NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
ELECTRICAL SCIENCE II
COURSE CODE: EEC125
YEAR I- SEMESTER II
THEORY
Version 1: December 2008
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Year 1
Semester 2
Credit Hours 2
Theoretical 1
Practical 2
CHAPTER 1 :
Week 1
• To Study the Characteristics of an Inductor
CHAPTER 2 :
CHAPTER 3 :
Weeks 3
• Determination of Series and parallel Resistors
CHAPTER 4 :
Weeks 4
To demonstrate Faraday’s and Lenz’s Laws
CHAPTER 5 :
Weeks 5
• Demonstration of Self and Mutual Inductance
2
CHAPTER 6 :
CHAPTER 7 :
Weeks 7
• Magnetic Effect of Current Carrying Conductor
CHAPTER 8 :
CHAPTER 9 :
CHAPTER 10 :
Weeks 10
• The Effects of Saturation in a Magnetic Circuit
CHAPTER 11 :
CHAPTER 12 :
CHAPTER 13 :
Weeks 13
• To Study Free Oscillations of the RLC Circuit
3
CHAPTER 14 :
CHAPTER 15 :
Weeks 15
• Demonstrate the application of EM in Transformer
4
Week 1
1.2 Introduction
For the benefit of readers who will need to study and understand well
materials in this chapter and the subsequent two chapters, it is advisable to
revise some of the basic facts that have been previously learnt in physics
under magnetism. in this connection, we do know that simple experiments on
magnets and magnetism have revealed the following facts:
(a) the magnetic effects of a magnet appear to emanate from its poles which,
in the case of a bar magnet, are located near each end. For this reason,
iron filings cling mainly round the ends of a bar magnet as shown in
Fig. 6.1 (a)
5
(a) bar magnet with cluster of (b) bar magnet suspended by a
thread iron filings
Fig. 1.1
6
(c) part of the magnetic field which happens to be outside the magnet
normally traces its path from a north - to a south - pole.
Week 2
Should imagine them inside the magnet, passing from the south (S) pole to the
north (N) pole through the magnetic material.
7
2.4 Magnetic flux density
Magnetic flux density, B is a measure of the magnetic flux passing through a
unit area in a plane at right angles to the flux. The SI unit of magnetic flux
density is Tesla (T) or. Wb/m2,
That is. Magnetic flux density, B = •'-.[^/m2] or[Tesla,T] (2.1)
where A is the area (in m2) through which flux <)> (Wb) passes-
•i. Example 6.1 Calculate the value of the magnetic flux density when a flux
of 50p,^& passes through an area of 2cm2.
8
where /"is the current flowing in the conductors of the coil and iVis the
number of turns on the coil. Here, we note that since the m.m.f. is equal to the
product (current x number of turns) its unit is, therefore Ampere - turn (AT}.
However, since the number of turns is merely a figure (which is a
dimensionless quantity), then the m.m.f can just have the dimension of current
(i.e. Ampere).
Example 2,2
Determine the m.m.f produced by a coil of 600 turns if a current of 5A flows
in it.
Solution
7=5.4, N =600 turns.
From Eq. (6.2),
m.m.f, F^ 5x600=3000/<
Example 2.3
A coil of length 0 25m is wound with 1000 turns of wire and carries a
current of 5A. Determine the magnetic field intensity at the centre of coil.
2.6 Permeability
The permeability of a medium (such as air, magnetic materials and non-
magnetic materials) is a measure of how easy it is to set up a magnetic field in
9
that medium. At any point in a magnetic field, the ratio between the magnetic
flux density B and
the magnetic field strength H is called the permeability (\\) of the medium in
which the field exits.
we note that the above unit can also be deduced to mean Henry/metre, (i.e.
H/m), since 1 ATfWb = \j Henry . The permeability of free space or a vacuum
(with symbol, ^o )
has the value 4n x 10~7 ///m; that is, Ug =4n x 10~7 ///M. All non - magnetic
10
Week 3
The magnetic terms so far encountered are presented in Table 6.1 with their
symbols, units and their electrical equivalents.
4. H.Ho A Is ^J
Magneti- H Ampere-sing force Elec. field E VolV strength
turn/metre metre (F7m)
9
5. Flux density B Webers/sq. metre current f) .4/m2 density
• (1 tesia3S
1 Wb/m2 )
10
made up of FA = l-i. A coil is uniformly wound on the iron part, and produces
an m.m.f. ofF=NI. The equivalent electric circuit diagram is shown in Fig.
6.3(b). The procedure for calculating the equivalent reluctance of a series-
connected magnetic circuit is the same as for calculating the equivalent
resistance of a series-connected electric circuit, which is as follows:
Equivalent reluctance, S, =Si +S,[A/Wb], (3.8)
where Si and S^ are the respective reluctances of the iron path and the air gap.
Hence,
following the Kirchhoffs law for a series-connected magnetic circuit, we
have;
F=F,+F,, (3.9)
The assumption that there is no flux leakage in the air-gap is not accurate. In
practice there is some leakage flux, and the method of coping with this
problem is discussed immediately below.
11
total flux AT
Leakage coefficient, =
useful flux 4>u
From Eq.(3.10) it is clear that leakage coefficient X , has a value greater than
unity, since ^^ > <t>u. In pratice, the typical value of the leakage coefficient
ranges between 1.05 to 1.4.
12
3.6 Example of Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials
6.8.1 Introduction
If a graph of the magnetic flux density (B) is plotted against the magnetising
field strength. (//) for a magnetic material, the resulting curve is known as the
B - H curve. Fig. 6-9 shows a typical graph of the BH curve or magnetisation
curve. Although for any magnetic material B = uH . however this will not lead
us to a straight line graph since p is not a constant number. In practical terms,
it is evident that p.r (relative permeability of. say, iron) is not constant. From
the graph it can be observed that at the initial stage (between the origin 0 and
the "Knee" of the curve), as the magnetic field strength (//) increases gradually
the flux density (B) increases rapidly- The knee of the curve marks the onset
of saturation (see position of the knee marked on the curve).
23
Week 4
4.1 ELECTROMANETISM
4.1.1 Magnetic effect of electric current
24
4,2 Magnetic fields around straight conductors, adjacent parallel
It is discovered that if we look along the conductor, and if the current is
flowing away from the reader into the paper (as marked by the symbol ® )
inside the conductor (as shown in Fig. 4.2) the magnetic field has a clockwise
direction and the lines of magnetic flux can be represented by concentric
circles around the wire (as shown in Fig. 4.2)
If the current is reversed, the magnetic field will remain as concentric circles
but in anticlockwise direction. In that case, the conductor with current
flowing away from the paper towards the direction of the reader is represented
usually by concentric circles with a dot in the centre. In other words, the
direction of the magnetic field previously shown in Fig. 4.3 becomes anti-
clockwise.
Suppose we have a small rectangular cardboard pierced about its centre point,
with a straight conductor carrying current passing through the centre point, If
25
we sprinkle some iron filings fairly uniformly on the cardboard around the
conductor, we see that the magnetic field pattern (formed by the iron filings)
round the straight current -carrying conductor consists of concentric circles
with the conductor as centre. We notice the concentric arrangement of the iron
fillings tend to be most pronounced in the vicinity of the conductor and the
intensity of the field decreases as the distance from the conductor increases.
Several rules are known for the determination of the direction of the magnetic
field around a straight current-carrying conductor.
A good rule of representing the relationship is to grip the conductor with
the right hand, with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the
fingers then point in the direction of the magnetic field around the conductor.
This rule may be referred to as the right-handgrip rule. This is illustrated in
Fig. 4.4 below.
26
(a) Screw moving in current direction
27
Week 5
The rule for the polarity of a solenoid carrying a current can be stated as
follows:
WJien viewing one end of the solenoid, it will be of N polarity if the current is
flowing in an anticlockwise direction, and of S polarity if the current is/lowing
in a clockwise direction.
28
Fig. 5.1 shows two parallel conductors, A and B, each carrying current
towards the paper- The magnetic field due to current in A .ilone is represented
by the dotted circles in Fig. 7.7(a), and that due to B alone is represented by
the fairly uniformly spaced curved dotted lines.
29
Fig. 5.3 Magnetic fields due to two long parallel current – carrying
conductors
30
Week 6
Under this topic we shall consider the interaction between magnetic field due
to the current in a conductor and the magnetic field in which the conductor is
placed.
Fig. 6.1
If the conductor is placed in the field, it will be seen that the resultant
magnetic flux has been distorted so much so that it partially surrounds the
conductor (wire), as shown in Fig. 6.1(c). This distorted field acts like a
stretched elastic string bent out of the straight (like a catapult) and the flux
exerts a force F urging the conductor out of the way. In this case the conductor
A will move from left to right, which is the direction from the strong part of
the field (where the lines are very dense) to the weaker part. The brief
explanation of the phenomenon is that if we compare the field in Fig. 6.1(a)
with that on the left hand side of A in Fig. 6.1(a), we see that on the left side
31
the two fields (i.e. the arrows) are in the same direction, whereas on the lower
side they are in opposite directions. Consequently, the combined effect is to
strengthen the magnetic field on the left side and weaken it on the right side,
thus producing the distribution shown in Fig. 6.1(c).
However, reversing the direction of the current reverses the direction of the
resultant force, as shown in Fig. 6.1(d).
In the previous week a brief mention is made about the force F which acts on
a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field without much emphasis on
how to determine the direction of the force, F.
The rule is applicable only if the magnetic field (B) and current (I) are
perpendicular or inclined, to each other. We should observe that if the field
and current are parallel to each other, no force acts on the conductor. As an
exercise, we can use the above rule to verify the direction of the force acting
on the current-carrying conductor in Fig- 7.10(b). Furthermore, we can also
verify both by Fleming's left hand rule and by drawing magnetic flux patterns,
the direction of the force on the current-carrying conductors shown in Fig.
6.1(c) & (d).
27
7.6 Derive the Expression for the Magnitude of the Force in a
Current-carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field
Experiment has shown that the force F (Newton s)ac ting on a conductor
carrying a current / (Amperes) at right angles to a magnetic field of flux
density B (Tesla) is directly proportional to (a) the magnitude of current in the
conductor (b) magnetic flux density and (c) length of conductor [metre].
Hence, F = 5/?[Newtons]
Furthermore, we recall (already treated in chapter 6) that if for a magnetic
field
having a cross-sectional area A [metre 2 ] and uniform flux density B (Tesia),
then the total flux can be represented
Example 6.1
Draw the resultant magnetic flux structure and determine the direction of the
force acting on a current-carrying conductor placed perpendicular to the
magnetic field in the following diagrams shown in Fig. 7.11 (a) and (b) below.
Fig. 6.3
Solution
(a) The direction of the current/and that of the magnetic flux are known and
shown. Therefore using Fleming left hand rule the direction of the force F^
is perpendicularly upward as shown in Fig 6.3(a).
28
Week 7
ANSWERS
1. 75^iWb 2. 200 N/m 3. \AT A. 0.57-
5. 7.54mN
30
NB The right-hand rule is used/or induced current or e.m.f. but the left-hand
rule.
31
Week 8
Solution
In this case, <(>=0.2Wb. t= 0.05s.
Using Eq.(7.4), we obtain the e.m.f. induced
as E^-^
T 0.05 E=4V.
31
Example 7.5
A conductor of length 0.5 metre moves in a uniform magnetic field of flux
density 2
Wfr/ffi2 at a uniform velocity of 40 metres/second. Calculate the induced e.m.f,
under
the following conditions:
(a) The conductor moves at right angle to the magnetic field,
(b) The conductor moves at an angle of 30° to the direction of the field,
When the coil is positioned initially perpendicular to 5, the flux linkage = NAB
(as stated above). However, when the coil is turned through 60° , the
flux density normal to the coil is now B cos60°. And so, flux change
through the
coil == NAB -NAB cos60°
^^xlO^-UxlO-^xO^ =6xl0-3
. , , „ flux change 6 x 10"3 .'. average induced
e.m.t. == ——————— = ————
time 0.2
= 30xl0-3^.
^ Example 7.8
Exa A current-carrying conductor is situated at right angles to a
r uniform magnetic field having a flux density of 0.57. Calculate the
current in the conductor if the force per metre length of the
conductor is 2QN.
Solution
Data given are:
5=0.57', F/\=20N, /=? Using
Eq.(7.1), F= BH
r- i i
i.e. Current required /= — • — = 20 • — = 40/1. ^N
15 0.5
JT Example 7.9
Calculate e.m.f. generated in the axle of a car traveling at 90 k/h, assuming
the length of the axle to be 1.8/n and the vertical component of the earth's
magnetic field to be 50^i T
Solution
Data provided are:
32
V==90km/h, l=1.8m. B^SOx^T
Expressing V in m/s, we have
90xl000fm1 V^————
J-J=25OT/s. 60x60[^]
Using the data given in Eq.(7.5), we obtain the required e.m.f.
generated as E = B I V == 50 x 10~6 x 1.8 x 15V,
E =2250 x 10'6 = 2250 ^V.
Example 7.10
A current-carrying conductor of length 400/nm is moved at a uniform speed
at right-angles to its length and to a uniform magnetic field having a density
of 0.5 T. If the e.m.f. generated in the conductor is 3 V and the conductor
forms part of a closed circuit having a resistance of 0.5H , calculate; (a)
amount of current in the conductor; (b) the velocity of the conductor; (c) the
force acting on the conductor; (d) the work done (in Joules) when the
conductor has moved 500mm.
Solution
Using the usual notations, the data given are:
/=400fl»»=0.4m; B=0.57; E=3^; R=0.5^?;
d = 500w/n = 0.5m.
E 3
(a) Current in the conductor, / = — = — = 6A.
R 05
(b) Velocity of the conductor, can be obtained from the expression, E =
BIV. where
Example 7.11
A six-pole motor has a magnetic flux of 0.05Wh per pole and the armature
is rotating at 600 rev/min. Calculate the average e-m-f. generated per
armature conductor.
Solution
Using the usual notations, the data given are:
37
B = 0.05 Wh per pole, v = speed of armature (conductor). It should be noted
that each time the armature conductor passes under a pole it cuts a flux of
0.05 Wb. Hence, the total flux cut in one revolution is 0.05 x 6 = Q3Wb .
V = speed of the armature (conductor) = 600 rev./min.
600 ,
= —— rev.s.
60 '
=70
rev./s.
Using the expression, E = BIV we can obtain the average e-m.f- generated
per (length of a conductor) in one revolution, i.e. E/\=BV
£/l=0.3xl0=3y (with/=! assumed).
Example 7.12
A coil of 500 turns is wound on an iron core and a certain current produces
a flux of 4000 \^Wb- When the current is opened, the remaining flux in the
iron is 2900 uW&-Tfthis reduction process of flux takes 0.2?, find the
average value of the induced e.m.f.
Solution
m this case, using the usual notations the data given are:
7v==500, •,=4000xlO-A^yb, 4*2 = 2900 xW-^Wb
t=Q.2s. ,1
The average value of the induced e.m.f. can be obtained using the
expression in
- A^, - •,) - 500(2900 - 4000) x 10"6
Eq.(7.7),as £=
/ 02
-6
. ^500x1100x10 ^^ 0-2
39
Week 9
Inductance
Fig. 9.1 Illustrating Current Rise and Induced E.M.F fall in a RL d.c.
Circuit, when S is closed.
41
Week 10
Method I
(a) Self inductance in terms of flux ' linkages per ampere
Self inductance of a coil can be defined as the weber - turns per ampere in
the coil. We note that weber - turns, Mt> = flux - linkage.
Suppose we have a solenoid having N turns and carrying a current of /
ampere, then it produces a flux of^ webers. Thus, its weber - turns are /V^i
, and its weber -turns per ampere are N^/I.
By definition, L = ^M (8-1)
Its unit of dimension is Henry [//] in commemoration of the famous
American Physicist, Joseph Henry (1797 - 1878) who discovered
electromagnetic induction independently about a year after Michael
Faraday's discovery. From the above relation, in Eq. (8.1), if A^i = 1 Wh-
tum,I= 1 ampere, then L =^1
henry (H). m words, this can be defined
as follows:
A coil is said to have self- inductance (L) of one henry (H) if a current of
I ampere flowing through it produces flux - linkage off Wb - turn in it.
Example 8.1
A coil of 250 turns produces a flux of 0.01 Wb when carrying current of
5A. For this current, calculate the inductance of the coil.
Solution •• •
In this case. A'=250, ^=0.02»^», /^5A, Z,=TT • c /o ^ r M^ 250x0.01
Using Eq. (8.1), L == —- = ————— = Q5H .
Method II
(b) Self- inductance (L) terms of average induced e.m.f. and rate of
change of current.
44
From Eq. (8.3), we can state that if— = 1 ampere/sound dt
and e^ == 1 .volt, then L = \H
Hence, in words, we can state that if a coil has a self- inductance of
one henry if e.m.f. of one volt is induced in it when current through it
changes at the rate of one ampere/second.
Corollary
If the LHS and RHS ofEq. (8.1) are cross - multiplied and the resulting
expression
is divided by (on both sides, we obtain
Consequently, we can state that
average e.m.f. induced in a coil = - Ll/t
or, average e.m.f. induced in a coil = - N^/t. If Eq.(8-2) is expressed in
differential calculus form, then we can obtain.
-L^-N^ (8.5) dt
Example 8.2
A coil of 500 turns is wound on a non - magnetic core and a current of 2.5A
through the coil produces a magnetic flux of 150 ^Wb. Calculate (a) the
inductance of the
coil, and (b) the average value of the induced e.m.f. if the given current is
reversed in 0.1.?.
Solution
(a) The data given are: 7v=500, /=2.5A. ifr=l50x lO"6^.t^OAs. Hence,
from Eq.(8.1), we have
Method I
(b) We note that the current changes from 2.5A to - 25A in O.ls,
Method III
(c) Self inductance <U in terms of the dimensions of the solenoid
that if / be the length of a magnetic circuit (i.e. coil) (in metres), and A its
cross - sectional area (rn ), then for a coil ofN turns with a current /
amperes:
\
H = IN//{Amperes/metre] and, total flux, 4> =
BA = pp//^ . (Remember, u == B/H and u = U (for non-magnetic core, u^
= 1).
Example 8.3
A coil of 500 turns is wound uniformly on an iron ring which has a mean
diameter
of 10cm, cross - sectional area of 5cm2 and a relative permeability of 350,
calculate the inductance of the coil
Solution
The data given are as follows:
^o=4TtxlO'\ ^,.=350. D= 10cm = O.lm, A^xlO'^m2 .
Using Eq. (8.7), the value of the inductance of the coil is
given as, HpU.^v2 _47ixl0-7 x350x5xl0"4 x 5002
- 47ixl0-7 x350x5xl0-4x5002 „,,,., LK= U.I
where nD=l
47
Week 11
Method I
Mutual inductance in terms of average induced e. m.f. and rate of change
of current If, say, two coils, X and Y, have a mutual inductance ofM henrys
and if the current in coil X increases fi-onu'/ to i^ amperes in t seconds:
.'. average e.m.f. induced in coil ~M(i,-i,} volts (8.8)
Y=
48
induced in one coil when the current in the other coil varies uniformly at
the rate of 1 ampere per second.
Example 11
Two coils A and B have a mutual inductance of 0.2H. If the current in coil
A is varied from 4 to 2A in 0-2s, calculate the average e.m.f. induced in
coil B,
Solution
The data given are:
M=0.2H, t/=4/t, i^=2A, t=0.2s. Using Eq. (8.8) we can
obtain the average e.m.f. induced as
(2-4) average e.m.f. induced in coil B = -0.2 -0.2 =2V.
Method II
Mutual inductance in terms of flux - linkages per ampere Suppose^, and
((ie represent the flux in webers linked with coil Y due to currents and
amperes respectively in coil X (sometimes called the primary) and if N^
represents the number of turns on coil Y (called the secondary)
average e.m.f. induced in r=(T2 '1) 2 , volts (8.9)
t
Equating expression in Eq. (8,8) and Eq(8.9) we have:
change of flux - linkages with secondary
change of current in primary
N..B. By comparison, the expression in Eq. (8.10) is similar inform to that
obtained in Eq. (8.5) for self inductance except that the change influx takes
place in the secondary coil Y and the change in current takes place in the
primary coil X.
Furthermore, if we know only flux - linkages with secondary and current in
primary (but not change in flux - linkages and change in primary) as
expressed in Eq. (8.10), then the mutual inductance
Example 8.5
Refer to the question in Example 8.4 and calculate the change of flux
linked with coil B, assuming that coil B has a winding of 250 turns.
Solution
In addition to the data provided in Example 8.4 we have N^ = 250.
Using Eq.(8.9) we get the required change of flat (<(^ -((^)=({i, having
known that
the average induced e.m.f. =1V. (see solution to Example 8.4)
2=i^0(^,) Q2 ~ '
^=OA-=0.00\6Wb
250
Method m Mutual inductance in terms of the dimensions of the two coils
49
For illustration let us refer to Fig.8.3 and assume that coil X and coil Y
have windings TV") and N^ turns respectively.
Without bothering ourselves for proofs, we can state that mutual
inductance in
respect of the two coils can be given as,
M= NIN2 = Jv1^2 , W (8.12) //UoU^^ reluctance L J
Example 8.6
Two coils X and Y having 40 and 400 turns respectively are wound side -
by – side on an iron core of cross - sectional area of 100c/n2 and mean
length 160cin. Calculate the mutual inductance between the coils if the
relative permeability of the iron is 1600.
•Solution
The data given are; A^=40 =400 A = 100 x 10~4m2 ^O'W. / = 1.6/n .
Example 8.7
Two coils, X and Y, have self inductances ofl50u// and 300u// respectively.
A
current of 2A through coil X produces flux linkages of 80^ Wb - turns in
coil Y.
Calculate (i) the mutual inductance between the coils (ii) coefficient of
coupling of the coils.
50
Solution
The data given aie:7L, =150uff. N3 = 300»Aff. i, = 2A A^<t>,
^SOxlO'6^. (assuming that coils X and Y have windings/V, and N^
respectively, and current;/
.. 80xl0-6 M = 40u//,
2M 40xl0-6
(ii) Coefficient of coupling, K=0.189.
11.2.1 Symbols
The common circuit symbols for inductors are shown in Fig. 8.4. The
names given to the symbols are known as air - core lype, iron - core type
and variable iron - core type as illustrated in Fig. 8.4.
(a) air - core (b) iron - core (c) variable iron - core Fig.
11.3 Circuit Symbols for Inductors
11.3.1 Units of Inductance
We recall that there are two types of inductance: namely, self inductance
and mutual inductance. Whether we refer to either self inductance or
mutual inductance, the unit of measurement is the Henry [H]. However, we
should note that sub - units of Henry are possible: such as microhenry) and
milli henry {mH).
51
Fig. 8.5 Electric Circuit diagram of Inductors connected in series and their
equivalent Circuit
52
FUNDAMENTALS OF AC. THEORY Week 12
Week 12
In the present position of the rotating coil (loop) of Fig. 9.1, me plane of the coil is
parallel to the field. In this case, sides DA and CB are moving at right angles to
the field.
A coil of loop
DABC C1C2 -
two slip rings C1
and C2. E1]E2 -
carbon brushes
When the coil has turned through 90°, that is: when the coil is in vertical
position, e.m.f. produced is zero. At this instant, the sides DA and CB are both
moving parallel to the field. Consequently no induced e.m.f. is obtained.
When the coil has turned another 90° and its plane is now horizontal or parallel
to the field but in an opposite direction to the first horizontal position we started
with. So the e.m.f. along DA and CB are in opposite directions, according to
50
FUNDAMENTALS OF AC. THEORY Week 12
Fleming's right angle rule. In summary, when the coil is turned 180°, the e.m.f. is
reversed. 12,2 Equation of the Alternating Voltages
Fig. 9.2
e.m.f. generated in one side of the loop which contains N turns, e = Nv-BlV
sin 6.And so, total e.m.f. generated in, both sides of the coil is
e -= 2BNI V sin 9
(9.1)
The e.m.f. can be represented by a sine wave as in Fig. 9.3, where £„ represents
the maximum value of the e.m.f. and e is the value after the loop has rotated
through an angle 6 from the position of zero e.m.f. at ^=0°.
50=1x n
.'. Speed = 50 revolution/second or. Speed = 50 x 60 rev./min == 3000
rev./min.
52
Fundamentals of A.C. Theory Week 13
Week 13
13.1 Another form of e.m.f. equation
Apart from the form the e.m.f. equation was expressed in Eq. (9.4), yet another
form could be as
Solution
60 sec sec (ii) Using Eq (9.3), the instantaneous e.m.f can
be obtained as,
53
Fundamentals of A.C. Theory Week 13
Solution
Using Eqn. (9.5). /^=——- =8pairs
["^J
P=8x2 = 16poles
Example 9.3
Ife= 125 sin 2nft is the instantaneous value of an alternating e.m.f. with
periodic time 0.01s. (a) what will be its value 0.002s after passing through zero?
(b) if the voltage is applied across a 20 - ohm resistor, what is its instantaneous
current value at; = 0.002s
Solution
(a) Frequency, /=-=——=io0 c/s or Hz
Example 9.4
(a) Find the amplitude, phase, period, and frequency of the sinusoidal
waveform e=10cos(50t+20°)
(b) An e.m.f. waveform is given by V = 200sin628t. How long does it take this
waveform to complete one - half cycle?
Solution
54
Fundamentals of A.C. Theory Week 13
(a) Amplitude, emf = 10V; phase, (& == 20°; angular frequency, ro = W^y
Period,
22 f=l =7.95g Hz 50 T 0.1257
(b) Period, T = 10ms, which is the time for 1 cycle. w = 28
Consequently, the time for one-half cycle = .5 x 10= 5ms
if we consider generally n equally - spaced mid - ordinates /,, i^ ..., in taken over
either the positive or the negative half- cycle
then, average value of current over half a cycle
This approach is known as the mid - ordinate method. This method may be used
both for sinusoidal and non ~ sinusoidal waveforms. If we have a sinusoidal
waveform i = !„, sin 9, it can be proved that (for half of a cycle):
average value of current, ;,„ = 0.637 x maximum
value (9.8)
We note that average value over a complete cycle for a sinusoidal waveform is
zero. There is another approach known as the analytical method by which the
average
value can be determined. This will be discussed immediately below.
With the aid of integral calculus, the average value can be determined by the
expression
55
Fundamentals of A.C. Theory Week 13
The average current value of the full - wave rectified sine wave can be
determined as follows (bearing in mind that the period T =- n):
iav-0.6371,
effect of the alternating current, and thus to produce the same quantity of heat in
half a cycle:
Then,
or,
In other words, it can be stated that the root- mean-square ( or r.m.s.) value of a
sinusoidal current is measured in terms of the direct current that produces the
same heating effect in the same resistance. Hence, if Im be the maximum or peak
value of the sinusoidal current, the average heating effect over a cycle (or half a
cycle ) is half the maximum heating effect,
Thus far, we have been discussing the mid - ordinate method. The next method
is the analytical method of calculating the r.m.s. value.
Analytical method involves of the application of the expression,
(Current)
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Fundamentals of A.C. Theory Week 14
(b) a resulting (heating effect) wavef Fig. 9.6 Illustrating the r.m.s value
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Fundamentals of A.C. Theory Week 14
Week14
Example 9.5
(a) Determine the peak voltage value of a sinusoidal alternating voltage ofr.m.s
4.5V.
(b) Determine the r.m.s value of a rectangular current wave with an amplitude of
8.M.
(c) Determine the average value of a sinusoidal alternating current of ISA
maximum value.
Solution
(a) From Eq.(9.10), ^=0.707^
Example 9.6
A triangular current waveform has the following values over one - half cycle
Current (A) 0 2 4 68 10 86 42 0
Time (ms) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Determine (a) the average current value, and (b) the r.m.s current
value.
Solution
(a) By applying Eq. (9.7), the average current value.
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Fundamentals of A.C. Theory Week 14
Example 9.7
Find the average and effective (rms) values of the rectangular voltage wave
shown in
Fig.9.7.
Solution
Method I
fT
(a
Looking at Eq. 9.9(a) this method is based on the fact that eff)dt stands for
)
J t)
the area under the graph from limits 0 to T.
area under the graph from limits 0 to T
Time period (T)
This means that rinding (calculating) the average value of the waveform
implies calculating the net area of the waveform over one period. T= 0.03s.
If A^ == area of section abed and A^= area of section defg, then the net
area = A^{-A,).
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Fundamentals of A.C. Theory Week 14
Bearing in mind that Fig. 9.7 enables us to determine we need to draw the
graph of V^(t)to find mmf- Since both negative and positive voltages
become positive when squared, therefore the negative portion in Fig. 9.7
becomes positive when (- 2V} is squared i.e. W1. Consequently the graph
of V2(t) lS as shown in Fig. 9.8 below.
Method II
With reference to Fig. 9.7, we have the following: (a) For the time interval a-
d, Vs1 \QV
For the time interval d~g, V=~2V The period T = 7^ +
7^ = 0.01 + 0.02 = 0.03s.[1 f r 0.
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(b) In order to determine the mis value, we start by finding V2^) for each lime
interval (a - d) and (d - ^ I For the a - d interval.
For the d - g interval, Next, we apply Eq. (9.13) to get the
mis value of voltage,
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Week 15
N.B.
64
15.3 Explain phase lag or phase lead as applied to a.c. circuits
(t)=e,sin(cot + 9) Fig. 9.9 Two sinusoidal waveforms with the same amplitude
but different phases.
The starting point A, of e^t) occurs first in time. Consequently, we say that €3(1)
leads e|(t)orthat e,(t) lags 63(1) by <|). Ifij)=0, then ei (t) and e;(t) are said to be
in phase; in other words, they reach their zero point, minima and maxima at
exactly the same time.
Generally speaking, when comparing two sinusoidal waveforms the leading
sinusoidalwaveform is one which reaches its maximum (or zero) value earlier
than the other one.
Similarly, the lagging sinusoidal waveform is one which reaches its maximum
(or zero) value later than the other waveform.
There are some general points to note when comparing two or more waveforms.
They include the following:
(a) a sinusoidal waveform can be expressed in either sine or cosine form.
However, when comparing two sinusoidal waveforms, it is advantageous to
express both as either sine or cosine with positive amplitudes. To achieve this,
the following trigonometric identities are useful;
65
We can transform a sinusoidal waveform from sine form to cosine form or vice
versa using these relationships stated above.
(b) The phase difference between any pair of waveforms can be determined
either from their respective instantaneous equations or from the drawing of their
respective waveforms, (see example 9.8 as an illustration).
Series Resonance
Consider we are given an RLC series circuit of Fig. 9.29
67
Fig. 9.31 Phase angle curve as a function ofo
(iii)The phasor diagram showing the current and all the voltages in a series
resonant circuit is as shown in Fig. 9.32.
Fig. 9.32 Phaser diagram of current and the voltages in an RLC series circuit. At
resonance, (see also Fig. 9.29) ^ + V^ = 0 and V = V^ = Rl.
(iv)The graphical relation in a series RLC circuit between current I and
frequency co of the applied voltage is shown in Fig. 9.33. The graph is known as
the resonance curve.
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At resonance, (X^ - X^ ) = 0 and when this happens (9.22) R
Before we reach resonance frequency, w^ the impedance Z is greater than A, •therefore
the current / flowing in the circuit is less than /^.
Example 9.25
A 120 - V ac source supplies a series circuit resistance and inductance of \0 and 25mff
respectively. The generator frequency is the resonance frequency of the circuit. Determine (a)
the resonance frequency and (b) the current.
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Solution
(a) From Eq.(9.21), the resonance frequency,
/,=————=——, ' =225/fe. WLC 2^25 x 10-3 x
20 x 10-6
(b) At resonance, Z = R. Therefore the required current,
Example 9.26
An RLC series circuit consists of a coil having resistance of 10/3 and inductance of Q.5H and
a variable capacitance. The circuit is connected across a 150^, 50C/S supply. Calculate the
capacitance at which the circuit resonates and the voltage across the capacitor at this
resonant frequency.
Solution
N.B. A coil is an element consisting of a resistor, R and an inductor, each of a fixed
resistance value and a fixed inductance value respectively.
Fig. 9.34 is the required circuit diagram
Fig. 9.34
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