Draft A Manual On Standard Operating Procedures in Mineral Exploration

Geological Survey of India
DRAFT
A MANUAL
ON STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES IN
MINERAL EXPLORATION
MISSION II-A NATURAL NON-ENERGY RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
INTRODUCTION
1.1. In the activities of man’s evolution through time, mining of metals dates
even older to agriculture. The metals that were worked by ancient civilizations of Egypt,
Mesopotamia, China etc. were gold, copper, bronze (copper+ tin), silver and lead. Iron
came later. Agricola’s famous treatise De Re Metallica, written sometime during 1500,
gave fascinating accounts on mining practices such as recognition of ore deposits, their
nature and behavioural patterns, methodology of mining, crushing and beneficiation,
usage etc. With the advent of the twentieth century, demand for traditional metals such
as iron, basemetals, copper, tin, lead and zinc, nickel, aluminium etc became acute on
account of rapid industrialization; aftermath of World War II brought in demand for
“space age” metals such as beryllium, niobium and titanium. Developments in the field of
Electronics demanded metals such as selenium, indium, silver, tantalum, gallium,
rhenium, germanium and the rare earths. Post-war period witnessed spurt in demand for
atomic minerals. Growth of man’s civilization is dependent on its scientific
advancement, which in turn relies heavily on metal mining and processing. This
intricately interwoven triumvirate deciphers the development of a nation, in the present
day highly competitive scenario.
.1.2. Reserve of any natural resource is finite and to be depleted sooner or later.
Hence, continual search for new deposits, extensions to existing ones, up gradation of
existing lean resources, exploration /invention for substitutes are the dire necessities of
the present moment. In spite of having made rapid strides by the Mining Industry both in
terms of mining equipments and machineries as well as in processing and beneficiation
technologies, yet it has earned a bad reputation world over in view of the indelible marks
that are left behind by a mining activity such as scarred landscape, slag heaps, over
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burden and tailing dumps, sterile ground, polluted water and air pockets, health and
safety hazards etc. At the same time it is imperative to state that mining of metals has
become a vital activity for human survival and it is to be carried out under stringent
quality control, not only for safeguarding the environment and health but also for
judicious exploitation of the natural resource to the extent required and conserving part of
the same for posterity.
1.3. Mineral Deposits of the earth’s crust are defined as accumulations of

mineral substances in a rock mass suitable for commercial exploitation, both in terms of
quality and quantity. Occurring at depths few kilometers below the surface of the earth,
mineral deposits are in three modes of formation – solid, liquid and gas. Solid forms
occur as dispersed native elements (e.g. Au), compounds (e.g. iron oxides), crystals (e.g.
diamond) or as rock mass (e.g. marble). Oil pools and ground water constitute liquid
forms of mineral deposits. Hydrocarbons and inert gases are the gaseous states of the
deposits. Depending upon their usage mineral deposits are further classified in to metallic
(ore), non-metallic, fossil fuels and ground water. (Banerje & Ghosh, 1997)
1.4. As per the recommendation of the High Power Committee, the functioning
of GSI has been reconstituted to Region-Mission Matrix Mode, wherein the five Missions
represent -
(i) Mission I – Baseline Geoscience Data Generation comprising

(A) Ground Surveys (a) Geological Survay;
(b) Geophysical Survey;
(c) Geochemical Survey;
(B) Remote Sensing and Aerial Survey
(a) Geomorphological Survey;
(b) Hyperspectral Survey;
(c) Photo Geology and Remote Sensing;
(C) Marine and Coastal Surveys
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(a) Marine Surveys

(b) Coastal Surveys;
(c) Marine geotechniques;
(ii) Mission – II Natural Resources Assessment comprising
(A) Mineral Resource Assessment
(B) Natural Energy Resources (except oil and gas);
(C) Subsurface Hydrology.
(iii) Mission – III Geoinformatics
(iv) Mission – IV Fundamental & Multidisciplinary Geosciences and Special
Studies
(v) Mission – V Training & Capacity Building.
The present Manual, being for Mission II (A&B) Natural Resources Assessment,
envisages elucidation and implementation of renewed Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs) in the work components of Mineral Exploration.
BASELINE GEOSCIENCE DATA GENERATION- A PRE-REQUISITE
2.1. Acquisition of base line data through geological and geochemical mapping
forms the framework on which the edifice of mineral exploration stands. Syntheses,
interpretation and dissemination of the data so generated pave the way for narrowing
down the vast expanse of areas to localized, suspected blocks of ore / deposit
occurrences.
2.2. Geological Mapping is a fine art, a skillful and subtle combination of

observed facts and interpretations. Outwardly a geological map is a two-dimensional
piece of paper but to a ardent geologist, it is a four dimensional entity, a repository of
facts and interpretations on distribution of rock types on the surface with depth and time
span, as third and fourth dimensional connotations. Depending upon the information to be
brought and the amount of details to be displayed on a specific surface the scale of
mapping is deciphered. For base line data generation, a scale of 1:50000 is adopted and
used widely (Marshak & Mitra, 1988).
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2.3. A basic geological map displays (i) the distribution of rock types on the
surface of the area mapped to the scale designated; and (ii) the structural elements,
encompassed within those litho units. Based on the data thus generated, interpretations
have been made on (i) the mutual relationships of the litho-units and their plausible
stratigraphic development; and (ii) the nature of deformation that the litho-pack possibly
underwent in its long span of time since its formation. The geological milieu thus
deciphered gives scope of possible ore genesis and associations with multiple approaches
for their search.
2.4. A basic geochemical map brings out the distribution and migration of
different elements on weathering in the various components of the earth such as rocks,
minerals, soils, stream sediments, water etc. Primary and secondary dispersion patterns
bring out anomalies of elemental concentration in soils, stream sediments etc, the
possible target areas for further exploration.
2.5. A Manual on SOPs in respect of work components of Baseline Geoscience

Data Generation is presented separately by Mission-I.
A SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION FOR PROSPECTING
3.1. The classification of a mineral deposit for the design of appropriate

exploration techniques is multi-parametric. ((Banerje & Ghosh, 1997). The factors
include:
(1) origin of the deposit: magmatic, sedimentary, residual, metamorphic;

(2) depth of occurrence:
(a) top of deposit exposed on ground;
(b) top of deposit at less than 100 m depth;
(c) top of deposit at greater than 100m depth.
Deposits of types 2(b) and 2(c) are called blind deposits.
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(3) morphology of the deposit:

(a) stratiform / bedded;
(b) vein and stockwork;
(c) lenticular;
(d) pipe or chimney.
(4) Mineralogical composition of the deposit and its immediate wall rocks:
(a) zoned but identical with the host;
(b) zoned and different from the host;
(c) unzoned with gradational margin;
(d) unzoned (massive) with sharp margin.
(5) Chemical composition of the deposit:
(a) grossly similar to the host but differing in the percentage of major elements, e.g. a
cement
grade limestone within a carbonate stratigraphy or an iron ore deposit in Banded
Haematite
Quartzite;
(b) strongly different from the host with sharp chemical contrasts, e.g. a massive
sulphide deposit
within basic volcanics;
(c) moderately different from the hos, e.g. bauxite in a ferruginous laterite cover.
(6) Physical properties of the deposi, e.g. porosity and permeability, magnetism, electrical
conductivity, density etc;
(a) sharply different from the host;
(b) gradational with the host;
(c) identical with the host.
(7) Structural history of the deposit:
(a) undeformed;
(b) folded;
(c) faulted;
(d) controlled by pre-existing structures, including unconformities and other barriers /
precipitation fences.
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3.2. From regional, down to the local scale, occurrences of mineral deposits are
clustered in discrete areas, which are designated as – (i) mineral province; (ii) region; (iii)
district; (iv) field; and (v) ore body. Depending upon the type of mineral deposit,
prospecting is carried out, at times, right from regional scale and then down to local, ore
body level.
3.3. Regional and District Level Geological Maps on scale1:50000 are

prepared, under Mission-I Baseline Geoscience Data Generation, on base topographic
maps. Making use of the maps, thus generated, Regional and District Scale Prospecting is
started over thousands of square kilometers of virgin or poorly explored territory or a
large part of a known ore district, right on a table top in synchronization with the modern
days’ technological output – satellite imageries to map features such as ancient planation
surfaces, land forms (buried and exhumed), drainage pattern, slope morphology, fold
closures, fault lines, fracture patterns, zones of contrasting lithology, alteration zones,
vegetation, old workings etc.
PROSPECTING THROUGH REMOTE SENSING
4.1. Electromagnetic radiation of the Earth is detected in visible to near-

infrared range of band-widths with high degree of resolution and gets displayed in the
form of satellite imageries.
4.2. Establishment of Natural Resources Management and System in Indian

Remote Sensing Agency has expanded the scope for rapid coverage of areas by way of
thematic maps using space technology. Satellite Imageries play a vital role in Mineral
Exploration in preparation of Geological, Geomorphological and Tectonic Maps by
establishing (i) structural control at regional scale; (ii) spectral identification of
lithologies; (iii) geobotanical anomalies; (iv) data integration. Thermal Infrared images
are especially useful in litho units discrimination and mapping lineaments of significance.
Thus remotely sensed data are invaluable in Mineral Exploration in two ways (i) in
identifying features directly related to mineralized zones such as alteration haloes/zones,
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specific host rocks and characteristic mineral association; (ii) in delineation of features
favourable for localization of minerals such as faults, folds and other structural zones.
Satellite Imageries are veritable store houses of data and it depends on how one dive in to
that treasure house for retrieval and harnessing to maximum extent.
4.3. Thus, generation of seamless geological maps on regional scale is carried

out right on the table top, requiring only sampling of mineralized/ alteration zones at a
later date with rapid field checks. Mosaics of Multiple ASTER image acquisitions
covering scenes of an area over 52,000 sq.km, after having been addressed to their
instrument, irradiance, atmospheric and surface scattering effects and shortwave infrared
(SWIR) cross talk, have been effectively made use of in generating a seamless geological
map with Pb-Zn-Ag mineralized zone in the Broken Hill – Curnamona province,
Australia (Hewson et.al. 2004). SWIR data enable preparation of maps of Al-OH, Mg-
OH / carbonate and maps of quartz content from TIR data. SWIR data of individual
scenes provide information on Fe content
DATA-DRIVEN ORE GENESIS MODELING
5.1. Usage of Geographic Information System in Mineral Exploration made

rapid strides during the period 1987-1997. In concurrence with increasing applicability of
GIS in Mineral Exploration, satellite sensors have generated multispectral images with
increasingly fine resolution; GPS, provides superior accuracy of spatial positioning; field
portable computers, suitable geological maps; geochemical methods, elemental analyses
in various chemical phases etc. provide enormous data. GIS has provided a versatile
computing platform for handling images, maps and data tables, with tools for data
transformation, visualization, analysis, modeling and spatial decision support.
Introduction of GIS in GSI has made rapid strides to the extent of producing structured
(layered) maps wherein the objects (the topological attributes) have been linked to
relational database, capable of furnishing data on lithology, structure, age and other
attributes. However, GSI, in spite of having enormous exploration data sets, generated
over a period of more than 150 years, is yet to integrate those data sets in a GIS platform
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for producing mineral potential maps. In GIS, Mineral Potential Maps are being produced
on two lines by geological Surveys of several countries.
5.2. Type
D Model Parameters Example
a
Data-Driven Calculated from training data Logistic regression
t
a Weights of evidence
- Neural networks
d
Knowledge-Driven
r Estimated by an expert Bayesian updating
i Fuzzy logic
v
e Dempster Shafer belief
5.3. Data-Driven Ore Genesis Model (Phase-I) is considered essential at this

stage on completion of Baseline Geoscience Data generation and Regional & District
Level Prospecting through remote sensing and preparation of various thematic layers on
the data generated on geomorphology, morpho-tectonics, geological structure,
lithological variations, slope analysis, alteration zones, old workings etc., Herein, a
concept on the possible mode of formation, nature and occurrence of the ore body in the
region examined, is evolved which is to be taken for test-driving to the field for possible
modification and confirmation.
5.4. In this context, the article written by Woodall, Roy (1984) is worth
reading which is reproduced as Appendix-1.
5.5. From the data generated so far from the activities of

(i) Baseline geoscience data acquisition;
(ii) Prospecting through remote sensing and preparation of various
thematic layers; and
(iii) Data Driven Ore genesis Modeling in GIS
local scale area / ore body site is demarcated for core activities of mineral exploration.
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LARGE-SCALE MAPPING – ON SCALES 1:15000 / 1:10000
6.1. The process of representing geographic / geologic features on a sheet of

paper involves the reduction of these features. The ratio between the reduced depiction on
the map and the geographical / geological features in the real world is known as the map
scale that is the ratio of the distance between two points on the map and the
corresponding distance on the ground. The scale may be expressed in three ways.
(i) Fractional scale: If two points are 1 km apart in the field, they may be
represented on the map as separated by some fraction of that distance say, 1cm. in this
instance, the scale is 1 cm to a kilometer. There are 100,000 cm in km; so this scale can
be expressed as the fraction or ratio of 1: 100,000. This method of representing this type
of scale is called Representation Fraction (RF) method.
(ii) Graphic Scale: This scale is a line printed on the map and divided into
units that are equivalent to some distance such as 1 km. The measured ground distance
appears directly on the map in graphical representation.
(iii) Verbal Scale: This is an expression in common speech, such as, “four
centimeters to the kilometer”, or “an inch to a mile”. This common method of expressing
a scale has the advantage of being understood by most map users (Reddy, M.A., 2001).
6.2. The scale that is being adapted in GSI for large-scale mapping of sectors
of significance in mineral-deposit bearing area, is 1:15000 or 1:10000 wherein mapping
is carried out to bring out all topographic and geological details, to examine the
mineralized ground for its paragenetic history and zonation and to enunciate the
framework of the controls and characteristics of the mineral shows.
6.3. Significant features of the mineralized zone that are brought out include;
(i) nature of rock alteration associated with the mineral deposit;
(ii) stratigraphic level where the mineral deposit occurs;
(iii) specific lithologic associations of the mineral deposit;
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(iv) preferred orientation of the planar surfaces, fracture systems

and
lineaments, if any, associated with the mineral deposit; and
(v) relationship of lithologic contacts and folds of different
generations styles with the mineral deposit.
6.4. Large-scale geological map is a visual representation of the relevant

projections on a particular reference plane, for purpose of which surveying is essential for
preparation of a base map to locate precisely the natural or artificial points of the ground /
topography on to the map. A fair knowledge of surveying is necessary for preparing
various large-scale geological maps and for the purpose of planning and co-ordinating
work with the surveyors (Umathay.R.M.2002). The surveying technique is essentially
measurement of horizontal and vertical distances between two objects, angles between
lines and determination of directions in which they are located. Herein the earth is
assumed to be a planar surface.
6.5. Till recent past, surveying for geological work was carried out by (i) tape
and compass; (ii) plane table; and (iii) theodolite. With the advent of Total Station, the
conventional method of surveying is fast receding which will soon be a thing of the past.
6.6. Though the usage of Total Station in Mineral Exploration Surveys is in

vogue in GSI, yet deployment of Total Stations of desired make with comparable
technical specifications so as to achieve the target accuracy is not adopted all over India,
thus discouraging any standardization in the methodology. Accuracy standard in the three
components – distance measurement, angle measurement and vertical compensation- is to
be taken care of in all the surveys at an uniform level for homogenized data output.
6.7. Further fine tuning of geological features of those mentioned in 6.2. at this
stage includes ( Compton, R.R.1968) (Ref.4) :
(i) Folds are generally depicted on the map as a line showing the trace on
the ground of the axial plane (Appendix.1). Where folds are well exposed, it is important
to observe and record: (1) the trend and plunge of the axis, (2) the strike and dip of the
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axial plane, (3) the plunge of small scale folds associated with the axial region and limbs,
and (4) the strike and dip of secondary cleavages or the plunge of the intersections
between these cleavages and the bedding.
(ii) A large number of planar structures can be plotted as symbols that
show their strike and dip; the more common of these are bedding, compositional layering
(“banding”) in agneous and metamorphic rocks, various cleavages and mineral foliations
(including flow structures in igneous rocks), veins and joints. Standard symbols are to be
utilized by all means.
(iii) A rock unit or lithologic unit is a rock body distinctive enough to be
delineated from adjacent rock bodies along surfaces called contacts. Mapping the traces
of these contacts is the most important single procedure in exploration activity. Rules for
classifying and naming rock units (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) are to be
strictly adhered to.
(iv) In structurally confusing or lithologically monotonous terrains,
distinctive beds such as tuff, ash layers, carbonaceous or fossiliferous beds etc, that are
too thin to plot to scale should be mapped as single lines so as to serve as an approximate
time horizon.
(v) From the data that have already been generated through Baseline
Geoscience Data Acquisition (Under Mission I) for the area, identical rocks that occur at
more than one stratigraphic position or in more than one igneous body, are to
characterized in detail, correlated and matched properly. In case of occurrence of fossils,
it has to be used with caution in fixing the stratigraphic horizons.
(vi) It is probable that new lithological units are likely to be encountered
during large-scale mapping which are to be properly evaluated in comparison with the
litho-assemblage of the area and genetically connected to a meaningful rock association.
(vii) In case rock units are covered by in-situ or transported surficial soil
then mapping by outcrop or exposure method is to be resorted to. Outcrops of stream
courses, ridges, and road or railroad cuts are to be carefully studied and interpreted. Data
from water wells, drill holes, quarries and other excavations are to be made use of
effectively. Small outcrop patterns are to be generalized and the contact lines should
show the shapes and sizes of the outcrops as exactly as possible. Contacts between
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bedrock units are drawn as solid lines within outcrop areas and as dotted lines across
covered areas. The outcrops should be mapped by working systematically across an area;
otherwise the continuity and significance of bed rock structures can be missed. One
advantage of the outcrop method is that observed facts are separated clearly from
inferences. Another is that other geologists can find isolated or hidden outcrops easily,
and can themselves evaluate the evidence on which concealed contacts have been drawn.
These inferences are vital, in case further sub-surface exploration is taken up in the area.
(viii) Where two rock units grade into one another, criteria for mapping a
contact must be established with care, justification and used consistently. Guidelines
evaluated and prescribed in this context may be consulted.
DETAILED MAPPING ON SCALES 1: 5000, 1: 2000, 1: 1000 OR EVEN LARGER
7.1. Depending upon the type of mineral deposit, nature of mineralization,

lithological and structural control, pattern of spacing required for sampling and drilling
etc are the factors that decipher the scale of Deatiled Mapping which are normally carried
out on scale !: 5000 or even larger.
7.2. The objectives are as follows:
(i) To find out the mineral potential of a leasehold;
(ii) to find extension of the deposit within a leasehold; and
(iii) to have an approximate idea of the resource in situ.
7.3. Methodology of mapping is similar to Large Scale Mapping, however,

with more of accurate control points so as to relate the surface workings precisely with
the underground manifestations. Concerted attention is to be exercised to geological
features such as stratigraphic details, lithological characteristics, kinds & intensities of
alterations & weathering, patterns of joints, fractures and shears, type and nature of
mineralization, its genesis within the existing geological milieu etc.
7.4. To the requirement of the geological set-up of the mineralization, sample
locations, pit & trench sites, bore-hole positions and their intervals / spacings are to be
pre-determined with justification and marked on the Detailed Map.
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SAMPLING, PITTING AND TRENCHING
8.1. The kinds and numbers of samples needed, will vary accordingly with the
purpose of the project and its geological situation. Plans for sampling should be based as
much as possible on knowledge of sampling plans used elsewhere on similar deposits.
Alternate sampling can be evaluated statistically to determine which is likely to give the
information needed with least effort and least burden on the workload of analytical
laboratories.
8.2. Sampling is an essential process in the whole gamut of mineral
exploration, commencing right from the beginning of large scale mapping and extending
up to the end of mine development and exploitation of the deposit. Thus sampling is a
process of taking a small portion of the material, the consistency of which represents the
whole. Purpose and quantum of sampling varies at every stage depending upon the result
that is required / expected.
8.3. During Large-scale and Detailed Mapping, following types of sampling
pattern are resorted to (i) to identify and pigeon-hole the rock type; (ii) to gain an
understanding of geological events; (iii) in laying plans for more thorough sampling; (iv)
to delineate and narrow down mineralized zone; and (v) to elucidate the type and nature
of mineralization and for possible extension along strike and at depth. Types of sampling
are:
(i) spot samples;
(ii) serial samples to test hypotheses;
(iii) sampling to find variations;
(iv) sampling for bulk composition; and
(v) sampling for distribution of compositions.
8.4. On establishing and delineating the mineralized zone, sampling is carried
out (i) to ascertain the characteristics of a mineral deposit (ii) its chemical grade (iii)
mineralogical composition (iv) physical parameters such as specific gravity etc; and (v)
its spatial distribution in the area. Authentic information on the grade of the deposit is
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essential for future mine development, planning, proving operation, evaluation of suitable
beneficiation flow sheet and production planning operation.
8.5. The mineralized zone is usually a mixture of economic and gangue
minerals. Generally their proportion is not uniform throughout the zone, rendering it
heterogeneous. It becomes, therefore, essential to determine grade of the deposit correctly
by carrying out systematic sampling. The systematic sampling data not only help to
estimate grade of the deposit but also reveal its variability in spatial distribution. While
natural variability is inherent, induced variability does occur due to (i) sampling
techniques; (ii) sample preparation on crushing, sieving etc; and (iii) analytical
variability due to different testing techniques.
8.6. At this stage of exploration activity, methods of sampling include (i) grab
sampling; (ii) chip sampling; (iii) channel sampling; (iv) bulk sampling; (v) dump
sampling; (vi) pit sampling; and (vii) trench sampling.
8.7. Grab sampling is done at random over the mineralized zone on account of
certain distinct features such colour, texture, weight or any other striking feature when
compared to the surrounding. Analysis of grab sample gives a preliminary idea about the
nature and grade of the ore mineral. However it is not representative of any large volume
or bulk of the deposit.
8.8. Chip sampling is done for rapid assessment to determine general grade of
deposit. Chip samples are collected at suitable intervals, in equal size and weight, along a
line covering the width of the mineralized zone. The sample chipped along a line should
be suitably sub-divided based on nature of ore and grade variation of the deposit.
8.9. Channel sampling is reliable and the most accepted standard method. It
consists of cutting across the mineralized zone, collecting resultant material like chips,
dust, etc and combining them together to form one sample. Channel cutting is to be along
the direction of maximum variability and is normal to the planar surface of the mineral
zone disposition, which usually coincides with the thickness of the ore body. The
dimension of channel is governed by thickness of ore body and mode of distribution of
pay lodes in it. Normally, chanels are 3 to 6 cm wide and 1 cm thick. As a general rule,
175 to 350 gm of sample is collected per 10 cm length of the channel. When there are a
number of variations in the mineralized zone, the channel length is sub-divided on the
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basis of lithological character, colour, texture or ore mineral distribution pattern etc and
separate samples are collected for the channel. Guidelines given, on cleaning of the
outcrop or wall face wherein channel is to be cut and the methodology to be adapted for
channel sampling are to be referred.
8.10. As denoted by the term “Bulk Sample”, large quantity of a representative
section of the mineralized zone is drawn for carrying out specific type of studies like (i)
determining grade and physical characteristics of ore deposits of both types, viz. massive
homogeneous and heterogeneous deposit with sporadic and irregular values; (ii) carrying
out recovery tests of the economic metals and minerals from the deposit; and (iii)
carrying out beneficiation tests and to determine utilization characteristics of ores and
economic minerals. The quantity of the bulk samples varies from 5 to 100 tonnes
depending upon the type of beneficiation study required – mineralogical, physical and
metallurgical.
8.11. Dump sampling is resorted to whenever and wherever old workings exist
in the exploratory area. Sampling of dump material is warranted at times to examine
suitability of the dump material afresh either for beneficiation studies or to re-examine its
grade and marketability.
8.12. Laying of pits at regular / specified intervals is taken up whenever the
exploratory area is covered with a thin veneer of soil cover or the surface exposures are
mildly weathered with the possibility of fresh rocks at shallow depths. Channel sampling
is adopted in the pit either on one wall, or opposite walls or on all four sides depending
upon the type of deposit and nature of mineralization. Proforma that is used for pit-data is
reproduced below.
PIT DATA
Name of the investigation Date of commencement

Pit No Date of completion
Location (co-ordination) R.L. at pit top
Pit Top measurements R.L. at pit bottom
(a) length
(b) breath
Pit bottom measurement
(a) length
(b) breath
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(c) depth
Benches if any with their measurements
Recorded By
Face 1 (give for all the 4 faces, wherever nececessary
From To Lithology Structural details, such as strike, dip
etc.
Other details:
(1) Volume of the final pit;
(2) Volume of the total excavated material.
(3) Volume of the ore portion
(4) Volume of the reject (undersize, sub-grade etc;)
(5) Volume of the overburden and its nature.
(6) Number of samples from the excavated material.
(7) Number and details of channel samples.
A sketch map of each wall of the pit on a suitable scale like 1 cm= 2 m or 1 cm=5m, is to
be made along with the pit logs.
8.13. In case of substantial variations right across the mineralized zone, trenches
are excavated covering the entire width of the zone as well as at regular / specified
intervals covering the strike length of the zone. Channel sampling is resorted to on the
walls of the trenches with the recording of the data in the proforma given below.
TRENCH DATA
Name of the investigation Date of Commencement

Trench No Date of Completion
Location (Co-ordinates) R.L. of floor and top of trench
Length
Width
Depth
Recorded By
Log of Each Wall
From (Starting from foot To Lithology, structural details
wall side)
Other details:
(1) Total volume of material excavated in Cu.m. Estimate total weight of material
excavated.
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(2) Number of samples taken with their particulars

(3) Thickness of overburden, if any.
A sketch map on suitable scale such as 1 cm = 2m / 1 cm = 5 m is to accompany the
above data.
GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING
9.1. Recognition of primary and secondary dispersion haloes around ore

deposits has led to the concept of geochemical prospecting. Systematic measurement of
one or more element or group of elements in a naturally occurring material – such as
rock, soil, gossan, glacial debris, vegetation, stream or lake sediment, water or vapour
constitutes geochemical prospecting in mineral exploration. The purpose of the
measurements is the discovery of abnormal chemical patterns, or geochemical anomalies,
related to mineralization. An anomaly is in contrast to the surrounding environment or
‘geochemical background’ and results from the mobility and sispersion of elements
concentrated in mineralized zones. (Ref.6)
9.2 Geochemical prospecting is broadly classified into the following types

(Ref.1):
(i) Lithogeochemical prospecting including analysis of host rocks for
primary haloes;
(ii) Stream sediment survey and heavy mineral reconnaissance for deposits
of mobile and resistate elements / minerals, particularly in semi-humid to
humid tropics;
(iii) Pedogeochemical prospecting; analysis of weathered cover for
secondary dispersion;
(iv) Hydrogeochemical prospecting – analysis of water for mobile
elements like Zn and U.
9.3. Geochemical orientation survey in the vicinity of a mineral deposit
determines the type and size of the anomaly. Survey over residual soil
determines –
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(i) the strength of the anomaly related to a known orebody;

(ii) the width, homogeneity and depth-wise dispersion of the metal in
different soil zones;
(iii) the dispersion pattern of associated mobile or resistant elements in
different size fractions;
(iv) background metal content is also determined by sampling barren areas
in the neighbourhood.
9.4. The spread and intensity of geochemical anomaly are influenced by the
following factors:
(i) mobility of the elements in the physical and chemical (including
biologically cycled) milieu;
(ii) depth of the upper, altered tier of the deposit;
(iii) shape of the deposit and its size;
(iv) strike and dip of the deposit;
(v) permeability, porosity and mineralogical composition of the host rock;
(vi) local topography;
(vii) hydrologic regime;
(viii) nature of the weathered profile;
(ix) tectonic movements;
(x) sampling medium;
(xi) sampling density;
(xii) precision and accuracy of the analytical procedure.
9.5. In a geochemical survey an element measured in order to detect an
orebody is termed an indicator element. In a majority of situations, the indicator element
is an economically valuable component of the ore being sought, for e.g. Cu for Cu ores or
U for U ores. However, if the valuable component is difficult to analyze, immobile, or
yields data which are difficult to interpret, another element associated with the ore may
be more useful. Such an element is called a pathfinder element with ore and the range of
geochemical environments in which the association occurs shold be examined. (Table –
some common geochemical association of elements).
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9.6. Lithogeochemical prospecting aims at locating epigenetic anomalies in

bedrock. During deep-seated mineralizing processes, escape and leakage of elements
from the orebody and the channels conducting ore-forming fluids creates a wide variety
of chemical, mineralogical, and isotopic aureoles in the surrounding rocks. These
anomalies are termed epigenetic because thay are superimposed on the pre-existing
country rock. Two mechanisms for epigenetic emplacement of indicator elements can be
distinguished:
(i) Diffusion of dissolved metals through stationary pore fluid into wall-
rock adjacent to a vein or other zone of high metal content, with
subsequent precipitation and adsorption in the wallrock. The resulting
aureoles are diffusion aureoles.
(ii) Flow of fluid through veins, fractures, and pore spaces within the rock,
with subsequent precipitation or adsorption of metals. This type of
transport is termed infiltration, and the resulting anomalies are leakage
anomalies. In practice, anomalies combining both these effects are
observed.
9.7. In many epigenetic ores and aureoles, ratios of pairs of elements change
gradually and progressively with location as a result of changes in the ore-forming fluid
and the conditions of deposition. This zoning of elements is observed both in the ores and
in the aureoles near ore. Zoning of elements emplaced by deep seated processes occurs at
several scales. Zoning in hydrothermal aureoles can also be classified according to
direction. Zoning along the direction of flow of the ore-forming fluids is termed axial.
Zoning outward from ore into wallrock, in a direction normal to the hydrothermal flow
direction, is termed transverse. Observations of axial or vertical zoning in leakage haloes
around hydrothermal orebodies, based on studies of a large number of deposits of
different types, shows the following average sequence of metals.
Shallowest Deepest
Ba-(Sb, As, Hg)-Cd-Ag- Pb- Zn-Au-Cu-Bi-Ni-Co-Mo-U-Sn-Be-W
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At specific deposits, deviations from this sequence are found but generally do not involve
discrepancies of more than one or two positions in the series (Table.5.1.)
9.8. Surveys of the distribution of elements in samples of bedrock are most
useful for individual orebodies and ore shoots. The type of ore being sought is an
important consideration in planning rock geochemical surveys. Normally orientation
survey is resorted to for obtaining complete information and the type of information that
is to be obtained in a typical orientation survey for rock sampling is as follows:
Table.______. Factors to be optimized by an orientation survey preparatory to rock

sampling.
(i) Type of sample (rock, vein material; comparison with soil or drainage samples);
(ii) Size and character of sample (single large chunk, many small chips, channel sample,
length of drill core);
(iii) Best indicator elements (ore element, pathfinder elements, related major elements for
use in ratios);
(iv) Applicability of separated minerals or types of material (sulphides, limonite, biotite,
calcite, etc;);
(v) Effects of weathering. Rock type, hydrothermal alteration and other geological
variables on background and contrast of anomalies;
(vi) Shape, extent, and homogeneity of anomalies, and reproducibility of anomalies from
a single site;
(vii) Method of sample decomposition and analysis (total analysis, sulphide- or oxide-
selective leach, acid digestion);
(viii) Sources of contamination (metal from collecting and crushing equipments, dust,
drill steel, circulating waters, smelter fumes).
Indicator elements are usually relatively homogeneously distributed in dispersion

patterns of syngenetic or diffusion origin, and relatively small specimens of rock may be
adequate. In contrast, leakage anomalies are commonly localized aling fractures, and the
metal values are very erratically distributed at the sacle of hand specimens. In such cases,
analysis of an aggregate of small chips from randomly chosen sites over several square
meters of outcrop is generally preferable. Composite samples from many meters of drill
core should be used if available. If leakage haloes are being sought, vein materials,
limonite, or other special types of samples shold be collected in both mineralized and
unmineralized areas. Considerable care is to be taken to avoid contamination.
9.9. Soil is an unconsolidated weathering product, which lies on or close to its
source of formation. Where unconsolidated material has been transported over large
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distances, it is called alluvium. The distinction between residual and transported soil is
important in soil geochemical prospecting, which can be ascertained by checking the soil
profile in a vertical section (in pits, cuttings, etc;) from the parent rock to the top soil.
Where soil creep has taken place, a stoneline, composed of fragments of rocks, is
common between B and C zones. In a soil profile, the soil horizons can be classified as
follows:
A0 Humus charged top zone.
A1 Mineral and humus charged zone.
A2 Leached zone, dry in summer.
B Zone of accumulation of clays and sesquioxides; diagnostic field
test; even in dry months samples from freshly dug holes are moist to feel.
C1 Weathered structureless or layered zone, with or without fragments
of bedrock.
C2 Weathered zone with relict structures from the bedrock.
C3 Zone of bleached parent rock.
Such distinctions within the C zone are clearly seen in soil profiles of humid, tropical
areas.
9.9.1. In soil sampling, various sampling patterns are used. Square or rectangular
grid systems are common. Traverses are laid across the general strike of the mineralized
zone. Where extension of mineralized ground is being searched by soil sampling, the
width of its anomaly on the known part of the mineral bearing zone is first determined in
course of an orientation survey; and the spacing of sample stations on each traverse
across the extension zone is kept at half this width or less.
Thus appropriate modifications in sampling interval are to be carried out from one field
to the other, taking care that sample station interval does not exceed the limit of
secondary dispersion.
9.10. Consolidated weathered cover over the mineralized zone / deposit that
reflect different types of palaeoclimatic conditions, is divisible into the varieties –
calcrete, ferricrete, silcrete, laterite, gossan and pseudogossan. The usual method of
sampling weathered crust is to undertake chip or channel sampling on exposures.
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9.11. Stream sediments comprise composite samples of weathered and primary

rocks in a state of mechanical transportation as unconsolidated material by a river or as
chemical precipitates in coatings, cation exchanges in clay fractions etc. General rules
that govern stream sediment sampling are:
(i) Over rugged terrains in temperate / cold climates, it is always advisable to
collect sediment samples from first or second order drainages.
(ii) In areas of extensive glacial cover, sediment samples are collected from
active medial or lateral moraines.
(iii) In many humid, tropical belts, thick forests and deep weathering,
sampling is restricted to second or third order streams. In such terrains clay minerals are
likely to be better as sampling media than coarser detrital fractions because of their high
cation exchange capacity and deep weathering of the bed rocks. As a precaution against
human contaminants and to check the reproducibility of the data, it is advisable to collect
stream sediment samples from the upstream and downstream ends of small point bars, so
far away from the banks as possible at a depth of approximately 50 cm below the surface.
(iv) Another common method is to collect stream sediments, particularly in the
dry season, from natural sediment traps along stream courses below
confluences.
(v) In cool, temperate areas, organic accumulations are likely to provide
important leads to ore deposits.
9.11.1. The optimum size fraction for stream sediment sampling varies in
different
environments. At high latitudes and altitudes, coarser fragments are normally useful for
tracing anomalies. Similarly in arid and semi-arid tracts, a coarse fraction plus an
ultrafine fraction is appropriate. In lateritised areas, size fractions depend on the nature of
mobility of the target element and its affinity for iron oxide nodules, kaolin etc. the
preferred range is from +35 mesh to – 200 mesh, changing with the type of landscape, its
history of evolution, alteration path of the target element etc.
9.11.2. Sample density is normally one per 2-5 sq.km. in the reconnaissance stage.
Two types of samples are collected at each site – a panned heavy mineral concentrate and
a wet-sieved -200 mesh fraction of stream sediment. The wet-sieved material is allowed
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to settle for 10 minutes, decanted and then transferred to a plastic bag, decanted again and
air dried.
9.12. Hydrogeochemical sampling is best suited for elements which are easily
mobile under near-surface environments, e.g. U, Cu, Pb, Zn, Mo, S (as SO4)). Other
elements like As, Be, Co, Ni, Sn, W, Ag, V, Cr etc. are also mobile under special
circumstances. The movement is either in groundwater or surface water. For groundwater
sampling, dug wells, spring, boreholes etc. are targeted. For surface water, streams are
sampled, prefereably discharge from lower order streams. Hydrogeochemical prospecting
is neither useful in semi-arid (less than 20cm/ year) nor in high rainfall (greater than 100
cm/year) areas.Another problem is proper storage of the samples in the field and transport
of large samples (1 or 2 litre bottles) to the laboratory, particularly in countries of the
tropical belt.
9.12.1. Advantages and disadvantages of hydrogeochemical prospecting are
Advantages:
(i) Samples are usually easy to collect.
(ii) In covered or deeply weathered terrains, the water sample provides a direct
window to a concealed mineral deposit due to their direct contact.
(iii) Since some anions like SO42N are useful as pathfinders, information about
anions is readily available only from water samples (F-, Br-, Cl-).
(iv) Speciation can be determined and the possible state of oxidation of the source
and by implication, at least in some cases, about its actual nature, can be
suspected, e.g. Cu+ / Cu 2+
,U 4+
/U 6+
, As 3+
/ As 5+
, etc. Computer models are
available for interpreting speciation, saturation indices and mass transfer.
Disadvantages:
(i) Composition of water changes with time and season.
(ii) Special methods of preservation and filtration are frequently required to study
the pristine nature of the sample.
(ii) Special analytical techniques are required where the concentration of the
radicals is low.
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(iv) The sample canot be preserved over a long time for future cross-check. In
fact, it is unwise to keep a sample for more than 48 hours unanalyzed.
(v) Extraneous factors like adsorption, osmosis, etc. amy modify the water
chemistry.
(vi) Proper interpretation, particularly where the source is concealed, requires a
careful study of flow paths and associated hydrologic systems.
GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION
10.1. Geophysical Surveys make use of either the natural fields of the Earth or
require the input into the ground of artificially generated energy. Local perturbations in
the natural fields such as gravitational, magnetic, electrical and electromagnetic, caused
by concealed geological features of economic or other interest, are mapped to provide
information on the distribution of geological boundaries at depth. Similarly generation of
artificial fields- electrical, electromagnetic and seismic- creates transmission and
propagation of waves through the subsurface of the earth, which are then received back
and mapped.
10.2. A wide range of geophysical exploration methods: (Table )
Method Measured Parameter Operative Physical Property

Seismic Travel time of reflected/refracted Density and elastic moduli,
seismic waves. which determine the
propagation velocity of
seismic waves.
Gravity Spatial variation in the strength of Density
the gravitational field of the Earth
Magnetic Spatial variations in the strength of Magnetic susceptibility and
the geomagnetic field. remanence.
Electrical Earth resistance Electrical conductivity
Resistivity
Induced Polarization voltages of frequency- Electrical capacitance
Polarization dependent ground resistance.
Self-potential Electrical potentials Electrical conductivity
Electromagnetic Response to electromagnetic Electrical conductivity and
radiation inductance
Radar Travel times of reflected radar pulses Dielectric constant
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10.3. The main fields of application of geophysical surveying, together with an

indication of the most appropriate surveying methods for each application, are listed in
Table._____.
Application Appropriate survey methods

Exploration for fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal) S, G,M (EM)
Exploration for metalliferous mineral deposits M, EM, E, SP, IP, R
Exploration for bulk mineral deposits (sand and gravel) S, (E), (G)
Exploration for underground water supplies E, S,(G), (Rd)
Engineering / construction site investigation E, S, Rd, (G), (M)
Archaeological Investigation Rd, E, EM, M, (S)
G-gravity; M-magnetic; S-seismic; E – electrical resistivity; SP-self-potential; IP –
induced polarization; EM – electromagnetic; R – radiometric; Rd – ground penetrating
radar; Subsidiary methods in brackets.
10.4. In seismic surveying, seismic waves are created by a controlled source and
propagate through the subsurface. Some waves will return to the surface after refraction
or reflection at geological boundaries within the subsurface. Instruments distributed along
the surface detect the ground motion caused by these returning waves and hence measure
the arrival times of the waves at different ranges from the source. These travel times may
be converted into depth values and hence, the distribution of subsurface geological
interfaces may be systematically mapped.
10.4.1. Seismic survey methods are particularly well suited to the mapping of
layered sedimentary sequences and are therefore widely used in the search for oil and
gas. The methods are also used, on a smaller scale, for the mapping of near-surface
sediment layers, the location of the water table and, in an engineering context, site
investigation of foundation conditions including the determination of depth to bedrock.
10.4.2. In seismic reflection survey, differing procedures are adopted for the
interpretation of two- and three- dimensional seismic data. In two-dimensional seismic
data, interpretations are correlated from line to line, and the reflection times of picked
events are compared directly at profile intersections. There are two main approaches to
the interpretation of seismic sections: structural analysis which is the study of reflector
geometry on the basis of reflection times, and the stratigraphical analysis (or seismic
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stratigraphy), which is the analysis of reflection sequences as the seismic expression of

lithologically-distinct depositional sequences.
10.4.3. In the interpretation of three-dimensional survey data (i) various type of
data can be selected for colour display, for vertical or horizontal sections (time slices);
(ii) correlation between adjacent profile lines, (iii) accuracy of reflector positioning; (iv)
improved coverage and resolution. As with two-dimensional interpretation, bothe
structural and stratigraphic analysis may be carried out.
10.4.4. Both structural and stratigraphical analyses are greatly assisted by seismic
modeling, in which theoretical (synthetic) seismograms are constructed for layered
models in order to derive insight into the physical significance of reflection events
contained in seismic sections.
10.4.5. Previously seismic reflection survey was carried out exclusively for
searching of hydrocarbons and coal, down to depths of few kilometers. Now the method
is extensively carried out for studies of the entire continental crust and the uppermost
mantle to depths of several tens of kilometers. In view of extreme range of depths that
cane be probed by this method, it is extensively applied for high-resolution onshore
mapping of shallow geology to depths of a few tens or hundreds ok kilometers.
Exploration boreholes are normally sited on seismic profile lines so that the borehole logs
can be correlated directly with the local seismic section. This facilitates precise
geological identification of specific seismic reflectors, especially if vertical seismic
profiling surveys are carried out at the site of the borehole.
10.4.6. The seismic refraction surveying method uses seismic energy that returns
to the surface after traveling through the ground along refracted ray paths. The vast
majority of refraction surveying is carried out along profile lines which are arranged to be
sufficiently long to ensure and a consequence of this requirement is that large seismic
sources are needed for the detection of deep refractors in order that sufficient energy is
transmitted over the long range necessary for the recording of deep refracted phases as
first arrivals. This method is applied for engineering and environmental surveys,
hydrological and crustal seismology.
10.5. In gravity surveying, subsurface geology is investigated on the basis of
variations in the Earth’s gravitational field arising from differences of density between
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subsurface rocks. An underlying concept is the idea of a causative body, which is a rock
unit of different density from its surroundings. A causative body represents a subsurface
zone of anomalous mass and causes a localized perturbation in the gravitational field
known as a gravity anomaly.
10.5.1. Gravity surveying is used (i) in the investigations of large- and medium-
scale geological structures, (ii) in the study of ancient sutures, (iii) to reveal the
subsurface form of igneous intrusions such as granite batholiths and anorthosite massifs,
(iv)in the location of sedimentary basins and their interpreted structures on mechanisms
of basin formation etc. However the method is slow to execute and expensive, as accurate
determinations of elevation and length of the reduction time are required.
10.6. The aim of a magnetic survey is to investigate subsurface geology on the
basis of anomalies in the Earth’s magnetic field resulting from the magnetic properties of
the underlying rocks. Certain rock types contain sufficient magnetic minerals to produce
significant magnetic anomalies. Magnetic surveying has a broad range of applications,
from small- scale engineering or archaeological surveys to detect buried metallic objects,
to large scale surveys carried out to investigate regional geological structure.
10.6.1. Magnetic surveying is a rapid and cost-effective technique and represents
one of the most widely used geophysical methods in terms of line length surveyed.
Magnetic surveys are used extensively in the search for metalliferous mineral deposits, a
task accomplished rapidly and economically by airborne methods. Magnetic surveys are
capable of locating massive sulphide deposits, especially when used in conjunction with
electromagnetic methods. However, the principal target of magnetic surveying is iron ore.
The ratio of magnetite to haematite must be high for the ore to produce significant
anomalies, as haematite is commonly non-magnetic.
10.7. There are many methods of electrical surveying. Some make use of fields
within the Earth while others require the introduction of artificially-generated currents
into the ground. The resistivity method is used in the study of horizontal and vertical
discontinuities in the electrical properties of the ground, and also in the detection of
three-dimensional bodies of anomalous electrical conductivity. It is routinely used in
engineering and hydrogeological investigations to investigate the shallow subsurface
geology. The induced polarization method makes use of the capacitive action of the
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subsurface to locate zones where conductive minerals are disseminated within their host
rocks. The self-potential method makes use of natural currents flowing in the ground that
are generated by electrochemical processes to locate shallow bodies of anomalous
conductivity. Electrical methods utilize direct currents or low-frequency alternating
currents to investigate the electrical properties of the subsurface.
10.7.1. Resistivity surveying is an efficient method for delineating shallow
layered sequences or vertical discontinuities involving changes of resistivity. It does,
however, suffer from a number of limitations.
(i) Interpretations are ambiguous. Consequently, independent geophysical
and geological controls are necessary to discriminate between valid alternative
interpretations of the resistivity data.
(ii) Interpretation is limited to simple structural configuration. Any deviations
from these simple situations may be impossible to interpret.
(iii) Topography and the effects of near-surface resistivity variations can mask the
effects of deeper variations.
(iv) The depth of penetration of the method is limited by the maximum electrical
power that can be introduced into the ground and by the physical difficulties of laying out
long lengths of cable. The practical depth limit for most surveys is about 1 km.
10.7.2. Resistivity surveys are usually restricted to relatively small-scale
investigations because of the labour involved in physically planting the electrodes prior to
each measurement. It is probable, however, that with the increasing availability of non-
contacting conductivity measuring devices, this restriction will no longer apply.
Resistivity surveys are widely used in hydrogeological investigations. The IP method is
extensively used in base metal exploration as it has a high success rate in locating low-
grade ore deposits such as disseminated sulphides.These have strong IP effect but are
non-conducting and therefore are not really detectable by the electromagnetic methods.
The SP method is only of minor importance in exploration. This is because quantitative
interpretation is difficult and the depth of penetration is limited to about 30m. It is,
however, a rapid and cheap method requiring only simple field equipment. Consequently,
it can be useful in rapid ground reconnaissance for base metal deposits when used in
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conjunction with magnetic, electromagnetic and geochemical techniques. It is also used

in hydrogeological investigations.
10.8. Electromagnetic (EM) surveying methods make use of the response of the
ground to the propagation of electromagnetic fields, which are composed of an
alternating electric intensity and magnetizing force. Primary electromagnetic fields are
generated in the ground. The response of the ground is the generation of secondary
electromagnetic fields, which are then detected. All anomalous bodies with high
electrical conductivity produce strong secondary electromagnetic fields. Some ore bodies
containing minerals that are themselves insulators may produce secondary fields if
sufficient quantities of an accessory mineral with a high conductivity are present. For
example, electromagnetic anomalies observed over certain sulphide ores are due to the
presence of the conducting mineral pyrrhotite distributed throughout the rock.
10.9. The principal use of EM surveys is in the exploration of metalliferous
mineral deposits. In spite of the limited depth of penetration, airborne techniques are
frequently used in reconnaissance surveys. EM methods are also used in the follow-up
ground surveys which provide more precise information on the target area.
10.10. Geophysical borehole logging, also known as downhole geophysical
surveying or wire-line logging, is used to derive further information about the sequence
of rocks penetrated by a borehole. Of particular value is the ability to define the depth to
geological interfaces or beds that have a characteristic geophysical signature, to provide a
means of correlating geological information between boreholes and to obtain information
on the in-situ properties of the wall rock. In practice the most useful and widely applied
methods are based on electrical resistivity, electromagnetic induction, self-potential,
natural and induced radioactivity, sonic velocity and temperature. Other specialized
logging techniques are gravity, magnetic logging and vertical seismic profiling.
10.10.1. The geological properties obtainable from borehole logging are –
formation thickness and lithology, porosity, permeability, proportion of water and / or
hydrocarbon saturation, stratal dip and temperature.
DRILLING
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11. Drilling is an important procedural component in mineral exploration to (i)

ascertain the subsurface configuration of the ore body (ii) to bring out three dimensional
model of the ore deposit (iii) to reserve blocks for ultimate exploitation and (iv) arrive at
the grade of the deposit. Core drilling is resorted to in mineral exploration and there are
two types of core drills (i) percussion and (ii) rotary. Diamond drill of rotary type is
deployed invariably.
11.1. Diamond bits in diamond drill provide a very hard medium to penetrate
through the rock. Depending upon the hardness of the rock type, diamond settings in the
bit are chosen. (Table--)
Hardness Rock Type Diamond Matrix

size Recommendation
In SPC* Non- Abrasive
abrasive
Very soft Talc, Bauxite 4/7 Hard Extra-hard
Soft Gypsum, rock salt, coal etc 10/15 Hard Extra-hard
Medium hard Fluorite, dolomite, sandstone etc. 15/25 Hard Extra hard
Hard(solid & Apatite, soft granite, granite 25/40 Hard Extra-hard
broken) gneiss
Hard (solid Fine gneiss, hard granite 40/60 Hard Extra hard
formation)
Very hard Quartz, chert 60/80 Regular Hard
(solid
formation)
* Spc – Stones per carat.
11.2. DCDMA Standards for diamond drill holes are given in Appendix
______, an awareness helps the field geologist to decipher the dia of the drill core
required for investigation and the type of drill type to be deployed.
11.3. The quantum of drilling required (spacing between two drillboles and the
depth desired) depends on size and type of the deposit, category of reserves required to be
proved and topographic setting of deposits. The following factors influence choice of
drilling method to be adopted:
(i) Degree of rock coherence such as hard, friable, brittle or loose. Rate of
penetration depends on this property.
(ii) Strength of rock to resist disintegration is related to compressive,
tensile, bending and shearing strength of rock.
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(iii) Elasticity and plasticity: Elasticity is ability to remove original stage

on release of pressure. Plasticity is a quality to change its shape under
applied force without rupture.
(iv) Abrasiveness: It si the degree of wearing out of cutting tools caused
by rock.
(v) Joints and cleavages: These not only reduce resistance to mechanical
force but also cause deviation of borehole path.
(vi) Porosity and permeability: The properties have bearing on the
mechanical strength of rock. Water-bearing formations facilitate supply of
water during drilling.
11.4. The boreholes may be drilled vertically in horizontal or shallow dipping
formations and inclined in moderate to steeply dipping ore bodies. In tabular low dipping
bodies, a square or rectangular grid pattern is opted. In narrow base metal vein deposits,
inclined boreholes are planned to intersect the orebody at different levels along cross
sectional lines at specified intervals.
11.5. Drilling data is to be presented in a standardized format such as:
Drill UTM Elevation (m) Azimuth (D) Dip (D) Length Core Area
Hole East North (m) Size
11.6. . Significant drill intercepts are to be given separately with assay value,
core structural orientations and core recovery percentage.
Area Drill Intercept (m) Interval (m) Assay (g/t) Orientation Core
Hole No From / to Comments Recovery
%
11.7.Drillhole Sample Record, that is normally maintained, is given in

Appendix_____.
11.8.Borehole deviation, its measurement and correction are to be undertaken in

each
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borehole operation. In most of the cases, there is a deviation of borehole from the planned
path. Deviation occurs due to following causes:
(i) Geological – Boreholes tend to follow line of least resistance in a direction
normal to bedding. Different physical characteristics of strata, weak structural
zones, such as joints, faults and voids, etc cause deviation.
(ii) Technical: faulty setting of drill machine, substandard drilling tools and their
improper applications may cause deviation. Change in r.p.m. of machine, flushing
intensity may also contribute for deviation.
The inclined boreholes have flattening tendency while intersecting laminated
formations. Deviation is certain, when both, borehole inclination and dip of formation are
low; and also when the borehole makes sharp angle with strike. In order to control
deviation particularly in deep boreholes, it is recommended that boreholes may be
surveyed for azimuth and angle deviation till the patern of deviation is established.
Accurate measurements of borehole angles at close intervals may be carried out by (i)
etching method using hydrofluoric acid; (ii) mass borehole canson compass; (iii) tropari
drill hole surveying instrument; (iv) photographic angle recording device; (v) Surwel
gyroscope instrument; (vi) dipmeter and (vii) electronic borehole survey instrument.
Corrective method has been developed to control or minimize the deviation by employing
directional drilling technique. A special type of wedge is fixed to the wall of the borehole
so that the bit takes up the desired course.
11.9. Drill core is collected in core barrels of 3 to 6 m length; and it is dried and
preserved in a core bax. Cores are stored usually in book form method. It is vertically
split into two halves after logging, by core splitter, one-half of the core is retained in the
core box. The other half is split again further to a quarter and both the duplicate and the
original are sampled and sent for analyses. Core recoveries are rarely!00% in core
drilling. Core and sludge samples are to be sampled separately and the assay data, to be
combined while processing the data and graded. For example,
A sample giving core recovery of 77.3% analyses 61.00% Fe and the remaining analyses
57.60% Fe; then
Combined analysis = (57.60x22.7 + 61.00x77.3) / 100 = 60.23% Fe.
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11.10. Determination of weighted average and arithmetic average of assay values of

analyses of samples is to be determined for ore reserve estimation. In weighted average
assay, the assay values are weighted by taking into account the volume or weight of the
sample of a given length. It truly reflects value for given volume or length unlike
arithmetic average, where value and only the number of samples are considered.
Weighted average = Length Assay Product (WxA)/ Sample length (W) in meters;
Arithmetic average = Assay value (A) in % / Number of samples (N).
11.11. Following measures are considered important to enhance drilling quality

and efficiency:
(i) To develop techniques to maximize core recovery in difficult strata
condition by introducing mud technology, reverse circulation, vacuum
suction, etc.
(ii) To introduce non-core drilling by Down The Hole Hammer (DTH)
method to supplement core drilling to effect faster and cheaper drilling.
(iii) To strength existing borehole surveying techniques.
(iv) To control deviation and to introduce controlled directional drilling
with proper deflectors and to introduce Dyna drills for getting multiple
intersections.
(v) To strength pencil hole geophysical logging techniques.
(vi) To introduce increasing use of large diameter drills.
(vii) To develop technique to drill deep boreholes on straight line path for
nuclear waste disposal and for tapping geothermal energy.
11.12. On completion of drilling, the site is restored to an extent to its original
landscape by filling up of the sumps and setting right the other disturbances.
11.13 Borehole logs are skeletonised and preserved for posterity. Drill Core
Management is an intrinsic aspect in all types of Mineral Exploration. Drill core has
significant scientific value as a physical record of a mineral resource as well as an
invaluable asset value for future exploration programmes. Given the effort and cost
Central Region 33
invested in retrieving it, drill cores preservation and management is an absolute

essentiality in Mineral Exploration.
ANALYTICAL DATA AND PROCESSING

12.1. Most crustal and mantle rocks consist of seven major oxides, SiO2,
Al2O3, FeO (Fe2O3), MgO, CaO, Na2O and K2O, the relative abundances of which vary
considerably. Elements are conveniently divided into three groups on the basis of their
abundance (expressed as weight percent of the oxide). A major element typically
constitutes from about 1.0% of a rock, whereas a minor element constitutes about 1.0 to
0.1% and a trace element is less than about 0.1%. Though the classification is arbitrary,
yet the determination of their quantities in the rocks is significant in arriving at the
anomalies.
12.2. An array of instruments is now available for the determination of major,
minor and trace elements. They are:
(i) XRF (ii) SEM (iii) EPMA (iv) ICP-AES (v) ICP-MS (vi) AAS (vii) NAA (viii)
Emission Spectrography (ix) Classical Methods – Gravimetric, Volumetric or Titrimetric,
Specific Ion Electrode, Induction Furnace etc.
12.3. Petrological Studies bring out detailed description on mineralogical
assemblage, their textural and paragenetic aspects, classification as per IUGS and
petrogenetic inferences.
12.4. Petrochemical applications aid in plotting of values in various binary,
ternary and petrogenetic diagrams to understand the geological milieu and tectonic
framework under which the lithoassemblage had formed.
12.5. Judicious sampling methodology, so as to avoid sampling errors has been
stressed in earlier sections at various stages of mineral exploration and the analyses of the
samples for detection of major, minor and trace elements by various means in a variety of
equipments under different laboratory conditions result in the accumulation enormous
data sets. The data sets, thus generated are not from analytical errors but are rather
‘suspects’ in view of very low levels of contrasts and detection limits. This observation
necessitates application of geostatistics.
Central Region 34
12.5.1. Geostatistics can not neutralize the errors but aim in determining the
variations within the data and underline the uncertainty of quantitative estimates. Thus
the aim of geostatistics is to extract the maximum amount of information from the data,
using mathematical models for describing the attributes of a population (means, standard
deviation), classifying data into similar groups or clusters, exploring the degree of
correlation among many variables, and separating signal (non-random) from noise
(random). Hence the treatment of analytical data through geostatistical methods before
assessing the grade of an ore deposit, achieves the objectives of (i) estimating the natural
distribution and groups of elements in the sample population and (ii) eliminating
sampling error and analytical error, which establishes reliability in computations.
Geostatistics make an assessment on – precision, accuracy and reproducibility in the
sample populations.
12.5.2. Geostatistical methods are divided into two broad types: parametric and
non-parametric.
Parametric tests assume independent observations from normally distributed populations
of similar variance. These are more powerful in their predictive power at any given
confidence level; but the snag is that minor and trace elements of a rock body are usually
distributed in log normal pattern, because all the constituent minerals in the rock body do
not accommodate eaual amounts of the target element in their crystal structure.
Non-parametric tests are more relevant to mineral prospecting, since the validity of the
tests is not conditional upon an assumption of normal distribution; in fact, in non-
parametric tests the form of the distribution need not be known at all.
12.5.3. The most frequently used tests under the above two types of statistical
analysis are univariate tests and multivariate tests. Univariate tests are single element
programs; while multivariate tests examine relationships among several variables at a
time.
Univariate tests include determinations – mean, variance, standard deviation, standard
error, F- and t- tets, class intervals in histograms, confidence limits, and co-variance.
Multivariate tests carry out – element associations and ratios, correlation co-efficient,
regression equation, trend surface analysis, discriminant function analysis, and cluster
analysis.
Central Region 35
Several statistical soft-wares are now in use which have made treatment of sample-data a
child’s play.
DERIVATIVE MAPS / PLANS FROM DATA ACQUISITIONED
13 Survey –data and assay – data, thus generated help in bringing out the
preparation of following derivative maps and plans which are the pre-requisites for 3-D
visualization, modeling and mine planning.
(i) Bore hole correlation (ii) Contour Maps (iii) Isopach (equal thickness of ore body)
Maps (iv) Assay Plan (v) Horizontal slice plan or bench plan (vi) Ore Distribution plan
(vii) Mine Plan (viii) Cross sections (ix) Longitudinal vertical projection (x) Isometric
Projection etc.
RESERVE ESTIMATION
14. Reserve estimation of an ore deposit is a complex exercise depending on

several parameters which have been involved right from the beginning of prospecting
stage to systematic drilling in the exploration stage. Political and socio-economic
conditions also play an important role in deciding workability of the specific mineral
deposit. The context in which the term “reserve” is referred to also varies. Miners refer
reserve to the material what is at hand. Planners include the material that is likely to be
exposed in future operations.
14.1. There are several methods of reserve computation, choice of which

depends upon the nature of deposits, quantum of data available and the purpose of
computation. In estimation of reserves, volume or tonnage and grade of economically
extractable mineral commodity are established under existing economic and
technological conditions. Possible technological development or changes in economic
conditions within foreseeable future may have to be taken into account in few cases, the
method of computation should be relatively simple, rapid, reliable and capable of being
verified by simple tests. Common methods of reserve computation are as follows:
Central Region 36
(i) Average Factors and Area Method - There are two types in this (a) Method of
Analogy and (b) Method of geological Blocks. In both the methods, there is a common
assumption that certain areas being considered have similar geological features to those
which have been worked and their results are already known.
(ii) Mining Block Method – The Method is suitable for underground exploratory
mining.
(iii) Cross-Section Method – In this Method, the mineral body is divided into
blocks by constructing geological section at equal intervals, as far as possible, along
transverse line. There are three variations of this Method.
(a) Standard Method, based on rule of gradual change,
(b) Linear Method, based on rule of nearest point and,
(C) Method of Isolines, again based on rule of gradual change.
(iv) Analytical Method – This Method includes (a) Method of Triangles. And (b)
Method of Polygons.
14.2. Basic aspects on the methodology of reserve computation under each Method and
the applicability of each Method to the type of deposit are given in Appendix______.
CLASSIFICATION AND CATEGORIZATION OF RESERVES
15. In India, GSI brought out report on standardization of Terminology and

classification of ores and Mineral Resources. (i) It provided uniform code of ore resource
categorization for nation wide application and also the phase wise exploration
programme to facilitate financial decision making at different stages. Before this, certain
set of categories such as proved, probable, possible or measured, indicated, inferred were
in use based on geological data. Economic significance of Indian Standards (BIS) in 1987
developed reserve classification, defining reserve, resource and reserve base for proper
appreciation of their classification and indicating their economic and sub-economic
status.
Central Region 37
15.1. Subsequently, United nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)

has finalized a system of mineral resource classification known as UNFC(United Nations
Framework Classification). It is aimed at evolving internationally uniform system based
on market economy criteria which is understandable in all the countries. The system is to
bring about uniformity in expressions of confidence levels of estimation of resources, all
through the world enabling the investment agencies to take appropriate decision before
launching mineral development projects in other countries.
15.2. The UNFC system consists of a three dimensional system with the
following three axes: (i) Geological assessment (ii) feasibility assessment and (iii)
economic viability. Thus in UNFC, there is a three digit code based system The economic
viability axis represents the first digit, the feasibility axis represents the second digit and
the geological axis, the third digit. Three categories of economic viability have codes 1,2
and 3 in the decreasing order of their abstract values. Feasibility studies also have similar
three codes. The geological assessment has four stages represented by four codes; viz. (1)
Detailed exploration (2) General exploration (3) Prospecting and (4) Reconnaissance.
Thus the highest category of resources under UNFC system will have the code (111) and
the lowest category would be (334). The various terms used in the classification, their
definitions and equivalents to NMI are given in Table _____.
S.No UNFC Code Equivalent in NMI Remarks

1 Total Mineral
Resources
(i) Measured (331) In situ proved
Mineral Resource Reserve
(ii) Indicated (332)
Mineral Resource n situ Probable
(iii) Inferred (333) Reserve
Mineral Resource
In situ Possible
Reserve
2 Mineral Reserve
(i) Proved Mineral (111) Recoverable Reserve
Reserves Proved
Recoverable
(ii) Probable (121 & Reserves
reserves 122) Recoverable Reserve
Proved
Central Region 38
Recoverable
Reserves
3 Reconnaissance (334) Recoverable The estimate is based
Mineral resource Reserves Proved on regional scale
Recoverable geological studies,
reserves mapping, geophysical
surveys etc.
4 Pre-feasibility (221 & Probable conditional This constituted part of
Mineral Resource 222) Reserve indicated and perhaps
measured resources
identified by pre-
feasibility studies as
not economically
mineable. May
become viable in
future.
5 Feasibility Mineral (211) In situ conditional This constituted part of
Resource Proved conditional measured mineral
Reserves resource, which after
feasibility study found
to be not economically
mineable. May
become viable in
future.
Central Region 39

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Draft A Manual On Standard Operating Procedures in Mineral Exploration

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Geological Survey of India

1.3. Mineral Deposits of the earth’s crust are defined as accumulations of

(i) Mission I – Baseline Geoscience Data Generation comprising

(C) Marine and Coastal Surveys

(a) Marine Surveys

BASELINE GEOSCIENCE DATA GENERATION- A PRE-REQUISITE

2.2. Geological Mapping is a fine art, a skillful and subtle combination of

2.5. A Manual on SOPs in respect of work components of Baseline Geoscience

A SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION FOR PROSPECTING

3.1. The classification of a mineral deposit for the design of appropriate

(1) origin of the deposit: magmatic, sedimentary, residual, metamorphic;

(3) morphology of the deposit:

3.3. Regional and District Level Geological Maps on scale1:50000 are

PROSPECTING THROUGH REMOTE SENSING

4.1. Electromagnetic radiation of the Earth is detected in visible to near-

4.2. Establishment of Natural Resources Management and System in Indian

4.3. Thus, generation of seamless geological maps on regional scale is carried

DATA-DRIVEN ORE GENESIS MODELING

5.1. Usage of Geographic Information System in Mineral Exploration made

5.3. Data-Driven Ore Genesis Model (Phase-I) is considered essential at this

5.5. From the data generated so far from the activities of

LARGE-SCALE MAPPING – ON SCALES 1:15000 / 1:10000

6.1. The process of representing geographic / geologic features on a sheet of

(iv) preferred orientation of the planar surfaces, fracture systems

6.4. Large-scale geological map is a visual representation of the relevant

6.6. Though the usage of Total Station in Mineral Exploration Surveys is in

DETAILED MAPPING ON SCALES 1: 5000, 1: 2000, 1: 1000 OR EVEN LARGER

7.1. Depending upon the type of mineral deposit, nature of mineralization,

7.3. Methodology of mapping is similar to Large Scale Mapping, however,

SAMPLING, PITTING AND TRENCHING

Name of the investigation Date of commencement

Name of the investigation Date of Commencement

(2) Number of samples taken with their particulars

9.1. Recognition of primary and secondary dispersion haloes around ore

9.2 Geochemical prospecting is broadly classified into the following types

(i) the strength of the anomaly related to a known orebody;

9.6. Lithogeochemical prospecting aims at locating epigenetic anomalies in

Table.______. Factors to be optimized by an orientation survey preparatory to rock

Indicator elements are usually relatively homogeneously distributed in dispersion

9.11. Stream sediments comprise composite samples of weathered and primary

Method Measured Parameter Operative Physical Property

10.3. The main fields of application of geophysical surveying, together with an

Application Appropriate survey methods

stratigraphy), which is the analysis of reflection sequences as the seismic expression of

conjunction with magnetic, electromagnetic and geochemical techniques. It is also used

11. Drilling is an important procedural component in mineral exploration to (i)

Hardness Rock Type Diamond Matrix

(iii) Elasticity and plasticity: Elasticity is ability to remove original stage

11.7.Drillhole Sample Record, that is normally maintained, is given in

11.8.Borehole deviation, its measurement and correction are to be undertaken in

11.10. Determination of weighted average and arithmetic average of assay values of

11.11. Following measures are considered important to enhance drilling quality

invested in retrieving it, drill cores preservation and management is an absolute

ANALYTICAL DATA AND PROCESSING

DERIVATIVE MAPS / PLANS FROM DATA ACQUISITIONED

14. Reserve estimation of an ore deposit is a complex exercise depending on

14.1. There are several methods of reserve computation, choice of which

CLASSIFICATION AND CATEGORIZATION OF RESERVES

15. In India, GSI brought out report on standardization of Terminology and

15.1. Subsequently, United nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)

S.No UNFC Code Equivalent in NMI Remarks

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