneous
sheet possessing outstanding qualities of lightness, toughness, durability and
resistance to heat, moisture, acids and alkalis, etc. standard sheets with the
pattern on one face only are usually Vis in (0.062 n or 1.58 mm), but a full
range of thickness is also available. 0.032 in (0.81 mm) for vertical facings
wall claddings, etc., 0.40 in (1.01 mm) for light use in horizontal positions,
0.052 in (1.32 mm) for post forming (heat bending) and 0.10 in (2.54 mm) to
VA in (38 mm) built up of separate laminations or with a sandwich core of
other materials (ply, etc.). Thickness of 1/8 in (3.17 mm) and over are self-
79
supporting (29:2). A cheap-quality backing or balancing veneer composed

of craft papers only, with no surface pattern is available for use on the
undersides of core material to counteract the pull.
PLASTIC
Plastic Trade Names Different Properties Users

Forms
Thermosetting
Plastics
Phenolic resin Bakelite Powder, Strength, Pan handles,
granules, hardness knobs,
reinforced and rigidity; electrical
laminates can be switch
produced covers,
at low cost; appliance
colours parts
limited to
black or
brown
Polyester resin Beetle Oref Liquids, Good Light switches
pastes surface , tuning
hardness; devices,
can be coatings,
formed structural
without coverings(wh
heat or en reinforced
pressure with glass
fibres) e.g.
boat hulls,
car bodies,
etc.
Epoxy Araldite Liquids, Exceptional As a bonding
resin(Epoxide) pastes adhesive agent,
qualities encapsulatin
with low g, surface
shrinkage; coating,
high laminating
strength
when
80
reinforced
Melamine- Formica Mel Laminates, Low water Tableware,

formaldehyde rein aware granules, absorption, buttons,
powder tasteless, laminated
odourless, surfaces(e.g.
resists table tops),
scratching industrial
and baking
marking enamel,
cookers
refrigerators
Polyurethane Suprasec Rigid and Weather (rigid) –
flexible resistant insulating
foams, even materials,
coatings though floats(flexible
colour )–
changes; upholstery,
high tear mattresses,
resistance paints
Urea- Aerolite Powder, Stiff and Adhesives,
formaldehyde syrup, hard with laminating
resin granules good timber,
adhesive coating of
qualities paper and
textiles,
electrical
fittings
Thermoplastics
Acrylonitrile- Cycolac Powder, Excellent Kitchenware,
Butadiene granules impact and clock and
Styrene(ABS) scratch camera
resistance; cases,
good toys(LEGO),
strength; crash
lightness helmets
and
durability;
high
surface
finish
Polyvinyl CorvicWelvic (rigid form) Strong with (rigid) –
Chloride(PVC) – powder, good pipes,
81
pastes(flexi abrasive plumbing ,

ble form) – resistance; fittings,
powders, low corrugated
pastes, moisture roofing(flexibl
liquids, absorption; e) –
sheet good packaging,
chemical textiles,
resistance upholstery
Polymethyl Perspex Diakon Sheet, rod, Excellent Display signs
methacrylate tube light and cases,
(acrylic) transmission lenses, dials,
qualities; furniture,
hard and jewellery
rigid; takes
colour well
Polyamide MaranylKapton Powder, Very good Bristles,
(nylon) granules, resistance textiles,
rod, tube, to clothing,
sheet temperatur stockings,
e extremes; upholstery
tough and
mechanica
lly durable;
high
chemical
resistance
Polythene or Rigidex (hard) – Good (rigid) –
Polythylene powder, resistance household
granules, to wares e.g.
sheet breakage; buckets,
withstands bowls,
low (flexible) –
temperatur bags for
e food, bottles,
electrical
cable
AlkatheneVisqu (soft) – coating
een powder,
film, sheet, Transparent Food
but colours containers,
well; (with lamp shades,
rubber) toys, model
impact kits, yogurt
82
resistant cartons
Polystyrene Lustrex Styron Powder, Light, Packaging,
granules, buoyant; insulation
sheet, good
expanded insulation
foam,
beads,
slabs
Polypropylene Propathane Powders, Higher Crates, chair
granules, density and seats, ropes,
sheet more rigid plumbing
than fittings,
polythene; kitchenware
very light ;
good
chemical
resistance
Polytetrafluoroeth Teflon Fluon Powder Resistance Coatings,
ene to high gaskets,
temperatur plumber’s
es; strength; tape
hard; good
friction
qualities
Cellulose acetate Dexel Powder, Hard but Photographi
film, sheet, tough; can c film,
rod be made packaging,
flexible spectacle
frames;
toothbrush
handles
C. METALS
METAL FURNITURE:
Hitherto metal furniture was largely made of mild steel tube, hence the familiar
name was tubular steel furniture`; moreover, designers tended to think in terms
of wood forms and then translate those forms into metal sections. Modern metal
furniture is now designed as such, taking into full account the qualities of
83
stability, flexibility and hardness, which allow considerable reduction in sectional
dimensions over comparable wood forms. As a viable material for certain kind
of furniture, metal commends itself for its consistent quality which is great
importance in large scale furniture: it can be worked to precision limits and its
hygienic, non-porous, smooth surfaces toughness and great strength render
eminently suitable for hospital, kitchen, school office and dismountable furniture.
MATERIALS:
A range of solid and hollow metal extraction is available, ranging from flat strips
to complex hexagonal tube. Cast alloy parts are also made. Stainless steel sheet
and tube is attractive, but it is high cost and the difficulties of cutting and joining
it mean that mild steel is the norm. A variety of surface treatments can be used,
as a protection against corrosion and to improve its appearance. Chrome
plating is inexpensive, but is prone to rust-pitting. Nickel, bronze or aluminum
plating is also used. Various kinds of paints, like stove enamel, and cold-cured
polyurethanes are less costly. The best results, where corrosion resistance and
lasting good looks are also required, are probably attained with plastic coatings.
These are various kinds, and maybe chosen to suit the cost and application of
the project. One of the most expensive but durable plastic coatings is applied to
the clean tube in the form of thin tubing, heat-shrunk into place. This is difficult to
apply to all shapes of component, and so a variety of other methods maybe be
employed either on the whole piece or selected components. One of the most
used is powder-coating. With this technique the metal parts are pre-heated in
an oven and then sprayed or fluid-bed coated with powdered plastic resin. The
thickness of this coat can be controlled by varying the pre-heat temperature.
The coated article is then passed through another heat cycle which fuses the
powder into a smooth gloss finish.
MANIPULATION:
Methods of attachment or jointing are by brazing, torch or arc welding metal

connectors or screw assemblies. Chair posts, table legs, etc are normally fitted
with protective caps of hard rubber, plastic or knock-in wooden caps cut slightly
oversize and driven in wedge tight connection of wood members, cross-rails, etc
can be done by securing threaded bolt to the metal section and carrying it
through a pre-bored hole in the wood member with a captive nut in a small
84
mortise which can be tightened up take up the slack I the wood shrinks.
Alternatively, there are knockdown fittings available. Flat strips can be bent cold
round suitable forms in a bending machine, but tubes must be filled with
rammed sand, steel halls, pitch etc and the ends securely plugged or the
bending will kink the inner curve. Metal extrusion L-, I or u-sections, etc are filled
or packed up with thin metal strips before bending, and heavy sections may
have to be heated. For methods to be fabrication reference should be made to
the standard books on metal working. However, the following is a brief outline of
the properties of metal and the processes involved in working it, many of which
would need to be undertaken by specialist engineering or metal finishing firms.
TYPES OF METAL
1. Ferrous metals – Composed mainly of iron with small additions of other

metals or substances, e.g. wrought iron, cast iron, mild steel and carbon
steel.
a. Wrought iron – Iron with traces of silicate. It is easily worked and is

tough and ductile. Uses: decorative work such as screens and gates.
b. Cast iron – Iron with small amounts of carbon, silicon, sulfur etc. Uses:
cylinder blocks, piston rings, vice/vise bodies, fire backs, manhole
covers.
c. Mud steel – Iron with up to 0.3 percent carbon. Uses: general-purpose

metal used in bar, rods, sheet, rolled section and angle form; nuts,
bolts, screws, tubing; furniture construction.
d. Stainless Steel – steel with chromium and nickel. Uses: cutlery, furniture
frames.
e. Tool and alloy steel – Composition varied by addition of different

elements such as nickel, chromium, copper and manganese to molten
85
steel. Uses: saws, chisels plane irons, scissors, knives, hammer heads,
springs.
f. Copper-bearing Steel – has high resistance to corrosion. Uses: making

sheet steel and metal lathe.
2. Non-ferrous metals – These contain little or no iron, e.g. aluminum, copper

lead, zinc, tin.
a. Aluminum – Lustrous, silver-white, magnetic, lightweight metal which is

very malleable, has good thermal and electrical conductivity. Uses:
kitchen utensils, furniture and fittings.
b. Copper- Pure metal. Lustrous, reddish-brown metal; highly ductile and
malleable. Uses: hot water pipes, electrical parts and decorative work.
c. Lead- Pure metal. Soft, malleable, heavy met. Very easy to cut and
work, enabling it to be fitted over uneven surfaces. Uses: plumbing,
flashing, container linings, weighting objects.
d. Zinc – Pure metal. Uses: substitute for lead in flashings and linings.
Perforated zinc for air vents etc.; plating.
e. Tin – Pure metal. Lustrous white, soft and malleable metal having a low
melting point and is relatively unaffected by exposure to air. Uses: a
base for alloys and a coating for mild steel; rarely used in pure state.
3. Alloys – Combination of two or more metals and other substances.

Divided into two sub-classes: ferrous alloys and non-ferrous alloys.
a. Bronze – Copper with tin. Uses: pump units, marine fittings, gears and
bearings.
b. Duralumin – Aluminum with copper and other metals. Uses: shelving

system, chair legs, pulleys, bolts, rivets, cladding.
86
c. Brass – Copper with zinc. Uses: Cabinet Hardware, screws, decorative
work.
PROPERTIES OF METAL
1. Age-hardening - A slow hardening process, which takes place

certain alloys;
2. Brittleness - Ability to break under a sharp blow;

3. Conductivity - Capacity to transmit heat and electricity;
4. Ductility - Ability to be stretched into fine wire without fracture;
5. Elasticity - Ability to regain original shape after deformation;
6. Fusibility - Property of becoming liquid when heated;
7. Hardness - Resistance to deformation;
8. Malleability -Capacity to be extended in all directions without
fracturing by rolling, hammering or beating;
9. Tenacity or Cohesion - Resistance to a pulling force;

10. Work-hardening – Hardening of metal while it is being hammered or bent.
METAL FINISHES IN FURNITURE PRODUCTION:
Many metals and alloys readily corrode and tarnish when exposed to the
atmosphere and therefore have to have a form of protective covering. These
can he broadly classified as follows:
1. Metallic coatings:
a. Chrome Plate
b. Nickel Plate
c. Bronze Plate
d. Silver Plate
e. Zinc Plate
87
2. Non-metallic coatings:
a. Enameling
b. Lacquering
c. Plastic and nylon coating
3. Chemical processes:
a. Chemical Coating
b. Anodizing – to coat a metal, esp. aluminum or magnesium, with a
hard, non-corrosive film by electrolytic or chemical action.
c. Oxidizing
PROCESSES IN WORKING METAL:
1. Annealing - Heating metal to restore it to its softest possible working

state;
2. Bluing - Treating steel to improve its corrosion resistance. The metal
is heated to create an oxide skin, and then quenched in oil;
3. Casting - Production of metal shapes by pouring molten metal into
moulds;
4. Extruding - Forcing malleable materials through holes to produce bars,
sections or tubes;
5. Forging - Shaping hot metal by hammering;

6. Hardening - Producing maximum hardness in high carbon steel by
heating it to bright cherry red, then quenching it in water or
brine. This process makes metal brittle and is usually
following by tempering;
7. Pressing - Forming sheet metal to shape with a press tool;
8. Spinning - A process in which a fast revolving sheet of ductile metal is
forced over a wood or metal form;
9. Tempering - Removing some of the brittleness from steel after it has been
hardened;
10. Drawing - Pulling ductile metals through holes in a plate, to reduce
their cross-sectional areas.
88
Surface treatment of aluminum and aluminum alloys
Abstract: Aluminum
alloys are divided into two major categories: wrought and casting alloys. A
further differentiation for each category is based primary on mechanism of
property development. Many alloys respond to thermal treatment based on
phase solubility. These treatments include solution heat treatment, quenching
and precipitation, or age hardening.
In order to improve surface properties of final products, such as wear resistance,

corrosion resistance, reflectivity etc., different types of surface treatment were
Furniture Design and Construction
designed. All of them are divided into several groups, such as electrochemical
treatment, chemical treatments and coatings. In this article their terms and
definitions will be explained.
Electrochemical treatment
Electrochemical brightening: Electrochemical treatment to improve the optical

reflectivity of a surface. Electropolishing:
Polishing of a metal surface by making it anodic in and appropriate electrolyte.
Anodized metal: Metal with and
anodic coating, produced by and electrolytic oxidation process in which the
metal is converted to a mainly oxide coating having protective, decorative or
functional properties. Clear anodized metal: Metal with a
substantially colorless, translucent anodic oxidation coating.
Color anodized metal: Anodized metal colored
either during anodizing or by subsequent coloring processes.
Integral color anodized metal: Metal that has been anodized using
an appropriate (usually organic acid based) electrotype which produces a
colored coating during the anodizing process itself. Electrolytically
colored anodized metal: Metal with and anodic oxidation coating that has
been colored by the electrolytic deposition of a metal or metal oxide into the
pore structure. Dyed anodized metal:
Metal with and anodic oxidation coating colored by absorption of dye-stuff or
pigments into the pore structure. Combination color anodized metal: Metal
with an anodic oxidation coating that is colored by electrolytic coloring or
produced by integral color anodizing followed by absorption dyeing.
Interference color anodized metal: Metal with an
anodic oxidation coating colored by means of optical interference effects.
Bright anodized metal: Anodized metal with a high
89
specular reflectance as the primary characteristic
Protective anodizing metal: Anodizing where protection
against corrosion or wear is the primary characteristic and appearance is
secondary or of no importance.
Decorative anodizing: Anodizing where a decorative finish with a uniform
or an esthetically pleasing appearance is the primary characteristic.
Architectural Anodizing: Anodizing to produce an architectural finish to
be used in permanent exterior and static situations where both appearance
and long life are important.
Hard anodized metal: Anodized metal on which the anodic oxidation
coating has been produced with wear and/ or abrasion resistance as the
primary
characteristic. Sealing:
Treatment of anodic oxidation coatings on metal to reduce porosity and the
absorption capacity of the coating by hydrothermal processes carried out after
anodizing. Cold
impregnation: Treatment of anodic oxidation coating on metal to plug the
pores and reduce the absorption capacity of the coating by chemical
processes out at low temperature after anodizing. Significant
surface: The part of the product covered or to be covered by the coating and
for which the coating is essential for serviceability and/ or appearance.
B. Chemical Treatment
Chemical brightening: Chemical treatment to improve the optical reflectivity of

a surface. Chemical
Polishing: Polishing of a metal surface by immersion in a solution of chemical
reagents. Degreasing: Removing
of oil or grease, usually by a suitable organic solvent or an aqueous detergent.
Etching: Roughening of the surface
of a metal by overall or selective dissolution in acid or caustic media.
Pickling: Removing of a thin surface layer of a
metal by chemical action, mainly by treatment in a caustic solution.
C. Coating
Coating (Organic): it is amethod in which a coating material is applied on a

metallic substrate. This process includes cleaning and chemical pre-treatment
and either:
90
 One-side or two-side, single or multiple application of liquid or powder
coating materials which are subsequently cured or
 Laminating with plastic films.
Coil coating: Continuous coating of a metal strip. Backing

Coat: It is aSingle Coating of any type with no particular requirements for
appearance, malleability, corrosion protection, etc. usually on the reverse side
of the coated product. Chemical
conversion coating: Treatment of a metal with chemical solution by dipping or
spraying to build up an oxide film containing chromates or phosphates.
Priming: Application of a priming paint often pigmented with a corrosion

inhibitor such as zinc, chromate, after suitable pretreatment. Pretreatment
priming: Application of a solution containing a resin, a chromate and an acid
which is allowed to dry on and provide the key for subsequent painting.
Single coat system:
Single coating either with requirements on appearance, malleability, corrosion
protection, subsequent painting, etc., or as a primer with special properties
regarding adhesion and corrosion protection for post-painting applications.
Multiple coat system:
System comprising a primer or a base coat, possibly intermediate coat(s), and a
top coat with particular requirements on appearance, malleability, corrosion
protection, etc. Organic Coating: Dry Paint film of the coated
product or the organic film metal laminate primer has been applied
beforehand. Lacquering: It is a Coating with a
formulation based on a dissolved material which forms a transparent layer
primarily after drying by evaporation of the solvent.
Painting: Coating with a non-transparent
formulation containing pigments.
D. Natural Materials
Rattan Buri
91
Bamboo
Wicker
A variety of natural materials have been used in furniture construction over the
years. Materials often are determined by the locality of the builder. Common
are rattan, bamboo, wicker and buri. The structures of these pieces are quite
similar. Fastenings are much the same if not identical, to ancient ones. Similar
structures are made of willows, roots, twigs and branches.
Many of these pieces, often categorized “rustic” are beautifully designed,
comfortable pieces. There are a number of uncomfortable pieces, also.
More than 150 species of parasitic vines are referred of parasitic vines are
referred to in furnishings of Asia. Rattan has many grades. It can be made of
solid, fibrous or flexible materials that can be shaped into different forms.
Rattan is strong and durable. The pole, peel, cane and reed all are used in
furniture construction.
Rattan poles should be smooth and consistent in size. Growth rings or
nodes should be 12 inches to 18 inches apart. High-grade rattan is light in color
and free of dark blemishes.
Bamboo is less flexible, so it has limited bending capability.
Buri furniture is from the mid-rib or spine of the buri palm leaf. It is woven
into such pieces as the princess or fan chair. Buri usually costs less than rattan or
wicker and tends to be flat and square.
Wicker is a construction technique rather than a material. Wicker furniture
might be made of rattan reed, dwarf rattan, willow, split bamboo, splint or other
flexible twig or branch. Wicker-type furniture also made of craft paper and
plastic.
Means by which decorations maybe applied to metals

1. By cutting
2. By embossing
3. By engraving
D. Other Materials Used
92
1. RATTAN – A climbing palm that thrives on Asiatic Regions. Another
common material for furniture and novelties. It is pre-processed to
produce round cores for making reed or wicker furniture. In the Philippines,
10 of the 61 species are commercially exploited. This commercially
exploited rattan species are divided into standard trade names and
grades as follows:
a. Palasan – includes the true palasan and other species which has a
diameter of over 25 mm and internodes of 250 mm
b. Tumalim – includes the genuine tumalim and other species which
has a diameter of 15 mm to 25 mm
c. Sika – includes those that are glossy, flexible, bright yellow with a
diameter of less than 15mm but are rather light cream and all
grades not included under the classification of sika.
d. Panlis – those whose diameters are less than 15mm but having a
light cream appearance rather than bright yellow
Methods of bending Rattan:

a. By steam-bending technique
The stem is cut into the required sizes and placed in a
steam compartment for about 10 minutes. The poles are then
transformed to wood or metal jigs and held overnight until
formed into the required shapes.
b. By ‘blow-torch’
Heating the part to be bent directly or by heating a piece
of metal and transferring the heat to the rattan.
c. By metal plate heating
d. By soaking on hot water
2. BAMBOO – This woody grass known as Bambuseae has stems called culm
that are cylindrical and generally separate by partitions or joints called
nodes. The space in between nodes is called internodes. Philippine
bamboo has 31 species and four variety of which nine are commercially
used, namely:
a. Kawayangtinik
b. Kawayang killing
c. Bayog
d. Anos
e. Botong
f. Giant Bamboo
g. Buho
93
h. Yellow Bamboo
i. Bolo
3. BURI – Buri Palm is the largest palm in the Philippines reaching a height of
20 meters. It is a rich source of raw materials such as:
a. The sap is converted into fermented toddy
b. The trunk yields edible starch
c. The bud is a good ingredient for salads
d. Kernels of the young fruit are made into a local fruit cocktail, halo-
halo, rosary beads and buttons from hard seeds
e. Buntal fibers are processed from the petioles of leaf
f. Stalks are woven into the famous Lucban hat and Buntal bags
g. Strips of unopened leaves are woven into mats, bags and baskets
h. Buri leaves are used as traditional packaging for local foods
i. Bur midribs are made into furniture and craft products
Traditional furniture made from buri:

a. Barrel chairs
b. Love seats
c. Peacock chair
d. Stools
e. Book and display stands
f. Headboards
g. Coffee and end tables
h. Plant holders
i. Lampshades
j. Dividers and wall decorations
4. SHELLS
Shells are the tough outer covering of a variety of animals, fruits, seeds
and nuts. The shells that are of greatest value to furniture making are the
calcified outer covering of the marine and land mollusks. Crystals are
deposited in layers; the mollusks fleshy mantle either as aragonite – the
mother of pearl which appears from the inside of many shells – or as
calcite, a lighter form of calcium carbonate. Shells used for inlays as the
Mother-of-Pearl from abafone, oyster shells and the capiz shells. Color of
some shells is the result of the reflection and retraction of sunlight rays as
they pass through the different calcite present in the shells. The natural
color and pattern of shells are beautiful and unique; all they need is a
transparent varnish or natural lacquer finish. Paints will only hide their
natural beauty.
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5. SKINS
Leather is an important upholstery material for furniture. Filipino artisans
began using leather for upholstery as early as late 17th century. The skins
used during those times were mostly imported, although furniture workers
then were already familiar with the vegetable tanning process. Local
tanners get their supplies of fresh hides mostly from water buffalos and
slaughter houses or from independent hide dealers. Hides are obtained
from large animals such as cows, carabaos and horses. Skins are
obtained from smaller animals such as calves, sheep, goats, pigs and
alligators. Kips are obtained from pelts of reptiles such as snakes and
lizards.
Leather may be worked out to have a glazed finish. It is produced by

glass rubbed over the leather to produce a shiny finish on the leather to
produce fine grain, such as suede. It may also be worked out to have a
grain finish produced by hand rubbing until the leather is smooth.
6. COCONUT
Recently, research has been directed to the other useful parts of the
coconut tree, especially the trunk and coco s- to explore their potential as
materials for new Philippine products. At present, the volume and
potential of coconut logs as a raw material for furniture and other
products is now being realized.
In production of furniture, the harder part of the trunk has been found to
be a workable material. Carving and family intricate turning is possible. It
can also be used for furniture framing (coco lumber). It is ideal for furniture
framing and can be combined with lighter wood or laminated plywood
7. COCOSHELL
Coco shell is another by-product, which shows good potential for the
development of furniture, furnishing and Philippine products. A whole new
range of boxes, lamps, Table tops, chairs and household accessories using
crushed and laminated shells, to honey or ivory white for young shells.
When crushed and combined, shell laminates approximate the quality
and appearance of tortoise shell or ivory.
8. WICKER
Is a construction technique rather than a material made from rattan
reed, dwarf rattan, willow, split bamboo, splint or other flexible twig
branch.
It is also made of craft paper and plastic
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Pottery- determined by: composition of the clay and the way it is temperature
at which it is fired and the glaze used.
General Information- The production of ceramics is said to be one of the most

ancient arts and in all ages reflect the condition of every art. The ceramics or
pottery refers to artefacts made of heated earth or earthenware but the usual
modern distinction is applying it to ware that is opaque when it comes from the
kiln or oven. Ceramics comes from the Greek word Keramos, meaning
specifically potter’s clay which is used to describe a whole body of ware made
of clay, mixed with water shaped by the potter and hardened by fire. Naturally
this covers a broad range both as to type and use. Some pottery is primarily
designed for utility and some for sheer decoration. Fired earth vessels were first
invented around 12,000 years ago by the Jomon culture in japan, in Asia by
about 7000 years ago, and again around 5000 years ago in Mesoamerica. Most
of it is glazed but at the same time a great deal of ir depends entirely on the
natural colouring of the clay and the sheer beauty of the object’s shape.
From the earliest times each country has its pottery making techniques
and designs. Museums and private collections house ancient Egyptian, Cretan,
Greek and Chinese pieces of such extraordinary beauty that they still serve as
inspiration to the designers of our own time. As manufacturing techniques
improved, new types of pottery were added to a rich stone. From the time of
the Renaissance we are able to trace the development of the pottery’s art.
THREE MAIN STAGES
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The Clay State- or Greenware. This is the stage wherein the ware is formed
but hasn’t gone under firing. They are very brittle but they can be handled
with care. Greenware items are often sanded with fine grade sandpaper
to ensure a smooth finish in the completed item.
The Biscuit State- or Bisque. This is a term literally meaning “half-baked”.

When the ware has undergone a preliminary low range firing through an
oven or a kiln. All under glaze colours and printing are applied to the
biscuit. This ware is normally a plain red, white or brown colour depending
on which type of clay is used.
The Glaze State- After the ware has been covered with the glaze and has
undergone a second firing. It is basically done to make wares sanitary. If
enamel or other decorations is applied over the glaze, the ware is
subjected to another firing, but at a comparatively lower heat in the
enamel kiln.
4 METHODS OF SHAPING CLAY

1. Slipcasting
2. Jiggering
3. Extression
4. Piessing
GLASSFORMING MINERALS STIFFENERS MELTING AGENTS
-Boron, silica -Clay, Flux -Lead, Soda
GLAZE-is a mixture of chemicals, mostly silica, the major component of glass,

clay, a melting agent, water, colorants and a suppression agent allowing the
chemicals to stick together and not separate like oil and water. Depending on
the chemical composition of a glaze, when it fires against a bisqued piece, the
glaze will turn glass like and in high fire glazes, will merge with the vitreous clay.
Its origin and its technique are glassforming, but the fine lustrous glazes
developed in China. It surely began with simple glaze that served to cover
earthenware and render it waterlight. Chinese potters used two kinds: one
composed basically of feldspar. And another produced by fusing silica of quartz
or sand by means of a flux, generally of lead oxide.
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Many kinds are used and some are made to heighten the colour of the body
while others mask. The most common kinds of glazes are :
Alkaline glazes
Shiny and transparent, silica (sand), soda (nitrite)
Lead glazes
Sulphite
Tin glazes
Opaque and white
MAIN CLASSIFICATIONS
Earthenware- really a soft pottery, is probably the oldest and also the most
universal. These are natural clay fired at temperatures from 900°-
1200°C/1652°-2192° F and are usually porous and opaque. The color
varies from pale tan to red and brown according to the chemistry of a
particular firing can be used for none other than ornamental purposes.
The so-called biscuit form is a type which, after the first since it is either tan
or terra cotta in color and dull in finish. The biscuit, after the firing can
have a scratched or painted design which can be glaze by additional
firing. Southwest Indian work, French cooking utensils, Mexican ware and
a great deal of Pennsylvania Dutch tableware are currently prized
examples of earthenware.
Examples of earthenware:
1. Indian work
2. French cooking utensils
3. Mexican ware
4. Pennsylvania Dutch tableware
Stonewares- Clays containing a higher percentage of sand when fired

from 1200°-1280°C/2191°-2336° F, The body is extremely hard, usually
vitrified and impermeable to water. It is available in both dull and glazed
forms and may also be either white or colored. Stoneware was made by
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the Chinese in antiquity and became famous in the northern Europe after
the Renaissance (14th century to 17th century). Although some fine
decorative objects are made of it. It is usually used for pickle and preserve
jars.
Porcelain- A Chinese invention that appeared when feldspathic material

in a fusible state was incorporated in a stoneware composition. It is the
aristocrat of the potter’s wheel, contains kaolin as base plus decayed
granite and fired at very high temperatures. Petuntseor China stone, a less
decayed, more fusible fieldspathic material, was also used in Chinese
porcelain; it forms white cement that binds together the particles of less
fusible kaolin. Porcelain is fired at 1280°-1400°C (2336°-2552° F) and has a
clear white color and is extremely hard and translucent. It probably
originated in China, hence its common name “China”, and was first
made by Chinese potters towards the end of the Han period (206 BC- AD
220). It was first mastered in the occidental world at the German factory in
Meissen. Protoporcelain, or early vitreous wares were produced by the
Chinese before they developed their white vitreous ware (true porcelain)
that was later admired by the Europeans.
Because it is the hardest ceramic product, porcelain is used for electrical

insulators and laboratory equipment. However, porcelain is known
primarily as a material for high-quality vases and tableware, as well as for
figurines and other decorative objects. The type of porcelain that is used
for such purposes produces a bell-like ring when struck.
1. Hard-paste porcelain- fired between 2390-2570°F. Considered the best

kind of porcelain, and usually called “true porcelain”, it is made of kaolin,
whose glaze was also feldspathic and fired in one with the body, whose
fusion resulted in perfection of the surface. This method was used in China
long before it was discovered in England about middle of the 18th century.
Before the only type of the fine pottery made in Europe was “soft-paste”.
2. Soft-paste porcelain- fired below 2300°F which is really imitation porcelain,
while it is more translucent, it is not as white in color nor does it have the
clear ringing tone of true porcelain. Soft-paste is a mixture of white clay
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and a ground glassy substance. Glaze was added at second firing which
was lower in temperature than the first, on the top of paste not fused with
it. This type suffers mode damage through time.
3. Bone China- a white hard translucent ceramic ware usually glazed. It was
invented in the mid-18th century by English potters and was a somewhat
harder ware that gained whiteness, translucency and stability through the
inclusion of calcium phosphate in the form of calcined (fire, chemically
altered) ox bones. Bone China requires at least 2 or more frings at different
temperatures, the first at 2760°F and the second at 2475°F. They are
broader in scope than earthenware or porcelain. It is opaque but not as
hard as porcelain. This type is somewhere between “soft-paste” and
“hard-paste” in whiteness and tone.
ORNAMENTATION IN CERAMICS OR POTTERY
SLIP-This is a thick semi-solid fluid composed of clay and water into which
the ware was dipped when it was dry enough to be fired. It can also be
brushed, trailed or dropped from the spout of a vessel on the ware in the
design. The porous body of the piece quickly absorbed the water in the
slip and the piece was then ready for the glaze and firing.
Various colors were obtained for the slip by the use of oxides. For
example, oxide of iron produces red, copper produces green, cobalt
makes blue and manganese, to a color varying from a purple-brown to
almost black.
This method of decoration is of ancient origin, having been used by the

Romans and by various countries during medieval times. It was extensively
used by the English and German potters during 17th and 18th centuries
especially at Staffordshire and still used in Switzerland and Italy. Ware that
has been dipped in this termed Slip ware.
Other forms of decoration:
1. Incised
2. Relief/Embossing
3. Decalcomania- The art of transferring designs from specially
prepared paper to a wood or glass or metal surface.
4. Lithographed- Process where image areas are treated to accept
or repel the oil leak.
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5. Pierced
6. Sgrafitto- Designs that are drawn with a pointed tool that scratches
through the slip to reveal the body. Italian word “ sgraffione”/
“grafflare”- reveals color.
7. Silk- screened.
8. Stamped
9. Stenciled
10. Painted- Pottery can be also painted before and after firing. In
Neolithic times.
1. Overglaze- fired first before painting

2. Underglaze- patterns are painted before glazing and firing.
7.5 EVOLUTION OF CERAMICS AND POTTERY BY GEOGRAPHY
7.5.1 PRIMITIVE CERAMICS – archeological evidence shows that

primitive man first started to use ceramics in a utilitarian sense.
Vessels were fashioned made of hardened earth to serve as
storage for grain and water. They are usually plain but later on
have included patterns like the zigzag and the chevron.
7.5.2 EGYPTIAN CERAMICS – pottery in Ancient Egypt served a different

purpose other than as containers for practical and domestic
items. They are used in ritualistic rites that are geared towards
the burial ceremony. Clothes, shoes, and other favorite items of
the deceased are usually placed in earthenware and buried
together with the body because the Egyptians believed that
these items will be needed in the afterlife.
7.5.3 GREEK CERAMICS
1. TERMINOLOGY
a. Black Figure Ware – figures are painted black on a

red background.
b. Red Figure Ware – figures are painted red on a black

background.
c. White Ground Ware – figures are painted either red

or black on a white background.
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2. Major Kinds of Greek Ceramics
a. Drinking Cups
a. 1. Skyphos
a. 2. Kylix – continuous curve shape
a. 3. Kylix – offset lip shape
b. Bowls for mixing wine and water
b. 1. Column Krater
b. 2. Volute Krater
b. 3. Calyx Krater
b. 4. Bell Krater
c. Wine Jugs
c. 1. Oinochoe
c. 2. Oinochous
d. Water Jugs
d. 1. Hydria/Kalpis
e. Oil Flasks
e. 1. Lekythos
e. 2. Aryballos
f. Storage Jars
f. 1. Amphora
f. 2. Neck Amphora
f. 3. Pelike
g. Wine or Water Container
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g. 1. Stampnos
7.5.4 ITALIAN CERAMICS
The first insurance in which pottery attaches itself to a recognized

school of art occurs in Italy. Here, it improves more in merit and value, and
where, treated by eminent hands, it became a vehicle of artistic
expression, which has given it a value not inferior to canvases and frescos
of the same period.
It was in the Early Renaissance that ceramics were first utilized in

Italy and these were usually utilitarian in nature. They were influenced by
the Moorish Majolica ware, which was tin- glazed earthenware, from
Majorca in neighboring Spain. By the beginning of the 15th Century, Italian
potters had abandoned the old familiar processes and a revolution in

style and techniques was under way.
The commedia dell’arte- a type of improvisional street theater- provided

a seemingly limitless source of subjects for both porcelain modelers and painters
in the eighteenth century. One of its principal characters, Pulcinella, is
immediately identifiable by his typical costume of a loose tunic, tall conical hat,
and black mask with a prominent hooked nose.
7.5.5 DUTCH CERAMICS
European ceramics underwent a tremendous change in the 17th century.

The technique of majolica and it’s artisans had migrated to the Netherlands and
Belgium from Italy around the 16th century. Following the capture of Antwerp by
the Spanish, they settled in several Dutch cities, including Delft whose ceramics
were strongly influenced by tin-glazing techniques those artists had brought with
them, themselves heavily influenced by Islamic techniques and motifs steeped
in the majolica tradition.
But the development of Delft ceramics did not stop there, and
underwent yet again a radical change after coming into contact with far
eastern ceramics. Thanks to the activities of the Dutch East India Company in
the early 17th century , Chinese blue and white Wan-Li (1573-1619) porcelain
began to appear in Holland and was to make a profound impact on the local
wares resulting in the well-known Dutch Blue and White style usually associated
with Delft today. But the local potters, steeped in the majolica tradition, did not
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know how to make porcelain, so they emulated the Chinese wares using their
majolica techniques. Some of these majolica copies are very difficult to
distinguish from their Chinese counterparts, except on the areas where the
terracotta clay could be seen, especially on the foot. It was basically soft-
bodied earthenware fired at a relativelylow temperature and covered with a
tin-based glaze.
Decorations on such ware usuallt of blue and white. Such was applied rapidly
and swiftly with skillful care so as not to smudge over the layer of the glaze.
Although other colors were used, these tend to be rare. Early ones were done
on the Chinese manner, in that it depicted the same style of Chinese decoration
as found on the imports. But later, they incorporated native Dutch scenes such
as windmills and fihing boats.
Delft factories also began producing polychrome. (multi-colored)

ceramics, copying Chinese K’ang-his and Japanese imari wares. Often oriental
and occidental motifs and forms would mingle, with tea caddies, teapots, vases
and tiles being produced. Over the centuries, a wide range of Delft marks have
accumulated, by which “true”antique Delftware can be recognized. This rich
Dutch tradition with its many influences continues on to this day, with the famous
blue and white Delftware is still being producedand heavily sought after.
Delft table and ornamental ware usually were of blue colored patterns
and landscapes on a white background. They also produced apothecary jars,
drug pots, small flat tiles for fireplace facings and other architectural uses.
The only remaining original producer of Dutch delftware is “De

KoninkliijkePorceleyneFles” founded in 1653. The name translates as “Royal
Porcelain Jar or Bottle” and their logo is a stylized jar. Delft blue Daybreak, was
one of the most widely used, and applied to 17 aircrafts.
7.5.6. FRENCH CERAMICS
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Faience potteries, or tin-enameled earthenwares, date back to ancient
times. The actual name “faience” comes from “Faenza”, a town in Italy, and
was introduced in France in the 16th century by migrant Italian potters. When the
French themselves began to produce tin-glazed earthenware, the word enters
general use.
Two interesting facts are to be noticed in the historic progress of ceramic

art. One is its continued and closed alliance with the religious events; another, its
constant protection by crowned heads or royal houses. The latter alone
maintained it and elevated it to the high degree of excellence which has
caused it to be classed among the great arts of the middle ages and the
renaissance. This royal patronage is a distinction which it alone enjoyed up to
the dissolution of the French Empire in 1870.
From its introduction almost to the present day, ceramics has enjoyed constant
and individual attention from the French royalty; mot only this, we also the
boldest Huguenot her most untiring and successful pottery. The wares of France
are interesting for two reasons: their historic connection, and their ultra and
effective beauty of design. They just far enough removed from foreign
influences to give them individuality and a rarity which probably surpasses even
the Italian productions; at least one of her wares, the Oiron, enjoys the solitary
distinction of being unobtainable.
While the effect of the Dell Robbia and Cellini school I visible, enough of
French versatility has been introducedto identify it with the country with which it
is associated. All its specimens bear testimony to that love of detail and nice
appreciation of completeness which everywhere identifies the French
decoration. France has always been a nation given to trifling things; a
propensity for niceness and prettiness has often reacted upon her when
brought in contact with the hard, practical ideas of other nations. It is in this
feature that she excels when we consider her productions in pottery. She found
in it a plaything which afterward rose, or fell, to the level of a great industry; she
first invested it with merit, then with power; and where nations about her treated
it as a valuable addition to their commercial affairs, she accepted it as a new
medium upon which skill and genius might exercise and achieve their highest
ambitions. Accordingly, we find in France a more elegant and artistic pottery
work than in Germany or Holland.
Pottery generally improves or retrogresses in quality according to the

locality in which it is manufactured; this owes sometimes to her manner of
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treatment of the clay, but generally to the quality of the clay itself. In Italy the
clay was not of the finest quality, while in France, through effort and the
advantages of a greater variety of soil, we find the plain baked pottery of
composition and texture far more beautiful and durable. These are invaluable
advantages when considered in connection with form and relief ornament, and
in these two branches the French styles work particularly excels. A favorite earth
in the construction was the Terre de pipe, its pure whiteness and fineness
affording excellent qualities which went far towards perfecting the French styles
of decoration. It was this earth which was so successfully applied in the Oiron, or
Henri II ware; scarcely any other could have been used in the production of
such sharp outline and delicacy as could be found here.
In France we lose the presence of great artist to become acquainted with

great artisans, whose work it was to carry forward by experiment and limited
scientific knowledge the methods of manufacture. Such a man was Bernard
Palissy, whose hard, practical genius led him not only to more homely
delineation, but to improvement in every par, while with his severe productions
he still maintained the French love of the beautiful. While Luca Della Robbia
portrayed the spiritual sense, Palissy clung to the harmonies of visible objects,
each meeting with the same perfection and success in his own sphere.
PALISSY, BERNARD- For 16 years he worked in vain to imitate white-glazed

pottery after seeing a cup from Italy, even burning his furniture to fire his kilns. He
was succeeded in producing a widely imitated pottery, Palissy ware, admired
for smooth glazes in richly colored enamels. He was appointed in 1562 as royal
potter to Catherine de’ Medici and created platters, ewers, and other
ornamented pottery for the French court. He is noted for pieces reproducing
scriptural and mythological subjects in low relief and for his rustic pieces
decorated with sharply modeled forms copied from nature- notably reptiles,
insects, and plants.
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Porcelain was a relatively unknown commodity in 17th century France.
Before the last decade of the 17th century , there was no domestic production
of porcelain in France, and faience, was the most common type of ceramic. It is
not surprising that the first porcelains produced in France were made at faience
factories. At a Rouen faience factory owned by the Poterat family, experiments
made resulted in some of the earliest examples of soft-paste porcelain made in
France. None of the few surviving pieces produced at Rouen in the 1690’s bears
a factory mark, but they have been attributed to this factory on the basis of their
bluish glaze and distinctive under glaze blue decoration.
In the very same years, the faience factory at Saint-Cloud was also
experimenting with making soft paste porcelain, and it appears that their
earliest products also date from the 1960’s. The first wares produced at Saint-
Cloud closely imitated Chinese blue-and-white porcelain, but soon its painters
initiated a wholly French style of decoration that derived from French prints of
the 16th and 17th centuries. The under glaze blue decorative scheme of Chinese
porcelain was retained, but the subject matter was now typically French, and
the vocabulary of foliage, scrollwork, and animals or human beads.
In 1730, Louis Henry, the duc de Bourbon, established a soft-paste

porcelain factory on the grounds of his chateau in Chantilly. The duke was an
avid collector of Asian porcelains, and the products of the Chantilly factory from
its founding until the dukes’s death in 1740 were heavily influenced by Japanese
porcelain in particular. Some of the Chantilly wares directly copy Japanese
pieces, while others are executed in a style reminiscent of Japanese porcelain.
The French factory of Mennecy had its roots in a small ceramic enterprise
founded by Francois Barbin in the town of Villeroy. When this
first operation failed financially, Barbin reopened his factory in
nearby Mennecy in1750. The production of the Mennecy
factory remained modest in terms of both scale and ambition,
despite the patronage of the duc de Villeroy, but it produced
utilitarian ware of considerable originality and somewhat naïve
charm. The factory went into decline with the deaths of Barbin
and his son in 1765.The soft-paste porcelain factory founded at
Vincennes in about 1740 was to dominate not only the French
ceramic industry, but also the entirety of European ceramics
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for the second half of the eighteenth century. The factory quickly developed a
superior soft-paste porcelain body that was whiter and freer of imperfections
than any of its French rivals, as well as hiring the most talented French artists to
design shapes and provide drawings and prints for the factory’s painters. The
Vincennes factory attracted the attention of Louis XV, who not only provided
financial banking, but also purchased the first dinner service the factory
produced. The king became the sole owner of the factory in 1759, three years
after it had moved to larger quarters in Sevres, located to the west of Paris. The
Sevres factory flourished because of its constant innovation; new forms were
always in development, sometimes pushing the established boundaries of
porcelain. New types of decoration also appeared constantly, as the factory
looked to different sources of inspiration. By the mid-1750s, the Sevres factory
had assumed artistic leadership in Europe from Germany’s Meissen factory, and
it continued to set standards for European porcelain production through the
remainder of the century.
The first hard-paste porcelain was made in the Limoges, religion due to the fact
that Kaolin was discovered in France about 1768, close to it.
This first factory established about 1774 became a subsidiary
of the royal factory in Sevres in 1784. Following the French
Revolution, this governmental influence once again gave
way to private interests, and by the early 1800s Limoges was
making the finest, purest white porcelain in the world. By the
1830s, there were at least 35 porcelain factories operating in
the Limoges region. The latter half of the century was the period of greatest
growth and recognition for Limoges porcelain, repeatedly recognized for its
quality and innovation in the universal expositions now being organized in the
various parts of the world. The finest artists migrated to Limoges to practice their
art on the fine white porcelain now being produced to international acclaim.
7.5.7 GERMAN CERAMICS
European stoneware was developed in Germany at the end of

the 14th century. It was salt-glazed, wherein common salt used as an
alkali, was thrown into the kiln, soda from the salt creates a glassy
layer on the pot’s surface. Hafner ware, a lead-glazed earthenware,
was popular in the 16th and 17th centuries, with many vessel imitating
metal jugs and tankards.
Still another and more beautiful style is known as “Poterie deluxe”, which
was exceedingly fine in color, form and ornament. This was the highest
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eminence which German pottery reached, and occupied the period between
the –years 1500 and 1620. In considering the stone-ware of Germany we are
verging closely upon the territory of true porcelain, and the art of pottery-
making declined after the year 1620. Ceramic art did not revive until the
succeeding century, when Bottger’s series of discoveries revolutionized the
system.
Chinese and Japanese porcelain were highly esteemed in seventeenth-

century Europe, although they were imported in ever-increasing quantities
throughout the century, Europeans did not know the ingredients necessary for
the production of true porcelain, commonly known as hard-paste porcelain.
However, in 1709 an alchemist named Johann Friedrich Bottger discovers the
materials required to produce a white, translucent, high-fired porcelain body.
This discovery was to have profound consequences for the entire European
ceramic industry, which is why to Germany, must be given the credit for
discovering and introduction into Europe the art of making true hard-paste
Porcelain of the Chinese type.
Bottger’s experiment with the formula for porcelain included the

development of a high-fired red stoneware, which led to several technological
advances ultimately resulting in porcelain. This so-called Bottger
stoneware was used both for wares and for figures, including one
depicting Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony. Augustus had
provided the impetus for Bottger’s experiments and, based on the
latter’s success, he established a factory at Meissen, just outside
Dresden, in 1710. The factory was soon producing a creamy white
porcelain now known as Bottger porcelain, becoming the first
European manufactory of hard-paste porcelain. In the 1720s, the
Meissen factory developed a new and extensive range of enamel colors, and
the factory’s painters excelled in chinoiseries scenes. Fanciful depictions of life in
an imagined and exotic Far East, chinoiseries were the most popular type of
decoration during this decade. One of the great achievements of the Meissen
factory was the production of large-scale vases, which were difficult to fire
successfully because of their size. Many of these vases were decorated with
ground colors in imitation of Chinese porcelains, and chinoiseries scenes were
continued to be in vogue through the 1730s. Meissen ceramics are usually
identified by the crossed sword mark of Meissen. These wares came to be
known as Dresden Ware.
The second factory in Europe to produce hard-paste porcelain was that

founded in Vienna by Claudius du Paquier at about 1719. The du Paquier
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porcelain body was quite similar to that produced at Meissen, but the forms and
styles of decoration employed at the Viennese factory were entirely original.
The concept of a dinner service with matching components was still novel
in the 1730s, and the first dinner service to be made in porcelain was ordered
from Meissen in late 1731 although Du Paquier produced a partial dinner
service, possibly composed exclusively of tureens, as early as the mid-1720s.
The success of the Meissen and Du Paquier firms led to the establishment
of other porcelain factories in Germany in the 1740s and 50s, and it was often
workers coming from either Meissen or Vienna who provided the necessary
technical expertise to the new operations. Perhaps the most popular subjects for
figures and groups were characters from the Italian comedia dell’ arte.
Porcelain figures depicting Harlequin, Columbine, Mezzetin, Isabella, and
numerous others would have been instantly identifiable because of their
costumes, for the travelling troupes of Italian comedia players had made these
characters very familiar to eighteenth-century audiences.
7.5.8 SPANISH CERAMICS
European decorative pottery that is still exercising and influence on the

decoration of today dates back to medieval times. This was when Spain was
dominated by Islamic traditions, imposed by Arab and Moorish invaders, who
brought with them the art of making tin-glazed and lustred earthenware. The
best-known and most important type dates, however, from the period of
reconquest, when a synthesis of Near Eastern and European styles is seen in the
so-called Hispano-Moresque wares. It was heavy earthenware usually
decorated with crude patterns in green-blue, yellow, white and lusterware.
From the beginning of the 15th Century onwards Valencia, and partially the
suburbs of Patterna and Manisses, were the chief centres of the industry. Here,
under Christian rule, Moorish potters produced wares decorated in a hybrid
style, in blue and white, and blue enriched with gold lustre. Arabesques and
inscriptions in Arabic gradually merged with Christian emblems and epigraphs in
gothic lettering; together with bold heraldic devices and foliate patterns of
great power and distinction. Human figures were more rarely depicted.
Albarelliand great dishes, superbly painted with the armorial bearings of famous
French and Italian families, such as those of Rene of Anjou
and Lorenzo de’ Medici, indicate the high esteem in which
these wares were held; indeed, it was asserted in a
contemporary writing that Manisses work was gilded and
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painted in mastery fashion, with which the whole world is in love. Gadrooned
and relief-decorated pieces appeared towards the end of the fifteenth century,
while arasbesques and diapered patterns of Persians origin in use.
The diminishing number of coats-of-arms appearing the sixteenth century,

prove the decline in aristocratic patronage, and, the manufacture has
continued, there has been no revival of its previous excellence.
An important factory making fayence at Alcora [Valencia] was founded

in 1726-7 by the Count of Aranda. On his death, the factory was carried on by
his son, and continued to make fine-quality fayence, together with some
porcelain, until the letter half of the eighteenth century; after which nothing of
any merit was produced. A number of excellent busts were made at Alcora,
and a magnificent portrait of the Count of Aranda is in the collection of the
Hispanic Society of America, New York.
1. Luster Earthenware- also called Hispano Mauresque, refers to wares

with Arabic inscriptions, beautifully executed
arabesques, and stylized animal forms,
characterized by indescribable sheen and
iridescence. This is produced by decorating the
clay with a thin coat of metal. This pottery,
dating from about the 14th century, was the
successor to the much earlier Arabian pottery.
Malaga, Valencia and Talavera were identified
with the production of this ware. The particular future of the decoration
is the ornament in lustre pigment of a rich, iridescent brown color,
sometimes relieved in blue, which is highly effective. Those specimens
which we see generally date from the sixteenth century and are
usually unmarked. Of late years, there has been a revival of its
manufacture in various parts of Spain, but the
modern productions are very inferior.
2. Majolica- term generally applied to tin glazed
and enameled earthenware. This usually consists
of glazed floor and wall tiles decorated with
flower and abstract motifs showing fusion of
Renaissance and Moorish motifs.
3. Azulejos- produced in Catalonia, painted with
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groups of people engaged in sports, amusements, dancing or drinking
etc. or incidents associated with Don Quixote. These are usually wall
tiles with a generally bluish hue.
4. BuenRetiro/ El Retiro- this is the counterpart of the Capo di
Monte factory of Italy, when King Charles III transferred it
from Naples to Madrid in in 1759. Consist of beautiful
figurines and groups of soft-paste porcelain, plaques for
walls in the Rococo spirit. The ware is a soft paste, of a
delicate white and more than usually translucent. It excels
Capo Di Monte in delicacy and thinness of body. It was
probably the most costly and most technically perfect of
any 18th-century porcelain. King Charles carried with BuenRetiro until
the works were destroyed by the French, when Napoleon invaded
Spain. Even in Spain this ware is exceedingly rare. Outside of Spain it is
scarcely known.
7.5.9. ENGLISH CERAMICS
The art of the old English is a special interest to students of ceramic art, as
many processes were invented by them and English earthenware has won for
itself a healthy recognition everywhere, from a technical point of view. Examples

of existence of the work of the medieval potter, and of the early Staffordshire
potters particularly, show a constant striving to improve their wares. The earliest
date which appears in any piece of pottery of undoubted English make is 1571.
The factories were so many and the potters who achieved fame and
reputation so numerous. It will suffice to say that the standards set by
Wedgwood were never surpassed by potters anywhere, and that no other
pottery district in the world became as conspicuous for quality and quantity of
production as Staffordshire. The practical potters of England succeeded in
creating by gradual improvements a ware so superior that all Europe was
influenced and benefited by their work.
From the collector’s point of view, the history of English porcelain begins
with the foundation of the Bow factory in 1744 and ends with the Rockingham
factory which began to make porcelain in 1820. The obscurity which surrounds
their early history may be accounted for by the fact that these factories were all
private ventures, started for commercial purposes. In France and Germany
much of the production was under royal patronage.
From the time of its introduction to the present day, England has been
most extensively engaged in the production of pottery. We have only to turn to
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present evidence to prove that the demand for ornamental wares has met with
no diminution. But the day of the great discoveries and rapid advances seems
to passed; old designs, long known and always prized, seem to be little variation
and is the model of the modern workman. Even so, these, however are skillfully
and pleasingly treated, and are forms which never suffer by age and
association.
1. Bristol Ware- milk white with a cool glittering glaze, exceedingly hard and
durable,
and often decorated in the Chinese manner. Bristol produced imitation
Delft for a long period. After many
abortive efforts, hard-paste porcelain
was produced in 1766, under the
ownership of Richard Champion. They
imitated Dresden Ware although
Chinese ware was obviously copied in
color and design. Technical short-
comings mark as much of this work with
warping and fire cracks being common,
handles often askew and glazed often pitted. Twelve years later, this
factory was discontinued.
Every piece of true Bristol China is rare and of value, owing to the brief
time the works were in operation. Some of the Bristol figures rank with the
finest ever made in England.
2. Bow Ware- a factory founded in 1744 at Stratford-le-Bow, East London.

First called
New Canton, this is where the first soft-paste porcelain in England was
made from a white clay kaolin) brought from North Carolina. There was a
concentration with making porcelain of the useful type, and white figures
and statuettes in the Chinese style. Subjects included bamboo or plum
branches, partridges and grotesque animals. Bow eventually became
part of the Derby factory.
The paste of Bow is of different kinds that of which groups and

figures are generally composed being of soft artificial porcelain similar to
Chelsea, but coarser, heavier and
more virtuous in appearance. A much
harder paste was also made,
sometimes white and sometimes
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having a blue-grey tint, with thick greenish glaze. The factory output
largely consisted of tableware. A very large part of the Bow production
was unmarked. Of the marked pieces, the anchor and the dagger in red
are characteristics. The production from 1752 to 1760 includes some of the
most charming porcelain ever made.
A remarkably soft and delicate style of flower painting is quite

peculiar to Bow and printed decoration was also used here to some
extent. Blue and white ware painted in under-glazed blue in the Chinese
manner was produced in large quantities. The “Old Japan” pattern of
polychrome decoration was very popular, and decoration in the styles of
Dresden, Sevres and other continental factories were included. The later
productions of the factory are not in the same excellence. Bow figure
pieces with plain bases were made prior to 1755, those with scroll bases
afterwards. These figures are frequently attributed to Chelsea or
Worcester, owing to the similarity of the marks. In 1766, William Duesbury of
Derby bought the works and removed them to Derby as he had
previously done with Chelsea.
3. Chelsea Ware- Factory here began making very soft paste porcelain
about 1745,
requiring all decoration to be done at one
time as it could not withstand a second firing.
The well-known “goat and bee” cream jugs
are marked Chelsea 1745, a proof of the early
date of this factory. It and heavily ornamented
in French style. The glaze of the later periods
was much better. In decoration, Oriental,
particularly Japanese, Dresden and Sevres
patterns were closely followed. Every
conceivable thing that could be made of porcelain was made at
Chelsea under the direction of Nicholas Sprimont, who joined the
company about 1750, and who later became owner of the works. He
gave especial attention to the decoration of the product and remained
at the head of the company until 1769.
In 1758 the composition of the paste was altered by the addition of

calcined bone ash, and about 1759-60
we find the gorgeous costumes and
handsome gilding, so rich and
decorative. Its dark blue ground was
never equaled by any other English
factory, and the rich claret color was
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never produced anywhere else. Nearly all pieces of Chelsea porcelain
exhibit stilt mark. The unique object known as Chelsea “toys” are among
the most valued of all Chelsea productions. In 1769 the factory was sold to
William Duesbury, proprietor of Derby factory, and from 1770 to 1784,
when the works were removed to Derby, is known as Chelsea-derby
period, in which some very beautiful products were made. A good
specimen, by the softness of its paste, fine glaze and refined coloring may
be said to resemble closely fine Sevres china. The marks are distinct.
4. Derby Ware- Derby earthenware is worth considering from a collectors

point of
view. Slip ware was made in earlier days,
also delft. Later, cream was produced,
although not equal to the Staffordshire
products.
Although the factory was established

about 1750, little is known at the present time of the early production of
porcelain before the time of William Duesburry in 1756. The porcelain
made after that is white, fine and soft and the “biscuit” is worthy of special
notice, rivaling in many respects the biscuits of Sevres. Its finest work is
regarded as that done in the Chelsea Derby period 1770-75 and the
Crown Derby period 1785-90. The paste and decorations of these periods
may be compared in every way to good Sevres china. Crown Derby is
lighter in weight than any other ceramic,
and although very thin, it is strong. After
about 1811 the product of the factory
deteriorated rapidly and the works were
closed in 1848. The present Royal Crown
Derby Porcelain Company was formed
about 1875. It is not lineal descendant of
the earlier company although the products
of this company are very decorative, but
little attempt is made to copy the old models. Beauty of form, purity of
body, excellence of gilding and delicacy of painting distinguish the work
of the present company.
5. Lowestoft- founded by Robert Browne, it produced soft-paste porcelain

similar to
Chelsea Ware and Bow Ware. It is one of the most
famous names in English porcelain history. It is
usually inscribed with the words “A trifle from
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Lowestoft”. Most of the production was imitation porcelain and the
decoration was copied from Chinese originals.
Lowestoft is a small town on the southeast coast of England. Here, in 1757

a factory for making porcelain was established by Robert Browne, which
continued in operation for nearly 50 years. The factory was small; the
number of workmen at no time exceeded seventy.
The actual Lowestoft productions were chiefly tableware and small

objects, sometimes called trifles. It was, at first, decorated mostly after
Chinese patterns with blue and white under the glaze, which was a blush-
green tinge. After 1770 the painting was usually over the glaze. Although
the ware resembles old Bow and Worcester, it is inferior in quality to those
early porcelains.
All the marked and dated pieces, definitely known as Lowestoft, in

English collections are marked as part of the blue and white
ornamentation or with numerals, and there are no Lowestoft pieces
anywhere with makers’ mark and stamps. All are of soft-paste porcelain.
After the works were closed in 1803, Robert Allen bought undecorated
china from other factories and decorated it at Lowestoft in the Lowestoft
manner and continued that work for about thirty years. Because so-called
Lowestoft has been, is now, and probably will continue to be cherished by
collectors of porcelain.
6. Worcester-
The Worcester Tonquin manufacture was founded in 1751. Its history has
been comparatively uneventful, but, alone of all the English porcelain
ventures of the 18th century, Worcester has survived with a record of
continuous activity down to the present day. No china has had so much
written about it as old Worcester. The earliest china was made of “frit”
paste, which may be told by its density and by its greenish tint when seen
by transmitted light. These earlier productions, consisting largely of
tableware, were perhaps the most distinctive of all 18th century porcelains.
Their well-proportioned forms and careful finish are quickly recognized.
Eventually a certain number of ornate pieces were made, but the main
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emphasis of the factory was always placed on useful ware. Worcester
figures of the early period are very uncommon.
Imitations of Chinese porcelain

with blue decoration on white ground
were followed by the more brilliant
colours and designs of the Japanese and
Meissen motives. Among the most
characteristic of all Worcester inventions
were the so-called japan patterns, which
continued to be made from the earlier
days until well into the 19th century. The
best period of old Worcester china and the china richest in decoration
was that made from about 1760 to 1783, the so called Dr. Wall period,
and this porcelain commands very high prices today. The salmon-scale
blue ground was one of the characteristics of that period, and the gilding
was of superlative quality.
Transfer-printing was introduced at Worcester at about 1775, and

their early printed china is the best of its class ever made in England.
Printing was done in lilac and red, as well as in the usual brown or black or
in under-glaze blue. Later, the printing was done by the “bat” process.
Transfer Printed Pottery- discovered by John Sadler in 1754, a

method of transferring to paper from an engraved copper plate coated
with pigment, and from the paper to the pottery, which was then fired
over glaze producing crude and impermanent lines. The same method
was used by Robert Hancock.
The Dr. Wall period extended until 1783, at which time the company
was taken over by Thomas Flight, the company’s London agent, and the
Flight name was connected with it until 1840 when the original company
and Chamberlain and Company, another Worcester factory started in
1786, were combined. In 1862 the present Royal Worcester Porcelain
Company came into existence. The prefix “Royal” was adopted by
permission of the King in the Flight period. In Royal Worcester, gilding is the
most important feature of the decoration, by means of which great
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delicacy is produced upon the creamy white lustreless surface for which
the Worcester ware is noted. During its long period of existence Worcester
porcelain has maintained a front rank for the superb beauty of forms,
colours and decorations and for the immense variety of its designs.
7. Staffordshire-
This is a generic term applying to the products of many potteries in

Stroke-on Trent, Hanley, Cobridge, Etruria, Burslem, Fenton, Tunstall,
Longport, Shelton, Lane End and some other lesser known places, where
for centuries potteries and potter have flourished. What is known as the
pottery district was then about ten miles long and from three to five miles
wide. Some of the better known names of the Staffordshire potters include
Ralph Wood, father and son, Enoch Wood, Aaron Wood, Josiah
Wedgwood, Thomas Whieldon, Josiah Spode, John Turner, R. Wilson,
William Adams and Job Ridgway.
There were potteries there dating from the 17th century, although
the prominence of Staffordshire was identified more particularly with the
next century. The isolated position of the Staffordshire potter kept him
comparatively free from outside influences and enabled him to develop
his stronger, in somewhat ruder, personality. Among the wares produced
their owing nothing to foreign sources are slip wares, agate, tortoise-shell,
black basalt and jasper ware. No other group of potters in the world at
any period has produced such a variety of wares.
From the days of Elers, 1690-1710, to the days of Wedgwood in 1760,

Staffordshire pottery was in a transitional stage. Salt-glaze stoneware was
made there until it was superseded by the cream ware of Wedgwood.
Under-glaze blue transfer-printing was introduced by John Turner, and
Josiah Spode produced the new “willow pattern” in 1784, and from that
time onward Staffordshire production was enormous. Much of it was
designed for the American market.
Staffordshire pottery can usually be identified from the design on

the border, as nearly as all of the potters there made use of exclusive
border patterns. Of course, exception to every rule occur at times, but the
theory is generally reliable. Border design are composed of graceful
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combination of seashells and mosses, roses and scrolls, acorns and oak
leaves, grapes and vines or fruit, birds and flowers.
Beginning with the 19th century Staffordshire products were devoted

largely to blue transfer-printed wares. At first the willow pattern was used
extensively. About 1820, someone conceive the idea of using views of
actual places instead of imaginary landscape with oriental themes. Views
of English cities, scenes in France and Italy, and a series of American
subjects became very popular both here and abroad, and resulted in a
great prosperity for the potters. At first of deep blue, later light colours in
pink, green, lavender and the colours were included.
Transfer-printing was succeeded by the lithographic method, a

cheaper process, and the collector’s interest in Staffordshire usually stops
at the point. Staffordshire potters were noted particularly for figures, Toby
jugs and groups. The modelling on such work from 1740 to 1780 is superior
to that produced later. During that time, also, the figures were coloured
by the use of pigments under the glaze. Later enamel colours were used
on the surface of the glaze, with lurid effect, and much of the beauty of
the old school vanished. Porcelain was also made in the Staffordshire
district, but to a much lesser extent than earthenware. The potteries here
continued to provide a greater amount of both earthenware and
porcelain now produced in England.
a. Wedgwood Ware- from the name of its creator, Josiah Wedgwood is

said to be the first men to unite art and industry. He was for a time the
partner of Thomas Whieldon. Wedgwood, a man of extraordinary
energy and taste, in1759 started the business at Burslem, Staffordshire,
which was eventually to become one of the most famous potteries in
the world. At first he made the usual run of pottery products, but in
1762, he produced a cream ware which not only improve upon the
earlier product but was to supplant salt-glaze ware and was to be
copied by other pottered, as well. Black basalt ware, of which
Wedgwood is said to have been the inventor, was first produce in 1766
but the finest work is this ware was not done until much later.
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In 1769 he established his works and build a village at Etruria. About
1775 he perfected hi well-known jasper ware, and at about the same
time he engaged the services of Flaxman, the famous sculptor, and his
work give a distinctive character to the Wedgwood work of the period.
The most important piece of this ware was the reproduction in 1790 of
the celebrated Portland Vase.
Old Wedgwood is considered to be the finest pottery that England

had ever produced in workmanship, design, material and colour. Most
of the Wedgwood’s product were purely ornamental and all were
executed in a classical manner popularized by Robert and James
Adam. No earthenware, native or foreign, combined so many
technical perfections. The basalt and the jasper ware are the best
known and most sought after by the collectors. With one unimportant
exception, a white biscuit and smooth wax-like surface, Wedgwood
made no porcelain, and only a few pieces of this are now in existence.
In 1878, the manufacture of porcelain was revived, and has continued
since. Josiah Wedgwood died in 1795, but the works have since been
carried on by members of the family, some of the old moulds still being
in use. The firm continues to produce jasper, basalt, red, cream-
coloured, and all the other wares for which the factory is famous.
Materials of Decoration
1. Jasperware – This fine, hard unglazed white

bisque made by Wedgwood and other
potters was perfected about 1775. It was
made in various surface colors and was
introduced about 1777, known as dip jasper
and in blue, colored clear through, called
solid jasper, and white bass relief was used in
combination with the different colors. Jasper
was used for making vases,

medallions, plaques and many other
articles. The points which mark
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excellence in the eyes of the collector are the smoothness and the color
of the background, the sharpness and the translucency of the ornament,
and the undercutting in which certain parts are relieved by cutting while
the clay is soft.
2. Queen’s Ware – Original cream colored earthenware named for Queen
Charlotte, wife of George III, who appointed him queen’s potter in 1762.
About 1760, Wedgwood improved the then recently new cream ware,
and he presented to Queen Charlotte of England a decorated breakfast
service of his new product. She was much pleased with the ware and
ordered complete table services of it and Wedgwood, in her honor, gave
it the name of “Queen’s Ware.”
Cream Ware – The term applies to all light-colored English

earthenware from about 1750 to the present time, although since
the beginning of the 19th century the body itself has been white,
due to the invention of so-called ironstone china. Cream ware was perfected
by Wedgwood by the use of the Cornwall clay and adopted as the standard
earthenware of Staffordshire, until the perfection of the white body about fifteen
years later.
3. Basalt Ware – Solid black stoneware of great hardness,

unglazed, which takes its name from a black Egyptian
rock. It was one of the earliest English potters’ art,
although Wedgwood’s basalt is regarded as superior
to others. He made his from a native clay, ground
ironstone, ocher and oxide of manganese. Black basalt
has not been reproduced to any extent by modern
potters and when a piece of this ware is found it is quite likely to be an
antique. Wedgwood made a number of fine busts in this ware.
4. Agate Ware – Earthenware either made on solid

or in surface decoration to resemble the veining
of agate or other natural stones. If solid, it is
produced by layers of different colored clays
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twisted together then cut transversely with wire. Pieces of small size only
were made of these mixed bodies. The surface ware is splashed and
grained on an ordinary cream body. The former method was never made
to do the same extent as marbling on the surface.
b. Wheildon Ware – A term derived from the tortoise shell ware made by
Thomas Wheildon, and applied to all classes of ware of a mottled, cloudy
or splashed character, thereby attaining the name Cloud ware.
Wheildon’s tortoise shell ware was soft, light in weight, with an excellent
glaze and it was extremely rich in effect. Wheildon also made a solid
agate ware which was more artistic than had before been attempted
and his tortoise shell wares have always been looked upon as
masterpieces of all time. All Weildon wares are comparatively rare and
command high prices. He was one of England’s greatest potters.
Wedgwood was a partner 1754-1759,
Aaron wood was a modeler, and Spode and several other potters who
become noted, were apprentices of Wheildon, which doubtless helped to
qualify them for their own future success.
c. Spode Ware – in 1770, Josiah Spode estabvlished a factory at a

Stroke-on-Trent. The factory produced under-glazed blue printed
cream ware of excellent quality, stone china, black and jasper
ware. The stone china was of exceptional quality. It was semi
porcelain anhd frequently translucent. It became very popular on
account of its comparative cheapness and its beautiful decoration.
Transfer-printing in blue and other colors was one of the

foundations of their prosperity. About 1800, the factory began to
make porcelain, and it is with that ware that their product was best
known. The body of the porcelain is soft and white with a fine glaze
and much of it is decorated in the Oriental manner. As a rule the
decoration is less pleasing than on porcelain of his contemporaries,
although an enumeration would include nearly every type of
decoration used on china at that time. Josiah Spode Jr., invented a
superior kind of “bone china,” which combines the best qualities of
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both soft-paste and hard-pasteporcelain, and his formula later
became the English standard and remains unaltered to the present
time. The porcelain, stone china and the ordinary earthenware, in
their body, glazed and decoration rank with the best of the period.
d. Toft Ware – Slip decorated pottery made by Ralph and Thomas

Toft in Staffordshire in the latter half of the 17th century. The material
of this ware was usually coarse and reddish clay and the
decorating is done in a rather crude manner. The glaze was
applied before the ware was fired, but after the slip was placed on
it, and this gave to the piece of rich yellow tone. This ware marks
the distinct advancement in history of English potting, and has the
given general name of Toft ware to all slip decorated pottery since.
Much of it is in imitation of real “Toft ware.” Thomas Toft was one of
the really great English potters.
7.5.10 American Ceramics
American ceramics was centered on three main sites.
1.) Sgraffito ware was produced in Pennsylvannia by Germans during the middle
of 18th century. It consisted of a slip with crude scratchings.
2.) John Norton, in Bennington, Vermont, produced utilitarian terra-cotta objects

and salt glazed stoneware.
3.) But it was only in New Jersey that the first true porcelain was made in the U.S.
early in the 19th century.
7.5.11 Chinese Ceramics
Chines art today represents a living tradition with more than 3,000 years of
history behind it. As early as the 3rd millennium BC, the Chinese were a settled
agrarian society exhibiting certain cultural characteristics. These traits which
later exerted a deep influence on their art included an awareness of forces of
nature and the cycle of seasons, ancestor worship, the veneration of jade and
the other hardstones, and use of certain items for ritual and funerary purposes.
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1.) The Neolithic Period (5000-2200 B.C.) – In Neolithic China, pottery was
made by coil building and then beating the shapes with the paddle;
toward the end of the period(2nd millennium BC) vessels were begun
using the handbuilt technique, then finished on a wheel. Pottery
recovered over great excavations all over China that belong to this
period included the beautifully painted YANGSHAO, named after
Yangshao village in northwest Hunan province, and the
blackpotterywas used that varied between the colors gray, black red
and white. Chinese Neolithic vessels include a wide variety of shapes-
tripods, ewers, urns, cups, amphorae, and deep goblets.
a. Yangshao wares exhibit a variety of shapes,

sizes and designs, and age. Mostly handmade,
though there is evidence of the potter’s wheel
coming into use as some pottery walls are uniform
thickness. The pottery was fired at 1000-1500 Celsius.
The patterns, mostly geometric some symmetrical,
others contrasting light and dark harmonize with the
shapes of the vessels and indicate that the Chinese
potter had by this time developed the art of painting
on designs with his brush
b. Lung Shan pottery, named after lung Shan in Shantung province, it is lacquer
black shard at times eggshell thinness. It is undecorated
and almost metallic in form. Wares unearthed from
tombs in Shantung province are wheel made, well-
proportioned with walls that are thin and glossy and
marks a high level of craftsmanship.
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c. The third type of pottery is from Central and South China and decorated with
stringed designs. These three types and a utilitarian ubiquitous grey pottery
added the repertory of forms developed during Bronze Age.
2. Shang Period (1570?- 1045? B.C.) – The Neolithic prototypes became the
basis for bronze vessels during this period, and Shang ceramic molds for bronze
casting , made of high-quality clay have been found. Pottery had four basic
types , most of them found at the capital at Anyang, in the present day Henan
(Honan) Province . The first continued the Neolithic functional tradition in coarse
gray clay, decorated with impressed cords or incised geometric patterns , the
second consisted of dark gray imitations of bronze vessels; the third , white
pottery with finely carved decoration resembling bronze designs; the last ,
glazed stoneware.
3. Period of Warring States – this period includes the latter part of the Chou
dynasty and the Han dynasty.
a. Chou Dynasty/Zhou Dynasty (1122 – 255 B.C.) – produced utilitarian pottery

– funerary urns, cooking vessels and libation jars. The body of Chou vessels was
made of hard grey clay which had no glaze on its surface. The pieces were
usually moulded by hand, but specimens are known which exhibit signs of the
use the potter’s wheel.
The ornamentation, such as it is, consist of hatching,

and sometimes cross-hatching which produces the
effect of a mass tiny diamond shaped excrescences;
a lozenge-shaped pattern may also be found. There
is an interesting hexagonal vase in Victoria and
Albert Museum which is attributed
To the Chou dynasty. On the sides are to be seen figures of animals and of men
executed in relief in a very primitive fashion. The paste is a dark cinder-colour.
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Except for the white pottery, all Shang types continued in the Zhou period.
Coarse red earthenware with lead glazes was introduced in the Warring States
era (403-221 B.C.);this ware also resembled bronzes. In
the south, stoneware with a pale brown glaze was
fashioned into sophisticated shapes.
The discovery in 1974 of the terracotta army of Shi

huangdi (Shih-Huang-Ti), the first emperor of the Qin
(Ch’in) dynasty (221-206 B.C.) – an imperial legion of
more than 6000 life size soldiers, including chariots,
archers and horses buried in military formation –added
new dimensions to modern knowledge of the art of the
ancient Chinese potters. These handsome idealized
portraits, each with different details of dress, as well as different vivid expressions
were modelled from coarse grey clay, with the heads and
hands fired separately at high earthenware temperatures
and attached later. Afterward, the assembled fired figures
were painted with bright mineral pigments (a procedure
called cold decoration), most of which have now flaked.
The workmanship demonstrate the level of pottery making
and colored sculpture making, winning the terracotta
army the reputation of being the “the eighth wonder of the
world”
b. Han Dynasty (202 B.C. – 220 A A.D.) In the middle of this period, there
appeared glazed pottery fired at low degree. Ceramics of this period include
earthenware mortuary vessels and glazed wares. There are heavy jars and
incense burners shaped like hills. The jars and censers, together with figures of
servants and guardians, animals and houses were for burials use and were
covered with a brown ordragons, fish, lotuses, and peonies. These were scholarly
subjects of the court painters and each represented a virtue. Kilns were
established throughout China, each kiln site having its own style.
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In the south of the country, hard pottery which required a high degree of
fire and solid base came into fashion. It was very common during this period in
applying colored paint to ready-made pottery wares and these appeared
mostly on the cover, neck, shoulder and belly of pottery wares and figures. The
most popular patterns are dragons, tigers, zhucui (a legendary bird guarding the
west), and clouds.
The Eastern Han was an important period in the development of pottery.

Blue porcelain first appeared as early as in the Shang Dynasty, but reached its
maturity in the Eastern Han. The blue porcelain had a fine and solid base,
embellished with an even and shiny color. It laid a solid foundation for
porcelain making in years to come. A significant archaeological history was
made when porcelain dating back to the Eastern Han Dynasty was brought to
light history years ago in Xiaoxiantan in Shangyu County, Zhejiang Province. This
is the earliest porcelain-producing site ever discovered in China, and in the
world as a whole.
During this period, porcelain making in the South made a great headway,
as proved by new characteristics in the shape, decoration and industrial art of
porcelain making. On the basis of blue porcelain, blue glaze porcelain with a
high sheen like lacquer ware appeared. The said pot was cleverly designed with
the spout shaped as a rooster’s head and the handle as a rooster’s tail. In
addition to its unusual shape, it was convenient to shape. Among the burial
objects unearthed from the tombs of the Wei-Jin period (220-420), many are
blue porcelain art objects with a smooth and lustrous finish.
What makes blue porcelain special is the use of iron in the pigment, which after
being fired, gives a luster of bluish green or yellow, hence the name blue
porcelain. Most of the blue porcelain wares are covered with exquisite patterns
finished with such techniques as carving, sculpting and molding, symbolizing an
important step forward in porcelain making.
During the Six Dynasties Period (AD 220-589), celadon-glazed stoneware, a

precursor of later porcelain celadon, began to appear in Southern China. Yueh
(or green) ware, it is fine hard stoneware coated thinly with Clive-brown glaze. It
belongs to the family of celadon and although developed in this period, most of
its surviving specimens are found in later times. They were less influenced than
earlier pottery by the shapes of cast bronzes. Jars and dishes became more
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delicate of line and classical in contour, and some had simple incised or molded
ornamentation.
4. T’ang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.) – Following the Han dynasty was the T’ang
dynasty, which was marked by great power and prosperity. It marked an
important stage in the development of Chinese ceramics. Most surviving pieces
have been gathered from tombs, since many pottery pieces from the Tang
dynasty were used as tomb figures and furnishings
for prominent members of Tang society.
The full and vigorous shapes, including some

Western forms, attained a new splendor with the
invention of colored glazes. Mainly green, yellow,
blue and golden brown, these glazes were either
monochromes or splashed and dappled. There was
also the introduction of several
new techniques, including the use of the “sancai”

which were three-colored glazes with a lead-silicate
base. The colors were basic variations of brown, greens and blues: blues were
produced by adding cobalt oxide to a transparent glaze, greens by adding
copper oxide and browns by adding iron oxide. The brown glazes had the
widest color range, ranging from light yellow to orange and deep brown.
Two important ceramic types characterized this period. One was a fine
white earthenware covered with a lead glaze of glowing yellow and green tints,
often in mottled patterns. The other, the most significant innovation of Tang
potters, was porcelain- made into thin, delicate bowls and vases with clear
glazes.
5. Sung/Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.) – is said the Golden Age of Chinese

culture. Porcelain was further refined in this dynasty, the age in which all art
flourished, and the greatest era of Chinese pottery. Potters became adept at
controlling glazes, a trend that began in the Tang period. Vessels were
elegantly shaped. Decoration –molded, carved or painted-included
In the Northern Song, three outstanding styles emerged: Ting, Ju and

Chun. While in the southern Song, the Lung-Chuan was the type. The ceramic
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wares of the Sung dynasty are today, those that are mostly highly prized but in
the East and Western cultures, Sung pottery emphasized form and employed
colored glazes of great and beauty and variety.
a. Celadon – a green-glazed stoneware of high quality.
was also a classic ware of both northern and southern
kilns. A famous type of ancient Chinese stoneware, it
came into being during the period of the Six Dynasties
(907-960). It is characterized by simple but refined
shapes, jade-like glaze, solid substance and a distinc-
tive style. As the celadon ware produced in Longquan Country, Zhejiang
Province, is most valued, so it is also
Generally called longquanqingci. Its Chinese name, qingci, means

“greenish porcelain.” Later, in the 12th century, Northern Song celadon’s
reached their height, with a gray stoneware body covered in transparent olive
or light brown. In the north, where the color tends to be grayish-green celadons
are most frequently found in the shape of vases or incense burners. The Lung-
chu’anceladons of the Southern Song--- white porcelain with light bluish-green
jade like crackled glazes--- were of even higher quality. The shapes were varied,
some inspired by ancient bronzes, some by Middle Eastern metalwork and glass.
Many were exported.
b. Tzu’ Chou- characteristic under glaze black decoration occurs on white or

glazed porcelain on the highest quality. It is a popular stoneware used by all
social classes, combining transparent glazes with bold slip painting, graffito,
carving, incising, impressing, and molding, as well as polychrome over glaze

enameling, all in a great variety of motifs.
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c. JU YAO (or JU) has a buff stoneware body and is covered with a celadon-like
bluish-gray glaze with a fine crackle.
d. Chi-Chou white porcelain with a slightly bluish or greenish glaze (similar to the
white Ch’ing-pai made later in), exported to Indonesia, Southeast Asia, and the
Philippines.
e. KUAN (“official”) is another type which is rare. Its body is stoneware washed
with brown slip and the glazed varies from pale green to lavender blue with a
wide-meshed crackle.
f. K0 YAO closely related to KUAN ware has a dark stoneware body and grayish-
white glaze with well marked crackle which was induced for decorative effect.
g. TING wares are white and coarser ones are dour-colored. This is the most
popular Sung ware with a transparent green glaze. They were usually with
various motifs that included dragons, fish, lotuses and peonies then covered with
a smooth ivory glaze. The most common of these celadons are large dishes, and
were admired by courtly patrons but also used as everyday pottery. They were
in demand abroad partly because of the superstition that a celadon dish would
break or change color if poisoned food were put into it.
h. CHUN ware, most popular in the West is a grayish-white stone ware covered
with a thick glaze that ranged from blue to lavender and suffused with a
crimson purple. Conical bowls as well as dishes are numerous. But finer
specimens are usually flowerpots used in the imperial court.
i. CHIEN YAO (Jian) is a dark ware with a very dark brown, almost black glaze.
The tea bowl is the most common specimen. This ware was a later adopted
from Japan for TEMMOKU, the Japanese term for tea bowls. The decoration of
Jian ware was done by placing a leaf or paper-cut decoration on the interior
before firing. In the kiln, the material disintegrated, leaving a dark imprint. When
filled with tea, the motifs on the bottom become more noticeable. Tea bowls of
the Jian type were prized by the Japanese monks who studied in the Chinese
Zen monasteries.
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6. Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 A.D.) – Many of the Sung wares were continued with
Yuan dynasty. A white war called SHU FU made its appearance here, although
they developed the technique for the blue and white wares. Under-glaze, a
new porcelain making art, appeared during this Dynasty, and it was a major
invention of the kiln at Jingdezhen. Potters in the era also adjusted Dynasty to
produce for an expanding export market. The size of vessels increased and
potters experimented with bright enamel over-glaze colors. Ch’ing-pai and
Lung-ch’uan wares became heavier. White porcelain vases with blue under-
glaze painting were produced.
A purely Chinese pictorial and formal design later evolved in this period, and
they were basically characterized by the following;
a. The blue and white was painted with power blue under transparent glaze. So
the color was perfectly protected under hard glaze, enabling long-term use and
reserve. Among those kilns, Jingdezhen kiln made breakthrough in techniques. It
remolded materials prescription and improved firing temperature, hence
facilitated producing large wares.
b. The blue and white wares and red-under-glaze ware were successfully
produced and rapidly matured, to mark that combination of Chinese painting
and porcelain production reached maturity and color-under-glaze porcelain

wares developed to a record high.
c. Produced colorant glaze. Before the Yuan dynasty, people had few color
choice.
7. Ming Dynasty (1368-1643 A.D.) – It was only during

the period of the Ming dynasty that the blue-and-
white ware of the Yuan Dynasty became a major
export item. Ceramic art took on a new lease on life
under Ming dynasty. The staple product was fine white
porcelain which made “China” a household term over
the world. Under its clear glaze the porcelain body was
painted with designs of great vigor and freedom of line
in cobalt oxide (imported from Iran until a local source
was substituted). Painting on pottery and porcelain
became richly colorful, and during this period, deco-
rative brush painting directly on the baked clay
reached its zenith in China. For a long period,
Chinese Ceramic artists had used only black or brown pigment to decorate the
wares that were then covered with clear glaze. These pieces became the
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favorites of 16th-century Europe, although Ming potters also made polychrome
stoneware and monochromatic and white wares. New in the Ming era was the
delicate Tou-ts’ai ware, a glassy porcelain with overglaze enamel painting. Over
glaze technique, which envolved over two centuries, demanded correct
preparation of the enamels, skill in application, and the proper (low) firing
temperature. The over glaze enamel decorations executed during the reign of
Chengchua (1465-87), which were never surpassed in China, incorporated
flowers, foliage, and figure subjects against backgrounds of arabesques, Arabic
inscriptions and scrollwork. Design enclosed within dark blue outlines were filled
in with brilliant color. The court provided potters with a wide variety of new
designs: scrolls, fruit, flowers, and scenes with people. Pottery was marked with
dates of the emperors’ reigns; the marks of successful pieces were imitated in
later times. The most common blue and white Ming wares found in the West had
a body that is thin, hard, crisp and resonant. The palette of under-glaze blue,
together with green, yellow, and eggplant purple and iron red was known as
“WAN LI” five-color ware.
In the Ming dynasty, blue and white porcelain wares became the main
stream of porcelain production. Blue and white were stepped into its golden era
during
the Yongle, Xuande and Chengchua reigns. Delicate and thick glaze, various
patterns and patterns and affluent models are basic features of the Yongle and
Xuande porcelain wares. Chengchua wares were delicate and lighted colored,
with Chinese ink wash painting flavor. In the late Ming dynasty, blue and white
porcelain met another surge during the reigns of Jiajing, Longqing and Wanli.
There was also evidence of a different type of Porcelain produced during this
era. It was known as the Blanc de Chine which originated in the province of
Fukien. It had soft, creamy, white glazes on a white porcelain body, was
delicate, in scale and modeling. Vases are relief molded with dragons at the
neck and charming animals and figures.
Export to Europe reached its height in the late 17th century, when artistic
standards were still high. A new enamel style, introduced from Europe and
called famille rose, had its principal derived from colloidal gold. The famille rose
colors could be mixed for shading and allowed miniature precision in drawing.
8. Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) – A vast number of

fine porcelain vessels were produced in this dynasty
for both domestic and foreign markets, with potters
concentrating on the refinement of glazes. Popular
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polychrome enamel styles were familleverte (green,
yellow, andaubergine purple) and its derivatives, famille noir (black ground) and
famillejaune (yellow ground). Monochromatic copper red glazes popular in
Ming-both oxblood (sang de boeuf) and the paler peach bloom-were revived,
as were Song celadon’s. Also, new glazes effects such as tea dust and Claire de
Lune were introduced.
Blue and white made a great leap forward to

radiate its worldwide influence. Among the Qing
porcelain wares, those produced in the reigns of
Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong are the most famous.
Due to the disturbances caused by changing dynasties
and government that brought the collapse of the
official kilns, that led to the establishment of private kilns
which produced high quality porcelain ware.
In the 18th century, European collecting of Chinese porcelain was at its peak. By
the end of the century, however, the endless repetitions of old motifs and forms
led to sterility and Chinese could no longer compete with European mass-
produced porcelain.
a. Peach bloom is a glaze of pinkish red mottled with russet stops and tinged
with green. It has a pure white body and is seen mostly on small items for a
scholar’s desk.
b. Tea-dust is a greenish opaque glaze.
c. Claire de Lune is a cobalt glaze of palest blue.
7.5.12. JAPANESE CERAMICS
1. PREHISTORIC CERAMICS
The earliest Japanese ceramics date back to the

prehistoric Jomon (“cord marked”) period which extended
roughly from 10,500 to 300 BC. These early pieces were
usually large, cone shaped cooking pots. They have
pointed bodies and the outer surface of the pots are
usually stamped or rolled with rope or cord patterns. These
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early pieces were formed by the coil method in each
other. This created a thick, slightly irregular and highly
built-up appearance. Firing took place in open pits or
ditches and since the heat rarely exceeded 700
degrees, the pots are low-fired ceramics or
earthenware that is generally largely water-soluble.
Pots of the Middle Jomon period (2500 to 1500 BC) are

distinguished for their decorations which include ovals,
circles, spirals and other shapes that resemble human
or animal faces. Pots of thee period are highly unique
and very ornamented. The Middle Jomon and the
succeeding later Jomon period, which lasted until 300
BC saw the
introduction of large numbers of small figurines, which are both animistic as well
as artistic in their execution.
The Yayoi Period (300 BC – 300 AD) succeeded the Jomon Period. The Yayoi
culture was probably brought to Japan by tribes that that migrated from the
Korean peninsula. This period saw the development of the use of bronze and
was highly developed to the production of ceramics. Ceramics may at first
seem plain compared to Jomon ceramics forms butbut Yayoi ceramics used
finer alluvial clays to produce thinner-walled delicate shapes that can be very
pleasing. Most Yayoi vessels were unadorned but rendered in graceful shapes
and balance of form with firing marks in natural colors of black and red.
From the later Kofun, or Tumulus (Grave Mound), period (about AD 300 to 552),
pottery was found in the enormous tombs of the
Japanese emperors. Called Haji ware, it resembled
Yayoi pottery. More truly unique were the haniwa.
Delightful unglazed reddish earthen figures that
surrounded the tombs-houses, boats, animals,
women, hunters, musicians, and warriors. Although
the haniwa lack the granduer of the Qin emperor's
army, they compensate for it with their rustic
vitality. Sue was another pottery of this period, gray
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stoneware fired in a climbing kiln and decorated with a natural ash glaze
(formed during the firing as ash from the
wood fuel fell on the pots). Originating in
Korea, the natural ash glaze became
characteristic of later Japanese wares made
at Tamba, Tokoname, Bizen and Shigaraki.
Jars, bottles, dishes, and cups were made,
some with sculpted figures. Sue were
continued to be made in the Asuka period
(552-710), when Chinese cultural and religious
influences were just beginning.
2. MEDIEVAL STONEWARE
The important of Chinese and Korean culture during the sixth and seventh
centuries greatly changed Japan. This brought
Buddhism, a writing system, and new forms of
government, as well as medicine and more
complex art forms to Japan. Japanese and
Korean ceramics techniques were assimilated
into Japan but were changed and adapted to
meet local tastes. More technically advanced
forms of pottery, including Chinese three-color
lead glazes on earthenware; Korean higher
temperature firing techniques and a greater
range of shapes all came to be part of
Japanese ceramic work.
With the Nara period (710-784), Japan's first

historical epoch, the full impact of Tang China
ware became obvious in Japan's production
of high-fire pottery. Some glazes were monochromatic green and white; a few
had three of these colors on rough grayish bodies. The glaze patterns were
streaks and spots, not quite as refined as Tang ceramics. Most examples of this
work are preserved at the Shosoin imperial treasury at Nara.
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In the early Heian period (794-894), natural ash glazes were further developed,
and celadons were introduced to Japan. Then, because of disruptions in
relations with China in the late Heian, or Fujiwara, period (894-1186), the quality
of the pottery declined, although the Tokoname, a rustic type of pottery for
everyday use, and named after the town where it was, was still made in this
period.
In the Kamakura period (1185-1333), when contact with Song China was
renewed, the ceramics industry flourished, this time centered at Seto, near
Nogaya. Ki-seto, yellow Seto–still made today— was influenced by the popular
Song celadons; the Japanese equivalents, however, were fired in oxidizing kilns,
which gave their glazes yellow and amber hues. The Kamakura Period marked
the start of the supplanting of court rule by warrior dominance, and decorative
forms of ceramics gave way to more simple and austere pieces. This change
was partly a reflection of the warrior taste but also a reflection of the influence
of Zen Buddhism.
Although the Ashikaga shoguns of the Muromachi period (1338-1573) did not
encourage ceramic arts the Chinese- influenced tradition of the tea ceremony,
which began at that time, stimulated the manufacture of the beautiful vessels
used in this elaborate ritual. Tea jars, bowls,
caddies, water jars and sometimes vessels
for small portion s of food were required for
"cha no yu". Although this is translated as
"the tea ceremony" in the west, a precise
Japanese definition would only be "hot
water for tea". The savoring of tea, which
was greatly influenced by Zen, was well
suited to the more muted beauty of
unglazed ceramics. The best of these
ceramics continued to be produced in
Shigaraki.
The ceramics of the medieval

Kamakura and Muromachi periods are
characterized by a duality of strenght of
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form and the use of natural-ash glazes that make each piece unique. Because
of the widespread use of lacquer bowls by the upper classes and wooden bowls
or plates by the common people, the finest medieval ceramics tend to be
storage pots and jars. A particularly famous kiln area of this period is the
Shigaraki kilns, located not far from Kyoto.
T he most characteristic ceramic shape of this period is is the "tsubo"whichis

a narrow mouthed jar for storage of seed. Many more partial to the earlied
"tsubo" jars, which tend tobe more irregular and less symmetrical than later
pieces. It has been written extensively that the ‘tsubo’ in its simplicity still yields a
beauty that is remarkable.
The tea cult spread to the military and

merchant classes in the Momoyama period
(1573-1603). Its stoneware and porcelain
implements
reflected the tasteful, subtle beauty and

elegance of the ceremony. Each shape had a
specific function and name.
One sought-after variety of stoneware tea bowl, related to the Chien

ware of China, was temmoku, with a thick purplish-brown glaze that is still
popular. Seto kilns produced such fine pottery that the works of other kilns also
came to be called Seto ware. Even more famous were the Raku wares,
considered by some to be the height of Japanese ceramic art and are still
made today by the 14th generation of the same family. Raku ware,
tea0ceremony vessels, other pottery, and tiles, is shaped by hand; its irregular
forms follow a prescribed aesthetic of asymmetry. The glaze is brushed on in
several thin layers and the pot is pulled from the kiln with tongs; it cools quickly
and the glaze crackles under the thermal shock. Raku ware is admired by
potters throughout the world for its rugged shapes and soft, somber lead glazes
that sometimes drip downward in globs. Also prized for the tea ceremony was
Oribe ware, typified by brown iron-oxide painted designs derived from motifs of
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textile decoration, juxtaposed with an irregular splash of runny transparent green
glaze.
Another Momoyama ware was Karatsu, influenced by Korean Choson (Joseon)

ware. In e-Karatsu, or picture Karatsu, freehand geometric patterns, grasses, and
wisteria were painted in iron oxide on a whitish slip. Karatsu ware had several
other styles with different kinds of decoration. Bizen ware was at its best in the
Momoyama period. Still made, it is a hard stoneware, basically brick red, but
subject to irregular changes of color resulting from alternating oxidation and
reduction in the firing, It is unglazed except for
glaze formed by falling ash or by ash or straw packed around the pots in the kiln.
3. DECORATED STONEWARE AND PORCELAIN

The Momoyama period ended with the ascension of the Tokugawa family
Shoguns and the new centralization of
power in Edo (now Tokyo) in 1603.
During this period, Japan cut itself off
from the outside world and
governmental control was often heavy
and oppressive. Despite this the arts
flourished. Many forms of ceramics
were produced, ranging from muted
tea wares to colorful porcelains.
A master of this period was Ogata

Kenzan (1663-1743). He made a great range of pieces in many different shapes
and styles. His designs include over-glaze enamels and under-glaze paintings in
iron washes. Ultimately Kenzan ware became
so famous that the name is now used to
denote a certain kind of high-quality
decorative pottery that may or may not have
been made by the master.
At the beginning of this period, kaolin was

discovered near Arita, in northern Kyushu,
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which is still a major pottery center. This discovery enabled Japanese potters to
make their own hard, pure white porcelain. Imari ware was one type of
porcelain. Named for its port of export. Imari ware was so popular in 17th-century
Europe that even the Chinese imitated it. Its bright-colored designs were inspired
by ornate lacquerwork, screens, and textiles. By the late Edo period (1800-
1867)Imari ware declined. Kakiemon (persimmon) porcelain, mmade in Arita,
was a far more refined, classically shaped ware, even when its motifs were
similar to Imari ware. Both wares used over-glaze enamels Nabeshima ware, also
of high quality and similar to silk textiles in its designs was reserved for members
of that textiles in its designs, was reserved for members of that family and their
friendsl only in the Meiji era (1868-1912) was it sold commercially and imitated.
The designs were first drawn on thin tissue, and then in under-glaze blue lines; the
enamel colors were added and heat-fused after the glaze firing.
In eastern Japan in the Edo period, Kutani was the porcelain center.
Known as Ko-Kutani (Old Kutani) these vessels were grayish in color because of
impurities in the clay. Created in the seventeenth-century, these ware is known
for its bold and imaginative designs, which frequently utilize a special range of
colors in over-glaze enamels. The most admired of these wares are large plates,
which are fully decorated. Kyoto, formerly a center for enameled pottery,
became famous for its porcelain in the 19th century. In the Edo period, some
10,000 kilns were active in Japan.
Contemporary taste esteems the utilitarian works of folk potters as hightly

as the export items of earlier centuries. New influence from Europe became
evident, but native folk traditions were still appreciated within the country.
Potters at the old centers remain active in the 20th century, working in the same
styles as their ancestors, with the same local clays.
To this day, ceramics remains a vital and exciting form of Japanese art. In
contrast to most countries where potters have a difficult time earning a living,
Japan has tens of thousands of successful potters. Historical and regional
traditions of ceramic production continue to flourish and tea bowls and other
pieces for “cha no yu” continue to be made and used. Additionally, innovative
ceramic sculpture with western influence and ultra modern style also flourishes.
Japan continues to maintain a high degree of ceramic artistry, which is at the
same time very traditional and very modernistic.
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9.GLASSWARE
9.1 DEFINITION
Glass is a hard,brittle,chemically inert substance produced by fusing silica
together with a flux and stabilizer into a mass that cools to a rigid condition
without crystallization.It is used in building construction in various forms.
Glass has a variety of applications,each with very different performance
requirements.It is used for windows in interior partitions,anddoors,as decorative
wall tiles,and as tabletops.Although glass has been made for thousands of
years,developments in production processes in this century have made it truly
modern material.
9.2 COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

Most glass is a mixture of silica obtained from beds of fine sand or from
pulverized sandstone; an alkali to lower the melting point,usually a form of soda
or,for finer glass,potash; lime as a stabilizer; and cullet (waste glass) to assist in
melting the mixture.
The properties of glass are varied by adding other substances,commonly
in the form of oxides, e.g., lead,for brilliance and weight; boron,for thermal and
electrical resistance; barium, to increase the refractive index,as in optical glass;
cerium,to absorb infrared rays; metallic oxides,to impart color; and manganese,
for decolorizing.The term “crystal glass,” derived from rock crystal,was at first
applied to clear,highly refractive glass; it has come to denote in the trade a
high-grade,colorless glass and is sometimes applied to any fine hand-blown
glass.
9.3 CLASSIFICATION OF GLASS
9.3.1. Soda-Lime Glass

This is the most common commercial glass.The chemical and physical
properties of soda-lime glass are the basis for its wide use.Soda-lime glass is
primarily used for bottles,jars,everyday drinking glasses,and window glass.The
most important property is its light transmission,which makes it suitable for use as
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flat glass in windows.Inaddition,itssmooth,nonporous surface allows glass bottles
and packaging glass to be easily cleaned.
Soda-lime glass containers are virtually inert,so they will not contaminate
the contents inside or affect the taste.Their resistance to chemical attack from
aqueous solutions is good enough to withstand repeated boiling (as in the case
of preserving jars) without any significant changes in the glass surface.
One of the major disadvantages of soda-lime glass is its relatively high
thermal expansion.Pure silica glass does not expand greatly when heated,but
the addition of soda has a dramatic effect in increasing the expansion
rate.Therefore,the resistance of soda lime glass to sudden temperature changes
is comparatively poor.
9.3.2. Lead Glass

When we use lead oxide instead of calcium oxide,and potassium oxide
instead of all or most of the sodium oxide,we get the types of
glass commonly known as lead crystal.Lead glass has a high
refractive index and relatively soft surface,making it especially
suited for decorating by grinding,cutting,andengraving.The
specific gravity of lead glass is higher than that of soda-lime
glass,and it is mostly used drinking
glasses,vases,bowls,ashtrays,or as decorative items.The lead is
locked into the crystal structure of the glass so there is no risk to
human health.
Glass of the same type,but containing less lead,is known
simply as crystal glass.Glass with even higher lead oxide
contents may be used as radiation shielding glass because of the well-known
ability of lead to absorb gamma rays and other forms of harmful radiation.
9.3.3. Borosilicate Glass

The third major group,borosilicateglass,is composed mainly of silica and
boric oxide with smaller amounts of the alkalis.Most of us are more familiar with
this type of glass in the form of ovenware and other heat-resisting ware,better
known under the trade name Pyrex.
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This type of glass shows a high resistance to chemical corrosion and
temperature change.For this reason,it is suitable for use in industrial chemical
process plants,inlaboratories,as ampoules and vials in the pharmaceutical
industry,as bulbs for high-power lamps,and as glass fibers for textile and plastic
reinforcement.Inaddition,borosilicate glass is also used in the home for cooking
dishes,and other heat-resistant goods can be made from it.
9.6.7. Obscure Glass – has one or both sides acid-etched or sandblasted to

obscure vision. Either process weakens the glass and makes it difficult to clean.
9.6.8. Spandrel Glass – an opaque glass for concealing the structure elements in
curtain wall construction, produced by fusing a ceramic frit to the interior
surface of tempered or heat-strengthened glass.
9.6.9 Insulating Glass – a glass unit consisting of two or more sheets of glass
separated by a hermetically sealed aid space to provide thermal insulation and
restrict condensation; glass edge units have a 3/16” (5) air space; metal edge
units have a 1/4” or ½” (6 or 13) air space.
9.6.10. Tinted or Heat-absorbing Glass – a float glass that has a chemical

admixture to absorb a portion of the radiant heat and visible light that strike it.
Iron oxide gives the glass a pale blue-green tint; cobalt oxide and nickel impart
a grayish tint; selenium infuses a bronze tint.
9.6.11. Reflective glass – has a thin, translucent metallic coating to reflect a

portion of the light and radiant heat that strikes it. This creates a mirror effect
that prevents seeing through the glass. The coating may be applied to one
surface of single glazing, in between the plies of laminated glass, or to the
exterior or interior surfaces of insulating glass.
9.6.12. Low-emission (low-e) Glass – transmits visible light while selectively

reflecting the longer wavelengths of radiant heat, produced by depositing a
low-e coating either on the glass itself over a transparent plastic film suspended
in the sealed air space insulating glass.
9.7 HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF GLASS
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9.7.1 THE DISCOVERY OF GLASS – Natural glass has existed since the beginnings
of time, formed when certain types of rocks melt as a result if high-temperature
phenomena such as volcanic eruptions, lightning strikes or the impact of
meteorites, and then cool and solidify rapidly. Stone-age man is believed to
have used cutting tools made of obsidian (a natural glass of volcanic origin also
known as hyalopsite. Iceland agate, or mountain mahogany) and tektites
(naturally-formed glasses of extraterrestrial or other origin, also referred to as
obsidianites).
According to the ancient-Roman historian Pliny (AD 23-79), Phoenician

merchants transporting stone actually a discovered glass (or rather became
aware of its existence accidentally) in the region of Syria placed by their fire.
With the intense heat of the fire, the blocks eventually melted and mixed with
the sand of the beach to form an opaque liquid.
The earliest man-made glass objects, mainly non-transparent glass beads,
are thought to date back to around 3500 BC, with finds in Egypt and Eastern
Mesopotamia. In the third millennium, in central Mesopotamia, the basic raw
materials of glass were being used principally to produce glazes on pots
overheated kiln and combining with soda to form a colored glaze on the
ceramics. It was then, above all. Phoenician merchants and sailors who spread
this new art along the coast of the Mediterranean.
The oldest fragments of glass vases (evidence of the origins of the hollow
glass industry), however, date back to the 16th century BC and were found in
Mesopotamia. Hollow glass production was also evolving independently in
Mycenae (Greece), China and North Tyrol.
9.7.2. EGYPTIAN GLASS – Glass ware in Egypt started as early as 1375 B.C., as
proven by the discovery of a glass furnace in Tell-et-Amana, which
consisted of small objects made of modeled in mosaic and blown
technique. The real origins of modern glass lay in Alexandria during the
Ptolemaic Dynasty. The glassmaker in Alexandrian developed a new
technique called Mosaic glass.
1. Mosaic Glass – varicolored glass canes lightly fused together to form

one thick rod, extended to the required length and thickness. When hard,
it was sliced literally, so that each slice had colored pattern on it. The slices
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were then laid side by side in a mold and fused sufficiently so that they
adhere to each other.
2. Millefiori Glass- is a type of mosaic glass, with colorful flower patterns.

Glass making began, with goblets and bottles as the main glass products.
The goblet of Thutmose III during this period is confirmed to be the oldest
goblet ever found.
9.7.3. MESOPOTAMIA GLASS – The oldest records of glass are found here dating t
to as far back as 1700 BC. Assyrian glass, specially, was the Egyptian glass
contemporary, employing similar processes. It consists of squat jars, small
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alabaster with iridescent and clay-like encrustations resulting from
centuries of burial in the earth.
9.7.4 ROMAN GLASS – Started in the 1st century B.C. and was developed in all
the phases of glass making. The glass objects of that period are generally
named Roman Glass, and they are characterized by filigree, mosaic and
engraved decors.
In Roman architecture translucent sheets of alabaster or mica were

commonly used as the window materials, but it’s also during this time that
glass was first used to enclose wall openings. It is believed that the
experience and technology of glass manufacture of Roman Empire was
spread throughout Europe, and as Far East as China.
1. Cameo Glass – perfected by the Romans, this is the process of grinding

away the upper of two superimposing layers of glass to leave a design
standing on a ground of contrasting color usually white on dark blue.
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2. Pheonician Glass – sometimes also called Roman Glass refers to the
products of entire Mediterranean that were transported by Pheonician
merchants during the Roman Empire. This was in the form of
embedded colored glass in clear forms similar to 19th century
paperweights.
4. Snake-Thread Glass – flasks and goblets decorated with ribbons, usually

of colored glass, trailed on fantastic patterns and notched with a
transverse, ribbed effect.
9.7.5.VENETIAN GLASS – during the 13th and 14th centuries, after the fall of the
Roman Empire, glassmaking was revived in Venice. Glassmakers of the island of
Murano developed soda lime, and they termed this thin and clear glass,
Cristallo.
Aventurine Glass 1. Aventurine Glass – glass that included glittering gold

particles.
2. Murano Glass – named after a suburb in Venice that

produced exceptionally light and delicate glass.
Mouldedinto extraordinary shape in every variety of
color and because of its thinness, it was never cut.
Murano Glass
9.7.6. GERMAN GLASS– the development of new glass

formulas in Germany and the Netherlands weakened
Italy’s supremacy in the 16th to 17th century. Germany’s
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potash-lime glass was well suited to wheel-engraved decoration.
9.7.7.FRENCH GLASS – The first production occurred in 1665 when large plate
mirrors were used in the “Gallerie des Glaces” at Versaille Palace, although
France formally entered the glass market in the 19th century. Most notable
pieces were the works of Emille Galle. He applies his style, known as Art
Nouveau, on a variety of objects. However, after his death, the style began to
lose its luster.
1. Baccarat – is a water-clear, quite bubble free

product. It was first made at Baccarat, France,
with a leaden composition. Although colored
glass in the colored crystal. At first only blown
glass was made but later on they adopted the
pressed-glass method of Sandwich. Cutglass
was also a Baccarat specialty. Baccarat glass
was, and is, turned out in a great variety of
forms, but table glass constituted the greater Baccarat Crystal
part of their product.
2. Lalique – invented by Rene Lalique in the early 20th century. It

produced luminous, transparent glass ornamented by pressing
and alternating polished and dull surfaces. It produced
decorative glass and figurines in the tradition of the Art Nouveau
movement, and was a reaction against the industrialized way of
making glass where everything was machine made.
9.7.8.ENGLISH GLASS – in 1675, George Ravenscroft, an

Englishman, made a discovery that revolutionized glass-making. While trying to
imitate the finely-cut glass of the Venetians, he added a lead oxide to the raw
materials and produced a glass that was heavier, stronger, easier and more
brilliant to work with. It was also softer, thus easier to decorate by cutting and
grinding, and it had a longer working range, enabling the glassmaker to
produce more intricate designs. But above of all, it had a higher refractive
index, giving it more brilliance and beauty. The high refractive index was
invaluable to the optical industry, thus lenses, microscopes and telescopes
became possible.
Bristol – the rarest and most interesting of Bristol glass is the

white opaque milky glass, knows as Milk Glass. In tint, it
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resembles porcelain or Battersea enamel. The color is a solid white and,
when held to the light, is translucent to about the same extent as Oriental
porcelain. The surface is fine, smooth and soft to the touch. The glass is
heavy, owing to the lead used in its manufacture, and is very brittle.
9.7.9.IRISH GLASS- Glass-works flourished in Ireland, during the 18th and 19th
centuries. Irish glass is very tough; it sings with a clear note when struck; it is
interesting and, in most cases, beautiful, although Waterford glass appears to
have the preference of the collectors. Great quantities of Irish glass were
exported until the glass industry in Ireland came to an end, largely through the
effects of English competition.
Waterford – finest products were of cut glass

chandeliers and bowls for punch and fruits.
9.7.10.AMERICAN GLASS- the beginning of the

20 century saw the emergency of
th Art Nouveau
glass shapes and decorations in the United States.
1. Stiegel Glass developed by a German named Henri

William Stiegel. He came to America in 1750 and
established an iron foundry at Elizabeth furnace in
Pennsylvania. He concentrated on making window
glass and various types of bottles.
2. Wistarburg Ware – was developed by Caspar Wistar

in Salem Country, New Jersey, in 1739. It is usually
blown, and were ornamental forms having a
generally, heavy, crude and elementary
appearance. Wistar is credited with having made the first flint glass in
America.
3. Tiffany Glass- also known as Favrile glass Wistarburg Ware

invented by Louis Comfort Tiffany of New York.
He developed an iridescent glass of great
brilliance and luster with flowing shapes that
influenced glassmakers in Central Europe. He is
also known for fine silver and jewelry.
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Favrile Glass vase by Tiffany Glass and
Decorating company, New York City,
1893-96 Louis Comfort Tiffany, a leading
figure of the Art Nouveau movement, was
especially admired for his stained-glass
windows and iridescent Farvile blown glass
bowls and other vessels. This vase is part of
a group selected by Tiffany for the
Smithsonian in 1896, when curators were
collecting contemporary American crafts
to illustrate the links between art and
industry
9.7.11 CHINESE GLASS
Peking Glass- made in Peking during the reign of Emperor K’angHsi,

patiently carved in the form of small, traditionally shaped vases and
snuff bottles in clear solid colored and overlay glass in two or more
colors. Highly prized are snuff bottles painted on their interior
surfaces with figures and landscape.
10. METALS
10.1. DEFINITION
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Are any of a class of elementary substances, as gold, silver, or copper, all
of which are crystalline when solid and many of which are characterized
by opacity, ductility, conductivity and a unique luster when freshly
fractured.
10.2. CATEGORIES
10.2.1. Ferrous – (from the Latin ferrum, meaning “iron”) metals consists
mostly of iron. Steel, for example, is a ferrous metal.
10.2.2. Non-ferrous metal – contain little or no iron, generally have good

corrosion resistance, and are nonmagnetic. Nonferrous metals
include copper and aluminum. Desirable properties of different
metals can often be combined by mixing metals together to form
alloys.
10.3. PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES
The production techniques used to achieve various metal shapes are

dependent on the properties of the metal.
10.3.1. Casting – The various process of forming a material into a particular

shape by pouring it in a fluid state into a mold, and then letting it
harden.
10.3.2. Extrusion – shapes are produced by forming semi-molten material

through a die with a pressure ram. Long linear shapes are produced
by extrusion.
10.3.3. Forging – form by hammering, pressing, or rolling metal into the

desired configuration.
10.4. METAL FINISHES
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10.4.1. Mechanical Finishes – are accomplished by buffing, grinding,
polishing, or otherwise texturing the metal surface for a specific
appearance.
10.4.2. Chemical Finishes – involve the reaction of various solutions on the

metal surface. These finishes may or may not have an effect on the
performance of a metal surface.
1. Etching, Cleaning, or Polishing of the surface to remove any oxide

film or surface ireegularity and provide a design, a clean surfaced
texture, or a polished effect; and
2. Oxidizing the surface with aluminum or other metallic oxides that

protect the surface or serve as a base for subsequent treatment, or
both.
10.4.3. Coatings – are either materials applied to the metal or formed by

the metal itself through a chemical or electrochemical process.
1. Electrolytic Finishes – commonly referred to as anodized finishes,

these finishes are based on the specific ability of aluminum to
develop a protective coating of oxide on its surface.
The coating formed may be transparent or opaque. It is hard, yet

when colored finishes are desired, it is porous enough to absorb
dyes until the final treatment which seals the surface. Anodized
coatings can increase surface abrasion resistance without
changing the surface texture.
Of the colors used in anodic treatments, architectural gold has

proven to be one of the most stable from the standpoint of fade
resistance. Others are blue and, more recently, brown and black.
2. Electroplating – aluminum can be covered with a protective or

decorative film or another metal, usually by electrodeposition. In
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the case of copper and nickel, the coating should be complete
and unbroken; otherwise there will be galvanic action which is
destructive to aluminum.
3. Porcelain or Vitreous Enamel – this finish forms a hard, resistant

surface. It is available in a broad color range that creates a
different feeling in that colors are glassy, whereas anodic color is
metallic in nature.
4. Paint – paint, lacquer and enamel can be applied as finishes to

aluminum surfaces that have been prepared by a suitable
chemical treatment finish. Leas base paints must not be used on
aluminum.
All three finish types are used extensively on aluminum. Coatings are far
more important in carbon steel and iron finishes. Copper alloys are
commonly finished with both mechanical and chemical methods. Stainless
steel is most frequently finished by mechanical means.
10.5. METALS USED IN THE DECORATIVE ATRS
10.5.1 IRON – is considered to be the most abundant of all metals, likely to

rust when exposed to damp air, but does not change when in
protected places. It is made corrosion resistant by coating with

non-oxidative materials such as tin, zinc or brass.
1. CAST IRON –comes from the blast furnace in small bars or pigs.
Itcontains the most carbon, exceptionally brittle, cracks easily under
pressure. It is not subject to bending due to the fact that it is the
hardest among all irons. Not used extensively in decorative arts
because of a coarse finish. It is used as plumbing drainage pipes,
ornamental fire backs and facing, and stoves and fireplace
accessories.
2. WROUGHT IRON – contains the least amount of carbon. It is softer

than cast iron, but is not brittle. It is malleable and may be
hammered or bent to almost any shape
and holds that shape to which it is bent.
It may be rolled into plates or drawn into
wires. It can also be welded or
hammered together when hot into bars.
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Wrought iron is one of the oldest decorative metals but because of
its heavy dark color and weight it is primarily suitable for door and
fireplace hardware in colonial or peasant interiors. It is made into
grilles, gates, railings, furniture hardware, brackets, braces and
ornaments.
Southwestern Wrought Iron

Swirl Candle Wall Sconces
10.5.2 STEEL - known to have a hardness that is halfway between cast and
wrought iron. It is subject to high polish, with finer grains, and is
elastic, meaning it springs back to its original position when slightly
bent. It is decidedly malleable at high temperatures and hardens
greatly by sudden cooling. It is used principally as a structural
material, for steel beams, reinforcement bars, and door hardware. It
is reasonably strong but has poor resistance to corrosion.
STAINLESS STEEL – is an iron alloy that is inherently corrosion resistant

because of the addition of chromium. Stainless steel is not affected
by mortar or concrete and does not stain adjacent surfaces. It is
popular for use in commercial interiors as column covers and
railings. Its finish retention capability also makes it useful in food
preparation and surgical equipment, kitchen sinks, and fine

eating utensils.
10.5.3 ALUMINUM–essentially a modern material. A unique combination of

properties makes it the most versatile metal. Aluminum is soft and
flexible, allowing it to be easily fabricated. Incredibly light in weight,
yet remarkably strong and fine in color, it is best used in modern
interiors. It is frequently used for furniture making and as
architectural accent. Some aluminum alloys have a greater
strength than structural steel, but unlike steel, it is highly resistant to
corrosion. Aluminum is an excellent thermal and electrical
conductor; electrical wiring is often made of aluminum. Aluminum is
used for door frames and hardware, interior window frames,
horizontal louver blinds slats, and contemporary furniture as well as
small, simply shaped objects, such as ash trays, cigarette boxes,
and pitchers and drinking vessels.
10.5.4 COPPER – copper is readily available, soft, easily fabricated, and

orange- of reddish-brown colored. It is corrosion resistant under a
wide range of conditions and is not affected by alkaline chemicals,
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thus is often used where metal to masonry contact is required. It is
durable and is considered everlasting. It is known to be one of the
first metals used by the man.
Prolonged exposure of an untreated copper surface results in

brown and, eventually, green patina which is a thin layer of
corrosion resulting from oxidation. Copper’s appearance can be
restored by polishing the surface to remove the oxide film. The
metallic surface can also be preserved by the application of a
transparent coating.
In interior applications, the greatest use of copper is an electrical

wiring; it has the second highest conductivity of any material (silver
is only slightly higher). Copper is also popular for use in plumbing
supply pipes and fittings.
10.5.5 BRASS –fundamentally an alloy of copper and zinc, and more

recently tin, with small quantities of other elements sometimes
added to give the special qualities. It is bright yellowish in
appearance, and susceptible to high polish. It is known to be prone
to patina, tarnishes easily and should be given a coat of lacquer
and much polishing. It is commonly used for door hardware and
upholstered furniture tacks. They are also used extensively for finish
hardware, plating of hardware, and other miscellaneous
accessories such as screws, nuts and bolts, anchors, etc.
10.5.6 BRONZE – an alloy of copper and tin with phosphorous, and is rich
golden-brown metal. It is cast with grease ease and finished in
great variety of styles and colors. It is generally used for statues,
metal ornaments and finishing hardware. Although bronze was
originally an alloy, the term today is used to identify other alloys with
a bronze color.
10.5.7 TIN AND LEAD – metal used in alloys. These are too soft to be used
alone. They are non-rusting ad often used for garden statues and
ornaments, and occasionally appliques on woodwork.
1. TIN– is a soft, ductile, malleable, bluish-white metal. Because it is

normally covered with a thin film of stannic oxide, it resists
corrosion by air, moisture, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide (which
usually tarnishes and corrodes other metals). It will take a highly
reflective polish.
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The main use if the tin is in metallic form of either pure tin or tin-
containing alloys for protective coatings on stronger metals.
Architectural uses of tin include bronzes, brasses, template,
mirrors, gilding, solders, hardware and fusible alloys.
2. LEAD– Lead is a blue-gray, soft, very heavy metal (the heaviest

of the common metals). It is extremely workable, has a good
corrosion resistance, is easily recovered from scrap materials,
and is relatively impenetrable to radiation. The corrosion
resistance of lead arises from the fact that metallic lead does
not react with any compounds or solutions, and with certain
others it forms compounds which act as protective coatings
against further corrosion.
Lead is available in extrudes form as pipes, rods, wires, and

ribbons etc. in rolled form as sheets, foils and strips and in cast
form. Lead also finds many uses in rough hardware items such as
expansion shields for securing bolts, screws, and other
accessories in masonry, washers, lead-headed nails, etc.
Lead
planters
10.5.8. PEWTER - a lead alloy that was used for the same things that
silver was used for, but it was very much cheaper, thus
considered as poor man’s silver. Because of the softness of
the material, pewter objects depend on their shape and
mellowness of color for their interest. Forms made of pewter
include every type of container, drinking vessel, dish,
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candlesticks, and lighting fixtures. They are now used as valuable
decorative shelf accessories for informal or provincial types of rooms.
Today antique pewter is avidly collected and good reproductions are
made of old pieces. Pewter is not lost.
10.5.9. CHROMIUM - Chromium is a steel-white metal which takes brilliant

polish and is harder than cobalt or nickel. It is nonmagnetic at ordinary
temperatures but becomes magnetic at 13 F. It does not tarnish in air,
resists oxidizing agents, and is soluble in acids and strong alkalis.
The principal use of chromium is as an alloying

ingredient in ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy.
Chromium plating is one of the most commonly
encountered usages of this material in architecture. It
gives a thin, hard, bright, wear resistant surface which
sheds water when highly polished. The metals that can
be plated with chromium include aluminium, copper,
iron, magnesium, nickel, titanium, zinc and their alloys. The chromium is electro
deposited as a thin layer of pure metal.
10.5.10. SILVER - There are two distinct types of

silverwork. One is purely ornamental while the
other is used for tableware. Manufacturers
today usually try to coordinate the design of
various table vessels, such as gravy boats and
platters, with the flatware. This has been done
ostensibly to make the selection of pattern less
of a problem, but at the sametime, there is no
hard-and-fast rule requiring all your tableware
to be in one pattern. If you like to be governed
by tradition, you will probably do what our ancestors did, combining
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pieces of silver that please the eye. As a matter of fact, different silver
patterns, provided of course that they are designed more or less in the
same tradition, seem to make table decoration a little less static that the
fixed motif of one pattern.
The type of silver design that appeals to us is based on Georgian English

or Colonial precedent. English silver closely followed current English styles
of furniture. The best American silver work was done in New York and
Boston. Cornelius Kierstead worked in New York and John Coney and
Paul Revere are the best known of the Boston silversmiths.
New York- Cornelius Kierstead

Boston- John Coney and Paul Revere
11. PLASTICS
11.1. DEFINITION
The term PLASTICS is essentially a commercial classification to which no

strict scientific definition can be applied. It is used to describe a product of
synthetic origin which is capable of being shaped at some stage of its
manufacture, but is not rubber, wood, leather or metal.
It is made from a number of common substances such as coal, salt,

natural gas, cotton, wood and water, from which relatively simple
chemicals known as monomers are built up into chainlike molecules of high
molecular weight called polymers.
These polymers have low extensibility, can be molded, extruded, cut or

worked into a variety of shapes and objects, rigid or non-rigid, relatively
light, which are formed by condensation polymerization and by vinyl
polymerization.
Plastic can be hard, soft, clear, opaque, light, heavy, heat resistant or
easily softened by water. Like metals, plastics can be alloyed (mixed) with
other such materials to improve performance characteristics. Many plastics
have long, multi-syllable chemical titles, and manufacturers often devise
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trade names for better marketability. For example, polytetrafluoroethylene
is best known by the trade name Teflon.
Because of their easy manipulation, economical manufacture, low

specific gravity, and resistance to corrosion, plastics have replaced metal,
wood, glass, and other materials in many applications. An immense array of
plastic industrial and consumer goods is available. Our constructed
environments are filled with this thoroughly modern material: plastic
laminates are the standard for countertops; vinyl flooring or nylon carpet is
included in practically every interiors project; today’s paints are typically
alkyds or latexes; and many furniture components are either made of
plastic or coated with it.
11.2. COMPONENTS OF PLASTIC
11.2.1. Resin (like polymer, alternative term used for plastic) is the basic
ingredient of plastic. Resins arecombined with fillers, stabilizers,
plasticizers, pigments, and other components to form plastics.
11.2.2. Fillers are added to impart a certain characteristic property, such as

durability or heat resistance. Some fillers, called extenders, may be
added to decrease the amount of relatively expensive plastic required and to

increase the mass of the product.
11.2.3. Stabilizers lend protection against degradation of the plastic

resulting from exposure to environmental conditions such as
ultraviolet rays and even oxygen.
11.2.4. Plasticizers are mixed with the resin to increase flexibility, resiliency,
and impact resistance. The addition of plasticizers lends the required
flexibility to sheet vinyl so that it can be rolled with cracking.
11.3. PROCESSING METHODS
There are a number of different methods used to convert resins into finished
products. The most common are the following:
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11.3.1. Injection molding - very widespread due to the fact that this process
can produce moldings of high quality and with great accuracy. It is
predominately used for thermoplastics but smaller amounts of
thermosets and elastomers are also processed this way. This process
is used to make such items as butter rubs, yogurt containers,
closures, fittings and razors.
11.3.2. Blow molding – this process is used in conjunction with extrusion. This
process is intended for use in manufacturing hollow plastic products
and its principal advantage is its ability to produce hollow
shapeswithout having to join two or more separately molded parts.
This method is used to make items such as commercial drums and
bottles.
11.3.4. Rotational molding – This process is relatively simple in concept since

heat is used to melt and fuse a plastic resin inside a closed mold
without using pressure. Rotation distributes the plastics into a uniform
coating on the inside of the mold until the plastic part cools and
sets. This process is used to make hollow configurations. Common
rotationally molded products include shipping drums, storage tanks
and some consumer furniture and toys.
11.4. MAJOR DIVISION OF PLASTIC
11.4.1. Thermoplastics – becomes soft when exposed to sufficient heat and

hardens again when cooled, nomatter how often the process is repeated. They
have a molecular structure which is essentially linear orthreadlike in form. They
require the addition of plasticizers to increase their flexibility. As compared to
Thermosets, Thermoplastics generally offer higher impact strength, easier
processing, and better adaptability to complex designs.
11.4.1.1 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) – introduced in the late

1940’s, it is very tough, but not brittle, and is resistant to chemicals and to
impact. It exhibits high gloss, low shrinkage, and god dimensional stability, is
widely used in injection molding of appliances, furniture, and automotive parts.
ABS also has high melt strength suitable for the production of extruded sheet,
some of considerable size and thickness. Applications include panels for large
appliances and thermoformed items such as hot tubs and recreational vehicle
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parts.. ABS is also used in construction for plumbing drain. Waste and vent pipes.
Outdoor furniture, drawer liners, and chair shells are common furniture
applications for ABS.
11.4.1.2. Acrylics – chemical name, “polymethylmethocrylate.” These

materials have the clarity of glass, good weather ability, surface hardness, and
chemical resistance, but are not abrasion resistant. This material is lightweight
and colorfast; and does not yellow with age. Their weathering performance has
been better than other common plastics and is being constantly improved.
They are generally used for skylight glazing, safety glazing, and paint resins.
Lucite and Plexiglas are popular trade names.
11.4.1.3 Cellulosics – (primarily cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate or

cellulose butyrate). Developed in 1868, cellulose nitrate was the first synthetic
plastic material. One of its first uses was in hair combs and billiard balls, in
response to an ivory shortage. Celluloid (photographic film) and cellophane
(packaging material) are in the cellulosic family of plastics. The resistance of
cellulosics to breakage makes them ideal for table edging, Venetian blind
wands, signage, and store fixtures, but is also used for paints and lacquers and
transparent sheeting.
11.4.1.4. Fluorocarbons/Fluoroplastics – a group of inert plastics, they are a

class of paraffinic polymers that have some or all of the hydrogen replaced by
fluorine. As resins, dispersions, oils, greases, and waxes, they have high thermal
ability, excellent resistance, to chemical attack, low coefficient of friction, good
electrical properties, excellent wear resistance, and practically no moisture
absorption. However, despite these attributes, perhaps the most desired
characteristics of this of plastics is their ability to resist abrasion. Polyvinyl fluoride
(PVF) and polytetrafluoroethylene (commonly known bt the trade name
TEFLON) is the most commonly used flouroplastic.
11.4.1.5 Nylon – the term nylon refers to a family of polymers called linear
plyamides. Molded-nylon products have qualities as spectacular as those of the
longer known nylon fabrics. They are tough, have a low frictional coefficient,
resistant to damage from oil and many chemicals, and they resist mechanical
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wear better than many metals. It is also elastic, easy to wash, and can be
precolored or dyed in a wide range of colors. Its high softening temperature it
exemplified by its replacement of brass for mixing-valves in automatic washers.
It is also commonly used for chair caster rollers and drawer glides because of its
low friction characteristic.
11.4.1.6. Polycarbonate – a polymer offering outstanding impact strength,

dimensional stability under varying humidity or temperature, heat resistance up
to 150 deg C, weather resistance, and clarity. It is injection-molded to produce
plates, rods, gears, and other shaped parts for advantageously replace die-cast
metal parts. Used for skylights.
11.4.1.7 Polyolefins – this family includes many popular plastics used in

commercial interiors products, such as polybutylenes, polyethylenes, and
polypropylenes.
11.4.1.7.1 Polybutylenes – exhibit good retention of mechanical

properties at elevated temperatures and high tensile strength. The largest
markets for PB are plumbing supply pipe, hot-melt adhesives, and sealants.
11.4.1.7.2 Polyethylenes – are known for their strength and flexibility.

They are tough materials, have excellent chemical resistance, offer a low
coefficient of friction, and are easy to process. Polyethylene is commonly used
for wire insulation. In clear sheet form, it is used as vapor barrier because it
retards the passage of water vapor. The plain, colorless substance is short lived
in sunlight, but it has good weathering record. It is also used as molded seating,
drawer glides, and door tracks.
11.4.1.7.3 Polypropylene – a material composed of polymers of

propylene, it is the lightest of all commercial plastics. It is among the most
versatile plastics and is employed in any fabrication methods. These are
semitransluscent or milky white in color and have excellent color ability and
chemical resistance, a high melting point, and moderately priced. Fiber is a
major market for polypropylenes. They are commonly used in upholstery fabric,
carpet backing, and indoor/outdoor carpet fiber.
11.4.1.8. Polystyrene – are inexpensive and easy to process. They noted for their
sparkling clarity, hardness and extreme ease of processing. These are known for
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being non-water absorbent, brittle, and having a wide range of colors. They are
widely used for disposable fast food packaging and cups. In the construction
industry, polystyrenes are used for light fixture diffusers in sheet form and as the core
material for doors in foamed, or expanded, form. For furniture, they are commonly
used for wood-grain-patterned chair parts and mirror. In foam form, it has become
an important thermal insulation. Also found in paint and concrete.
11.4.1.9. Vinyls– these encompass a large group of plastics, including polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) and polyvinyl butyral (PVB). In the Interior Design Industry, materials such as
floor coverings, window blinds, upholstery material, and wall coverings are largely
made of vinyl.
11.4.1.9.1. PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) – the resin itself is rigid; plasticizers add
flexibility to its inherent characteristics of having excellent resistance to wear and
abuse. It has good impact resistance and dimensional stability and may be best
known for its application as plumbing pipe. It is also used for resilient floor tile,
films, pipes, and for paint lacquers, adhesives and safety glass. These constitute
perhaps the largest volume of plastics consumed worldwide.
11.1.4.9.2. PVB (Polyvinyl Butyral) – since 1938, this has been used as an
interlayer in safety glass; it is also popular for use as a textile coating.
11.4.2. Thermosets – sometimes called thermocuring plastics, are those which are set
into permanent shapes when heated during forming. Once they are set, they cannot be
soften or remolded. Heat supplied later may cause charring, but not melting or loss of
shape. Thermosets generally resist higher temperatures and provide greater dimensional
stability than thermoplastics. Their molecular structure has a three-dimensional
arrangement.
11.4.2.1.1. Alkyds– classified as polyesters, these are actually by-products of

alkyd coating industry. Since they offer moderately high heat resistance, alkyds
have a rapid cure cycle and good mold flow characteristics, which allow them
to be molded into relatively complicated shapes. Their most prevalent use in
commercial interiors is as a paint coating.
11.4.2.1.2. Epoxy– epoxy resins react with curing agents or hardeners to form
an exceptionally durable plastic. They are known to have superior adhesive
qualities and excellent resistance to chemicals and corrosion. In the
162
construction industry, they are applied mainly as adhesives or protective
coatings for floors and walls. Epoxy ester coatings are often used in floor and
gymnasium finishes. Powder coatings, based on heat-cured epoxy resins, are
increasingly popular as metal furniture finishes. Epoxies are an important
component of solid surfacing materials such as Corian.
 Epoxy ester coatings

- Metal furniture finishes
- Powder coating epoxy resins
11.4.2.1.3. Melamine and Urea – hard, durable, clear and dimensionally stable,
these quite similar plastics are resistant to stains, chemicals, electrical potential
and heat. These surfaces are difficult to scratch or cut and they do not yellow
with age. With a wider color range, melamine is well known to the public in the
form of molded dishes and laminates, such as counter tops, while urea is useful
for incandescent light diffusion and for baked enamels. Most laminating resins
for both low and high pressure laminates are melamines.
 Melamine- laminating resins

- molded dishes
- laminates
 Urea - incandescent light diffusion
11.4.2.1.4. Phenolic – familiar for years as used in the old, black telephone
handsets, it is strong, durable, and both electrical and heat-resistant. This plastic
is limited to dark colors.
11.4.2.1.5. Polyester – include a very large family of plastics. This is the most
commonly used plastic in large glass-fiber reinforced translucent panels that
are strong, rigid, and impact-resistant, thus forming fiberglass. Also used for
impregnating paper and wood, as laminating material, and for contact
adhesives. A gel coat is a pigmented polyester coating that is applied to the
inside surface of a mold and becomes an integral part of the finished piece.
Cultured marble countertops are fabricated with a polyester gel coat. It
appears in the film form under trade names such as “Mylar”.
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11.4.2.1.6. Silicones– silicones are unique among plastics because they are
based on the silicon atom, rather than the carbon atom. Sand (quartzite) is the
raw material for silicone and it is obtained by a process developed by General
Electric in the 1940s. Silicones are based on the silicon atom, rather than the
carbon atom. Sand (quartzite) is the raw material for silicone and it is obtained
by a process developed by General Electric in the 1940s. Silicones are known
for their stability through a wide range of temperatures, ultraviolet radiation,
and harsh weather. They are used in commercial interior applications as water
repellent fabric finishes and joint sealants.
11.4.2.1.7. Urethane– properly called polyurethane: Thermosetting polymer,
appearing as flexible and rigid foams and coatings, also as adhesive and, in
elastomeric form, as sealants. Polyurethanes are available in a multitude of
forms with an extensive variety of physical properties. Rigid polyurethane foam
is widely used as a building insulation material. However, the most common
application of polyurethane is for cushioning in seating and mattresses.
Polyurethane foam can be molded for a preformed chair seat or back, or
foam slabs can be cut into the desired shape.
11.5. ADVANTAGES OF PLASTIC

11.5.1. Ease of Fabrication– it is readily adaptable to mass production
method and intricate parts are often easily made of plastics, and produced in
large quantity at low cost.
11.5.2. Weight-saving – in general, the density parts of plastics are less that
of metals.
11.5.3. Resistance to corrosion – most plastic parts are immune to rust, rot,
or corrosion.
11.5.4. Electric Insulation – it does not conduct electricity, hence it is a

good preventive against electrical shocks.
11.5.5. Thermal Insulation – plastics are poor heat conductors. Control

handles and steering wheels utilize this properly.
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MATERIALS OF DECORATION

3. FLOORS, WALLS, AND CEILINGS

In most commercial interiors, the wall is composed of light-

Finishing interior walls for a house is one of the important steps

3.1.3. Ceilings – contain the volume of a space and breathe life

1. Plenum – this is defined as the space between a

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FLOORING MATERIALS

Flooring Materials can be classified according to their hardness or rigidity.

3.2.1. Classifications according to hardness or rigidity

1. Hard Flooring – these more closely resemble elements

Some hard floorings are substantially heavier than other

2. Resilient flooring – it combines the comfort underfoot

Today, vinyl composition tile is the most often specified

3. Soft Floor Covering – carpet is unmatched among floor

3.2.2. Classification according to ability to absorb moisture and

1. Nonporous floors (slate, ceramic and quarry tiles) –

2. Semi-porous floors (marble, terrazzo, rubber, most

3. Porous floors (unsealed wood, cork, concrete,

3.3.1. Brick – it is usually buff, and comes in a

2 ¼ - 4x8x2 ½ 2 ¼”x3x ¾”x8”-- brick size

3.3.2. Ceramic Tile – made from clay or a mixture

Tiles are made of compounded and natural clay bodies. Those

a. The Plastic – usually clays having high bonding power and

b. The Filler – this reduces shrinkage in drying and firing and

1. Specification of Ceramic tiles – The density and porosity of the

a. Impervious – this kind of tile has the lowest absorption level;

Impervious and vitreous tiles are appropriate for use in exterior

c. Semi-vitreous – tile has an absorption level of more than 3.0%,

d. Non-vitreous – is the most absorptive, at a rate of more than

a. Glazed Interior Tile – vitreous, from the dust-press process.

b. Ceramic mosaic tiles are usually 6 mm to

3. Ceramic Tile Finishes

a. Unglazed tiles are composed of the same ingredients throughout and

Bright Glazes – having a highly polished surface and reflects

Stump Concrete (Bomanite)

3.3.3 Concrete Tiles – made of cement and aggregate. It comes in natural, or

Cork can be in rigid tile or as flexible wall covering, laminated to cotton or

1. Backed Fabric – Most textiles must be back coated to be installed as

a. Paper-backed Fabrics – process involves laminating paper

b. Latex-coated Fabrics- process involves stretching the

2. Unbacked Fabrics – these are pre-treated to make them suitable for

3.3.6 Glass – it’s a chief application in contemporary architecture will likely

3.3.8 Leather – the discovery of a process to reconstitute leather by breaking

3.3.9 Linoleum – the predecessor to contemporary synthetic resilient flooring was

The term linoleum is derived from the Latin

The exterior and interior of buildings, unlike most other construction

a. Sedimentary – rocks that are formed by the deposition of sediments.

a. Rubble Stone – also known as “fieldstone”. These

a. Granite – is a hard, durable, low-maintenance

volcanic action) that imparts a visual strength. Granite is relatively

 Igneous (quartz, feldspar, mica)

b. Marble – has been a preferred material for

It is a metamorphic rock, white in pure form but is mostly enriched

The quarries of England, France, and Italy yield a great diversity of

c. Limestone– it is a sedimentary rock chiefly formed by the

d. Slate – a fine-grained homogenous metamorphic rock which through

e. Travertine – is a sedimentary rock; a natural precipitate of carbonate

f. Sandstone – is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-size

3.3.13 Terrazzo – this is basically a flooring material. The

3.3.14 Rubber Flooring – rubber sheet or tile is composed

Because of its high durability and natural resistance to cigarette

3.3.15 Vinyl – is a kind of plastic. Simply by arranging atoms and molecules,

2. Vinyl Tile – the advantages of tile over

3.3.16. Wood – More popular in residential applications, wood is