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Engineering
Drawing
and Design THIRD EDITION

CECIL JENSEN
Former Technical Director
R. S. McLaughlin Collegiate and
Vocational Institute
Oshawa, Ontario. Canada

JAY D. HELSEL
Professor
Department of Industrial Arts
and Technology
California University of Pennsylvania
California. Pennsylvania

GREGG DIVISION
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

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Sponsoring Editor: D. Eugene Gilmore
Editing Supervisor: Alfred Bernardi
Design and Art Supervisor: Patricia Lowy
Production Supervisor: Frank Bellantoni

Cover Photographs: Computervision and Evans & Sutherland

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Jensen. Cecil Howard, (date)
Engineering drawing and design.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Mechanical drawing. 2. Engineering design.
I. Helsel. Jay D. II. Title.

T353.J47 1985 604.2 83-19896

ISBN 0-07-032533-2

Engineering Drawing and Design. Third Edition

Copyright © 1985. 1979, 1968 by McGraw-Hill. Inc. All

United States of
rights reserved. Printed in the
America. Except as permitted under the United States
Copyright Act of 1976. no part of this publication may
be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system,
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

5 6 7 8 9 VHVH 8 9 10 9 8

ISBN Q-D7-D32533-Z
CONTENTS

Preface
PART FOUR
POWER TRANSMISSIONS 328
PART ONE Chapter 17 Belts, Chains, and Gears 329
BASIC DRAWING DESIGN 1 Chapter 18 Couplings, Clutches, Brakes, and
Speed Reducers 366
Chapter 1 The Language of Industry 2
Chapter 19 Bearings, Lubricants, and Seals 375
Chapter 2 Drafting Skills and Drawing
Chapter 20 Cams, Linkages, and Actuators 398
Office Practices 7
Chapter 21 Fluid Power 419
Chapter 3 Theory of Shape Description 44
Chapter 4 Applied Geometry 72
Chapter 5 Basic Dimensioning 82
Chapter 6 Working Drawings 127 PART FIVE
Chapter 7 Sections and Conventions 140
SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING 436
Chapter 22 Development and Intersections , 437
Chapter 23 Pipe Drawings 460
Chapter 24 Structural Drafting 473
PART TWO Chapter 25 Electricaland Electronics Drawings 499
FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND Chapter 26 Jigsand Fixtures 522
FORMING PROCESSES 164 Chapter 27 Die Design 538
Chapter 8 Threaded Fasteners 165
Chapter 9 Miscellaneous Types of Fasteners 188
Chapter 10 Forming Processes 209 PART SIX
Chapter 1 1 Welding Drawings 225 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN 554
Chapter 12 Manufacturing Materials 246
Chapter 28 Applied Mechanics 555
Chapter 29 Strength of Materials 569
Chapter 30 Engineering Tolerancing 600
Chapter 31 Descriptive Geometry 654
PART THREE Chapter 32 Computer-Aided Design and Drafting 672
INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN 268
Chapter 33 Design Concepts 694
Chapter 13 Auxiliary Views 269
Chapter 14 Pictorial Drawings 278 Appendix 704
Chapter 15 Functional Drafting 306
Chapter 16 Drawing for Numerical Control 319 Index 777

iii
« A«£HBIWI 1
PREFACE
Engineering Drawing and Design, Third Edition, is pre-
pared for a two-semester course in engineering drawing.
The contents are consistent with the trends and practices
currently used in the preparation of engineering drawings.
Technical drafting, like all technical areas, is constantly
changing. The computer has revolutionized the way in
which drawings are prepared. For this reason, three new
topics have been introduced in the third edition of
Engineering Drawing and Design —
computer-aided draft-
ing (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and
electricaland electronics drafting. In this new edition, the
authors have made every effort to translate the most cur-
rent technical information available into the most usable
form from the standpoint of both teacher and student. The
latest developments and current practices in all areas of
graphic communication, computer-aided drafting (CAD),
electronics drafting, functional drafting, materials repre-
sentation, shop processes, numerical control, true position-
ing, geometric tolerancing. and metrication have been
incorporated into this text in a manner that synthesizes,
simplifies, and converts complex drafting standards and
procedures into understandable instructional units. Exten-
sive author research and visits to drafting rooms throughout
the country have resulted in a combination of current draft-
ing practices and practical pedagogical techniques that pro-
duces the most efficient learning system yet designed for
the instruction of engineering drawing.
A new Chapter 32, "Computer-Aided Design and Draft-
ing," explains the basic concepts that a drafter or student
drafter needs to know about CAD. It provides an excellent
introduction to this topic.
Chapter 25, "Electrical and Electronics Drawings,"
introduces the student to the new state of the art —
the use
of computer chips and logic diagrams. The authors are
indebted to Robert Chadwick, Technical Director at the
McLaughlin C.V.I. Oshawa, Canada, for assisting in the
, Two sets of A4- or B-size worksheets are available sepa-
selection of topics and projects for this chapter.
Additional problems and the clustering of existing prob-
lems provides greater choice of material. Every chapter in
the text is divided into a number of single-concept units
each with its own objectives, instruction, examples,
review, and assignments. This organization provides the
student with a logical sequence of experiences which can be
adjusted to individual needs and also provides for max-
imum efficiency in learning essential concepts. Develop-
ment of each unit is from the simple to the complex and
from the familiar to the unfamiliar. Checkpoints are
included to provide maximum reinforcement at each level.
Although the adoption of the metric system for drawings
by smaller industries is not keeping pace with the large
international companies, it is increasing in use. For that
reason ANSI Y14.5M-1982 Dimensioning and Tolerancing,
ANSI B4. 2-1978 Preferred Metric Limits and Fits, and
ANSI Y14. 36-1978 Surface Texture Symbols have all been
published in the metric units of size and measurement. In
order to prepare our students for gainful employment upon
graduation, it is recommended that both the International
System of Units (SI) and the U.S. Customary System
(USCS) units of measurement be included in all technical
drawing programs.
Both SI and USCS units are used throughout the text and
in all problems. Thus, the text may be used in a completely
metric-oriented course, or in a course which utilizes both
metric and customary systems. The teacher may also cus-
tomize the course by selecting appropriate problems or
materials to emphasize or deemphasize any degree of metri-
cation. The dual dimensions shown in this book, especially
in the assignment sections, are neither hard nor soft conver-
sions. Instead, the sizes are those that would be most
commonly used in the particular dimensioning units and so
are only approximately equal. Dual dimensioning in this
way avoids awkward amounts and allows instructor and
student to be confident that a drawing using either set of
dimensions will be no more difficult to work than one
dimensioned exclusively in either dimensioning system.
rately for the completion of the problems. The worksheets
include the problem in metric form on one side and in
customary form on the reverse side. They are preprinted
with light lines to provide the student with a beginning to
each problem. Using these worksheets eliminates some of
the initial work such as preparing borders, legends, data
lines, and so forth. The worksheets also provide the student
with the positioning of the drawing on each sheet, thus
enabling the student to concentrate on the solution to the
problem rather than on the mechanics of beginning the
drawing. This focuses attention specifically on the concept
under consideration and eliminates time wasted in nones-
sential aspects of the lesson. In earlier units, a certain
Vi PREFACE
amount of the work is completed for the student; in later
units, however, fewer lines are provided.
A complete solutions manual to most graphic problems
found in the text is also available from the publisher.
The authors would like to thank the many users of the
previous edition of the textbook for their thoughtful and
useful comments. In addition, the help of Hal Lindquist,
Donald Voisinet, and John Nee is appreciated and grate-
fully acknowledged.
Cecil Jensen
Jay D. Helsel
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
CECIL JENSEN is the author or coauthor of many suc-
cessful technicalbooks, including Engineering Drawing
and Design, Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing, Draft-
ing Fundamentals, Interpreting Engineering Drawings,
Architectural Drawing and Design for Residential Con-
struction, Home Planning and Design, and Interior Design.
Some of these books are printed in three languages and are
used in many countries.
He has twenty-seven years of teaching experience in
mechanical and architectural drafting and was a technical
director for a large vocational school in Canada.
Before entering the teaching profession, Mr. Jensen
gained several years of design experience in the industry.
He has also been responsible for the supervision of the
teaching of technical courses for General Motors appren-
tices in Oshawa, Canada.
He is a member
of the Canadian Standards Committee
(CSA) on Technical Drawings (which includes both
mechanical and architectural drawing) and is chairman of
the Committee on Dimensioning and Tolerancing. Mr.
Jensen is Canada's representative on the American (ANSI)
Standards for Dimensioning and Tolerancing and has
recently represented Canada at two world (ISO) con-
ferences in Oslo (Norway) and Paris on the standardization
of technical drawings.
He took an early retirement from the teaching profession
in order to devote his full attention to writing.
JAY D. HELSEL is a professor of industrial arts and tech-
nology at California University of Pennsylvania. He com-
pleted his undergraduate work in industrial arts at
California State College and was awarded a master's degree
from Pennsylvania State University. He has done advanced
graduate work at West Virginia and at the University of
Pittsburgh, where he completed a doctoral degree in educa-
tional communications and technology. In addition. Dr.
Helsel holds a certificate in airbrush techniques and tech-
nical illustration from the Pittsburgh Art Institute.
He has worked in industry and has taught drafting, metal-
working, woodworking, and a variety of laboratory and
professional courses at both the secondary and college
levels. During the past twenty years, he has also worked as
a free-lance artist and illustrator. His work appears in many
technical publications.
Dr. Helsel is coauthor of Engineering Drawing and
Design, Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing, Pro-
grammed Blueprint Reading, and Mechanical Drawing. He
is also the author of a series of Mechanical Drawing Film
Loops.
vii
 DRAFTING UPDATE (PRESENT DRAWING PRACTICES)
ANSI PUBLICATION Y14.5M-1982
FEATURE SYMBOL (EXCEPT WHERE NOTED, REFER
TO CLAUSE NO.)

LINES (THREE LINE WIDTHS NOW THICK

Y14.2M-1979
REPLACED BY TWO LINE WIDTHS.) THIN
LETTERING (TWO APPROVED STYLES.
HEIGHT OF LETTERING DEPENDENT Y14.2M-1979
ON DRAWING SIZE.
MILLIMETER DIMENSIONING PRACTICES CLAUSE 1.6.1

METRIC LIMITS AND FITS B4. 2-1978

DIAMETER SYMBOL (NOW PRECEDES

THE DIAMETER VALUE. THE SYMBOL CLAUSE 1.8.1
REPLACES THE ABBREVIATION DIA)
RADIUS SYMBOL (NOW PRECEDES THE CLAUSE 1.8.2
RADIUS VALUE)
REFERENCE DIMENSION (8.6) CLAUSE 1.7.6

SURFACE TEXTURE SYMBOL

y v v Y14. 36-1978

SPECIFYING REPETITIVE FEATURES CLAUSE 1.9.5

COUNTERBORE OR SPOTFACE CLAUSE 3.3.10

COUNTERSINK v CLAUSE 3.3.11

DEPTH J CLAUSE 3.3.12

CONICAL TAPER ^- 0.2 CLAUSE 2.13

FLAT TAPER — L^ 0.I5: CLAUSE 2.14

SYMMETRICAL OUTLINES
^ n CLAUSE 1.8.8

ALL AROUND o CLAUSE 3.4.2.3

DIMENSIONING CHORDS, ANGLES,

— 50— 60°-
CLAUSE 1.8.3
AND ARCS

NOT TO SCALE DIMENSION 20- CLAUSE 1.7.9

FEATURE CONTROL FRAME (FORMERLY

CALLED FEATURE CONTROL SYMBOL. $- O0.I A CLAUSE 3.4.2
ORDER OF SEQUENCE CHANGED)

DATUM TARGET SYMBOL CLAUSE 3.3.3

AND 4.5.1

STRAIGHTNESS CLAUSE 6.4.1

FLATNESS no CLAUSE 6.4.2

GEOMETRIC PARALLELISM CLAUSE 6.6.3

CHARACTERISTIC //
SYMBOLS SYMMETRY O CLAUSE 5.12

CIRCULAR RUNOUT / CLAUSE 6.7.2.1

TOTAL RUNOUT A/ CLAUSE 6.7.2.2

PARTI Basic Drawing
Design
CHAPTER 1
UNIT 1-1
The Language of
Industry
Since earliest times people have used
drawings to communicate and record
ideas so that they would not be forgot-
ten. The earliest forms of writing, such
as the Egyptian hieroglyphics, were
picture forms.
The word graphic means dealing
with the expression of ideas by lines or
marks impressed on a surface. A draw-
ing is a graphic representation of a real
thing. Drafting, therefore, is a graphic
language, because uses pictures to
it
communicate thoughts and ideas.
Because these pictures are understood
by people of different nations, draft-
ing is referred to as a "universal
language."
Drawing has developed along two
distinct lines, with each form having a
different purpose. On the one hand,
artistic drawing is concerned mainly
with the expression of real or imagined
ideas of a cultural nature. Technical
drawing, on the other hand, is con-
cerned with the expression of techni-
cal ideas or ideas of a practical nature,
and it is the method used in all
branches of technical industry.
Even highly developed word lan-
guages are inadequate for describing
the size, shape, and relationship of
physical objects. For every manufac-
2 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN
The Language
of Industry
tured object there are drawings that
describe its physical shape completely
and accurately, communicating en-
gineering concepts to manufacturing.
For this reason, drafting is referred
to as the "language of industry."
Drafters translate the ideas, rough
sketches, specifications, and calcula-
tions of engineers, architects, and
designers into working plans which are
used in making a product. See Figs.
1-1-1 through 1-1-7. Drafters may calcu-
late the strength, reliability, and cost
of materials. In their drawings and
specifications, they describe exactly
what materials workers are to use on a
particular job. To prepare draw-
their
ings, drafters use instruments such as
compasses, dividers, protractors, tem-
plates, and triangles, as well as draft-
ing machines that combine the func-
They also
tions of several devices.
may use engineering handbooks,
tables, calculators, and computers to
assist in solving technical problems.
Drafters are often classified accord-
ing to their type of work or their level
of responsibility. Senior drafters
(designers) take the preliminary infor-
mation provided by engineers and
architects to prepare design "layouts"
(drawings made to scale of the object
to be built). Detailers (junior drafters)
make drawings of each part shown on
the layout, giving dimensions, mate-
and any other information neces-
rial,
make the detailed drawing clear
sary to
and complete. Checkers carefully
examine drawings for errors in com-
puting or recording dimensions and
specifications.
Drafters also may specialize in a
particular field of work, such as me-
chanical, electrical, electronic, aero-
nautical, structural, or architectural
drafting.
DRAWING STANDARDS
Throughout the long history of draft-
ing, many drawing conventions,
terms, abbreviations, and practices
have come into common use. It is
essential that different drafters use the
same practices if drafting is to serve as
a reliable means of communicating
technical theories and ideas.
In the interest of efficient commu-
nication, the American National Stan-
dards Institute (ANSI) has adopted a
set of drafting standards which are rec-
ommended drawing practice in all
for
fields of engineering and are used and
explained throughout this text. These
standards apply primarily to end prod-
uct drawings, which usually consist of
detail or part drawings and assembly
or subassembly drawings, and are not
intended to fully cover other supple-
mentary drawings such as checklists,
parts lists, schematic diagrams, elec-
trical wiring diagrams, flowcharts,
installation drawings, process draw-
ings, architectural drafting, and pic-
torial drawing.
Fig. 1-1-1 Drafting — today and tomorrow. (Auto-Trol Corporation.)

THE LANGUAGE OF INDUSTRY 3

 25973
-Q
23059-^£
0^23143 ^©-2320-

Fig. 1-1-2 Pictorial drawings. |Skil Corp.)

Fig. 1-1-4 Pipe drawings. fJenkins Bros., Ltd.]

Fig. 1-1-3 Structural drawings. (American Institute of Steel

Construction.) Fig. 1-1-5 Machine drawings.

4 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 substantially to the improved quality
of photographically reproduced engi-
neering drawings.

CHANGING TIMES'
Fifty years have brought great changes
to the drafting room. Its physical
appearance, furnishings, even its draft-
ers and engineers have moved quickly
from their battered domain of old into
the Space Age.
These changes were brought about
largely by the recognition of many fac-
tors that affect the performances of
working people. Because designing
and drafting are specialized technical
fields today that require a high level of
precision, personnel efficiency in
PLAN these areas has been closely linked to
AREA: 1350 sq ft the working atmosphere.
(EXCLUDING CARPORT AND OUTSIDE STORAGE) A constant reappraisal of this atmos-
phere should be a prime responsibility
of all chief engineers and chief draft-
Fig. 1-1-6 Architectural drawings. ers. With an eye to improving working
conditions, thereby increasing effi-
OUTPUT
OFFSET NULL
ciency and bettering performance,
-12V
they should reevaluate periodically the
tables, boards, seating arrangements,
drafting machines and tools, lighting,
reference materials, and file units
assigned to their department.
Drafting room technology has pro-
gressed at the same rapid pace as the
economy of our country. Many
changes have taken place in the mod-
ern drafting room as compared to a
typical drafting room scene before the
turn of the century, shown in Fig.
1-1-8. Not only are there far more
tools, but they are of much higher
quality. From automated drafting
machines to computer-aided drafting
systems and from combination refer-
ence tables with adjustable drawing
boards to drawing media that contain
all the desired qualities for reproduc-

tion. Noteworthy progress has been

made and continues to be made as our
expanding technology takes giant
steps forward in this modern age.

Fig. 1-1-7 Electrical drawings.

The information and illustrations reading of microfilm require the proper

shown have been revised to reflect
current industrial practices in the prep-
aration and handling of engineering
documents. The increased use of
reduced-size copies of engineering
drawings made from microfilm and the
preparation of the original engineering
document. All future drawings should
be prepared for eventual photographic
reduction or reproduction. The obser-
vance of the drafting practices
described in this text will contribute
PLACES OF EMPLOYMENT 2
There are over 400 000 people working
in drafting positions in the United
States. Approximately 4 percent are
women. About 9 out of 10 drafters are
employed in private industry. Man-
ufacturing industries that employ large

THE LANGUAGE OF INDUSTRY 5


Fig. 1-1-8 The drafting office at
numbers are those making machinery,
equipment, transportation
electrical
equipment, and fabricated metal prod-
ucts. Nonmanufacturing industries
employing large numbers are engineer-
ing and architectural consulting firms,
construction companies, and public
utilities.
Over 25 000 drafters work for the
government; the majority work for the
armed services. Drafters employed by
state and local governments work
chiefly for highway and public works
departments. Several thousand draft-
ers areemployed by colleges and uni-
versities and by nonprofit organi-
zations.
TRAINING, QUALIFICATIONS,
ADVANCEMENT
Young people interested in
drafters can acquire the necessary
training from a number of sources,
including technical institutes, junior
and community colleges, extension
divisions of universities, vocational
and technical high schools, and corre-
spondence schools. Others may
qualify for drafting positions through
on-the-job training programs com-
bined with part-time schooling or
through 3- or 4-year apprenticeship
programs.
The prospective drafter's training,
whether obtained high school or
in
post-high school drafting programs,
should include courses in mathematics
and physical sciences, as well as in
mechanical drawing and drafting.
6 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN
the turn of the century. (Bettman Archive, Inc
Studying shop practices and learning
some shop are helpful, since
skills also
many higher-level draftingjobs require
knowledge of manufacturing or con-
struction methods. Many technical
schools offer courses in structural
design, strength of materials, and
physical metallurgy.
Young people having only
school drafting training usually start
out as tracers, or detailers. Those hav-
ing some formal post-high school tech-
nical training can often qualify as
junior drafters. As drafters gain skill
and experience, they may advance to
higher-level positions as checkers,
detailers. senior drafters, designers, or
supervisors of other drafters. See Fig.
1-1-9. Drafters who take courses in
engineering and mathematics are
sometimes able to transfer to engineer-
ing positions.
becoming
STANDARDS DEPT
COORDINATOR
SPECIFICATIONS
WRITER CHECKER
DETA
Fig. 1-1-9 Positions within the drafting office.
Qualifications for success as a
drafter may include the ability both to
visualize objects in three dimensions
and to do freehand drawing. Although
artistic ability is not generally re-
quired, it may be helpful in some spe-
cialized fields.
Drafting work also requires good
eyesight (corrected or uncorrected),
eye-hand coordination, and manual
dexterity.
EMPLOYMENT OUTLOOK
Employment opportunities for draft-
ers are expected to be favorable in the
future. Prospects will be best for those
having post-high school drafting train-
ing as many industries now regard the
2-year post-high school program as a
prerequisite for their drafters. Well-
qualified high school graduates who
have had only high school drafting,
however, also will be in demand.
Employment of drafters is expected
to rise rapidly as a result of the in-
creasingly complex design problems of
modern products and processes. In
addition, as engineering and scientific
high occupations continue to grow, more
drafters will be needed as support
personnel. On the other hand, photo-
reproduction of drawings and expand-
ing use of electronic drafting equip-
ment and computers are eliminating
some routine tasks done by drafters.
This development will probably
reduce the need for some less skilled
drafters.
References
1. Charles Bruning Co.
2. Occupational Outlook Handbook.
DRAFTING OFFICE
SUPERVISOR
DESIGN TEAMS ILLUSTRATIONS
DESIGNER COORDINATOR
/ \ SENIOR
DRAFTER ILLUSTRATOR
' CD JUNIOR
DRA FTER
CHAPTER 2
Drafting Skills

J
and Drawing
Office Practices

majority of cases, this that nec-

UNIT 2-1 essary.
is all

Equipment for manual drafting

is
UNIT 2-2
The Drafting Office is varied and is steadily being Manual Drafting
improved. Where a high volume of
finished or repetitive work is not nec- Equipment ana
The is the starting point
drafting office essary, this equipment does the job
for engineering work. Its product,
all adequately and inexpensively, and
Supplies
the engineering drawing, is the main most designers are accustomed to
method of communication between all working with it. Over the years, the designer's chair
people concerned with the design and A growing number of companies and drafting table have evolved into a
manufacture of parts. Therefore the have turned to automated drafting. drafting station which provides a com-
drafting office must provide accom- The reason is not simply to speed the fortable, integrated work area. Yet
modations and equipment for the drafting process. Automated drafting much of the equipment and supplies
drafters, from designer and checker to can serve as a full partner in the design employed years ago are still in use
detailer or tracer; for the personnel process, enabling the designer to do today, although they have been vastly
who make copies of the drawings and jobs that are simply not possible or improved.
file the originals ; and for the secretarial feasible with manual equipment.
staff who assist in the preparation of Computer-aided-drafting, normally
the drawings (Fig. 2-1-1). referred to asCAD. and drawings for
Most engineering departments still numerical control are covered in detail DRAFTING FURNITURE
rely on manual drafting needs. In the in Chaps. 32 and 16, respectively.
Special tables and desks are manufac-
tured for use in single-station or
multistation design offices. Typical are
desks with attached drafting boards
(Fig. 2-2-1). The boards may be used
by the occupant of the desk to which it
is attached, in which case it may swing

out of the way when not in use, or may

be reversed for use by the person in the
adjoining station.
In addition to such special work sta-
tions, a variety of individual desks,
chairs, tracing tables, filing cabinets,
and special storage devices for draw-
ings are available (Fig. 2-2-2).
The simplest manually adjustable
tables typically consist of a hinged sur-
face riding on a vertical rod secured by
Fig. 2-1-1 Drafting Office. |Vemco Corp.; a setscrew. The setscrew is loosened,
 Drafting Machines
In the well-equipped engineering
department, where the designer is
expected to do accurate drafting, the T
square has been replaced largely by
the drafting machine. This device,
which combines the functions of T
square, triangles, scale, and protrac-
tor, is estimated to save up to 50 per-
cent of the user's time. All positioning
is done with one hand, while the other

hand is free to draw.

Fig. 2-2-1 Drafting tables are available
Addressograph Multigraph Corp.)
Drafting machines may be attached
to any drafting board or table. Two
types are currently available. In the
track type, a vertical beam carrying
the drafting instruments rides along a
horizontal beam fastened to the top of
the table. In the arm, or elbow type
(Fig. 2-2-5),two arms pivot from the
top of the machine and are relative to
in a variety of sizes and styles. (Bruning Division,
each other.

Fig. 2-2-2 Drafting work stations. (Teledyne Post.) [Bruning.]

the top is set at the desired angle, and

the setscrew is retightened.

DRAFTING EQUIPMENT
See Fig. 2-2-3 for a variety of drafting
equipment.

Drawing Boards
The drawing sheet is attached directly
to the surface of a drafting table or a
portable drawing board (Fig. 2-2-4).
Drafting boards are used in schools
and for home use and generally have a
smaller work surface than what is
found on drafting tables. They are
designed to stay flat and have straight
guiding edges. Fig. 2-2-3 Drafting equipment. (Staedtler-Mars.)

8 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 * i
I
(A) WOOD OR PLASTIC HEAD WITH
Fig. 2-2-6 Drafting table with parallel slide. PLASTIC EDGE BLADE
|Addressograph Multigraph Corp.)

Fig. 2-2-4 Drawing boards. (Teledyne Post.)

(C) ADJUSTABLE HEAD WITH PLASTIC

EDGE BLADE
Fig. 2-2-7 T squares are available in various
styles and materials.(AM Bruning
Fig. 2-2-5 Arm type drafting machine. (Keuffel and Esser Co.) International.)

Track-type drafting machines are T Squares The head of the T square is placed
especially suitable for long-line work The T square (Fig. 2-2-7) performs the on the left side of a drawing board for
and large drawings. same function as the parallel slide. T use by right-handed people and on the
squares are made of various materials, right side of the drawing board for use
the more popular being plastic-edged by left-handed people.
Parallel Slide wood blades with heads made from
The parallel slide is used in drawing wood or plastic. Triangles
horizontal lines and for supporting tri- To check the accuracy of a T square Triangles are used together with the
angles, when vertical and sloping lines draw a sharp line along the drawing parallel straightedge or T square when
are being drawn. (See Fig. 2-2-6.) It is edge of the T square on a sheet of you are drawing vertical and sloping
fastened on each end to cords, which paper. Turn the T square upside down lines (Fig. 2-2-8). The triangles most
pass over pulleys. This arrangement and using the same drawing edge commonly used are the 30/60° and the
permits movement up and down the check the line for error. If the drawing 45° triangles. Singly or in combination,
board while maintaining the parallel edge and the pencil line do not match, these triangles can be used to form
slide in a horizontal position. the T square is not accurate. angles in multiples of 15°. For other

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 9

 D c angles, the protractor (Fig. 2-2-9) is

used. All angles can be drawn with the

adjustable triangle (Fig. 2-2-10); this

'
instrument replaces the two common
triangles and the protractor.

^ *

(A) THE 45 TRIANGLE /

D C
Fig. 2-2-10 Adjustable triangle. (Charles
Bruning Co.;

Scales
Shown in Fig. 2-2-11 are the common
\ shapes of scales used by drafters to

WM K make measurements on
ings. Scales areused only for measur-
their draw-

ing and are not to be used as a

straightedge when drawing lines. It is
important that drafters draw accu-
rately to scale. The scale to which the
drawing is made must be given in the
J c title block or strip.

~fe REGULAR
X
RELIEVED FACET
TRIANGULAR SCALES
3H DOUBLE OPPOSITE FLAT
BEVEL BEVEL BEVEL
(C) THE TRIANGLES IN COMBINATION
FLAT SCALES
Fig. 2-2-8 The triangles.
Fig. 2-2-11 End view shapes of scales.

When objects are drawn at their

actual size, the drawing is called full
scale or scale 1:1. Many objects, how-
ever, such as buildings, ships, or air-
planes, are too large to be drawn full
scale, so they must be drawn to a
reduced scale. An example would be
the drawing of a house to a scale of
Va in. = 1 ft.

Frequently, objects such as small

watch parts are drawn larger than their
actual size so that their shape can be
seen clearly. Such a drawing has been
drawn to an enlarged scale. The min-
ute hand of a wristwatch. for example,
Fig. 2-2-9 A protractor is used to lay out, or measure, angles. could be drawn to a scale of 5:1.

10 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 1

Many mechanical parts are drawn to 1.04- -02

2468 Itl
half scale. 1:2, and quarter scale, 1:4,
or nearest metric scale, 1:5. Notice
that the scale is expressed as an equa-
mm
1:1
TTTT / 50
'
"

2468 '

tion. The left side of the equation rep-

resents a unit of the size drawn; on the
right side, a unit of the actual drawing
equals five units of measurement of the 1:1 SCALE (1 mm DIVISIONS)
DECIMAL INCH SCALE (FULL SIZE)
actual object.
Scales are made with a variety of
combined scales marked on their sur-
faces. This combination of scales
spares the drafter the necessity of cal- 'HALF '
iii|iiii|iiM|iMiimi|iii
culating the sizes to be drawn when SIZE

working to a scale other than full size.

Metric Scales DECIMAL INCH SCALE (HALF SIZE)

The linear unit of measurement for

mechanical drawings is the millimeter. 1:2 SCALE (2mm DIVISIONS)
Scale multipliers and divisors of 2 and 7
5 are recommended, which give the
scalesshown in Fig. 2-2-12.
The numbers shown indicate the dif-
/ 1B
lb
MM I'M Ml 1
8

1
!
1
1 1 1 1 1
4

1 1 1 1 1
N
IP
ference in size between the drawing
and the actual part. For example, the «. *JU5
ratio 10:1 shown on the drawing means ________^___^_ .

that the drawing times the actual

is 10
FRACTIONAL INCH SCALE (FULL SIZE)
size of the part, whereas a ratio of 1:5 mm
on the drawing means the object is 5 1:5
times as large as it is shown on the
drawing.
The units of measurement for archi- 1:5 SCALE (5mm DIVISIONS)
tectural drawings are the meter and XT""' 1 '!
11
'!
11
'!
11
'!

millimeter. The same scale multipliers

and divisors as used for mechanical
drawings are used for architectural
drawings.
FRACTIONAL INCH SCALE (HALF SIZE)
1 800 •-50

U.S. Customary Scales

mm
Inch Scales There are three types of 1:50
scales which show various values that
are equal to 1 inch (in.) (Fig. 2-2-13). 10
They are the decimal inch scale, the
fractional inch scale, and the scale 1:50 SCALE (50mm DIVISIONS)
which has divisions of 10. 20. 30. 40,
50, 60, and 80 parts to the inch. The
last scale is known as the civil en- CIVIL ENGINEER SCALE (10 DIVISIONS)
ENLARGED SIZE AS REDUCED
gineer's scale. It is used for making
maps and charts. The divisions or I 000 I : I
2
parts of an inch can be used to repre- 500 5

sent feet, yards, rods, or miles. This 200 10

scale is also useful in mechanical draw-

I 00 20
50 50 30
ing when the drafter is dealing with
20 I00
decimal dimensions.
10 200
On fractional inch scales, multi- 5 500
pliers or divisors of 2, 4, 8, and 16 are 2 000
I

CIVIL ENGINEER SCALE (30 DIVISIONS)

used, offering such scales as full size,
half size, quarter size, etc. Fig. 2-2-12 Metric scales. Fig. 2-2-13 Inch scales.

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 1

Fool Scales These scales are used Compasses
mostly in architectural work. See Fig. The compass is used for drawing cir-

2-2-14. They differ from the inch scales cles and arcs. Several basic types and
each major division represents a
in that sizes are available (Fig. 2-2-16).
an inch, and the end units are
foot, not
• Friction head compass, standard in
subdivided into inches or parts of an
most drafting sets.
inch. The more common scales are '/s
• Bow compass, which operates on
in. = 1 ft, Va in. = and 3 1 ft, 1 in. = 1 ft,
the jackscrew or ratchet principle by
in. = 1 ft. The most commonly used turning a large knurled nut.
inch and foot scales are shown in Fig.
• Drop bow compass, mostly used for
2-2-15.
drawing small circles. The center
rod contains the needle point and
remains stationary while the pencil
r-3" or pen leg revolves around it.
• Beam compass, a bar with an adjust-
/ TITI'ITI'I'l'I'l'I' I'I 'I'l'I'I 'I'l' 1 '!''
able needle and pencil-and-pen
attachment for drawing large arcs or
circles.
• Circuit scribing instrument, a modi-
fied drop bow compass, used to cut
l"= I'-O" SCALE terminal pads and prepare printed-
on scribe coat film.
circuit layouts

r- 0" The bow compass is adjusted by

turning a screwwhose knurled head is
located either in the center or to one
side. The bow compass can be used
/,4 I'l'l'l'l
I
II I

and adjusted with one hand as shown

I I I I
| I

I I
2 I « 4 I

in Fig. 2-2-17. The proper technique is:

1. Adjust the compass to the correct

radius.
|/4"= |'-0" SCALE 2. Hold the compass between the
Fig. 2-2-14 Foot scales.
thumb and finger.

DIMENSIONED IN
DECIMALLY FRACTIONALLY FEET AND INCHES
DIMENSIONED DIMENSIONED
EQUIVALENT
DRAWINGS DRAWINGS SCALE RATIO

10: 1 8 : 1 6 IN.= 1 FT 1:2

5 : 1 4 : 1 3 IN.= 1 FT 1:4

2 : 1 2: 1 li|N.= 1 FT 1:8

1 : 1 1 : 1 1 IN.= 1 FT 1:12

1 : 2 1 :2 flN.= 1 FT 1 : 16

1 :5 1 : 4 i|N.= 1 FT 1 : 24

1 : 10 1 :8 |lN.= 1 FT 1 : 32

1 : 20 1 : 16 \\H.= 1 FT 1 : 48

ETC. ETC. i|lN.= 1 FT 1 : 64

•§IN.= 1 FT 1 : 96

i^lN.= 1 FT 1:192

Fig. 2-2-15 Commonly used foot and inch Fig. 2-2-17 Adjusting the radius for the bow
scales. Fig. 2-2-16 Compasses. (Keuffel & Esser Co.) pencil compass.

12 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 3. With greater pressure on the leg
STATIONARY ROD OR PIN with the needle located on the in-
tersection of the center lines rotate
the compass in a clockwise direc-
TUBE CARRIES PEN OR
PENCIL AND REVOLVES tion. The compass should be
AROUND ROD slightly tipped in the direction of
motion.

The drop-spring bow compass

SPRING shown in Fig. 2-2-18 is used for draw-
ing very small circles.

ADJUSTING SCREW Dividers

Lines are divided and distances trans-
ferred (moved from one place to
another) with dividers. The basic types
of dividers are shown in Fig. 2-2-19.
DROP TUBE BODY Dividers have a steel pin insert in
AND REVOLVE TO each leg and come in a variety of sizes
DRAW CIRCLE
and designs, similar to the compasses.
A compass can be used as a divider by
replacing its lead point with a steel pin.

Drawing Instrument Sets

Many drafters have a complete draw-
ing set, which usually includes several
Fig. 2-2-18The drop-spring bow compass is used for drawing very small circles, especially compasses and dividers with exten-
where there are many to be drawn. (Keuffel & Esser Co.)
sion attachments for making inked
drawings (Fig. 2-2-20).

4P>*

, FIRST
CENTER
FRICTION BOW PROPORTIONAL
(A) TYPES OF DIVIDERS
IB) DIVIDERS ARE USED TO DIVIDE AND TO TRANSFER DISTANCES
Fig. 2-2-19 Dividers. (Keuffel & Esser Co.)

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 13

 CENTER TACK

BOW DIVIDERS
PASS

Fig. 2-2-20 A three-bow set of drawing instruments. (Keuffel & Esser Co.)

Drafting Leads and
Leads Because of the drawing media
used and the type of reproduction
required, pencil manufacturers have
marketed three types of lead for the
preparation of engineering drawings.
Graphite Lead This is the conventional
Pencils but they are processed differently.
They are designed for use on film only,
erase well, do not readily smear, and
produce a good opaque line which is
suitable for microform reproduction.
The main drawback with this type of
lead is that it does not hold a point
well.
posable mechanical pencils became
available. These operate just as any
mechanical pencil, but they are dis-
carded after the lead has been used.
Lead Pointers
A fast, convenient means of putting a

type of lead which has been used for clean drafter's point on mechanical or
years. It is made from graphite, clay, Drafting Pencils The leads are held wood-cased pencils is not only desir-
and resin. It is available in a variety of either in the conventional wood- able, but necessary. Mechanical
grades or hardnesses —
9H. 8H. 7H, bonded cases known as wooden pen- sharpeners (Fig. 2-2-23A) are made
and 6H (hard); 5H and 4H (medium cils or in metal or plastic cases known with special drafter's cutters that
hard); 3H and 2H (medium): H and F as mechanical pencils. See Figs. 2-2-21 remove the wood as shown. The
(medium soft); and HB. B. 2B. 3B. 4B. and 2-2-22. With the latter, the lead is required point shape is then formed by
5B. and 6B (very soft), the latter not ejected to the desired length of projec- hand sanding or by a special pointer.
being recommended for drafting. The tion from the clamping chuck and then When hand sanding (Fig. 2-2-23B)
selection of the proper grade of lead is pointed in the same manner as the rub the lead back and forth on a sand-
important. A hard lead might penetrate wood-bonded pencil. Recently, dis- paper block or a fine file, while turning
the drawing while a soft lead will
smear. The next two types of drafting WOOD-BONDED CASE
leads were developed as a result of the
introduction of film as a drawing
medium. A limited number of grades
are available in these leads, and they
do not correspond to the grades used GRADE MARK-
for graphite lead. (A) WOODEN PENCILS
PlasticLead This type of lead is
STANDARD SIZE LEAD
designed for use on film only. It has
good microform reproduction charac-
teristics.
3=-
Plastic-Graphite Lead As the name
STANDARD LEAD HOLDER
implies, this lead is made of plastic and
METAL OR PLASTIC CASE
graphite. There are two basic types:
fired and extruded. They are similar in
material content to plastic fired lead.
^ai
\-THIN LEAD (REQUIRES THIN LEAD HOLDER
NO SHARPENING)
CONICAL WEDGE OR CHISEL BEVEL (B) MECHANICAL PENCILS
Fig. 2-2-21 Pencil point shapes. Fig. 2-2-22 Drafting pencils.

14 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 5

«/^0P<

BEFORE

(O
Fig. Lead pointers. |A) A drafter's pencil sharpener cuts the wood, not the
2-2-23 lead. |B) Shaping the lead
by hand sanding. (C) Shaping the lead with a lead pointer.

it slowly to form the point. Some draft- on the surface and rubbing it with a felt
ers prefer to use a chisel or bevel point. pad.The powder is then completely
Keep the sandpaper block at hand so removed from the drawing surface.
that you can sharpen the pencil often.
Erasing Shields These thin pieces of
Special pointers are used for shaping
metal or plastic have a variety of open-
the lead, as shown in Fig. 2-2-23C.
ings to permit the erasure of fine detail
Such devices may be hand-operated or
lines or lettering without disturbing
electrically powered.
nearby work that is to be left on the
drawing. See Fig. 2-2-26. Through the
Erasers and Cleaners
use of this device, erasures can be per-
Erasers A variety of erasers have been formed quickly and accurately.
designed to do special jobs remove—
surface dirt, minimize surface damage
on film or vellum, and remove ink or
pencil lines. See Fig. 2-2-24.
f
RUBY ERASER

V
Fig. 2-2-25 Erasing machine. (Keuffel & Fig. 2-2-26 Erasing shield. (Charles
Esser Co.l Bruning Co.)

PLASTIC ERASER

Cleaners An easy way to clean tracings KEEPING DRAWINGS CLEAN

Fig. 2-2-24 Erasers.
Erasing Machines Hardly any pressure
isrequired when using the electrically
powered erasing machine because the
high-speed rotation of the shaft actu-
ally does the clean-up job rapidly and
flawlessly. These machines make era-
sures with pinpoint accuracy, and no
drawing damage can occur because the
motor is designed to stall when too
much erasing pressure is applied (Fig.
2-2-25).
is to sprinkle them lightly with gum
It goes without saying that the end
eraser particles while working. Then
product, the drawing, must be clean
triangles, scales, etc., stay spotless
and sharp for reproduction purposes.
and clean the surface automatically as
Dirt from the drafter's hands and
they are moved back and forth. The
instruments, graphite from the pencils,
particles contain no grit or abrasive,
and dirt from the air are the main con-
and will actually improve the ink-tak-
tributors to dirty drawings. Preventive
ing quality of the drafting surface.
maintenance goes a long way in keep-
Inking Powders Surfaces of tracing ing drawings clean.
cloths and prints made on reproduc- The drafter's hands should always
tion papers require preparation before be clean. Dirty, oily, or perspiring
they are drawn on with ink. This is hands should never come in contact
done by sprinkling an inking powder with drawings.

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 1

 Drafting instruments, such as tri- where on the drawing without the need
angles, scales, parallel slides, and the forremoving the drawing from the
blade of the T square should be board.
cleaned at least daily.
The drawing surface of the board Templates
must be brushed frequently to remove To save time, many drafters now use
the dirt particles built up by dirt in the templates for drawing small circles and
air. from erasing, and drawing lines. arcs. Templates are also available for
Other recommendations are: drawing standard square, hexagonal,
triangular, and elliptical shapes and
• Keep away from the drawings when standard electrical and architectural
sharpening the lead of pencils and symbols. See Fig. 2-2-29.
compasses. Wipe the lead with a
cleaning tissue to remove the loose + ********** Irregular Curves
graphite.
LETRASETxj"
For drawing curved lines in which,

SL
lt*iU*A Ultt\i*^<
• Always use a brush when cleaning unlike circular arcs, the radius of cur-
the drawing. Never wipe a drawing
vature is not constant, a tool known as
with your hands -AJ^ an irregular or French curve (Fig.
• Roll up your shirt sleeves as the ABCDEFGHIJK
OPORSTUVWX 2-2-30) is used. The patterns for these
cloth and buttons may damage or
smudge your drawings.
ABCDEABCD curves are based on various combina-
ABCDEFGEF6H tions of ellipses, spirals, and other
mathematical curves. The curves are
Brushes
A brush (Fig. 2-2-27) is used to
light
ABCDEpRSJ available in a variety of shapes and
sizes. Generally, the drafter plots a
keep the drawing area clean. By using (B)
series of points of intersection along
a brush to remove eraser particles and
the desired path and then uses the
any accumulated dirt, the drafter Fig. 2-2-28 Lettering aids. (A) Mechanical
lettering. (Addressograph Multigraph Corp.) French curve to join these points so
avoids smudging the drawing.
(B) Appliques. (Letraset.) that a smooth-flowing curve results.

Fig. 2-2-27 Drafter's brush. (Charles

Bruning Co.]

Lettering Aids
Lettering sets or guides (Fig. 2-2-28)
are also used when it is desirable to
have more uniform and accurate let-
ters and numerals than can be obtained
by the freehand method. Lettering sets
contain a number of guide templates
that give a variety of letter shapes and
sizes, as well as different slope angles.
Dry transfer lettering is a product
which offers a wide variety of lettering
of good quality and can be applied
speedily. It adheres firmly to paper,
wood, glass, and metal and is available
in different colors. In case of errors,
letters can be removed with cello-
phane tape or a pencil eraser.
Lettering typewriters have been
used in drafting offices for some time
for the lettering of bills of material and
typing on appliques. But now small,
movable typewriters can letter any- Fig. 2-2-29 Templates. (Teledyne-Post.)

16 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN


la&SS?
Fig. 2-2-30 Irregular curves. (Teledyne Post.)
Curved Rules and Splines
Curved rules and splines (Fig. 2-2-31)
solve the problem of ruling a smooth
curve through a given set of points.
They lie flat on the board and are as
easy to use as a triangle; yet they can
be bent to fit any contour to a 3 in. (75
mm) minimum radius and will hold the
position without support. A clear,
plastic ruling edge stands away from
the board just far enough to prevent
ink lines from smearing.
r available with
yf w drawing curved, multiple broken, or
Fig. 2-2-31 Curved rules and
& Esser Co.)
Inking Equipment
Although most production drawings
are drawn with pencil, in the last few
years the number of ink drawings have
been on the increase. The use of this
type of drawing for technical illustra-
tions and the demand for good, clear
drawings for microform reproduction
have brought about the introduction of
new and improved inking methods and
techniques. Typical inking equipment
is shown in Fig. 2-2-32.
Inking PensTwo types of pens are used
to produce ink lines. The ruling pen
with an adjustable blade for drawing
different-width lines has been avail-
7
Fig. 2-2-32 Inking instruments. |A| Blade
type. (Charles Bruning Co.) (B) Needle-in-tube-
type pen. |J. S. Staedtler, Inc.) Fig. 2-2-33 Calculators.
able for many years. It is filled by a make fast mathematical calculations
dropper cap, squeeze bottle, or car- using division, multiplication, and
tridge tube. Inking compasses are extractions of square roots, and to
permanent or detach-
able blades, which interchange with
the lead attachment part of the
pass. Specially designed pens for
com-
solve problems involving areas, vol-
umes, masses, strengths of materials,
pressures, etc. Because of cost, time,
accuracy, and ease of operation, the
hidden lines are also available.
The second type, called a technical
calculator has replaced the slide rule in
the engineering office.
fountain pen, a needle-in-tube type BASIC EQUIPMENT
pen, is relatively new in comparison
Figure 2-2-34 shows the basic drafting
with the ruling pen, and has gained
equipment often found in a student
wide acceptance with drafters because
drafting kit. This equipment along with
the line widths are fixed. Also it is
drawing both and
other common items is listed below.
suitable for lines let-
splines. (Keuffel
ters. Different-size needle points are Drawing board
available which produce different- T square, parallel-ruling straightedge
width lines. Several types of technical (parallel slide), or drafting machine
fountain pens and other needle-in-tube Drawing sheets (paper or film)
type pens now provide compass Drafting tape
attachments so that these may be Drafting pencils
clamped to, or inserted on, a standard Pencil sharpener
compass leg. thus providing the advan- Lead pointer or sandpaper
tages of the compass while eliminating Eraser
the inconvenience of the blade pen. Erasing shield
The use of a technical drawing pen Triangles, 45° and 30/60° (not required
with a circular template has, in many with drafting machine)
instances, replaced the drawing of cir- Scales
cles and arcs by means of a compass. Irregular curve
For best results, the pen should be per- Drawing instrument set
pendicular to the paper. Black drawing ink
Technical fountain pens
Calculators Brush
Calculators, such as those shown in Protractor
Fig. 2-2-33, are used by drafters to Cleaning powder
DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWNG OFFICE PRACTICES 1

Fig. 2-2-34 Student drafting kit. (AM Bruning
Your drafting instructor can tell you
exactly what equipment will be needed
for your course.
ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 1 through 4 for Unit
2-2 on page 38.
UNIT 2-3
Automated Drafting
Most automatic drafting machines
(ADM) are digitally controlled. See
They were developed from,
Fig. 2-3-1.
and resembled in their basic mode of
operation, numerically controlled
machine tools. The last few years have
seen many earth-shaking develop-
ments in automatic drafting equip-
ment. The price/performance ratio has
improved considerably, and high-qual-
ity, relatively inexpensive equipment
has become available. Manufacturers
have introduced modular systems
which can be easily upgraded.
Most automatic drafting is done with
dot-matrix plotters, such as electro-
static machines.
All machines can be made to auto-
matically generate common shapes,
18 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN
International.)
such as squares, circles, ellipses, and
other second-degree curves. Many can
generate complex shapes, can do high-
speed contouring and curve fitting,
and can carry out interpolations,
extrapolations, and fairing. Some
tems can rotate the shape about any
axis, scale down or blow up. and pro-
duce mirror-image drawings.
Any symbol or shape circuit
mechanism, rivet, screw, etc. can be —
Fig. 2-3-1 Automated drafting equipment. (Gerber
stored in memory and called out at any
time. then drawn at the specified
It is
point. When a drawing must be
updated, the ADM
can make a new
drawing, leaving blank those sections
which must be revised; changes can be
entered manually through the key-
board.
Now systems are available that can
take a designer's rough sketch and
transform it into finished drawings
(with a person operating the system),
photo-ready artwork, numerical con-
trol (NC) tapes, and various other out-
put forms. These systems are simple to
use and require virtually no program-
ming skill.
Oneof the heaviest and most suc-
cessful uses of automated drafting has
been in electric-circuit design. This is
mainly because circuits are highly
repetitive. A relatively small number
of standard symbols is used over and
over; these symbols, stored digitally in
the machine's memory, can be called
out quickly.
In addition to drawing electrical
symbols where the designer indicates,
the automatic plotter can route wiring
properly and place components in
their optimum relationship. This can
sys- be extremely useful, especially in
designing multilayer printed-circuit
boards (Fig. 2-3-2). In fact, as circuits
get smaller and smaller, such tasks
become nearly impossible except
through computerized methods. After
Scientific Instrument Co
 1

I T HiitiiiiiitmiHiitntitiniii iJT"! as standard shapes

letters,
—
screws, bolts,
dimensions, and other sym-
displayed.
any changes by
He
or she can then make
light pen, digitizer, or
bols — are involved. Such applications teletypewriter. The user can also
are adaptable to automated drafting, as manipulate the sketch or zoom in on
are cases where the machine's logic any particular part of it for a closer
can be used to position components, look. Once satisfied, the user can
calculate dimensions, or do some instruct the drafting machine to make a
other time-consuming task. finished drawing.
Interactive drafting, as shown in Computer-aided drafting (CAD) is

Fig. 2-3-3, allows the user to see the covered in detail in Chapter 32.
final version of the sketch at any point.
Typically, the user enters the rough Reference
sketch and calls for all or part of it to be I. Machine Design, July 1971.

^aSiii
Fig. 2-3-2 Printed circuit produced by
J
UNIT 2-4
Drawing and Layout
automated drafting machine in 25 minutes.
(Gerber Scientific Instrument Co.)
Form
been designed, the plot-
the circuit has STANDARD DRAWING SIZES
tercan (assuming that it is sufficiently
accurate) draw the artwork masters Inches Drawing sizes in the inch sys-
necessary to produce the printed tem are based on dimensions of com-
circuits. mercial letterheads, 8.5 x 11 in., and
Under certain conditions, auto- standard rolls of paper or film 36 and
mated drafting is justified for certain 42 in. wide. They can be cut from these
types of mechanical drawing where a Fig. 2-3-3 Interactive drafting. (Systems standard rolls with a minimum of
number of standard components such Engineering Laboratories.) waste. See Fig. 2-4-1.

A OR A4

B OR A3

_/ '

INCH DRAWING SIZES

DRAWING BORDER SIZE
OVERALL
SIZE PAPER SIZE
A 8.00 X 10 50 8.50 X 11 00

B 10 50 X 16.50 ii oo x 17.00
E OR AO
C 16.25 X 21.25 17.00 X 22.00

D 21 00 X 3300 22.00 X 34.00

E 33.00 X 43 00 34.00 X 44.00

METRIC DRAWING SIZES (MILLIMETERS)

DRAWING BORDER SIZE OVERALL
SIZE PAPER SIZE
A4 190 X 267 210 X 297
A3 277 X 390 297 X 420
A2 400 X 564 420 X 594
A1 574 X 81 594 X 84 1

A0 821 X 1 159 841 X 1 189

Fig. 2-4-1 Standard drawing paper sizes. (ANSI.)

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 19

 the space between the trimmed size the sheet on which the drawing is

yS A4 and the inside border into zones mea- made.

A3 suring 4.25 x 5.50 in. These zones are
A4
numbered horizontally and lettered
TITLE BLOCKS AND TABLES
Al
vertically, with uppercase letters,
from the lower RH (right-hand) Title Block
corner, as in Fig. 2-4-3, so that any
The block is located in the lower
title
area of the drawing can be identified
A2 right-hand corner. The arrangement
by a letter and a number, such as B3.
and size of the title block are optional,
but the following information should
Marginal Marking 1

RATIO V-JT AREA OF AOSIZE = lm 2 be included:

Fig. 2-4-2 Metric drawing paper.
drawing sizes are based
Metric Metric
on the AO size, having an area of 1
square meter (m 2 ) and a length-to-
width ratio of 1:V2. Each smaller size
has an area half of the preceding size,
and the length-to-width ratio remains
constant. See Fig. 2-4-2.
DRAWING FORMAT
A general format for drawings
shown in Fig. 2-4-3, which illustrates a
drawing trimmed to size. It is
mended that preprinted drawing forms
be made to the trimmed size and have
rounded corners, as shown,
mize dog-ears and tears.
In addition to zone identification, the
margin may also carry fold marks to 1. Drawing number
enable folding and a graphical scale to 2. Name of firm or organization
facilitate reproduction to a specific 3. Title or description
size. In the process of microforming, it 4. Scale
is necessary to center the drawing
Provision may also be made within
within rather close limits in order to
the title block for the date of issue,
meet standards. To facilitate this oper-
signatures, approvals, sheet number,
ation, it has become common practice
drawing size, job, order, or contract
to put a centering arrow or mark on at
number; references to this or other
least three sides of the drawing. Most
documents; and standard notes such
practices include the arrows on each of
as tolerances or finishes. An example
the four sides. If three sides are used,
of a typical title block is shown in Fig.
is the arrows should be on the two sides
2-4-4. In classrooms, a title strip is
and on the bottom. This helps the cam-
often used on A- and B-size drawings,
recom- era operator to align the drawing prop-
such as shown in Fig. 2-4-5.
erly since the copyboard usually con-
tains cross hairs through the center of
to mini- the board at right angles. With any
three arrows aligned on the cross NORDALE MACHINE COMPANY
hairs, centering is automatic. The PITTSBURGH. PENNSYLVANIA

Zoning System arrows should be on the center of the COVER PLATE

Drawings larger than B size may be border which outlines the information
MATERIAL NO. REO.D-4
zoned' for easy reference, by dividing area of the drawing, not at the edge of
SCALE DN BY / —-» ' i '

A 7628
DATE- CH BY ,~ . -„--

Fig. 2-4-4 Title block.

7 I
TRIMMED

6
SIZE

|
A 5 + 4 |/
-BORDERLINE

3 |
2
MATERIAL Material List and Order Table
ZONING SYSTEM LCENTERING ARROWS LIST
The whole space above the title block,
with the exception of the auxiliary
number block, should be reserved for
tabulating materials, change of order,
SPACE TO THE RIGHT and revision; drawing in this space
OF THIS LINE NOT TO should be avoided. On preprinted
BE USED FOR DRAWING-
forms, the right-hand inner border may
be graduated to facilitate ruling, as
AUXILIARY NUMBER BLOCK- shown in Fig. 2-4-6.

Change or Revision Table

All drawings should carry a change or
revision table, either down the right-
ORDER hand side or across the bottom of the
TITLE BLOCK- TABLE
drawing. In addition to the description
of drawing changes, provision may be
REVISION REFERENCE DWG NO made for recording a revision symbol
TABLE
zone location, issue number, date, and
approval of the change. Typical revi-
Fig. 2-4-3 Drawing paper format. sion tables are shown in Fig. 2-4-7.

20 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 — —
DRAFTING TECHNOLOGY NAME: DWG NAME: DWG NO.
in drafting practices, the need for
drawing papers today is limited to the
CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGE COURSE:
two extremes in the scale of quality
CALIFORNIA. PENNSYLVANIA DATE: APPD: SCALE:
the very highest grade, permanent
Fig. 2-4-5 Title strip. drawing papers with the best possible
erasing quality for maps or master
Auxiliary number blocks are usually drawings, which are later photo-
placed within the inside border, but graphed, and the inexpensive school
AMT DET STOCK SIZE MAT.
they may be placed in the margin out- type of papers for the educational mar-
side the border line if space permits. ket. Since master drawings often must
NORALE MACHINE CO.
PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA be revised and corrected, the major
Reference consideration in high-grade drawing
I. National Microfilm. papers is erasability.
The more translucent papers are
PART iin
used as tracing papers. Formerly, they
were used almost exclusively for the
nPFRATIDN
ink tracing of pencil drawings made on
FOR USE ON opaque papers. Translucency was the
niF CI FARANrF UNIT 2-5 prime requirement.
Today, the usual drafting practice is
TOLERANCE :0.5mm UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED METRIC
Drawing Media ]

to develop the master drawing directly

T nRAUUN

CHECK Fn APPRnvFn on translucent paper from which

nATF The families of drafting and tracing reproductions can be made, thereby
FROM R P r>ATFn materials paper andfilm differ suf-— saving the time, expense, and check-
SHEETS SHEET ficiently between and within them- ing involved in the tracing process.
NO. selves to provide a wide choice of This practice means that, in addition to
qualities and characteristics for selec- good translucency, the modern high-
Fig. 2-4-6 Combined title block, order
tion of the perfect material for drawing grade tracing paper must be able to
table, and material list.
requirements. withstand considerable handling. The
paper should retain these qualities for
a long time to avoid the eventual
Auxiliary Number Blocks
PAPER necessity of redrawing, either man-
An auxiliary number block, approx- Drafting papers come with a wide ually or photographically.
imately 2 x .25 in. (50 x 10 mm) is range of qualities — strength, erasabil-
placed above the title block so that ity. permanence, translucency. etc.
when prints are folded, the number The distinguishing feature between
will appear close to the top RH corner drawing and tracing paper is trans-
of the print, as in Fig. 2-4-3. This is
FILM 2
lucency.
done to facilitate identification when Opaque papers are used primarily as The most recently developed drafting
the folded prints are filed on edge. drawing papers. Because of a change medium is film. The advantages of
polyester film as a drawing material
are many. Raw polyester has natural
dimensional stability, great tearing
REVISIONS strength, high transparency, age and
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
DATE & heat resistance, nonsolubility, and
APPROVAL
waterproofness. The outstanding vir-
tue of film over any other drafting
medium is that film is almost inde-
structible. Its amazing permanence
safeguards the important investment
in engineering drawings and records. It
(A) VERTICAL REVISION T ABLE is permanently translucent, water-
proof, unaffected by aging, superb for
-ZONE OR CHANGE SYMBOL
pencil drafting, ink work, and type-
-DATE
writing, and has unequaled erasability.
-APPROVAL ADDED TO LENGTH 8204-03 )ftW-
10 Polyester materials, however, pre-
DATE &
REVISION 1 |
i2 a 82 |&>#- DESCRIPTION APPROVAL sent some problems. The material
TA8LE must be sufficiently dense to avoid
DESCRIPTION
reflection from the copyboard in
(B) HORIZONTAL REVISION TA8LE (C) APPLICATION microforming, but translucent enough
Fig. 2-4-7 Revision tables. for backlighting or contact printing.

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 21

PREPRINTED GRID SHEETS 3 or to be used as the finished drawings, UNIT 2-6
grid-line papers are an invaluable aid.
This type of drafting medium makes Basic Drafting Skills
The cross-sectional patterns serve as
the job of preparing engineering and
ready-made guides for base lines,
freehand drawings easier and quicker.
dimensioning, and angles. See Fig.
Cross-sectional guidelines can be pre- 2-5-2.
LETTERING
printed directly on the paper or used as
a liner beneath the drawing paper to Single-Stroke Gothic
provide an accurate guide for all draw- Lettering
ing work. These cross-sectional guides The most important requirements for
are available in several grid sizes. The lettering are legibility, reproducibility,
squared and pictorial styles (isometric, and ease of execution. These are par-
perspective, and oblique) are the more ticularly important because of the
common preprinted grid papers used increased use of microforming which
by drafters. These grids, when applied requires optimum clarity and adequate
directlyon the paper, as shown in Fig. size of all details and lettering. It is
2-5-1,or on film with a special non- recommended that all drawings be
reproducible ink, will not appear on made to conform to these require-
the prints when the drawing is ments and that particular attention be
reproduced by diazo and photograph paid to avoid the following common
methods. faults:
err?
For freehand work, whether rough
1. Unnecessarily fine detail
sketches in the field or in the drafting
2. Poor spacing of details
room, whether these are preliminary
3. Carelessly drawn figures and letters
Fig. 2-5-2 Preprinted grid sheet being used 4. Inconsistent delineation
as an underlay. (Keuffel & Esser Co.) 5. Incompleted erasures that leave
ghost images
6. Use of differing densities, such as
References
pencil, ink, and typescript on the
1. Keuffel and Esser Co.
same drawing
2. Machine Design and National

Microfilm These requirements are met in the

3. Eastman Kodak Company. recommended single-stroke Gothic

!A) DRAWING ON GRID SHEET.

/&ff m& .

INCLINED LETTERS

n HIJ K I
I
UM Q E lNl

(B) PRINT OF DRAWING SHOWN IN (A).

VERTICAL LETTERS
Fig. 2-5-1 Drawing directly on preprinted
grid sheet. Fig. 2-6-1 Approved lettering for engineering drawings.

22 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 U KIUM M PREFERRED OPEN

GOOD SPACING OF
CHARACTERS AND EVEN
- TYPE LETTERING

H H ft flMMMM B LINE WEIGHT PRODUCE

CONSISTENTLY GOOD
RESULTS ON MICROFILM

Fig. 2-6-2
tmmsmmt
Microfont letters. (National Microfilm Assoc
UNDESIRABLE CRAMPED LETTERING
POORLY SF2\CED£WD
FORMED, OR CRAMPED
LETTERING MEANS POOR
characters shown in Fig. 2-6-1. or used, all characters are to conform, in
RESULTS IN MICROFILMING
adaptations thereof, which improve general, with the recommended
reproduction legibility. One such Gothic style and must be legible in full- Fig. 2-6-4 Spacing of lettering. (National
adaptation by the National Microfilm or reduced-size copy by any accepted Microfilm Assoc.)

Association is the vertical Gothic-style method of reproduction.

Microfont alphabet (Fig. 2-6-2)
tended for general usage.
Either inclined or vertical lettering
permissible, but only one style of
tering should be used throughout a
drawing. The preferred slope for the
inclined characters is 2 in 5. or approx-
imately 68° with the horizontal.
Uppercase letters should be used for
all lettering on drawings unless lower-
case letters are required to conform
with other established standards,
equipment nomenclature, or marking.
Lettering for titles, subtitles, draw-
ing numbers, and other uses may be
made freehand, by typewriter, or with
the aid of mechanical lettering devices
such as templates and lettering
machines. Regardless of the method
in- The recommended minimum free-
hand and mechanical letter heights for
is various applications are given in Fig.
let- 2-6-3. So that lettering will be uniform
and of proper height, light guidelines,
properly spaced, are drawn first and
then the lettering is drawn between
these lines.
Letters in words should be spaced
so that the background areas between
the letters are approximately equal,
and words are to be clearly separated
by a space equal to the height of the
lettering. See Fig. 2-6-4. The vertical
space between lines of lettering should
be no more than the height of the let-
tering and no less than half the height
of the lettering.
Notes should be placed horizontally
on drawings and separated vertically
by spaces at least equal to double the
height of the character size used, to
maintain the identity of each note.
Decimal points must be uniform,
dense, and large enough to be clearly
visible on approved types of reduced
copy. Decimal points should be placed
in line with the bottom of the associ-
ated digits and be given adequate
space.
Lettering should not be underlined
except when special emphasis is
required. The underlining should not
be less than .06 in. (1.5 mm) below the
lettering.
When drawings are being made -for
microforming. the size of the lettering

INCH METRIC mm
USE FREEHAND MECHANICAL FREEHAND MECHANICAL DRAWING SIZE

0.250 0.240
UP TO AND INCLUDING
DRAWING NUMBER IN 17 x 22 INCHES
7 7
TITLE BLOCK 0.312 0.290
LARGER THAN
17 x 22 INCHES

DRAWING TITLE 0.250 0.240 7 7

SECTION AND TABULATION LETTE RS 0.250 0.240 7 7 ALL

ZONE LETTERS AND NUMERALS IN BORDER 0.188 0.175 5 5

DIMENSION, TOLERANCE, LIMITS, 3.5

UP TO AND INCLUDING
0.125 0. 120 3.5
NOTES, SUBTITLES FOR SPECIAL VIEWS, 17 x 22 INCHES
TABLES, REVISIONS, AND ZONE LETTERS LARGER THAN
FOR THE BODY OF THE DRAWING 0. 156 0.140 5 5
17 x 22 INCHES

THIS IS AN FXAMPI F OF IPS IN I FTTFRINft

THIS IS AN FXAMPI F OF IBB IN I FTTFRING

S IS AN FXAMPI F OF PRO IN I FTTFRING
Fig. 2-6-3 Recommended lettering heights. (ANSI Y14.2M 1979.)

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 23

 -VIEWING-PLANE LINE
isan important consideration. A draw- CENTER LINE
EXTENSION LINE
ing may be reduced to half size when
microformed at 30X reduction and HIDDEN LINE
blown back at I5X magnification.
(Most microform engineering readers
and blow back equipment have a mag-
BREAK LINE
nification of 15X. [fa drawing is micro-
formed at 30X reduction, the enlarged
blown-back image is 50 percent, at
24\. it is 62 percent of its original
size.)
Standards generally do not allow
characters smaller than .12 in. (3 mm)
for drawings to be reduced 30X, and
the trend is toward larger characters.
Figure 2-6-5 shows the proportionate
size of letters after reduction and en-
largement.
The lettering heights, spacing, and
proportions in Fig. 2-6-5 normally
provide acceptable reproduction or
camera reduction and blowback.
However, manually, mechanically,
optimechanically, or electrome-
chanically applied lettering (type-
writer, etc.) with heights, spacing, and
proportions less than those recom-
mended are acceptable when the
reproducibility requirements of the
accepted industry or military repro-
duction specifications are met.

LINE WORK
The various lines used in drawing form SECTION A-A VIEWB-B
the "alphabet" of the drafting lan- Fig. 2-6-6 Application of lines. (ANSI Y14.2M 1975.)
guage: like letters of the alphabet, they

are different in appearance. See Figs.

15 X ENLARGEMENT
2-6-6 and 2-6-10. The distinctive fea-
/ form a permanent
tures of all lines that
LETTER REDUCTION
part of the drawing are the differences
12 X 16 X 20 X 24 X 30 X
in their width and construction. Lines

A A A A A must be clearly visible and stand out in

sharp contrast to one another. This
line contrast is necessary if the draw-
A A A A A
ing is to be clear and easily under-
A A A A . stood.
20 X ENLARGEMENT The drafter first draws very light
A construction lines, setting out the main
c~ REDUCTION shape of the object in various views.
12 X 16 X 20 X 24 X 30 X
Since these first lines are very light,
they can be erased easily should
B B B B B B changes or corrections be necessary.
When
layout
the drafter
is
is satisfied that the
accurate, the construction
B B B B B B
lines are then changed to their proper

B type, according to the alphabet of

B B B B B

lines. Guidelines, used to ensure uni-

Fig. 2-6-5 Proportionate size of letters after reduction and enlargement. (National Microfilm form lettering, are also drawn very
Assoc.) lightly.

24 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN


Line Widths
Two widths of lines, thick and thin, as
shown in Fig. 2-6-7. are recommended
for use on drawings. Thick
.030 to .038 in. (.05 to 0.8 mm) wide,
thin lines between .015 and .022 in. (0.3
to 0.5 mm) wide. The actual width of
each line is governed by the size and
style of the drawing and the smallest
size to which it is to be reduced. All
lines of the same type should be uni-
form throughout the drawing. Spacing
between parallel lines should be such
no fill-in when the copy is
that there is
reproduced by available photographic
methods. Spacing of no less than .12
in. (3 mm) normally meets reproduc-
tion requirements.
THICK
WIDTH .032 IN. (0.7mm)
THIN
WIDTH .016 IN. (0.35mm)
Fig. 2-6-7 Line widths.
All lines should be clean-cut.
opaque, uniform, and properly spaced
for legible reproduction by
monly used methods, including micro-
forming in accordance with industry
and government requirements. There
should be a distinct contrast between
the two widths of lines.
Types of Lines
The types of lines used on engineering
drawings are illustrated in Figs. 2-6-6
and 2-6-10. All lines must be clear and
dense to obtain good reproduction.
When additions or revisions are made
to existing drawings, the line widths
and density should match the original
work.
Visible Lines The visible lines should
be used for representing visible edges
or contours of objects. Visible lines
should be drawn so views they
that the
outline clearly stand out on the draw-
ing with a definite contrast
these lines and secondary lines.
Hidden Lines Hidden lines consist of
short, evenly spaced dashes and are
used to show the hidden features of an
object. See Fig. 2-6-8. The lengths of
the dashes may vary slightly in relation
to the size of the drawing. Hidden lines
should always begin and end with a
dash, in contrast with the visible or
'
lines are
I
2 3
ENLARGED DETAILS
A \__J_
\
i
L
\
\ lines are
5 6 7 I
8 drawing and are explained in detail in
Fig. 2-6-8 Hidden-line technique.
hidden from which they start,
line
except when such a dash would form a
all com- continuation of a visible line. Dashes
should join at corners, and arcs should
start with dashes at tangent points.
Hidden lines should be omitted when
they are not required for the clarity of
the drawing.
Although features located behind
transparent materials may be visible,
they should be treated as concealed
features and shown with hidden lines.
Center Lines Center lines consist of
alternating long and short dashes (Fig.
2-6-9). They are used to represent the
axis of symmetrical parts and features,
bolt circles, and paths of motion. The
long dashes of the center lines may
vary in length, depending upon the size
of the drawing. Center lines should
start and end with long dashes and
should not intersect at the spaces
between dashes. Center lines should
between extend uniformly and distinctly a short
distance beyond the object or feature
of the drawing unless a longer exten-
sion is required for dimensioning or for
some other purpose. They should not
terminate at other lines of the drawing,
nor should they extend through the
space between views. Very short cen-
ter lines may be unbroken if no confu-
sion results with other lines.
CENTER LINE NOT BROKEN WHEN
EXTENDED BEYOND OBJECT
I
1
I
4>
USE TWO SHORT DASHES
AT POINT OF INTERSECTION
Fig. 2-6-9 Center-line technique.
Extension and Dimension Lines
used when dimensioning a
These
N
Chap. 5.
Leaders Leaders are used to indicate
the part of a drawing to which a note
refers. See Chap. 5 for further details.
Cutting-Plane Lines Cutting-plane lines
are used toshow the location of cutting
planes for sectional views and are
explained in detail in Chap. 6.
Section Lining Section lining is used to
show the surface in the section view
imagined to be cut along the cutting-
planeline. Refer to Chap. 6 for further
details.
Symmetry Lines Symmetry lines are
center lines used as an axis of symme-
try for partial views. The line of sym-
metry is identified by two thick, short
parallel lines drawn at right angles to
the center line. Symmetry lines are
used when representing partially
drawn views and partial sections of
symmetrical parts. See Fig. 2-6-8.
Symmetrical view visible and hidden
lines may extend past the symmetrical
line if clarity will be improved.
Viewing-Plane Lines Viewing-plane
lines are used to locate the viewing
position for removed partial views.
Break Lines Break lines are shown in
Fig. 2-6-11. They are used to shorten
the view of long uniform sections or
when only a partial view is required.
Such lines are used on both detail and
assembly drawings. The straight thin
DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 25
 TYPE OF LINE APPLICATION DESCRIPTION

VISIBLE LINE
THE VISIBLE LINE IS USED TO INDICATE
ALL VISIBLE EDGES OF AN OBJECT. THEY
SHOULD STAND OUT CLEARLY IN CON-
TRAST TO OTHER LINES SO THAT THE
SHAPE OF AN OBJECT IS APPARENT TO
THE EYE.

HIDDEN LINE

THE HIDDEN OBJECT LINE IS USED TO

SHOW SURFACES, EDGES, OR CORNERS OF
AN OBJECT THAT ARE HIDDEN FROM
VIEW

CENTER LINE CENTER LINEi

CENTER LINES ARE USED TO SHOW THE
CENTER OF HOLES AND SYMMETRICAL
THIN
FEATURES.
ALTERNATE LINE AND SHORT DASHES

SYMMETRY LINE SYMMETRY LINES ARE USED WHEN

SYMMETRY PARTIAL VIEWS OF SYMMETRICAL
LINE PARTS ARE DRAWN. IT IS A
CENTER LINE WITH TWO THICK SHORT
v ^-CENTER LINE PARALLEL LINES DRAWN AT RIGHT
^THICK SHORT LINES ANGLES TO IT AT BOTH ENDS.

EXTENSION AND DIMENSION LINES

1
— —
-

EXTENSION AND DIMENSION LINES ARE

DIMENSION LINE-^ Li t
USED WHEN DIMENSIONING AN OBJECT.

\— EXTENSION LIN E
1

LEADERS
DOT LEADERS ARE USED TO INDICATE THE
ARROW PART OF THE DRAWING TO WHICH A NOTE
REFERS. ARROWHEADS TOUCH THE
OBJECT LINES WHILE THE DOT RESTS
ON A SURFACE.

BREAK LINES

A/ V V -
BREAK LINES ARE USED WHEN IT IS
LONG BREAK
DESIRABLE TO SHORTEN THE VIEW OF
THICK A LONG PART.

SHORT BREAK

Fig. 2-6-10 Types of line.

26 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 TYPE OF LINE APPLICATION DESCRIPTION

CUTTING-PLANE LINE

THICK <rr
THE CUTTING-PLANE LINE IS USED TO
DESIGNATE WHERE AN IMAGINARY
CUTTING TOOK PLACE.
OR

SECTION LINES

SECTION LINING IS USED TO INDICATE

THE SURFACE IN THE SECTION VIEW
IMAGINED TO HAVE BEEN CUT ALONG
THE CUTTING PLANE LINE.

THIN LINES

VIEWING-PLANE LINE
THE VIEWING-PLANE LINE IS USED TO
THICK INDICATE DIRECTION OF SIGHT WHEN
A PARTIAL VIEW IS USED.

OR

PHANTOM LINE

PHANTOM LINES ARE USED TO INDICATE

THIN ALTERNATE POSITION OF MOVING PARTS,
ADJACENT POSITION OF MOVING PARTS,
ADJACENT POSITION OF RELATED PARTS,
AND REPETITIVE DETAIL. FOR PHANTOM
~L _T LINE APPLICATIONS SEE FIGURE 2-6-12.

STITCH LINE

THIN

STITCH LINES ARE USED FOR INDICATING

A SEWING OR STITCHING PROCESS.
OR
SMALL DOTS

CHAIN LINE
CHAIN LINES ARE USED TO INDICATE
THAT A SURFACE OR ZONE IS TO
RECEIVE ADDITIONAL TREATMENT
THICK OR CONSIDERATIONS.

Fig. 2-6-10 (Continued)

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 27

 EXISTING COLUMN Stitch lines are used for indicating a
DRAWN sewing or stitching process. See Fig.
FREEHAND 2-6-10.
NEW GIRDER
..
f.

* Chain Lines Chain lines, as shown in

(A) SHORT BREAK - ALL SHAPES
Figs. 2-6-6 and 2-6-10 consist of thick
<• alternating long and short dashes. This
line is used to show that a surface or
surface zone is to receive additional
DRAWN
FREEHAND- h treatment or considerations within
limits specified on a drawing.

NDICATION OF ADJACENT PARTS DRAWING LINES

Straight Lines
When using a T square to draw hori-
zontal lines (Fig. 2-6-13 and 2-6-14),
hold the head of the T square against
the edge of the drawing board and slide
the T square either up or down to the
desired position. Firmly press down
on the blade of the T square to prevent
itfrom moving, then proceed to draw
the line.When drawing vertical lines, a
triangle, which rests on the top side of
the T square, is moved to the desired
position and both the blade of the T
square and the triangle are held firmly
to thedrawing board with the hand not
holding the pencil.

ROTATE PENCIL

MOTION

ABOUT 15°

INDICATION OF REPEATED DETAIL

Fig. 2-6-12 Phantom-line application.

(F) TUBULAR (ROUND) dashes may vary in length, depending

on the size of the drawing. Phantom
lines are used to indicate alternate
DRAWN positions of moving parts, adjacent
FREEHAND positions of related parts, and repeated
detail. These lines are also used for

(G) WOOD features such as bosses and lugs (later

Fig. 2-6-11 Conventional break lines.

removed), for delineating machining
Fig. 2-6-13 Drawing pencil lines.
stock and blanking developments, for
line with freehand zigzags is recom- piece parts in jigs and fixtures, and for
mended for long breaks, the thick free- mold lines on drawings or formed When a parallel slide is used, as in
hand line for short breaks, and the metal parts. Phantom lines should start Fig. 2-6-15, it always be in a hori-
will

jagged line for wood parts. and end with long dashes. zontal position as the wire and rollers
The special breaks shown for cylin- in the slide move both ends of the slide
Stitch Lines Two forms of stitch lines
drical and tubular parts are useful simultaneously and at the same speed.
are approved for general use as
when an end view is not shown; other- follows:
A general rule to follow when draw-
wise, the thick break line is adequate. ing straight lines Lean the pen-
is this:
1. Short thin dashes and spaces of cil of the line which
in the direction
Phantom Lines Phantom lines consist equal lengths. you are about to draw. A right-handed
of long dashes separated by pairs of 2. Dots approximately .016 in. (0.35 person would lean the pencil to the
short dashes. See Fig. 2-6-12. The long mm), .12 in. (3 mm) apart. right and draw horizontal lines from

28 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 (A) DRAWING A HORIZONTAL LINE (B) DRAWING A VERTICAL LINE

Fig. 2-6-14 Drawing lines with the aid of a T square.

p~ same drawing. For example, if you are
drawing with a 2H or 3H pencil, use an
£ -^ H compass lead. This will produce a
drawing having similar line work since
point, and the needle point must be
readjusted after each sharpening.
Drafters find it much easier and
faster to use plastic templates. There
are sets which contain all common

a^
^ it is necessary to compensate for the

weaker impression left on the drawing

medium by the compass lead as com-
pared with the stronger direct pressure
sizes and shapes of holes that most
drafters are ever called upon to draw.

M of the pencil point. For drawing circles

w and arcs, see Figs. 2-6-16 and 2-6-18.
It is essential that the compass lead

be reasonably sharp at all times in

Fig. 2-6-15 Drawing sloped lines. order to ensure proper line width. The
compass lead should be sharpened to a -LEAD BEVEL
COMPASS POIN"
bevel point, with the top rounded off OUTSIDE
left to right. The left-handed person as shown in Fig. 2-6-17. The pencil lead Fig. 2-6-17 Sharpening and setting the
would reverse this procedure. When is slightly shorter than the needle compass lead.
drawing vertical lines, lean the pencil
away from yourself, toward the top of
the drafting board, and draw lines from
bottom to top. Lines sloping from the
bottom to the top right are drawn from
bottom to top: lines sloping from the
bottom to the top left are drawn from
top to bottom. This procedure for slop- +
ing lines would be reversed for a left-
handed person.
When using a conical-shaped lead,
between your
rotate the pencil slowly
thumb and your forefinger when draw-
LIGHT
ing lines. This keeps the lines uniform CONSTRUCTION
inwidth and the pencil sharp. Do not LINES
rotate a pencil having a bevel or
wedge-shaped lead.

Circles and Arcs

When drawing circles and arcs with a
compass, it is recommended that the
compass lead be softer and blacker DRAWING AN ARC
than the pencil lead being used on the Fig. 2-6-16 Drawing circles and arcs.

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 29

 good techniques and materials must be
used which permit repeated erasures
on the same area. Some recommenda-
tions follow.

1. Avoid damaging the surface of the

drawing medium by selecting the
proper eraser.
2. Lines not thoroughly erased pro-
duce ghostlike images on prints,
FIRST POSITION resulting in reduced legibility.
3. A hard, smooth surface, such as a
triangle, placed under the lines
being removed makes erasing
easier.
4. Using an erasing shield protects the
adjacent lines and lettering and also
(A) ESTABLISH CENTER LINES AND eliminates wrinkling. See Fig.
RADII MARKS 2-6-20.
LIGHT 5. Use an eraser on the back of the
SECOND POSITION drawing medium as well as on the
drawing side.
6. Be sure to completely remove era-
sure debris from the drawing sur-
face.

\^*^HEA 7. When extensive changes are re-

quired, it may be more econom-

(Bl DRAW CIRCLES AND ARCS ical to cut and paste or make an
intermediate drawing.
LIGHT 8. When erasing, use no more pres-
THIRD POSITION sure than necessary.
9. The drawing quality of the drawing
Fig. 2-6-19 Drawing a curved line.
medium which may have been
damaged by erasing may be im-
proved by sprinkling an inking pow-
against a part of the curved line and
der on the surface and rubbing it
draw a portion of the line. Move the
with a cloth.
curve to match the next portion, and
(C) DRAW TANGENT LINES
so forth. Each new position should fit
enough of the part just drawn (overlap)
to ensure continuing a smooth line. It
isvery important to notice whether the
radius of the curved line is increasing

or decreasing and to place the irregular

curve in the same way. If the curved
line is symmetrical about the axis, the
position of the axis may be marked on
the irregular curve with a pencil for
(D) COMPLETE OBJECT LINES
one side and then reversed to match
Fig. 2-6-18 Sequence of steps for drawing a and draw the other side.
view having circles and arcs.

Erasing Techniques 1

Revision or change practice is inherent

Fig. 2-6-20 Using the eraser shield.
Curved Lines in the method of making engineering
Curved lines may be drawn
with the drawings. It is much more economical
aid of irregular curves, flexible curves, to introduce changes or additions on In addition to these suggestions, it is

and elliptical templates (Fig. 2-6-19). an original drawing than to redraw the necessary to match the density of the
After you have established the points entire drawing. Consequently, erasing surrounding background when era-
through which the curved line passes, has become a science all its own. sures are made. Often, the erased area
draw a light freehand line through Proper erasing is extremely important is much cleaner than the rest of the

these points. Next fit the irregular since some drawings are revised a drawing. If the change is made on this
curve or other instrument by trial great number of times. Consequently, clean area, the contrast between line

30 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

and background is different and that PARALLEL
area presents a problem in repro-
duction.
It is usual practice to "'smudge" the

erased area so that it looks about the

same shade as the surrounding area.

Removing Lines on Film 2

Erasers Lines on photoreproduction
film fall into two classifications: photo-
graphic lines and pencil-and-ink lines.
All these lines can be removed easily
so that the erased area can be used for
further drafting. Here are some tips for
removing lines.
There are three basic types of eras-
ers: rubber, plastic, and liquid. Rubber
and plastic erasers may tend to cause a
shine on the drafting surface. This is
not necessarily detrimental. Good
drafting lines can be drawn easily over
areas from which lines have been
erased many times. A good general
rule to follow is to use a soft, nonabra-
sive eraser and only enough pressure
to remove the line. See Fig. 2-6-21.
Fig. 2-6-22 Positioning the paper on the board.
Pencil Lines Pencil lines can be
removed from all film with a soft, non-
abrasive rubber or plastic eraser or
with liquid eraser. To keep the drafting
surface from becoming too shiny,
avoid excessive pressure.
FASTENING PAPER TO THE
BOARD
The most common method of holding
the drawing paper to the drafting board
iswith masking tape.
When fastening the paper to the
board, line up the bottom or top edge
of the paper with the top horizontal
edge of the T square, parallel straight-
edge, or horizontal scale of the drafting
machine. See Fig. 2-6-22. When
fastening a partially completed draw-
ing, use lines on the drawing rather
than the edge of the paper for align-
ment.
SKETCHING
Freehand sketching is a necessary part
of drafting because the drafter in
industry frequently sketches ideas and
designs prior to making instrumental
drawings.
The drafter may also use sketches to
explain thoughts and ideas to other
people in discussions of mechanical
parts and mechanisms. Sketching,
therefore, is an important method of
communication. Practice in sketching
helps the student to develop a good
sense of proportion and accuracy of
observation.
A fairly soft (HB. F. or H) pencil
should be used for preliminary prac-
tice. Many types of graph or ordinate
re- paper are available and can be used to
advantage when close accuracy to
scale or proportion is desirable. Free-
hand sketching of lines, circles, and
arcs is illustrated in Fig. 2-6-23.

Fig. 2-6-21 Erasing. fKeuffel & Esser Co.)

= //////
Liquid erasers do not put a shine on
//////
the drafting surface and can be used to
make many erasures in the same place.
When plastic erasers are used, the
- %w%
Ovy// y
////A '/
/

shiny appearance actually may be

transparentizing because of the plas-
ticizers
rather than
face.
used in their manufacture

detrimental since

cil line.
wear on the drafting sur-
The transparentizing
it
effect
does not reduce
the ability of the surface to take a pen-

When the drafting surface is affected

by excessive erasures, it
is

can be
not
m
repaired by rolling a regular typewriter
eraser across the smooth area or by
rubbing a small amount of drafting
powder into the area with a finger. Fig. 2-6-23 Sketching lines, circles, and arcs.

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 31

 . ,

Since the shapes of objects are made

/
T-|l l
'

l| r

\
I

up of flat and curved surfaces, the lines J

• 1 ii I i i, i

forming views of objects will be both

straight and curved. Do not attempt to
\ s / 1

1
' 1 1 '1

1
t

\
\
1 1
—— 1
\
I
i
^
draw long lines with one continuous
stroke. Fust plot points along the / \ -j
1 . 1 I

desired line path; then connect these

points with a series of light strokes.
When you are sketching a view (or
views), first lightly sketch the overall
-0-
T ^ i
-~-

size as a rectangular or square shape,

estimating its proportions carefully. _l J

Then add lines for the details of the

(A) COORDINATE SKETCHING PAPER
shape, and thicken all lines forming the
view. See Fig. 2-6-24.
Figure 2-6-25 shows two methods of
sketching circles. Figure 2-6-26 illus-
trates, both pictorially and ortho-
graphically, the use of graph paper
for the sketching of a machine part. JXT ^x^
Coordinate and isometric sketching
paper are shown in Fig. 2-6-27.

(B) ISOMETRIC SKETCHING PAPER

Fig. 2-6-25 Sketching a figure having circles
and arcs. Fig. 2-6-27 Sketching paper.

4^^T\
hO^^^x INKING 3

1
tiC OO
N^V/j
In inking, technique
factor. The pen should be moved
touches the film or paper at the begin-
is an important
as it

^v^L^^ ning of a line and as it leaves the film or

paper at the end of the line. This will
minimize belling, or spreading of ink.
at the line ends.
_1 — There are two inking pens on the
market today, the needle-in-tube type
and the blade type. Needle-in-tube
type pens should be held nearly verti-
cal and moved with a light touch
across the drawing medium. See Fig.
~\
2-6-28. Blade-type ruling pens should
"\
be inclined at an angle up to 15° from
^
s ) the vertical in the direction of motion.
There are several inks des'igned spe-
j cially foruse on drawing media. They
can be used with ruling pens, capillary-

— \A I
type pens, lettering pens, or pen nibs.
When inking on film, blade-type pens
1

j
— 1

i .
should be filled about half-way, as is
customary for drawing on vellum.
Normal handling of drawing media
(C)
is bound to soil them. Ink lines applied

Fig. 2-6-24 Sketching a view having Fig. 2-6-26 Usual procedure for sketching over soiled areas do not adhere well
straight lines. three views. and may be chipped off or flake in

32 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 (A) INKING STRAIGHT LINES WITH A BLADE RULING PEN
(B) INKING STRAIGHT LINES WITH A NEEDLE-IN-TUBE PEN
Fig. 2-6-28 Drawing ink lines.
time. It is always good practice to
the drawing paper or film clean. Soiled
areas can be cleaned effectively with a
cleaner.
The use of a needle-in-tube pen with
a circular template has. in many
instances, replaced the drawing of cir-
clesby means of the blade-type pen
compass, which must be frequently
refilledwith ink (Fig. 2-6-29). When
you are inking circles by template, the
only thing to look out for is to keep the
template above the drawing media.
This is accomplished by inserting
another template or other thin material
between the template and the drawing
surface in order to avoid blotting
through capillary underflow of ink.
SCRIBING
Scribing is a drafting technique which
in some areas has replaced pen-and-
^£s. pencil drafting. has already done so
It
for some types of close-tolerance
work. With regular drafting, using pen-
cil or pen. draw on top of the work.
With scribing, you incise, or cut, lines
into a special surface with scribing
tools, making lines that are sharp and
clean, never vary in width, and can't
be smudged. Scribe lines also produce
the sharpest prints, direct from the
Fig. 2-6-29 Inking. |J. S. Staedtler. Inc] scribed original. See Fig. 2-6-30.
keep
Fig. 2-6-30 Scribing. (Keuffel & Esser Co.)
Scribing is used for a variety of
applications —
as a drafting medium
for the tools and templates from which
fabricated parts are produced; in air-
and automobile layouts; in
craft lofting
mapping; and for close-tolerance elec-
tronic circuitry and microcircuit
layout.
In the past, glass, steel, and alumi-
num were considered the only stable
base materials for scribing because of
their extremely high dimensional sta-
bility. These materials were adequate
but difficult to handle and file. In sub-
sequent years, glass cloth was devel-
oped, and it became quite popular as a
stable base material. At present, the
most useful and stable drafting and
reproduction medium is polyester
film. It is available in a wide range of
surfaces for the precision drafting and
reproduction requirements of such
industries as mapping and electronics.
There are specially prepared scribe
surfaces for the critical line work of
mapping and undimensioned draft-
ing —
coatings which can be cut with a
blade and then peeled back to the
transparent film base.
DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 33
Fig. 2-7-1 Drawing reproduction. (Eastman Kodak Co.) Fig. 2-7-2 A whiteprint machine. [Bruning.)

ASSIGNMENTS better reproduction and information Copying machines are suitable for
handling equipment and methods will both line work and pictorials, often on
See Assignments 5 through 10 for Unit
be discovered, and the advantages large sheets. They operate at slow
2-6 on page 40.
which they offer will find ever-widen- speeds, and so the cost per copy is
ing application. relatively high.
References
In contrast, duplicating processes
1. National Microfilming Association
are characterized by high speed, high
and Keuffel & Esser Co.
2. Keuffel & Esser Co.
REPRODUCTION volume, and low cost per copy. They

3. Eastman Kodak Company. EQUIPMENT 2 can be used with a wide variety of

papers in many sizes, masses, and
Studies of reproduction facilities, finishes. Although duplicators
existing or proposed, should first con-
demand
spirit, stencil, and offset —
are used in
UNIT 2-7 sider the nature of the for this conjunction with copying machines in
service, then the processes which best the engineering and drafting offices,
Drawing satisfy the demand, and finally the par- they will not be covered in this text.
ticular machines which employ the
Reproduction 1

processes. Factors to consider at these

stages of study include: Copiers
A revolution in reproduction technolo- • Input originals — sizes, paper mass, The principal kinds of copiers are
giesand methods began in the 1940s diazo, electrostatic, thermographic,
color, artwork
and 1950s. It brought with it new
equipment and supplies which have
• Quality —
of output copies depend-
and photographic devices.
Blueprinting was the classical pro-
ing on expected use and degree of
made quick copying commonplace. cess for copying engineering drawings.
legibility required
The new technologies make it pos-
sible to apply improved systems
• Size —
of copies same size, enlarged, It provided white lines on a blue back-

ground. Prints were made on a contin-

reduced
approaches and new information han-
• Color —
copy paper and ink uous roll-fed machine and were not
dling techniques to all

ranging from small documents to large

types of
engineering drawings. See Fig. 2-7-1.
The pressures on business and gov-
ernment for greater efficiency, space
savings, cost reductions, lower invest-
ment costs, and equally important fac-
tors provided a fertile field for the
reproduction technologies. There is no
reason to believe that such pressures
will diminish: in fact, as the years go
by, it is certain that more and more
improvements will occur, newer and
files
• Registration —
in multiple-color intended for reproduction. The pro-
cess was wet, and the quality of prints
work
• Volume — numbers of orders and was poor. In recent years, blueprinting
has been replaced, mainly by diazo.
copies per order
• Speed— machine productivity, con-
venient and load-unload
start-stop,
Diazo (Whiteprint)
• Cost — direct labor, direct material,
new In this process (Figs. 2-7-2 and 2-7-3),
overhead
paper or film coated with a photosensi-
• Future requirements
tive diazonium salt is exposed to light
Two general kinds of reproduction passing through an original of translu-
are recognized: copying and dupli- cent paper or film. The exposed coated
cating. sheet is then developed by an alkaline

34 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 DEVELOPED PRINT
COMES OUT HERE
PRINT FACE UP
TRACING
TRACING
PRINT PAPER
CHEMICAL SIDE UP-
ROLLERS MOVE THE TRACING AND PRINT AROUND
THE LIGHT, AND MOVE THE PRINT PAST THE
RISING AMMONIA VAPOR.
Fig. 2-7-3 The diazo printing process.
agent such as ammonia vapor. Where
the light passes through the clear areas
of the master, it decomposes the
diazonium salt, leaving a clear area on
the copy. Where markings on the origi-
nal block the light, theammonia and
the unexposed coating produce an
opaque dye image of the original mark-
ings. A positive original makes
tivecopy, and a negative original
makes a negative copy. Therefore, the
polarity is said to be nonreversing.
three diazo processes currently used
differ mainly in the way the ammonia
is introduced to the diazo coat. These
are ammonia vapor, moist developing,
and pressure developing.
Perhaps the most significant charac-
teristic of the diazo process is that it
Fig. 2-7-4 Photoreproduction process. This machine
RISING VAPOR
AMMONIA
BRIGHT LIGHT
GLASS CYLINDER
allows reproduction of fine detail.
Diazo is a high-contrast process and
thus ideal for document reproduction.
Photographic
Photography is the process of creating
latent images on light-sensitive silver
a posi- halide material by exposure to light.
The images are made visible and per-
manent by developing and fixing tech-
The niques. A camera provides for enlarge-
ment or reduction of the image size.
Contact printing and projection
printing are the two principal methods
of making photographic prints con-
tact for prints the same size as origi-
nals and projection for reduced or
enlarged prints.
will reproduce, reduce, fold, and
Electrostatic
Electrostatic reproduction, one form
of which is xerography, is a dry copy-
ing process which uses electrostatic
force to deposit dry powder on copy
paper.
Electrostatic transfer enables print-
ing on plain paper, offset paper mas-
ters, or transparent materials. Some
machines copy only at the same size as
the originals, while others can reduce
or enlarge. See Fig. 2-7-4.
MICROFORM
Microforming of engineering drawings
is now an established practice in many
drafting offices. See Fig. 2-7-5. This
has come about because of the primary
savings in lower transportation, labor,
and storage costs of microfilm.
Microform prints are B size, regard-
less of their original size, and are much
easier to handle and store. From the
drafting room, drawings are taken to a
camera, photographed, and stored in
rolls or on cards.
Forms of Film
One way to classify microfilm is
according to the physical forms, called
microforms, in which it is used.
—
Roll Film This is the form of the film
after it has been removed from the
camera and developed. Microfilm
sort prints. (Xerox Corp
DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 35
 References
1. National Microfilming Association.
2. Machine Design, July 1971.

UNIT 2-8
Filing Systems 1

One of the most common and difficult

Fig. 2-7-5 Microforming. (3M Co. and American Motors Co.)
comes in four different widths 16,35, —
70. and 105 mm —
and is stored in
magazines.
Aperture Cards Perhaps the simplest of
the flat microforms is finished roll film
cut into separate frames, each
mounted on a card having a rectangu-
lar hole as shown in Fig. 2-7-6. Aper-
ture cards are available in many
Readers and Viewers
Microform readers magnify film
images large enough to be read and
project the images onto a translucent
or opaque screen. Some readers
accommodate only one microform
(rolls, jackets, microfiches, or aper-
ture cards), while others can be used
with two or more. Scanning-type read-
sizes.
ers, having a variable-type magnifica-
problems facing an engineering depart-
ment is how to set up and maintain an
efficient engineering filing area. Nor-
mal office file methods are not consid-
ered satisfactory for engineering draw-
ings.To properly serve its function, an
engineering filing area must meet two
important criteria: accessibility of
information and protection of valuable
documentation.
For this kind of system to be effec-
tive, drawings must be readily accessi-
ble. The degree of accessibility is
dependent on whether drawings are
considered active, semiactive, or in-
active.

Jackets Jackets are made of thin,
plastic and have channels into which
short strips of microfilm are inserted.
They come in a variety of film channel
combinations for 16- and/or 35-mm
microfilm. Like aperture cards, jack-
ets can be viewed easily.
Microfiche A microfichea sheet of
is
clear film containing a number of
microimages arranged in rows. A com-
mon size. 100 x 150 mm, frequently is
arranged to contain 98 images. Micro-
fiches are especially well suited for
quantity distribution of standard infor-
mation, parts, and service lists.
clear tion, are used when frames containing FILING ORIGINAL DRAWINGS
a large drawing are viewed. Generally, Unless a company has developed a full
only parts of the drawing can be microforming system, the original
viewed at one time drawings which the drafter produced
must be kept and filed for future use or
Reader-Printers
reference. Unlike the prints, the origi-
Two kinds of equipment are used to
nals must not be folded to avoid crease
make enlarged prints from microform:
lines, which would appear in copies.
reader-printers and enlarger-printers.
They are filed in either a flat or rolled
The reader-printer, as illustrated in
position. See Fig. 2-8-1.
Fig. 2-7-7, is a reader which incorpo-
In determining what type of equip-
rates a means of making hard copy
ment to use for engineering files, it
from the projected image. The en-
should be remembered that different
larger-printer is designed only for
types of drawings require different
copying and does not include the
kinds of files. Also, in planning a filing
means for reading.
system, keep in mind that filing
requirements are always increasing;
unlike normal office files that can be
purged each year, the more drawings
produced, the more need to be stored.
Therefore, any filing system must have
the flexibility of being easily ex-
panded, and generally in a minimum of
space.

^ Microform Filing Systems

It seems logical that reducing drawings
to tinyimages on film would make
Fig. 2-7-6 Aperture cards. Fig. 2-7-7 Reader-printer. them more difficult to locate. How-
(Eastman Kodak Co.) (Eastman Kodak Co.) ever, this is not the case, for while they

36 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

are reduced in size, they are made
more uniform. This results in im-
proved file arrangements.

Roll Film Roll film can be coded in sev-

eral ways for visual or automatic
retrieval.The more common methods
used are flash cards, code lines,
sequential numbering image control,
and binary code patterns.

Aperture Cards In many respects , aper-

ture cards have the same filing and
retrieval capabilities as jackets and
microfiches. However, there is one Fig. 2-8-1 Filing systems. |A) Vertical filing. (Ulnck Plan File.) |B| Horizontal filing. (AM Bruning.

important difference. It is possible to

use aperture cards in machine records
handling systems. They can be
printed,punched, and sorted by
I
machine. J
i m
Jackets and Microfiches Both these
microforms are basically the same
with respect to retrieval. See Fig.
2-8-2.Each has a title header for iden-
numbers and titles. Each jacket
tifying
SSBH
or microfiche contains a group of
images arranged in a logical sequence
so that the particular images can be
readily found.

FOLDING OF PRINTS
To facilitate handling, mailing, and fil-

ing, printsshould be folded to letter

size, 8.5 x 11 in. (210 x 297 mm), in
such a way that the title block and
Fig. 2-8-2 Microfilm jacket. (Eastman Kodak Co
auxiliary number always appear on the j

front face and the last fold is always at

the top. In filing, this prevents other
drawings from being pushed into the
folds of filed prints. AUXILIARY
NO. BLOCK-
Recommended methods of folding
standard-size prints are illustrated in
Fig. 2-8-3.
On preprinted forms,
it is recom-

mended marks be included in

that fold
TITLE BLOCK
the margin of the drawings on size B
and larger and be identified by num-
ber, for example, "fold 1." "fold 2." In B OR A3 SIZE C OR A2 SIZE D OR Al SIZE
zoned prints, the fold lines will coin-
cide with zone boundaries: but they
should, nevertheless, be identified.
To avoid loss of clarity by frequent
folding, important details should not FOLD 2^^
be placed close to fold areas.

Reference
1. Eastman Kodak Company and
"Setting Up and Maintaining an FOLD 2 FOLD 3

Effective Drafting Filing System," E OR AO SIZE

Reprographics. March 1975. Fig. 2-8-3 Folding prints.

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 37

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 2
Assignments for Unit 2-2,
Manual Drafting Equipment and
Supplies
1. Using the scales shown in Fig. 2-2-A 3. Metric measurement assignment. With 4. Foot and inch measurement assignment.
determine lengths A to K. reference to Fig. 2-2-B and using the With reference to Fig. 2-2-B and using
2. Inch measurement assignment. With ref- scale: the scale:
erence to Fig. 2-2-B and using the scale: 1 measure distances A-E 1
= "
1
'
- 0" measure distances A-F
Half size decimal inch scale measure 2 measure distances F-K =
3" 1
'
- 0" measure distances G-M
distances A-F 5 measure distances L-P ]
A" - 1' -0" measure distances N-T
Half size fractional inch scale measure 1 measure distances Q-U 3
/b" = 1
'
- 0" measure distances U-Z
distances G-M 50 measure distances V-Z
Full size decimal inch scale measure
distances N-T
Full size fractional inch scale measure
distances U-Z

"1:1
50 o
> & fi 8 7 4 6 8 7468
MIMMMIMlMMMIMMIill'IMI'I'll'i'll'I'ii't'll'lill'I'h'I'll'I'liiiMi'i'M'i'iMi'ti'l'ii'l'li'i'fri'ii'l'lMi'M'i'ii'i'tt'i'ii-rM'i

HALF
SIZE
llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll|llll llllllllllllllllll

(.02) 1:2 °

DECIMAL INCH SCALE - (FULL SCALE) DECIMAL INCH SCALE - (HALF SCALE)

C D-

1:1
l|l|l|IM|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|
16

FRACTIONAL INCH SCALE - (FULL SCALE) FRACTIONAL INCH SCALE - (HALF SCALE)

(A) INCH SCALES

|"= |' -0" SCALE - (1:12 SCALE) 1/4" =1'- 0" SCALE - (1:48 SCALE)
(B) INCH AND FOOT SCALES

llll|llll|llll|llll|llil|llll|llll|l!ll|llll|llll|lll

1:2 20 40 60 1 00 1 20 1 40

=d
I : I SCALE ( I mm DIVISIONS) 1 :2 SCALE (2 mm DIVISIONS)
J *

mm mm
1:5 1:50

I :5 SCALE (5 mm DIVISIONS) 1:50 SCALE (50 mm DIVISIONS)

(C) METRIC SCALES
Fig. 2-2-A Test in reading drafting scales.

38 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 —
c< •»

* B »- F

* -c «• D-

If

it
E

G
t
i i

|F

]_L y

!
N

* O ""

+ P — K>

-« —Q " "* R — ^-1

1
i i

k L^ T

•* — w— *

L_«x
A
/
'
tj

j
'
1

— '

l
r r 1r
1

«« —2 »•

Fig. 2-2-B Scale measurement assignment.

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 39

Assignments for Unit 2-6, Basic
Drafting Skills
5. Lettering assignment. Set up a B- or A3-
size sheet similar to that shown in Fig.
^^hmnmnmMNMMM
2-6-A. Using vertical uppercase Gothic
i.........AAAAAAA>,AAAAAA u(. u ..iniiiiimillllllinill
I
lettering shown in Fig. 2-6-2 complete
each line. Each letter and number is to be
drawn several times to the three recom-
mended lettering heights shown. Very
light guidelines must be drawn first. The
bracketed dimensions are millimeters.
6. Lettering assignment. Same as assign-
ment 5 except use inclined lettering.
7. On a B- or A3-size sheet draw the tem-
plate shown in Fig. 2-6-B. Scale full (1:1).
Do not dimension.
8. On an A3- or B-size sheet draw the tem-
plate shown in Fig. 2-6-C. Scale 1 :1 . Do
not dimension.
9. On a B- or A3-size sheet draw any four
of the six inlay designs shown in Fig.
2-6-D. Scale full Do not dimension.
( 1 :
1
).

10. On an A3- or B-size sheet draw the four

structural steel shapes shown in Fig.

2-6-E. The fillets and radii are one-half Fig. 2-6-A Lettering assignment.
the material thickness. Scale 1 :1 . Do not
dimension.

A Note About Dual Dimensions

The dual dimensions shown in this book,
especially in the assignment sections, are
neither hard nor soft conversions. Instead,
the sizes are those that would be most com-
monly used in the particular dimensioning
units and so are only approximately equal.
Dual dimensioning this way avoids awkward
amounts and allows instructor and student
to be confident that a drawing using either
set of dimensions will be no more difficult to
work than one dimensioned exclusively in
either dimensioning system.

DIMENSIONS NOT ENCLOSED

IN BRACKETS ARE IN INCHES.
DIMENSIONS ENCLOSED IN
BRACKETS ARE IN MILLIMETERS.

Fig. 2-6-B Template no. I.

NOTE DIMENSIONS NOT ENCLOSED

- IN BRACKETS ARE IN J [2.25]
MILLIMETERS. 22 i. 90)1
DIMENSIONS ENCLOSED IN BRACKETS ARE IN INCHES.

[3.40]

Fig. 2-6-C Template no. 2.

40 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 L

SQ •1.50 X 2.40

L
1.00
[25] [40 X 60]

.20 [5]
H
.20 [5]

NOTE - DIMENSIONS NOT ENCLOSED IN BRACKETS ARE IN INCHES.

DIMENSIONS IN BRACKETS ARE IN MILLIMETERS.

3.00 [74] ACROSS

CORNERS

Fig. 2-6-D Inlay designs.

NOTE - DIMENSIONS NOT ENCLOSED IN BRACKETS ARE IN MILLIMETERS.

DIMENSIONS IN BRACKETS ARE IN INCHES.

—
J [3.16 ]

l2-» »*- [.15] i-18

[.50] [.75]
125
125 125
[5.00] -12
[5.00] [5.00] 100
[4.00] [.50]

10
[.40]
1
* ! 1
80- -90- 80-
[3.16]
•P" [3.50] [3.16]

I BEAM ANGLE Z-BAR

Fig. 2-6-E Structural steel shapes.

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 41

11. On a B- or A3-size sheet draw the tem- '•75 * .56 WIDE. 2 SLOTS"
plate shown in Fig. 2-6-F Scale full (1:1).

Do not dimension.
R .75
12. On a B- or A3 -size
sheet draw the shaft
support shown in
Fig. 2-6-G. Scale full

.1
( Do not dimension.
1 ).

13. On an A3- or B-size sheet draw the dial

indicator shown in Fig 2-6-H. Scale 2:1
Do not dimension but add the word
DEGREES and the degree numbers
shown.
14. On an A3- or B-size sheet draw the dart
board shown in Fig. 2-6-J. Scale 1 :2. Use
diagonal shading and add the num-
line
Fig. 2-6-G Shaft support
bers. Do not dimension.
15. Using grid paper draw the line graph -0 .125

shown in Fig. 2-6-K using .25 in. or 5 mm 6HOLES EQUALLY

grids.
SPACED ON 2.40

16. On a B- or A3-size sheet layout the pat-

tern for the table leg shown in Fig. 2-6-L
to half scale f
1 .2).

Fig. 2-6-H Dial indicator.

1.5 NICKEL PLATED STEEL

NUMBERS
15 mm HIGH

R 1.00 DIAMETERS
440 200
360 180
R 1.40- -0 2.00 340 40

Fig. 2-6-F Template. Fig. 2-6-J Dart board.

42 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 1 2 3 4 5 19 20 2 1 22 23 2'

Fig. 2-6-K Line graph.

2 HOLES
OR 25mm DRILL AND CSK FOR
.0 IN.
SQUARES— #|0 WOOD SCREWS
v

c <s

Fig. 2-6-L Table leg.

DRAFTING SKILLS AND DRAWING OFFICE PRACTICES 43

 -
CHAPTER 3
Theory of Shape ]<Tr

Description

and maintenance draw-

in installation Cylindrical shapes, such as a base-
UNIT 3-1 ings and design sketches. ball bat, have diameter and length.
Theory of Shape As a result of new drawing tech- However, a hockey puck would have
niques and equipment, pictorial draw- diameter and thickness (two terms).
Description ings are becoming a popular form of Objects which are not spherical or
communication, especially with peo- cylindrical require three terms to
ple not trained to read engineering describe their overall shape. The terms
Chapter 2 illustrated many simple
drawings. Practically all drawings of used for a car would probably be
parts that required only one view to
do-it-yourself projects for the general length, width, and height; for a filing
completely describe them. However,
public or of assembly-line instructions cabinet, width, height, and depth: fora
in industry, the majority of parts that
for nontechnical personnel are done in sheet of drawing paper, length, width,
have to be drawn are more compli-
pictorial form. and thickness. These terms are used
cated than the ones previously de-
interchangeably according to the pro-
scribed. More than one view of the
portions of the object being described,
object is required to show all the con- SHAPE DESCRIPTION BY and the position it is in when being
struction features.
draw-
Pictorial (three-dimensional)
VIEWS viewed. For example, a telephone pole
sometimes used, but
ings of objects are When looking at objects, we normally
lying on the ground would be
the majority of drawings used in see them as three-dimensional, having
described as having diameter and
mechanical drafting for completely width, depth, and height, or length,
length, but when placed in a vertical

describing an object are multiview width, and height. The choice of terms
position, its dimensions would be
drawings as shown used depends on the shape and propor- diameter and height.
in Fig. 3-1-1.
In general, distances from left to
such as axo-
Pictorial projections, tions of the object.
right are referred to as width or length,
nometric, oblique, and perspective Spherical shapes, such as a basket-
distances from front to back as depth
projection, are useful for illustrative ball, are described as having a certain
purposes and are frequently employed or width, and vertical distances
diameter (one term).
(except when very small in proportion
to the others) as height. On drawings,
-rh-
1

:
i
the multidimensional shape is repre-
sented by a view or views on the flat
i i

surface of the drawing paper.

PICTORIAL VIEWS
&. FS Pictorial drawings represent the shape

£ ^31 PERSPECTIVE
with just one view, and are frequently
used for illustrative purposes, for
installation and maintenance draw-
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION PICTORIAL DRAWINGS ings, and do-it-yourself projects for the
\\
general public. However, the majority
Fig. 3-1-1 Types of projection used in drafting. of parts manufactured in industry are

44 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

too complicated in shape and detail to Fig. 3-1-3 Systematic arrangement of views.

be described successfully by a pic-

torial view.

ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION
The drafter must represent the part
which appears as three-dimensional
(width, height, depth) to the eye on the
flat plane of the drawing paper. Differ-

ent views of the object —

front, side.

(A) PICTORIAL DRAWING (ISOMETRIC) and top views —are systematically described in detail in Unit 3-7, is used
arranged on the drawing paper to con- mainly in many European and Asiatic
vey the necessary information to the countries. As world trade has brought
THICK SOLID LINE USEDTO reader (Fig. 3-1-2B and 3-1-3). Features about the exchange of engineering
INDICATE VISIBLE OBJECT LINES
are projected from one view to drawings as well as the end products,
another. This type of drawing is called drafters are now called upon to com-
an orthographic projection. The word municate in. as well as understand,
TOP VIEW orthographic is derived from two both types of orthographic projection.
Greek words: orthos. meaning
/ DEPTH \ straight, correct, at right angles to; and ISO Projection Symbol
graphikos, meaning to write or With two types of projection being
-4 WIDTH •- describe by drawing lines. used on engineering drawings, a
An orthographic view is what you method of identifying the type of pro-
would see looking directly at one side jection is necessary. The International
! SIDE
HEIGHT or "face" of the object. When looking
VIEW directly at the front face, you would
FROf MT VIEW
see width and height (two dimensions) HORIZONTAL PLANE
but not the third dimension, depth.
(B) ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION Each orthographic view gives two of
DRAWING (THIRD ANGLE) the three major dimensions.

Orthographic Systems
The principles of orthographic projec-
tion can be applied in four different
HEIGHT "angles" or systems: first-, second-,
third-, and fourth-angle projection
(Fig. 3-1-4).
However, only two systems first- —
-WIDTH-
and third-angle projection —
are used.
Third-angle projection is used in the ^VERTICAL PLANE
(C) ORTHOGRAPHIC VIEW United States. Canada, and many PROFILE PLANE"

Fig. 3-1-2 A simple object shown in pictorial

other countries throughout the world. Fig. 3-1-4 The three planes used in
and orthographic projection. First-angle projection, which will be orthographic projection.

THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 45

 Standards Organization, known as
ISO. has recommended that the sym-
bol shown in Fig. 3-1-5 be shown on all
drawings and located preferably in the
lower right-hand coiner of the draw- THIRD ANGLE
ing, adjacent to the title block (Fig.
3-1-6). To aid the reader in learning the
language of industry, many objects
throughout this text have been drawn
in first- as well as third-angle projec-
FIRST ANGLE
tion. The ISO symbol will indicate the
Fig. 3-1-5 ISO projection symbol.
type of projection used.

Third-Angle Projection
In third-angle projection, the object is
positioned in the third-angle quadrant, -0- TITLE BLOCK
as shown in Fig. 3-1-7. The person
tiewing the object does so from six Fig. 3-1-6 Locating ISO symbol on drawing Fig. 3-1-7 Relationship of object with
different positions, namely, from the paper. viewing planes in third-angle projection.

VIEWED FROM
LEFTSIDE VIEWED FROM REAR

, FRO
/VIEWEDff\
FROM
VIEWED RIGHT
FROM SIDE
BOTTOM

VIEWING THE OBJECT FROM ALL SIX SIDES

UNFOLDING GLASS BOX TO GIVE

THIRD ANGLE LAYOUT OF VIEWS

TOP VIEW FRONT

' ] I 1 I I

R
LEFTSIDE
VIEW
t

' ]
F "RONT VIE\ V
1
1

J
(
1

RIGHT-SI DE
VIEW
, |
r*-
REAR VIEW

B DTTOM VIE IN
OBJECT ENCLOSED IN GLASS BOX
Fig. 3-1-8 Systematic arrangement of views.

46 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 L
top. front, right side, left side. rear.
and bottom. The views or pictures
seen from these positions are then
recorded or draw n on the plane located
between the viewer and the object.
These six viewing planes are then
rotated or positioned so that they
a single plane, as shown in Fig. 3-1-8.
Rarely are all six views used. Only the
views which are necessary to fully
describe the object are drawn. Simple
objects, such as a gasket, can be
described sufficiently by one view
alone. However, in mechanical draft-
ing two- or three-view drawings of
objects are more common, the
bottom, and one of the two side view s
being rarely used. Figure 3-1-9 shows
simple objects drawn in orthographic
and pictorial form.
To fully appreciate the shape and
detail of \iews drawn in third-angle
orthographic projection, the units for
this chapter have been designed ac-
cording to the types of surfaces gener-
ally found on objects. These surfaces
can be divided into flat surfaces paral-
lel to the view ing planes w ith and w ith-
"
1
— PL
1
NOTE: ARROWS INDICATE DIRECTION OF SIGHT WHEN LOOKING AT THE FRONT
Fig. 3-1-9 Illustrations of objects
out hidden features; flat surfaces
UNIT 3-2
which appear inclined in one plane and
parallel to the other two principal ref- Spacing of Views
erence planes (called inclined sur-
faces): flat surfaces which are inclined and Miter Lines
in all three reference planes (called
lie in oblique surfaces): and surfaces which SPACING THE VIEWS
have diameters or radii. These draw-
ings are so designed that only the top. It is important for clarity and good
front, and right side views are appearance that the views be well bal-
required. anced on the drawing paper, whether
the drawing shows one view, two
All Surfaces Parallel to the Viewing Planes
views, three views, or more. The
and All Edges and Lines Visible When a
drafter must anticipate the approxi-
surface is parallel to the viewing
mate space required. This is deter-
planes, that surface w ill show as a sur-
rear, mined from the size of the object to be
face on one view and a line on the other
drawn, the number of views, the scale
views. The lengths of these lines are
used, and the space between views.
the same as the lines shown on the
Ample space should be provided
surface view. The drawing has been
between view s to permit placement of
made showing each side to represent
dimensions on the drawing without
the exact shape and size of the object
crowding. Space should also be allot-
and the relationship of the three views
ted so that notes can be added w ithout
to one another.
crowding. However, space between
views should not be excessive. Once
ASSIGNMENTS the size of paper, scale, and number of
See Assignments 1 and 2 for Unit 3-1 on \ iews are established, the balancing of
page 56. the three views is relatively simple. A
VIEW.
drawn in third-angle orthographic projection.
THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 47
wma
simple method of positioning the views USE OF A MITER LINE Using a Miter Line to
on the drawing paper is shown in Fig. Construct the Top View
The use of a miter line provides a fast
3-2-1. In this example, a distance of 40 1. Given the front and side views, pro-
and accurate method of constructing
mm (1.50 in.) is left between views. the third view once two views are
ject vertical linesup from the side
For the beginning drafter, between 30 view.
established (Fig. 3-2-2).
and 40 mm (1.20 to 1.50 in.) is recom- 2. Establish how far away from the
mended for the distance between front view the top view is to be
Using a Miter Line to drawn (distance D).
views.
Construct the Right Side View 3. Construct the miter line at 45° to the
1. Given the top and front views, pro- horizon.
ject lines to the right of the top view.
4. Where the vertical projection lines
2. Establish how far from the front
of the side view intersect the miter
view the side view is to be drawn
line, project horizontal lines to the
(distance D).
left.
Construct the miter line at 45° to the
5. Project vertical lines up from the
horizon.
front view and complete the top
Where the horizontal projection
view.
lines of the top view intersect the
miter line, drop vertical projection
lines.
ASSIGNMENTS
Project horizontal lines to the right
of the front view and complete the See Assignments 3 through 6 for Unit
side view. 3-2 on page 56.

(A) DECIDING THE VIEWS TO BE DRAWN

AND THE SCALE TO BE USED

MITER LINE

I
45°

-4) ;/
V
-f T^
/
y
—-D-»-

(Bi CALCULATING DISTANCES A AND B

1 i Ml 1

Ml i
i
i

HORIZONTAL -r "r-
1

DRAWING SPACE
/— PLANE I

f
X
BORDER LINES
VERTICAL
DRAWING
SPACE
4- 3 ~i

PLANE 2-»
-r-t-r
i 1

-L4-1-
to I
ESTABLISHING WIDTH LINES
IC) ESTABLISHING LOCATION OF PLANES 1 AND 2 ESTABLISHING WIDTH LINES
ON SIDE VIEW ON TOP VIEW
Fig. 3-2-1Balancing the drawing on the
drawing paper. Fig. 3-2-2 Use of miter line.

48 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 on the drawing to show the true shape detail inChapter 13. Figure 3-4-2
UNIT 3-3
of the object. Figure 3-3-2 shows addi- shows additional examples of objects
All Surfaces Parallel tional examples of objects requiring having inclined surfaces.
hidden lines.
to the Viewing
ASSIGNMENTS
Planes with Some ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments through 14 for Unit
Edges and Surfaces See Assignments 7 through 10 for Unit 3-4 on page 60.
3-3 on page 57.
Hidden
Most objects drawn in engineering
more complicated than the
offices are
ones shown in Fig. 3-3-1. Many fea-
tures (lines, holes, etc.) cannot be seen
when viewed from outside the piece. UNIT 3-4
These hidden edges are shown with
hidden lines and are normally required
Inclined Surfaces

If the surfaces of an object lie in either

a horizontal or a vertical position, the
surfaces appear in their true shapes in
one of the three views, and these sur-
faces appear as a line in the other two
views.
Whena surface is inclined or sloped
in only one direction, then that surface
is not seen in its true shape in the top, A B
front, or side view. It is. however,
seen in two views as a distorted sur-
face. On the third view it appears as a
line. rA
The true length of surfaces A and B
By A
HIDDEN EDGE in Fig. 3-4-1 is seen in the front view
X
HIDDEN EDGE LINE
LINES
IN
SHOWN
FRONT VIEW
only. In the top and side views, only
the width of surfaces A and B appears
in its true size. The length of these
^< B

surfaces is foreshortened.
Where an inclined surface has
important features that must be shown NOTE: THE TRUE SHAPE OF SUR-
clearly and without distortion, an aux- FACES A AND B DO NOT APPEAR
iliary or helper view must be used. ON THE TOP OR SIDE VIEWS.
Fig. 3-3-1 Hidden lines. This type of view will be discussed in Fig. 3-4-1 Sloping surfaces.

Fig. 3-3-2 Illustrations of objects having hidden features.

THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 49

 gra

Fig. 3-4-2 Illustrations of objects having sloping surfaces.

den flat surfaces, are represented on tures are small. Center lines should
UNIT 3-5
drawings by a hidden line. project for a short distance beyond the
Circular Features outline of the part or feature to which
Center Lines they refer. They must be extended for
A center line is drawn as a thin, broken use as extension lines for dimensioning
Typical parts with circular features are line of long and short dashes, spaced purposes, but in this case the extended
illustrated in Fig. 3-5-1. Note that the alternately. Such lines may be used to portion is not broken.
circular feature appears circular in
one locate center points, axes of cylindri- On views showing the circular fea-
view only and that no line is used to cal parts, and axes of symmetry, as tures, the point of intersection of the
show where a curved surface joins a shown in Fig. 3-5-2. Solid center lines two center lines is shown by the two
flat surface. Hidden circles, like hid- are often used when the circular fea- intersecting short dashes.

Q®
Q^
-t, -.

%-.-£

Fig. 3-5-1 Illustrations of objects having circular features.

50 BASIC DRAUflNG DESIGN

 UNIT 3-6
Oblique Surfaces
When a surface is sloped so that it is
not perpendicular to any of the three
viewing planes, it will appear as a sur-
face in all three views but never in its
true shape. This is referred to as an

CENTER LINE SHOULD NOT BE oblique surface (Fig. 3-6-1). Since the
BROKEN WHEN IT EXTENDS oblique surface is not perpendicular to
BEYOND THE OBJECT LINE the viewing planes, it cannot be paral-
lel to them and consequently appears

foreshortened. If a true view is re-

quired for this surface, two auxiliary i ur
—
views a primary and a secondary
—
view need to be drawn. This is dis-
A

cussed in detail under Secondary Aux-

USE TWO SHORT DASHES AT
THE POINT OF INTERSECTION' Views in Unit 13-4. Figure 3-6-2
iliary

Fig. 3-5-2 Center line application.

shows additional examples of objects
having oblique surfaces. A A

FRONT SIDF
ASSIGNMENTS ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 15 through 19 for Unit See Assignments 20 and 21 for Unit 3-6 Fig. 3-6-1 Oblique surface A not true shape
3-5on page 64. on page 67. in any of the three views.

OBLIQUE BLIQUE SURFACE C OBLIQUE

SURFACE A SURFACE E-

-OBLIQUE SURFACE B

•OBLIQUE
SURFACE F

OBLIQUE
SURFACE A

^OBLIQUE BLIQUE
5BLIQUE SURFACE E
SURFACE C SURFACE D
OBLIQUE SURFACE B DIRECTLY BEHIND OBLIQUE
SURFACE F

Fig. 3-6-2 Examples of objects having oblique surfaces

THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 51

UNIT 3-7 VIEWING DIRECTION
FROM TOP
First-Angle
Orthographic
Projection

As mentioned previously, first-angle

orthographic projection is used in
many countries throughout the world.
Today with global marketing and the
interchange of drawings with different
countries, drafters are called upon to
prepare and interpret drawings in both
first- and third-angle projection. In
views are
first-angle projection, all the VIEWING
DIRECTION
projected onto the planes located FROM FRONT VIEWING
DIRECTION
behind the objects rather than onto the FROM RIGHT
planes lying between the objects and SIDE
VIEWING PLANE BETWEEN OBJECT BETWEEN VIEWING
the viewer, as in third-angle projec- OBJECT AND OBSERVER PLANE AND OBSERVER
tion. This is shown in Fig. 3-7-2. The THIRD-ANGLE PROJECTION FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTION
unfolding and positioning of the views Fig. 3-7-1 A comparison between third- and first-angle projection.
in one plane are shown in Fig. 3-7-3.
Note that the views are on opposite
sides of the front view with the excep- 3-7-1 and 3-7-4. Remember that the ASSIGNMENTS
tion of the rear view. A comparison views are identical in shape and detail,
See Assignments 22 and 23 for Unit 3-7
between the views of first- and third- and only their location in reference to
on page 68.
angle projections is shown in Figs. the front view has changed.

Review for Assignment

Unit 2-6 Sketching
WHEN VIEWING FROM THE TOP. THE IMAGE WHICH IS Unit 3-1 ISO Projection Symbol
SEEN (TOP VIEW) IS PROJECTED BEYOND THE OBJECT
AND ONTO THE BOTTOM HORIZONTAL PLANE.

BACK VERTICAL PLANE RIGHT PROFILE PLANE

WHEN VIEWING FROM THE

LEFTSIDE, THE IMAGEWHICH
ISSEEN (LEFT-SIDE VIEW) IS
PROJECTED BEYOND THE —
OBJECT AND ONTO THE RIGHT
PROFILE PLANE.

BOTTOM HORIZONTAL PLANE

NOTE: FRONT VERTICAL AND
LEFT PROFILE PLANES NOT
SHOWN ON THIS DRAWING WHEN VIEWING FROM THE FRONT, THE IMAGE
WHICH IS SEEN (FRONT VIEW) IS PROJECTED
BEYOND THE OBJECT AND ONTO THE BACK
VERTICAL PLANE.
Fig. 3-7-2 Relationship of object with viewing planes in first-angle projection.

52 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 TOP HORIZONTAL PLANE
RIGHT PROFILE PLANE-
TOP HORIZONTAL PLANE
r^r
LEFT PROFILE PLANE LEFT BOTTOM VIEW RIGHT FRONT
PROFILE PLANE PROFILE PLANE VERTICAL PLANE

ONT
Q
RIGHT-SIDE
VIEW
&
FRONT VIEW
B
LEFTSIDE
VIEW
REAR VIEW

BACK VERTICAL PLANE BACK VERTICAL PLANE

BOTTOM HORIZONTAL PLANE-

FRONT VERTICAL PLANE—(,
UNFOLDING GLASS BOX TO GIVE THE
BOTTOM HORIZONTAL
FIRST ANGLE LAYOUT OF VIEWS '
PLANE
Fig. 3-7-3 First-angle orthographic projection.

t53
_ TTTT ip
ill,
TTT
i
I —
v
"

j i- , 'I

-
M§M
(A) PICTORIAL DRAWING
t
(ISOMETRIC) (B) THIRD-ANGLE PROJECTION (C) FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTION

€3
Fig. 3-7-4 A simple object shown in pictorial and orthographic form.

expressed by a note or by descriptive

UNIT 3-8 words or abbreviations, such as DIA,
One- and Two-View 0. or HEXAGON ACROSS FLATS.
Square sections may be indicated by
Drawings light crossed diagonal lines. This
THIS END VIEW THIS END VIEW applies whether the face is parallel or
AVOIDED PREFERRED inclined to the drawing plane. These
VIEW SELECTION
Fig. 3-8-1 Avoidance of hidden-line are illustrated in Fig. 3-8-2.
Views should be chosen that will best features.
When cylindrical-shaped surfaces
describe the object to be shown. Only include special features such as a key-
theminimum number of vievs s that will draw more than three views. For rep- seat, a side view (often called an end
completely portray the size and shape resenting simple parts, one- or two- view) is required.
of the part should be used. They view drawings will often be adequate.
should also be chosen to avoid hidden
feature lines whenever possible, as
shown
ONE-VIEW DRAWINGS TWO-VIEW DRAWINGS
in Fig. 3-8-1.
Except for complex objects of irreg- In one-view drawings, the third di- Frequently the drafter will decide that
ular shape, it is seldom necessary to mension, such as thickness, may be only two views are necessary to

THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 53

 .06 THICK UNIT 3-9

03 Partial Views
-e Symmetrical objects may often be ade-

(A)
j_
FLAT PART
quately portrayed by half views (Fig.
3-9-1A). A center line is used to show
the axis of symmetry. Two short thick
lines, above and below the view of the
.84TWO FLATS object; aredraw n at right angles to and
DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSITE on the center line to indicate the line of
1.000 - 8 UNC - 2A symmetry.
Partial views, which show only a
D.62-
limited portion of the object with
remote details omitted, should be
used, when necessary, to clarify the
meaning of the drawing (Fig. 3-9-1B).
Such views afe used to avoid the
(B) TURNED PART necessity of drawing many hidden
features.
Fig. 3-8-2 One-view drawings. On draw ings of objects w here two
side views can be used to better advan-
tage than one. each need not be com-
explain fully the shape of an object objects: if three views were used, two
plete together they depict the shape.
if
(Fig. 3-8-3). For this reason, some of them would be identical, depending
Show only the hidden lines of features
drawings consist of two adjacent on the detail structure of the part.
immediatelv behind the view (Fig.
views, such as the top and front views
3-9-1C).
only, or front and right side views
only. Two views are usually sufficient ASSIGNMENT
to explain fully the shape of cylindrical
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 24 for Unit 3-8 on
page 69. See Assignment 25 for Unit 3-9 on
page 70.

Review for Assignments Review for Assignments

Unit 2-6 Line Work and Drawing Unit 2-6 Line Work apd Drawing
Lines Lines

-SYMMETRY LINE VIEWING PLANE LINE (THICK

f • •

(A) SIDE VIEW NOT REQUIRED VIEW A-A A I »,

(A) WITH HALF VIEW (B) PARTIAL VIEW WITH A VIEWING-PLANE

LINE USED TO INDICATE DIRECTION

LEFT SIDE ONLY RIGHT SIDE ONLY

(B) TOP VIEW NOT REQUIRED (C) PARTIAL SIDE VIEWS

Fig. 3-8-3 Two-view drawings. Fig. 3-9-1 Partial views.

54 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 — 1 1 |

UNIT 3-10 ENLARGED VIEWS UNIT 3-1

Enlarged views are used when
Rear Views and desirable to show a feature in greater
it is
Opposite-Hand
Enlarged Views detail or to eliminate thecrowding of Views and Key Plans
details ordimensions (Fig. 3-10-1). The
enlarged view should be oriented in the
PLACEMENT OF VIEWS same manner as the main view. How- OPPOSITE-HAND VIEWS
When views are placed in the relative ever, if an enlarged view is rotated, Where parts are symmetrically
positions shown in Fig. 3-1-8. it is state the direction and the amount of opposite, such as for right- and left-

rarely necessary to identify them. rotation of the detail. The scale of hand usage, one part is drawn in detail
When they are placed in other than enlargement must be shown, and both and the other is described bv a note
the regular projected position, the views should be identified by one of such as PART B SAME EXCEPT
removed view must be clearly the three methods shown. OPPOSITE HAND. It is preferable to
identified. show both part numbers on the same
Whenever appropriate, the orienta- drawing (Fig. 3-1 1-1).
main view on a detail draw-
tion of the REAR VIEWS
ing should be the same as on the Rear views are normally projected to I
rn— r—rn — —
H~i rn
assembly drawing. To avoid the
1 1 1 1 1
I

the right or left. When this projection

crowding of dimensions and notes,
ample space must be provided be-
tween views.
^M-
is not practical, because of the length
of the part, particularly for panels and
mounting plates, the rear view must
not be projected up or down. Doing so
would result in the part being shown
upside down. Instead, the view should
PT PT 2
be drawn as if it were projected side-
I

TWO DRAWINGS

a
(A)
ways but located in some other posi-
tion, and it should be clearly labeled
REAR VIEW REMOVED (Fig.
PT AS SHOWN
3-10-2).
I

PT 2 OPPOSITE HAND
VIEW A
SEE VIEW A -
SCALE 3 1

(A) ENLARGED VIEW OF FEATURE ASSIGNMENT (B) ONE DRAWING

REPLACES TWO
See Assignment 26 for Unit 3-10 on VIEWS
page 71. Fig. 3-11-1 Opposite hand views.

Review for Assignments

Unit 12-4 Kinds of Plastics KEY PLAN
Unit 12-5 Forming Methods A method particularly applicable to
Unit 12-6 Design Consideration structural work is to include on each
( I Parts sheet of a series of drawings a small
DETAIL A
SCALE 5:1 key plan drawn in bold lines the rela-
tionship of the detail on that sheet to
SEE DETAIL A - the whole work, as in Fig. 3-1 1-2.
SCALE SHOWN o o o O
O
ON DRAWING O O
(B) ENLARGED VIEW OF ASSEMBLY o MODEL 63
Uo
, tfFG. CO. LTD.
o
o
O 1
FRONT VIEW t:"
\

o 2
o 02
O U
i\i
L
3
m
V
L2 L, Lo

S^ |o
1

o o Fig. 3-11-2 Key plan.

POS .A 3o 04
o POS . C
o POS. B O ASSIGNMENT
(O ENLARGED REMOVED VIEW REAR VIEW REMOVED See Assignment 27 for Unit 3-11 on
Fig. 3-10-1 Enlarged views. Fig. 3-10-2 Removed rear view. page 71.

THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 55

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 3
Assignments for Unit 3-1, Theory Make a sketch similar to Figs. 3-2- B and 1 Spacer I, Fig. 3-2-A, sheet size A, scale
of Shape Description C, and between
establish the distance full. Make a three-view drawing using a

1 On two A-size sheets of preprinted grid plane and the left border line, and
1 miter line to complete the right side
paper (,25-in. or 10-mm grids) sketch between plane 2 and the bottom border view. Space between views to be 1.5 in.

three views of each of the objects shown line, given the following. (40 mm).
in Figs. 3-1 -A and 3-1 -B. Draw three Scale 1 :2 Bracket 2, Fig. 3-2-B, sheet size A4, scale
objects on each sheet. Each square Drawing space 80 x 280 mm1 1:1. Make a three-view drawing using a

shown on the objects represents one be drawn:

Size of object to miter line to complete the top view.

square on the grid paper. Allow one grid width 40, depth 60, height 40
1 Space between views to be 40 mm (1.5

space between views and a minimum of Space between views 40 mm .5 ( 1 in.) in.).

two grid spaces between objects. Iden-

tify the type of projection used by plac-

ing the appropriate ISO projection

symbol at the bottom of the drawing.
2. On an A- or A4 sheet draw three views
of one of the parts shown in Figs. 3-1-C
to 3-1-F Allow 1 in. or 25 mm between
views. Scale full or 1 :1 . Do not dimension.

Assignments for Unit 3-2,

Spacing of Views and Miter Lines
3. Make a sketch similar to Figs. 3-2- B and 1 Fig. 3-1-A Sketching assignment.
C, and between
establish the distance
plane and the left border line, and
1

between plane 2 and the bottom border

line, given the following:
Scale full

Drawing space 7.00 x II .00 in.

Size of object to be drawn:
width 4.00, depth 2.20, height 1.30
Space between views 1.5 in. (40 mm).

FRONT
FRONT
Fig. 3-1-B Sketching assignment.

Fig. 3-1-C Step support. Fig. 3-1-D Corner block.

56 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 Fig. 3-2-B Bracket.

Assignments for Unit 3-3, All

Surfaces Parallel to the Viewing Fig. 3-3-A Drawing assignment.
Plane with Some Edges and
Surfaces Hidden
7. On two A- or A4-size sheets of pre-
printed grid paper (.25-in. or 10-mm
grids) sketch three views of each of the
objectsshown in Figs. 3-3-A and 3-3-B.
Draw three objects on each sheet. Each
square shown on the objects represents
one square on the grid paper. Allow one
grid space between views and a mini-
mum of two spaces between objects. FRONT
Identify the type of projection by plac- -I SQ DEEP
ing the ISO projection symbol at the bot- BOTH SIDES
tom of the drawing. Fig. 3-3-B Sketching assignment.

THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 57

 8. Sketching assignment. Make three-view
sketches of the parts shown in Fig.
3-3-C.
9. On an A- or A4-size sheet make a three-
view instrument drawing of one of the
parts shown in Figs 3-3-Dto 3-3-G.
Scale full or 1:1. Allow 1.2 in. (30 mm)
between views.
1 Q. Matching test. Match the pictorial draw-
ings to the orthographic drawings
shown in Fig. 3-3-H.

FRONT
4 5

Fig. 3-3-C Sketching assignment.

2.00

Fig. 3-3-D Adapter. Fig. 3-3-F Bracket.

Fig. 3-3-E Link. Fig. 3-3-G Guide block

58 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

Fig. 3-3-H Match pictorial drawings A f hrough M with orthographic drawings.

THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 59

 Assignments for Unit 3-4,
Inclined Surfaces
1 On two A- or A4-size sheets
1 of pre-
printed grid paper (.25 in. or 10 mm
grids) sketch threeviews of each of the
objects shown in Figs. 3-4-A and 3-4-B.
Draw three objects on each sheet. Each
square shown on the objects represents
one square on the grid paper. Allow one
grid space between views and a mini-
FRONT
mum of two grid spaces between
objects. The sloped (inclined) surfaces on Sketching assignment.
each of the three objects are identified
by a letter. Identify the sloped surfaces
on each of the three views with a corre-
sponding letter. Also identify the type of
projection used by placing the appropri-
ate ISO symbol at the bottom of the
drawing.
12. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a three-
view drawing of one of the parts shown
in Figs. 3-4-C to 3-4-F Allow 1.2 in. (30
mm) between views. Do not dimension.
Scale or 1:1.
full

13 Sketching assignment. Make three-view

sketches of the parts shown in Figs.
3-4-G to 3-4-K. Fig. 3-4-B Sketching assignment.
14 Matching test. Match the pictorial draw-
ings to the orthographic drawings
shown in Fig. 3-4-L

Fig. 3-4-E Adjusting guide.

50 x .50
CHAMFER

Fig. 3-4-C Slide bar.

Fig. 3-4-D Flanged support. Fig. 3-4-F Separator.

60 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 FRONT

1
/ / ^
1

/
\J

Fig. 3-4-G
FRONT
Sketching assignment.
/
FRONT 6

FRONT

FRONT

FRONT FRONT
!ONT
Fig. 3-4-H Sketching assignment.

THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 61

 FRONT FRONT FRONT

FRONT
FRONT
Fig. 3-4-J Sketching assignment.

FRONT FRONT FRONT

FRONT

Fig. 3-4-K Sketching assignment.

62 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 II II

L_

II II
~ T 20
|i ii
|i I
ii h-

>A _u 111.

11 II
22 23 24
II II
II II

ll
ll

Fig. 3-4-L Matching test.

THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 63

 Assignments for Unit 3-5,
Circular Features
15. On two A- or A4-size sheets of pre-
printed grid paper (.25 in. or 10 mm
grids) sketch threeviews of each of the
objects shown in Figs. 3-5-A and 3-5-B.
Draw three objects on each sheet. Each
square shown on the objects represents
one square on the grid paper. Allow one FRONT
gird space between views and a mini-
Sketching assignment.
mum of two grid spaces between
type of projection
objects. Identify the
used by placing the appropriate ISO
projection symbol at the bottom of the
drawing.
16. On a B- or A4-size sheet, make a three-
view drawing of one of the parts shown
in Figs. 3-5-C to 3-5-F Allow 1.2 in. (30
mm) between views. Do not dimension.
Scale full or 1:1.

17. Sketching assignment. Make three-view

sketches of the parts shown in Fig. Fig. 3-5-B Sketching assignment.
3-5-G.
18. Sketching assignment. Sketch the views
needed for a multiview drawing for the
parts shown in Fig. 3-5-H. Choose your
own sizes and estimate proportions.
19. Completion test. See Fig. 3-5-J.

FRONT

Fig. 3-5-E Cradle support.

Fig. 3-5-C Rod support.

FRONT
R 30
Fig. 3-5-D Pillow block. Fig. 3-5-F Rocker arm.

64 BASIC DRAUflNG DESIGN

 FRONT

FRONT
FRONT '-U-
vU
Fig. 3-5-G Sketching assignment.

Fig. 3-5-H Sketching assignment.

THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 65

 (A) COMPLETION TEST- TOP VIEWS: THE FRONT AND SIDE
VIEWS BELOW ARE COMPLETE. SKETCH THE TOP VIEWS.

i) COMPLETION TEST- SIDE VIEWS: THE TOP AND FRONT VIEWS

OF THE OBJECTS BELOW ARE COMPLETE. SKETCH THE SIDE VIEWS.

COMPLETION TEST- FRONT VIEWS: THE TOP AND SIDE VIEWS

OF THE OBJECTS BELOW ARE COMPLETE. SKETCH THE FRONT VIEWS.

-S-
1 —'r
1 --

(D) COMPLETION TEST- MISSING VIEWS: ONE OF THE VIEWS OF EACH

OF THE OBJECTS IS MISSING. SKETCH THE MISSING VIEWS.

10

Fig. 3-5-J Completion tests.

66 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 Assignments for Unit 3-6,
Oblique Surfaces
20. On two A- or A4-size sheets of pre-
printed grid paper (.25 in. or 10 mm
grids) sketch three views of each of the
objectsshown in Figs. 3-6-A to 3-6-C.
Draw three objects on each sheet. Each
square on the objects represents one
square on the grid paper. Allow one grid
space between views and a minimum of
grid spaces between objects. The
two
Fig. 3-6-A Sketching assignment.
oblique surfaces on the objects are iden-
tified by a letter. Identify the oblique

surfaces on each of the three views with

a corresponding letter. Also identify the
type of projection used by placing the
appropriate ISO symbol at the bottom of
the drawing.
21. On a B- or A4-size sheet, make a three-
view drawing of one of the parts shown
in Figs. 3-6-D to 3-6-G. Allow 1.20 in.

(30 mm) between views. Do not FRONT FRONT

dimension. Fig. 3-6-B Sketching assignment.

FRONT FRONT
Fig. 3-6-C Sketching assignment.

= = :-.-

Fig. 3-6-D Base plate

Fig. 3-6-F Support.

2.50

FRONT

Fig. 3-6-E Angle brace. Fig. 3-6-G Locking base.

THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 67

Assignments for Unit 3-7, First-
Angle Orthographic Projection
22. On two A- or A4-size sheets of pre-
printed grid paper (.25 in. or 10 mm
grids) sketch three views in first-angle
orthographic projection of each of the
objectsshown in Figs. 3-7-A and 3-7-B.
Draw three objects on each sheet. Each
square on the objects represents one FRONT FRONT
square on the grid paper. Allow one grid
Fig. 3-7-A Sketching assignment.
space between views and a minimum of
two grid spaces between objects. Iden-
tify the type of projection used by plac-

ing the ISO projection symbol at the

bottom of the drawing.
23. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a three-
view drawing in first-angle projection of
one of the parts shown in Figs. 3-7-C to
3-7-F Allow .20 in. (30 mm) between
1

views.

FRONT
Fig. 3-7-B Sketching assignment.

FRONT
Fig. 3-7-E Angle slide.
Fig. 3-7-C Spacer.

2.75

Fig. 3-7-D Spacer.

68 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 Assignment for Unit 3-8, One-
and Two-View Drawings
24. On a B- or A3-size sheet, select any four
of the objects shown in Fig. 3-8-A or
3-8-B and draw only the necessary
views in orthographic third-angle pro-
jection which will completely describe
each part. Use symbols or abbreviations
where possible. The drawings need not
be to scale but should be drawn in pro-
portion to the illustrations shown.

R 12

12
2 HOLES

R 12

PART 4

Fig. 3-8-A Drawing assignment.

R.50-, ,-0.56

PART 3

PART 4
PART 6

Fig. 3-8-B Drawing assignment.

THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 69

 Assignment for Unit 3-9, Partial
Views
25. On a B- or A3-size sheet, select any one
of the objects shown in Figs. 3-9-A to
3-9-D and draw only the necessary
views (full and partial) which will com-
pletely describe each part. Add dimen-
sions and machining symbols when
required.

80

14
8 HOLES
EQ SPACED
ON 56

Fig. 3-9-
Fig. 3-9-A Round flange.

.344
4 HOLES

2.00

0.75-

1.50 X 45°~

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R2

MATL -CI ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .06
MATL -CI
Fig. 3-9-C Flanged coupling.
Fig. 3-9-D Flanged adapter.

70 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

Assignment for Unit 3-10, Rear
Views and Enlarged Views
26. On a B- or A3-size sheet, select one of
shown in Fig. 3-10-A or 3-10-
the panels
B and make a detail drawing of the part.
Enlarged views are recommended. Pan-
els such as these, where labeling is used
to identify the terminals, are used exten-
sively in the electrical and electronics
industry.
I
In addition to the detail drawing, you
are required to select a plastic material
for the part. Design requirements dictate
that the part be strong, have good elec-
tricalproperties, be opaque, and,
because of the large quantity required,
be capable of being molded. Prepare a
report to accompany the drawing which
lists a minimum of three choices of mate-
HOLES
rials that could be specified.

Assignment for Unit 3-11,

Opposite-Hand Views and
Key Plans
27. With most truss drawings, the scale used ~03 NOTE: ALL CORNERS R2
7 HOLES NOTE: ALL CORNERS .06R
on the overall assembly is such that intri-
cate detail cannot be clearly shown. As a Fig. 3-10-A Radio cover plate. Fig. 3-10-B Transceiver cover plate.
result, enlarged detail views are added.
With this type of assembly, many parts
are opposite-hand to their counterparts.
The primary problem in the assembly
GUSSET ASSEMBLY
of large-span multimember space struc- ETAIL Dl
tures has been to find some simple, inex-
pensive, and repetitive way to connect
many members into and through a typi- 10' X 2-3" X
cal joint. The approach shown in this
assignment is to shop-fabricate as much
as possible, to ship the subassemblies to GUSSET
1-3" X 2'-3" X —
,

the site, and finally to complete the

assembly by bolting the subassemblies GUSSET ASSEMBLY
together. The number, size, and strength (SEE DETAIL A)

of bolts are calculated by using the load-

ing requirements at each connection.
Benefits of shop prefabrication of
large units include minimization of field
erection time and less possible error in
the field resulting from the greater toler-
ance control in the shop.
On a B-size sheet, draw the enlarged
views of the gusset assemblies shown in
Fig. 3-1 -A to a scale of
1
in. = ft. On a 1 1
GUSSET DETAIL B AND C TO
second sheet, draw up the complete bill BE DESIGNED BY STUDENT.
of materials necessary to make one com-
HALF TRUSS ASSEMBLY
plete truss. The bolts used to hold the
PREASSEMBLED IN SHOP
truss to the walls are not to be included.
Show the half truss assembly on this
sheet.
Shop Bolting Data. All structural
members will be bolted to the gusset
plate with four .375 in. high-strength
bolts. Spacing is 1.5 in. from end and 3.0
in. center to center.

Field Bolting Data. All connections

are to be made with five .375 in. high-
strength bolts. Spacing is 1.5 in. from end
GUSSET DETAIL A GUSSET DETAIL D
and 3.0 in. center to center.
Fig. 3-11--A Crescent truss.

THEORY OF SHAPE DESCRIPTION 71

CHAPTER 4
Applied
Geometry

UNIT 4-1 To Draw a Line or Lines To Draw a Straight Line

Parallel to and at a Given Tangent to Two Circles
Straight Lines Distance from an Oblique Place a T square or straightedge so that
Line the top edge just touches the edges of

Most of the lines forming the views on 1. Given line AB (Fig. 4-1-1). erect a the circles, and draw the tangent line

mechanical drawings can be drawn perpendicular CD to AB.
using the instruments and equipment 2. Space the given distance from the
described in Chap. 2. However, geo- lineAB by scale measurement or by
(Fig. 4-1-2). Perpendiculars to this line
from the centers of the circles give the
tangent points 7, and T2
.

metric constructions have important an arc along line CD.

uses, both in making drawings and in
3. Position a triangle, using a second
solving problems with graphs and dia-
grams. Sometimes it is necessary to
triangle or a T square as base, so
that one side of the triangle is paral-
use geometric constructions, particu-
lel with the given line.
larly if the drafter does not have the
advantages afforded by a drafting 4. Slide this triangle along the base to
machine, an adjustable triangle, or the point at the desired distance
templates for drawing hexagonal and from the given line, and draw the
elliptical shapes. required line.

Fig. 4-1-2 Drawing a straight line tangent

to two circles.

To Bisect a Straight Line

1. Given line AB (Fig. 4-1-3). set the
compass to a radius greater than '/:
A D

Fig. 4-1-1 Drawing parallel lines with the sides of triangles. Fig. 4-1-3 Bisecting a line.

72 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 .

2. Using centers atA and B. draw To Draw an Arc Tangent to

intersecting arcs above and below the Sides of an Acute Angle
line AB. A line CD drawn through Given radius R of the arc (Fig. 4-2-2).
the intersections will divide AB into
two equal parts and will be perpen- 1. Draw lines inside the angle, parallel
to the given lines, distance R
at
dicular to line AB.
away from the given The cen-
lines.
ter of the arc will be
at C.

To Bisect an Arc 2. Set the compass to radius R. and

1. Given arc AB (Fig. 4-1-4), set the with center C draw the arc tangent
compass to a radius greater than '/; to the given sides. The tangent
AB. points A and B arc found by drawing
2. Using points A and B as centers, Fig. 4-1-6 Dividing a straight line into equal perpendiculars through point C to
draw intersecting arcs above and parts. the given lines.
below arc AB. A line drawn through
the intersections C and D will divide
2. Place the scale so that the desired
the arc AB into two equal parts. PARALLEL
number of equal conve-
divisions is

niently included between B and the

perpendicular. Then mark these
divisions, using short vertical
marks from the scale divisions as
shown in Fig. 4-1-6.
3. Draw perpendiculars to line AB
through the points marked, dividing
the line AB as required.

ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 1 for Unit 4-1 on page
78.

Fig. 4-2-2 Drawing an arc tangent to the

sides of an acute angle.
Fig. 4-1-4 Bisecting an arc.
UNIT 4-2
Arcs and Circles ToDraw an Arc Tangent to
To Bisect an Angle
1. Given angle ABC. with center B and To Draw an Arc Tangent to Two Sides of an Obtuse Angle
Follow the same procedure as for an
a suitable radius (Fig. 4-1-5) draw Two Lines at Right Angles to acute angle (Fig. 4-2-3).
an arc to cut BC at D and BA at E. Each Other
2. With centers D and E and equal Given radius R of the arc (Fig. 4-2-1).
radii, draw arcs to intersect at F.
3. Join B and F and extend to G. Line 1. Draw an arc having radius R with •PARALLEL
BG is the required bisector. center at B, cutting the lines AB and
D
BC at and E. respectively.
2. With D and E as centers and with
the same radius R. draw arcs inter-
secting at O.
3. With center O. draw the required
arc. The tangent points are and E.D
PARALLEL

Fig. 4-1-5 Bisecting an angle.

To Divide a Line into a Given

Number of Equal Parts
I. Given line AB and the number of

equal divisions desired (12, for

example), draw a perpendicular Fig. 4-2-1 Arc tangent to two lines at right Fig. 4-2-3 Drawing an arc tangent to the
from A angles to each other. sides of an obtuse angle.

APPLIED GEOMETRY 73
To Draw a Circle on a Regular
Polygon
1. Given the size of the polygon (Fig.
4-2-4). bisect an\ two sides: for
example. BC and DE. The center of
the polygon is where bisectors FO
and GO intersect at point O.
2. The inner circle radius is OH. and
the outer circle radius is OA.

-PARALLEL
Fig. 4-2-6 Drawing an arc tangent to a circle and a straight line.

To Draw an Arc Tangent to a ToDraw an Arc Tangent to

Given Circle and Straight Line Two Circles (Fig. 4-2-7)
1. Given R. the radius of the arc (Fig.
4-2-6). draw a line parallel to the Figure 4-2-7A

given straight line between the cir- 1. Given the radius of arc R. with the

cle and the line at distance R away

center of circle Aas center and
from the given line. radius R2 (radius of circle A plus R).

2. With the center of the circle as cen- draw an arc in the area between the
ter and radius R (radius of the cir- circles.
With the center of circle B as center
]

2.
cle plus R). draw an arc to cut the
parallel straight line at C. and radius /? 3 (radius of circle B plus
3. With center C and radius R. draw R). draw an arc to cut the other arc
Fig. 4-2-4 Drawing a circle on a regular
polygon. the required arc tangent to the circle at C.
and the straight line.
3. With center C and radius R. draw
the required arc tangent to the given
circles.

To Draw a Reverse, or Ogee,

Curve Connecting Two
Parallel Lines
1. Given two parallel lines AB and CD

and distances X and Y Fig. 4-2-5 ). (

join points B and C with a line.

2. Erect a perpendicular to AB and CD

from points B and C. respectively.

3. Select point E on line BC w here the

curves are to meet.

4. Bisect BE and EC.
5. Points F and G where the perpen-
(A)
diculars and bisectors
meet are the
centers for the arcs forming the
ogee curve.

Fig. 4-2-5 Drawing a reverse [ogee) curve

connecting two parallel planes. Fig. 4-2-7 Drawing an arc tangent to two circles.

74 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

Figure 4-2-7B To Draw a Hexagon (Fig. To Draw an Octagon, Given
1. Given radius of arc with the cen-
/?, 4-3-1 ), Given the Distance the Distance Across the Flats
ter of circle A as center and radius R Across the Flats (Fig. 4-3-3)
- R 2 draw an arc in the area
.
1. Establish horizontal and vertical 1. Establish horizontal and vertical
between the circles. center lines for the hexagon. center lines and draw a light con-
2. With the center of circle B as center 2. Using the intersection of these lines struction circle with radius one-half
and radius R - /? 3 draw an arc to
.
as center, with radius one-half the the distance across the flats.
cut the other arc at C. distance across the flats, draw a 2. Draw horizontal and vertical lines
3. With center C and radius R. draw light construction circle. tangent to the circle.
the required arc tangent to the given Using the 60° triangle, draw six
3. 3. Using the 45° triangle, draw lines
circles.
straight lines, equally spaced, pass- tangent to the circle at a 45° angle
ing through the center of the circle. from the horizontal.
To Draw an Arc
or Circle 4. Draw tangents to these lines at their
Through Three Points Not in a intersection with the circle.
Straight Line
1. Given points A, B, and C (Fig.
A. B, and
4-2-8). join points C as
shown.

Fig. 4-3-3 Constructing an octagon, given

distance across flats.

Fig. 4-3-1 Constructing a hexagon, given To Draw an Octagon, Given

distance across flats. the Distance Across the
Corners (Fig. 4-3-4)
1. Establish horizontal and vertical
Fig. 4-2-8 Drawing an arc or circle through To Draw a Hexagon, Given center lines and draw a light con-
three points not in a straight line. the Distance Across the struction circle with radius one-half
Corners (Fig. 4-3-2) the distance across the corners.
1. Establish horizontal and vertical 2. With the 45° triangle, establish
2. Bisect lines AB and BC and
extend
center lines, and draw a light con- points on the circumference
bisecting lines to intersect at O.
struction circle with radius one-half between the horizontal and vertical
Point O is the center of the required
the distance across the corners. center lines.
circle or arc.
2. With a 60° triangle, establish points 3. Draw straight lines connecting
3. With center O and radius OA draw on the circumference 60° apart. these points to the points where the
an arc.
3. Draw straight lines connecting center lines cross the circum-
these points. ference.
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 2 for Unit 4-2 on page
78.

UNIT 4-3
Polygons
A regular polygon is a plane figure
bounded by straight lines of equal
length and contains angles of equal Fig. 4-3-2 Constructing a hexagon, given Fig. 4-3-4 Constructing an octagon, given
size. distance across corners. distance across corners.

APPLIED GEOMETRY 75
To Draw a Regular Polygon, 2. Bisect line OB at D.
Given the Length of the Sides 3. With center D and radius DC. draw
As an example, let a polygon have arc CE to cut the diameter at E.
seven sides. 4. With C as center and radius CE.
draw arc CE to cut the circum-
Given the length of side AB (Fig.
1.
ference at F. Distance CE is one
4-3-5). with radius AB and A as cen- side of the pentagon.
ter,draw a semicircle and divide it
5. With radius CTas a chord, mark off
into seven equal parts using a
on the circle.
the remaining points
protractor. Connect the points with straight
2. Through the second division from lines.
the left, draw radial line A2.
3. Through points 3, 4. 5. and 6 extend Fig. 4-4-1 Drawing an ellipse — two circle
radial lines as shown. ASSIGNMENT method.
4. With AB as radius and B as center, See Assignment 3 for Unit 4-3 on page
cut line A6 at C. With the same 78.
radius and C as center, cut line A5 at To Draw an Ellipse
D. Repeat at E and F. Four-Center Method
5. Connect these points with straight 1. Given the major diameter CD and
lines. the minor diameter AB (Fig. 4-4-2).
UNIT 4-4 join points A and C with a line.
These steps can be followed in draw- 2. Lay AE equal to CO-AO.
off
ing a regular polygon with any number The Ellipse 3. Draw the right bisector of CE.
of sides.
locating point G on line CO and
point F on line AB. (Line AB may
The ellipse is the plane curve gener-
have to be extended.)
ated by a point moving so that the sum
of the distances from any point on the
4. Make OF equal to OF and OG ',

equal to OG
curve to two fixed points, called focL x
.

5. Points F. F, G. and G, are the cen-

.
is a constant.
Often a drafter is called upon to
ters for the two large and two small
arcs forming the ellipse.
draw oblique and inclined holes and
surfaces which take the form of an
ellipse. Several methods, true and
approximate, are used for its construc-
tion. The terms major diameter and
minor diameter will be used in place of
major axis and minor axis so the
Fig. 4-3-5 Constructing a regular polygon,
reader won't become confused with
given length of one side.
the mathematical A" and Kaxes.

To Draw an Ellipse
To Inscribe a Regular Two-Circle Method
Pentagon in a Given Circle 1. Given the major and minor diame-
1. Given circle with center O (Fig. ters (Fig. 4-4-1). construct two
4-3-6). draw the circle with diame- concentric circles with diameters
ter AB. equal to AB and CD. TANGENT POINT
2. Divide the circles into a convenient Fig. 4-4-2 Drawing an ellipse — four center
number of equal parts. Figure 4-4-1 method.
shows 12.
3. Where the radial lines intersect the
outer circle, as at 1. draw lines par- To Draw an Ellipse
allel to line CD inside the outer Parallelogram Method
circle. 1. Given the major diameter CD and
4. Where the same radial line inter- minor diameter AB (Fig. 4-4-3),
sects the inner circle, as at 2. draw a construct a parallelogram.
line parallel to axis AB away from 2. Divide CO into a number of equal
the inner circle. The intersection of parts. Divide CE into the same
these lines, as at 3. gives points on number of equal parts. Number the
the ellipse. points from C.
Fig. 4-3-6 Inscribing a regular pentagon in 5. Draw a smooth curve through these 3. Draw a line from B to point 1 on line
a given circle. points. CE. Draw a line from A through

76 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 —
6. If the development of the cylinder is 2. Divide OA into four equal parts.
drawn, the helix will appear as a 3. The offsets vary in length as the
straight line on the development. square of their distances from O.
Since OA is divided into four equal
parts, distance AC will be divided
PARABOLA into 4 2 or 16. equal divisions. Thus
.

The parabola is a plane curve gener- since 01 is one-fourth the length of

ated by a point that moves along a path OA, the length of line 1-1, will be
2
Drawing an
equidistant from a fixed line (directrix) C/t) .or '/i6, the length of AC.
Fig. 4-4-3 ellipse-
parallelogram method. and a fixed point (focus). 4. Since distance 02 is one-half the
length of OA. the length of line 2-2,
To Construct a Parabola will be Vz) 2 or A. the length of AC.
( .
]

point 1 on CO. intersecting the pre- Parallelogram Method 5. Since distance 03 is three-fourths
The point of intersection
vious line. 1. Given the sizes of the enclosing the length of OA. the length of line
willbe one point on the ellipse. rectangle, distances AB and AC 3-3, will be (Va) 2 or v/u,. the length of
.

4. Proceed in the same manner to find (Fig. 4-5-2A). construct a paral- AC.
other points on the ellipse. lelogram. 6. Complete the parabola by join-
5. Draw a smooth curve through these 2. Divide AC number of equal
into a ing the points with an irregular
points. parts. Divide AO into the same curve.
number of equal parts. Number the
points as shown.
ASSIGNMENT 3. Draw a line from O to point 1 on line
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 4 for Unit 4-4 on page AC. Draw a line parallel to the axis See Assignment 5 for Unit 4-5 on page
78. through point on line AO, inter-
1 78.
secting the previous line 0-1. The
point of intersection will be one
point on the parabola.
4. Proceed in the same manner to find
UNIT 4-5 other points on the parabola.
5. Connect the points using an irregu-
Helix and Parabola lar curve.

To Construct a Parabola
HELIX
Offset Method
The helix is the curve generated by a I. Given the sizes of the enclosing

point that revolves uniformly around rectangle, distances AB and AC

and up or down the surface of a cylin- (Fig. 4-5-2B). construct a paral-
der. The lead is the vertical distance lelogram.
that the point rises or drops in one (A) PARALLELOGRAM (B) OFFSET
complete revolution.
METHOD METHOD
Fig. 4-5-2 Common methods used to
To Draw a Helix construct a parabola.

1. Given the diameter of the cylinder

and the lead (Fig. 4-5-1). draw the
top and front views.
2. Divide the circumference (top
view) into a convenient number of
parts (use 12) and label them.
3. Project lines down to the front
view.
4. Divide the lead into the same num-
ber of equal parts and label them as
shown in Fig. 4-5-1.
5. The points of intersection of lines
with corresponding numbers lie on
the helix. Note: Since points 8 to 12
lie on the back portion of the cylin-
der, the helix curve starting at point I
< ° - " "7
12 II 10 9
7 and passing through points 8. 9.
10. 11, 12 to point will appear as a
1
DEVELOPMENT OF A CYLINDER
hidden line. Fig. 4-5-1 Drawing a cylindrical helix.

APPLIED GEOMETRY 77
ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 4
Assignment for Unit 4-1, Assignment for Unit 4-3, Assignment for Unit 4-5,
Straight Lines Polygons Helix and Parabola
I. Divide a B- or A3-size sheet as shown in 3. Divide an A3- or B-size sheet as shown in 5. Divide an A3- or B-size sheet, as shown in
Fig. 4- -A. In the designated areas draw
1 Fig. 4-3-A. In the designated areas, draw Fig. 4-5-A. In the designated areas, draw

the geometric constructions. the geometric constructions. the geometric constructions.

Assignment for Unit 4-2, Assignment for Unit 4-4, Review Assignments
Arcs and Circles The Ellipse 6. On an A3- or B-size sheet draw one of the
2. Divide a B- or A3-size sheet as shown in 4. Divide a B- or A3-size sheet as shown in parts shown in Figs. 4-6-A to 4-6-D. Do
Fig. 4-2-A. In the designated areas draw Fig. 4-4-A. In the designated areas draw not erase construction lines. Scale full or
the geometric constructions. the geometric constructions. 1:1. Do not dimension.

(A) IN THE SPACE ABOVE LINE A-B DRAW

8 EQUALLY SPACED LINES 12 IN. (5 mm)
APART PERPENDICULAR TO LINE A-B.

(B) IN THE SPACE BELOW LINE A-B DRAW STRAIGHT LINES TANGENT TO BISECT LINE F-G.
DRAW 5 EQUALLY SPACED LINES
(A) CIRCLES C AND D
,
mm) APART PARALLEL TO
.06 IN. (4
(B) CIRCLES D AND E.
1
LINE A-B. 2

BISECT ARC H-J. -.40 DIVIDE LINE R-S in INTO 12 EQUAL PARTS.
(10)

R S
BISECT
ACUTE
ANGLE
K-L-M
AND .2.75-
OBTUSE (70)
ANGLE
NOP.

-1.20
(30) DIVIDE LINE T-U INTO 8 EQUAL PARTS.

Fig. 4-1 -A Straight-line construction.

78 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 —

si
U 1.50 *Xt-\.2S-t\*t— 1.25 *J 1.00
40 [30] ' [30] 25

hsi
|

CONSTRUCT A 7 SIDED POLYGON

GIVEN LENGTH OF ONE SIDE. JOIN LINES N-O AND P-R WITH A
DRAW R .50 [12! ARCS TANGENT TO CONSTRUCT ACIRCLEABOUTTHE
I LINES SHOWN. 2 POLYGON. 3 60 [15mm] RADI US OGEE CUR VE.

J-
I Bh
1.62 f
[42]
H .

1.12
28
-* 1.88
[48]

"a+

AND LINE ST WITH AN

JOIN CIRCLE JOIN THE LEFT SIDE OF CIRCLES WITH A
RADIUS. JOIN CIRCLE AND LINE
.30 [81 THE RIGHT SIDE
3.00(75] RADIUS. JOIN CONSTRUCT AN ARC THROUGH
4 u-V WITH A .50 [12] RADIUS. 5 OF CIRCLES WITH A 1.50 [38! RADIUS. POINTS A. B, AND C.

Fig. 4-2-A Drawing assignment.

GIVEN THE CENTER OF A POLYGON,

DRAW: (A) A HEXAGON 2.25 IN. [60mm] GIVEN THE CENTER OF THE POLYGON GIVEN THE CENTER OF THE POLYGON,
ACROSS FLATS. (B) A HEXAGON .62 IN. DRAW AN OCTAGON 2.00 IN. [50mm] DRAW AN OCTAGON 2.75 IN. [70mm]
" [40 mm! ACROSS CORNERS. 2 ACROSS FLATS. 3 ACROSS CORNERS.

-1.25-
30

DRAW AN OCTAGON IN A 3.00 IN. GIVEN THE LENGTH OF ONE SIDE, DRAW A PENTAGON IN A 2.25IN.
4 [80mmi SQUARE. DRAW A PENTAGON. [60mm| CIRCLE.

Fig. 4-3-A Drawing assignment.

APPLIED GEOMETRY 79
 -2.50- -2.50- -2.50-

4.00

ELLIPSE PARALLELOGRAM METHOD

ELLIPSE 2 CIRCLE METHOD ELLIPSE 4 CENTER METHOD GIVEN MAJOR DIA OF 4.80 [120] AND
GIVEN 2 CIRCLES OF 2.00 [50 GIVEN 2 CIRCLES OF 2.75 [70] MINOR DIA OF 2.40 [60]
AND 4.00 [100], DRAW AN AND 4.25 [110], DRAW AN ELLIPSE. DRAW AN ELLIPSE.
ELLIPSE.
I
I

DIMENSIONS IN INCHES

Fig. 4-4-A Drawing assignment.

r^~T
\
^.
*\ V_0
1
40
62
[2.00] [2.00]

I
1 1

, i

IC 10
l( )0

[4. 00!
[4. 001

IC

[4.00]

'
'
r J

'
'

A
GIVEN DIA AND LEAD OFFSET METHOD PARALLELOGRAM METHOD
CONSTRUCT A HELIX GIVEN A RECTANGLE, GIVEN A RECTANGLE
STARTING AT POINT A. CONSTRUCT A PARABOLA. CONSTRUCT A PARABOLA.
1
2 3

Fig. 4-5-A Drawing assignment.

80 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 -USE A CONVENTIONAL BREAK

PENTAGON INSCRIBED WITHIN 1.50

HEXAGON 1.25 ACROSS FLATS
R 1.25

Fig. 4-6-B Template.

R .50 R 1.00

Fig. 4-6-C Adjustable fork. 8- R 15

-40 •-

PARABOLIC CURVE
PARALLELOGRAM
METHOD-USE 8
100
80 DIVISIONS)

R 3

Y J_U
0150-

Fig. 4-6-D Fan base.

APPLIED GEOMETRY 81

ttflfl
CHAPTERS
Basic V

Dimensioning

UNIT 5-1
^—j LOCAL NOTE
Basic Dimensioning LEADER

A working drawing is one from which a

tradesperson can produce a part. The
drawing must be a complete set of
instructions, so that it will not be nec-
essary to give further information to CENTER LINE
the people making the object. A work- USED AS AN
ing drawing, then, consists of the EXTENSION LINE
views necessary to explain the shape,
-0 2.10- EXTENSION LINE
the dimensions needed by the trades-
person, and required specifications, ROUNDS AND
such as material and quantity needed. FILLETS R .10

The information may be found in

latter
the notes on the drawing, or it may be GENERAL NOTE
I I
DIMENSION
H
located in the title block.
l^-U-I '

-1-r-> 't
50
I 1 I

l4-i J—L_l_

DIMENSIONING
REFERENCE DIMENSION DIMENSION LINE
Dimensions are indicated on drawings
by extension lines, dimension lines, DIMENSIONS IN INCHES c3
leaders, arrowheads, figures, notes,
and symbols. They define geometric
UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
A ISO PROJECTION SYMBOL

characteristics such as lengths, diame- Fig. 5-1-1 Basic dimensioning elements.

ters, angles, and locations. See Fig.
5-1-1. The lines used in dimensioning
are thin in contrast to the outline of the
object. The dimensions must be clear
and concise and permit only one inter-
pretation. In general, each surface,
line, or point is located by only one set
of dimensions. Deviations from the
approved rules for dimensioning
should be made only in exceptional
cases, when they will improve the clar-
ity of the dimensions. An exception to
these rules is for arrowless and tabular
dimensioning, which is discussed
Unit 5-4.
In general, each surface, line, or
point is located by only one set of
dimensions. These dimensions are not
duplicated in other views, except for
the purpose of identification, the
improvement of clarity, or both.
Drawings for industry requires some
form of tolerancing on dimensions so
in that components can be properly
assembled and manufacturing and pro-
duction requirements can be met. This
chapter deals only with basic dimen-
sioning and tolerancing techniques.
Modern engineering tolerancing, such
as true positioning and tolerance of
form, is covered in detail in Chap. 30.

82 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

Dimension and Extension
Lines
Dimension lines are used to determine
the extent and direction of dimensions,
and they are terminated by neatly
made, uniform arrowheads, as shown
in Fig. 5-1-2. Arrowheads are usually
drawn freehand, and the recom-
mended length and width should be in
the extension lines are used. See Fig. readability is improved by avoiding
5-1-3D. Center lines should never be either extra-long extension lines (Fig.
used for dimension lines. Every effort 5-1-4) or the crowding of dimensions,
should be made to avoid crossing placing of dimensions on views is per-
dimension lines by placing the shortest missible. Avoid dimensioning to hid-
dimension closest to the outline (Fig. den lines. In order to do so. it may be
5-1-3E). necessary to use a sectional view or a
Dimension lines should be placed broken-out section. When the termina-
outside the view where possible and dimension is not included, as
tion for a

a ratio of 3:1 (Fig. 5-1-3B). The length should extend to extension lines rather when used on partial views, a double
of the arrowhead should be equal to than visible lines. However, when arrow is used. For symmetrical fea-
the height of the dimension numerals.
Where space is limited, a small circular
dot may be used in lieu of an
arrowhead (Fig. 5-1-3D). Normally, a 3W (NORMALLY EQUAL
break is made near the center of the -80.5 TO HEIGHT OF NUMBERS)
dimension line for the insertion of the
dimension which indicates the dis-
1 r
tance between the extension lines.
When several dimension lines are
22
~\°\- ARROW MUST
TOUCH LINE
directly above or next to one another,
it is good practice to stagger the dimen- f_ A
sions in order to improve the clarity of
the drawing. In special cases, such as
dual dimensioning that combines inch
ih 6.2

<B) ARROWHEAD SIZE

and metric units of measure on the (A) PLACEMENT OF DIMENSIONS

same engineering drawing, or as a sim-
plified drafting practice, the dimension
line may be unbroken. The spacing
suitable formost drawings between
paralleldimension lines is .25 in. (8
mm), and the spacing between the out-
line of the object and the nearest
dimension line should be approx-
imately .50 in. (10 mm). When the
space between the extension lines is
too small to permit the placing of (C) OBLIQUE DIMENSIONING
the dimension line complete with
60
arrowheads and dimension, then the 2 5
alternate method of placing the dimen-
A SMALL CIRCULAR DOT MAY BE
sion line, dimension, or both outside USED IN LIEU OF ARROWHEADS
WHERE SPACE IS RESTRICTED.

3.5

-APPROXIMATE SPACING
-DIMENSION LINE 4.1 * (E) STAGGER DIMENSIONS FOR CLARITY

SPACE- (D) DIMENSIONING IN

EXTENSION LINE RESTRICTED AREAS (F) USE OF DOUBLE ARROWHEADS
Fig. 5-1-2 Dimension and extension lines. Fig. 5-1-3 Dimension lines.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 83
 drawing. See Fig. 5-1-6. A leader THIS SURFACE TO TOUCH PT 5

should generally be a single straight 2 HOLES

inclined line (not vertical or horizon-
tal) except for a short horizontal por-
tion extending to the center of the
height of the First or last letter or digit
(A) IMPROVING READABILITY OF DRAWING
of the note. The leader is terminated
by an arrowhead or a dot of at least .06
in. (1.5 mm) in diameter. Arrowheads
should always terminate on a line; dots
should be used within the outline of the
CADMIUM PLATE THIS SURFACE
object and rest on a surface. Leaders
should not be bent in any way unless it Fig. 5-1-6 Leaders.

.312

INCORRECT

(B) AVOIDING LONG EXTENSION LINES

Fig. 5-1-4 Placing dimensions on view.

tures the dimension line should extend CORRECT

beyond the center line before the dou-
(A) USE OF EXTENSION LINES
ble arrowheads are added (Fig. 5-1-3F).
Extension (projection) lines are
used to indicate the point or line on the
drawing to which the dimension
A small gap is
applies. See Fig. 5-1-5.
leftbetween the extension line and the
outline to which it refers, and the
extension line extends about .12 in. (3
mm) beyond the outermost dimension
CENTER LINE SOLID
line. However, when extension lines BEYOND CIRCLE
refer to points, as in Fig. 5-1-5E, they
(B) CENTER LINE USED AS EXTENSION LINE
should extend through the points.
Extension lines are usually drawn per-
pendicular to dimension lines. How- 1.88
ever, to improve clarity or when there
is overcrowding, extension lines may

be drawn at an oblique angle as long

as clarity is maintained.
Center lines may be used as exten-
sion lines in dimensioning. The portion
(C) BREAK IN EXTENSION LINES (E) EXTENSION LINE FROM POINTS
of the center line extending past the
circle is not broken.
Where extension lines cross other
extension lines, dimension lines, or
visible lines, they are not broken.
However, if extension lines cross
arrowheads or dimension lines close to
arrowheads, a break in the extension
line is recommended.

Leaders
Leaders are used to direct notes,
dimensions, symbols, item numbers, (Dl OBLIQUE EXTENSION LINES (F) EXTENSION LINE FROM POINTS
or part numbers to features on the Fig. 5-1-5 Extension lines.

84 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 —

is unavoidable. Leaders should not 3.00 four-place decimal numbers, for exam-
cross one another, and two or more
leaders adjacent to one another should
- — 1.50- .70
ple, 1.875.
Whole dimensions will show a mini-
be drawn parallel if practicable. It is mum of two zeros to the right of the
better to repeat dimensions or refer- .60 decimal point.
ences than to use long leaders.
24.00 not 24
Where directed to a circle
a leader is
2.14
or circular arc, its direction should An inch value of less than 1 is shown
point to the center of the arc or circle. without a zero to the left of the decimal
Regardless of the reading direction point.
used, aligned or unidirectional, all
(A) DECIMAL INCH .44 not 0.44
notes and dimensions used with lead-
ers are placed in a horizontal position. In cases where parts have to be
3'- 6 aligned with existing parts or commer-
Notes
Notes are used to simplify or comple-
- — r-g — 9
1

— cial products, which are dimensioned

in fractions, it may be necessary to
ment dimensioning by giving informa- use decimal equivalents of fractional
1
tion on a drawing in a condensed and i
dimensions.
8
systematic manner. They may be gen-
eral or local notes, and should be in the Fractional-Inch System In this system,
}

present or future tense. parts are designed in basic units of

2'-
common fractions down to 1/64 in.
General Notes These refer to the part or
Decimal dimensions are used when
the drawing as a whole. They should 1 ? must be
finer divisions than 1/64 in.
be shown in a central position below (B) FEET AND INCHES made. Common fractions are used for
the view to which they apply or placed
may be
specifying the size of holes that
in a general note column. Typical
produced by stocked
drills ordinarily
examples of this type of note are in fraction sizes and for the sizes of
-76
• ALL OVER
FINISH - 38 17.5
standard screw threads.
• ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .06 When common fractions are used on
• REMOVE ALL SHARP EDGES drawings, the fraction bar must not be
omitted and should be horizontal
LOCAL NOTES These apply to local except when applied with a typewrit-
requirements only and are connected
ing machine which does not have a
54.2
by a leader to the point to which the horizontal fraction bar.
note applies. Typical examples are
When a dimension intermediate
• 06, 4 HOLES between 1/64 increments is necessary,
• 2 x 45° it is expressed in decimals, such as .30,
•
(C) MILLIMETERS .257, or .2575 in.
3
011.5 x 86°CSK Fig. 5-1-7 Dimensioning units. The inch marks (") should not be
• M 12 x 1.25 shown with the dimensions. A note
such as
DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES
UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS should be clearly shown on the draw-
bly .02 and are expressed with a
in.,
Although the metric system of dimen- ing. The exception is when the dimen-
minimum of two figures to the right of
sioning is becoming the offical stan- sion "1 in." is shown on the drawing.
the decimal point. See Fig. 5-1-7.
dard of measurement, many drawings The should then be followed by the
Using the .02 in. module, the second 1

in current use are still dimensioned in

decimal place (hundredths) is an even inch marks —
1", not I.

inches or feet and inches. For this rea-

number or zero. By using the design
son, drafters should be familiar with all
modules having an even number for Foot and Inch System Feet and inches
the dimensioning systems which they
the last digit, dimensions can be halved are often used for installation draw-
may encounter. The dimensions used drawings of large objects, and
for center distances without increasing ings,
in this book are primarily decimal inch.
the number of decimal places. Decimal floor plans associated with architec-
However, metric and dual dimensions
dimensions which are not multiples of tural work. In this case, all dimensions
are also used very frequently.
.02,such as .01, .03, and .15, should be 12 in. or greater are specified in feet
used only when it is essential to meet and inches. For example. 24 in. is

design requirements such as to provide expressed as 2'-0, and 27 in. is

Inch Units of Measurement
clearance, strength, smooth curves, expressed as 2'-3. Parts of an inch are
Decimal-Inch System Parts are designed etc. When greater accuracy is re- usually expressed as common frac-
in basic decimal increments, prefera- quired, sizes are expressed as three- or tions, rather than as decimals.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 85
 The inch marks (") are not shown such as .006 in. per inch and 0.006 mm to give dimensions in both inches and
except on architectural drawings. The per millimeter can both be expressed millimeters on the same drawing, the
drawing should carry a note such as simply as the ratio 0.006:1 or in a note: following guidelines, as illustrated in

DIMENSIONS ARE IN FEET AND TAPER 0.006:1. Angular dimensions Fig. 5-1-8.should be observed.
INCHES UNLESS OTHERWISE are also specified the same in both inch Show the millimeter dimension
SPECIFIED and metric systems. above the inch dimension separated by
a horizontal line, or to the left of the
A
dash and space should be left Standard Items inch dimension separated by a slash
between the fool and inch values. For (oblique) line, or by enclosing the inch
example. 1-3. not 1'3. Fasteners and Threads Either inch or
dimension in brackets.
metric fasteners and threads may be
When a note with a leader is used,
used. Refer to the Appendix and Chap.
the units of measurement are sepa-
8 for additional information.
SI Metric Units of rated by an oblique line or by enclosing
Measurement Hole Sizes Tables showing standard the latter dimension in brackets. The
The standard metric units on engineer- inch and metric drill sizes are shown in converted values are not shown below
ing drawings are the millimeter (mm) the Appendix. the measurements.
for linear measure and micrometer The method! s) used on the draw-
(p.m) for surface roughness. See Fig. ing should be clearly stated on the
5-1-7. For architectural drawings, drawing.
meter and millimeter units are used. A note or illustration should be
Whole numbers from 1 to 9 are
DUAL DIMENSIONING located near the title block or strip
shown without a zero to the left of the With the great exchange of drawings to identify the inch and millimeter
number or a zero to the right of the taking place between the United States dimensions.
decimal point. and the rest of the world, at one time it MILLIMETER
became advantageous show draw-
to INCH
2 not 02 or 2.0 ings in both inches and millimeters. As
a result, many companies adopted a
MILLIMETER/INCH
A
millimeter value of less than is 1

shown with a zero to the left of the dual system of dimensioning. Today, MILLIMETER [INCH]
decimal point. however, type of dimensioning
this
Examples of dual-dimensioned draw-
should be avoided if possible. How-
ings are shown in Figs. 5-1-9 and 5-1-10.
0.2 not .1 or 20 ever, when it is necessary or desirable
0.26 not .26
Dual dimensioning, as described
above, has some disadvantages. More
Decimal points should be uniform space is required to place both sets of
MILLIMETER
and large enough to be clearly visible dimensions, errors may occur when
on reduced-size prints. They should be S
30.48 dual dimensions are manually con-
placed in line with the bottom of the 1.200 verted and placed on the drawing, and
associated numbers and be given ade- the time spent by the drafter to calcu-
quate space. late the dual dimensions may be
Commas should not be used to sepa- MILLIMETER costly. Some drawing offices have
rate groups of three numbers in either \" added the dual dimensions to the draw -
inch or metric values. A space should 30.48/1.200 ing in chart form. The drawing is
be used in place of the comma. dimensioned to the units (either inches
32 541 not 32.541 or millimeters) by the drafter. Then it
2.562 827 6 not 2.562827 is given to an assistant who feeds all

(A) POSITION METHOD the dimensions into a computer which

Identification A
metric drawing should
accurately tabulates the dual dimen-
include a general note, such as
sions. The results are printed on an
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED MILLIMETER adhesive translucent material which is

DIMENSIONS ARE IN v; attached to the drawing.

MILLIMETERS [30.48]
-.200-
and be identified by the word METRIC
prominently displayed near the title
block.
MILLIMETER ANGULAR UNITS
7
/ Angles are measured in degrees. The
Units Common to Either i.200 [30.48]
decimal degree is now preferred over
System the use of degrees, minutes, and sec-
Some measurements can be stated so onds. For example, the use of 60.5° is
(B) BRACKET METHOD
that the callout will satisfy the units of preferred to the use of 60°30'. Where
both systems. For example, tapers Fig. 5-1-8 Dual dimensioning. only minutes or seconds are specified.

86 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 :

the number of minutes or seconds is

v- 9.52 019.1 SF/0.375 0.75 SF ^0 28.58 -
26.9 DEEP/0 1.125 • 1.06 DEEP
preceded by 0°, or 0°0', as applicable.
\ 2 HOLES 1 / Some examples follow.
\^~~" / / \. ——^.^ /-R 15.2/R .60
Degrees, Minutes, and
Decimal Degree
Seconds
l I f i\\ \ 1 i i \ l f i/S i \

10° ± 0.5° 10° ± 0°30'

0.75° 0°45'
0.004° 0°0'15"
90° ± 1.0° 90° ± 1°
44.5 25.6° ± 0.2° 25°36' ± 0°12'
1.75
89 25.51° 25°30'36''
3.50
53.3
2.10
J The dimension line of an angle is an
arc drawn with the apex of the angle as
\
the center point for the arc. wherever
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R 2.5/R 10 4C .6
1
1. 50
j
practicable. The position of the dimen-
1 ilL sion varies according to the size of the
1
r i
i-r-f-T-' 11.2
angle and appears in a horizontal posi-
T i
I
i
.44
1
1 '

tion. Recommended arrangements are

i

/I29.3\
A 1

\
shown in Fig. 5-1-11.
\ 4.70'

^£3 MIL ^ETER ;M|LL|METER/|NCH TITLE BLOCK

Fig. 5-1-9 Dual dimensioned drawing.

CONVERSION CHART
INCH MILLIMETER

.10 2.5
.375 9.52
.44 I 1.2
.60 15.2
.75 19.1
1.06 26.9
1.125 28.58
1.60 40.6
1.75 44.5
2.10 53.3
3.50 89
4.70 129.3

•1.75 —
ANGLE EXAGGERATED
FOR CLARITY
3 L

ROUNDS AND
FILLETS R .10

Fig. 5-1-11 Angular units.

( I— ^-L-r-l -k-.
READING DIRECTION
Dimensions and notes should be
placed to be read from the bottom of
the drawing. The exception to this rule
€3 TITLE BLOCK
is for architectural and structural

drawings, where the aligned system of

Fig. 5-1-10 Drawing with millimeter conversion chart. dimensioning is preferred.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 87
 In both methods, angular dimen- SYMMETRY SYMBOL
sions and dimensions and notes shown 68
58
I
with leaders should he aligned with the
bottom of the drawing. See Fig. 5-1-12.

(A) PLACE DIMENSIONS BETWEEN

VIEWS

Fig. 5-1-14 Dimensioning symmetrical

outlines or features.

INTERMEDIATE
50 —
— 25 —
DIMENSION OMITTED-
UNIDIRECTIONAL
~
-«-l8-4-«-l4->-|

,
t
-

f 28

PLACE SMALLEST DIMENSION

NEAREST THE VIEW BEING
DIMENSIONED

ALIGNED REFERENCE DIMENSION

ONLY-7
Fig. 5-1-12 Reading direction of dimensions.
-
cif " t~ 80

BASIC RULES FOR

DIMENSIONING 6 f 13

Refer to Fig. 5-1-13. (C) DIMENSION THE VIEW THAT

BEST SHOWS THE SHAPE
• Place dimensions between the views Fig. 5-1-13 Basic dimensioning rules.
when possible.
Fig. 5-1-15 Reference dimensions.
• Place the dimension line for the • Dimensions should be selected so
shortest length, width, or height that it will not be necessary to add or
nearest the outline of the object. shown in Fig. 5-1-15. Formerly the
subtract dimensions in order to
Parallel dimension abbreviation REF was used to indicate
lines are placed define or locate a feature.
a reference dimension.
order of their size, making the
in
longest dimension line the outer- SYMMETRICAL OUTLINES
most. NOT-TO-SCALE DIMENSIONS
• Place dimensions near the view that
Partial views are often drawn for the
sake of economy. When only one-half
When a dimension on a drawing is
best shows the characteristic con- altered, making
the outline of a symmetrically shaped not to scale, it
it
tour or shape of the object. In fol- should be underlined with a straight,
part is drawn, symmetry is indicated
lowing this rule, dimensions will not thick line Fig. 5-1-16). except when the
always be between views. by applying the symmetry symbol to (

condition is clearly shown by break

the center line on both sides of the
• On large views, dimensions can be
lines.
part. See Fig. 5-1-14.
placed on the view to improve
clarity.
• Use only one system of dimensions, REFERENCE DIMENSIONS
either the unidirectional or the A reference dimension is shown for
aligned, on any one drawing. information only, and it is not required
• Dimensions should not be dupli- for manufacturing or inspection pur- STR AIGHTTHICK L NEI
-^
cated in other views. poses. It is enclosed in parentheses, as Fig. 5-1-16 Not to scale dimensions.

88 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 —

OPERATIONAL NAMES
The use of operational names with di- .85

mensions, such as turn, bore, grind,

01.00
ream, tap, and thread, should be
avoided. While the drafter should be
aware of the methods by which a part
can be produced, the method of man- (A) TWO-VIEW DRAWING
ufacture is better left to the producer.
If the completed part is adequately
dimensioned and has surface texture
-0 .158
symbols showing finish quality de-
sired, it remains a shop problem to 1.60 (C) DIMENSIONING DIAMETERS ON END VIEW
meet the drawing specifications. 1.00-
U 0.54

ABBREVIATIONS RADII
Abbreviations and symbols are used (B) ONE-VIEW DRAWING The general method of dimensioning a
on drawings to conserve space and circular arc by giving its radius. A
is
Fig. 5-2-1 Diameters.
time, but used only where their mean- radius dimension line passes through,
ings are quite clear. Therefore, only or is in line with, the radius center and
^STAGGER DIMENSIONS FOR CLARITY terminates with an arrowhead touch-
commonly accepted abbreviations DOUBLE ARROWHEADS-
such as those shown in the Appendix ing the arc. See Fig. 5-2-3. An
— 200 .—
should be used on drawings. arrowhead is never used at the radius
center. The size of the dimension is
References preceded by the abbreviation R for
I. ANSI Y14.5, Dimensioning and both customary and metric dimension-
Tolerancing.
m ing. Where space is limited, as for a
small radius, the radial dimension line
may extend through the radius center.
ASSIGNMENTS s- Where it is inconvenient to place the
See Assignments 1 through 3 for Unit Fig. 5-2-2 Dimensioning diameters where arrowhead between the radius center
5-1 on page 114. space is restricted.

Review for Assignment

Unit 2-6 Drafting Skills

UNIT 5-2
Dimensioning (A) RADII WHICH NEED NOT HAVE THEIR CENTERS LOCATED (Bl LOCATING RADIUS CENTER
Circular Features

DIAMETERS
Where the diameter of a single feature
or the diameters of a number of con-
centric cylindrical features are to be
specified,it is recommended that they

be shown on the longitudinal view.

Use the diameter symbol 0. See Fig.
5-2-1.

Where the circular view is dimen-

sioned, the dimension for the diameter
is also preceded by the symbol 0.
— 12

Where space is restricted or when — 24

only a partial view is used, diameters
(C) RADII WITH COMMON FORESHORTENED RADII E) RADII LOCATED BY TANGENTS
may be dimensioned as illustrated in TANGENT POINTS
Fig. 5-2-2. Fig. 5-2-3 Radii.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 89

_
and the arc. it ma\ be placed outside Spherical Features
the arc. or a leader ma\ be used dig. Spherical surfaces may be dimen-
5-2-3A). sioned as diameters or radii, but the
Where a dimension is given to the dimension should be used with the
center of the radius, a small cross abbreviations SR or S0. See Fig. 5-2-7.
should be drawn at the center (Fig.
(A) FULLY ROUNDED ENDS
5-2-3B). Extension lines and dimen-
sion lines are used to locate the center. 2.40
SR.50
Where the location of the center is
unimportant, a radial arc may be
located by tangent lines (Fig. 5-2-3E).
TT
Where the center of a radius is out-
side the drawing or interferes with
(B) PARTIALLY ROUNDED ENDS (A)
another view, the radius dimension
line may be foreshortened (Fig. 3.00-
5-2-3D). The portion of the dimension
-2.20-
line next to the arrowhead should be
radial relative to the curved line.
Where the radius dimension line is
foreshortened and the center is located
by coordinate dimensions, the dimen- (R.40I-
V I

sions locating the center should be (C) WITH HOLE LOCATIONS THAT ARE MORE CRITICAL
shown as foreshortened or the dimen- Fig. 5-2-5 External surfaces with rounded
sion shown as not to scale. ends.

Simple fillet and corner radii may

also be dimensioned by use of a gen-
eral note, such as radius or the overall length should be
shown as a reference dimension (Fig.
ALL ROUNDS AND FILLETS 5-2-5C).
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED
R .20 or ALL RADII R 5
Dimensioning Chords, Arcs,
Where dimensioned in a
a radius is and Angles
view that does not show the true shape The difference in dimensioning
of the radius. TRUE R is added before chords, arcs, and angles is shown in Fig. 5-2-7 Spherical surfaces.
the radius dimension, as illustrated in Fig. 5-2-6.
Fis. 5-2-4.

Cylindrical Holes
Plain, round holes are dimensioned in
TRUE R .80
various ways, depending upon design
and manufacturing requirements (Fig.
5-2-8). However, the leader is the
method most commonly used. When a
leader is used to specify diameter
sizes, as with small holes, the dimen-
(A) CHORD
sion is identified as a diameter by pre-
ceding the numerical value with the
diameter symbol 0.
Fig. 5-2-4 Indicating true radius. the size, quantity, and depth may
be shown on a single line, or on several
lines if preferable. For through holes,
Rounded Ends the abbreviation THRU should follow
Overall dimensions should be used for the dimension if the drawing does not
parts or features having rounded ends. make this clear. The depth dimension
For fully rounded ends, the radius (R) of a blind hole is the depth of the full
isshown but not dimensioned (Fig. diameter and is normally included as
5-2-5A). For parts with partially part of the dimensioning note.
rounded ends, the radius is dimen- When more than one hole of a size is
sioned (Fig. 5-2-5B).Where a hole and required, the number of holes should
radius have the same center and the (C) ANGLE be specified. However, care must be
hole location is more critical than the Fig. 5-2-6 Dimensioning chords, arcs, and taken to avoid placing the hole size and
location of a radius, then either the angles. quantity values together without ade-

90 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 —

Slotted Holes
Elongated holes and slots are used to
-0 1.04
compensate for inaccuracies in man-
ufacturing and to provide for adjust-
PLAN VIEW NOT SHOWN ment. See Fig. 5-2-10. The method
selected to locate the slot would
depend on how the slot was made. The
-0 .75
method shown in Fig. 5-2-10B is used
when the slot is punched out and the
OR location of the punch is given. Figure
5-2-10A shows the dimensioning
S l^sl method used when the slot is machined
£
!

out.

(A) DIMENSIONING ONE HOLE (B) DIMENSIONING A BLIND HOLE

0.168 4 HOLES 0.50

.62 THRU 6 HOLES EQ SP Countersinks, Counterbores,
2.50
and Spotfaces
The abbreviations CSK, CBORE. and
SF for countersink, counterbore. and
spotface, respectively, indicate the
form of the surface only and do not
restrict the methods used to produce
that form. The dimensions for them are
|C) DIMENSIONING A THROUGH HOLE usually given as a note, preceded by
WHICH IS NOT SHOWN IN A
LONGITUDINAL VIEW (D) DIMENSIONING A GROUP OF HOLES the size of the through hole. See Fig.
5-2-11.
Fig. 5-2-8 Cylindrical holes.
A countersink is an angular-sided
recess to accommodate the head of
flathead screws, rivets, and similar
quate spacing. It may be better to -3.86- items. The diameter at the surface and
show the note on two or more lines -2.00 - the included angle are given. When the
.90
than to use a line note which might be depth of the tapered section of the
misread (Fig. 5-2-8D). countersink is critical, thisdepth is
specified in the note or by dimension.
Minimizing Leaders If too many leaders 60
For counterdrilled holes, the diameter,
would impair the legibility of a draw-
ing, letters or symbols as shown in Fig.
J_ €I3t—£3 depth, and included angle of the coun-
terdrill are given.
5-2-9 should be used to identify the
L.40 A counterbore is a flat-bottomed,
features.
2 PLACES cylindrical recess which permits the
head of a fastening device, such as a
—— 1.00 — 1.25 bolt, to lierecessed into the part. The
diameter, depth, and corner radius are
1 specified in a note. In some cases, the
.60
t
— ^
;
C~^
L_^
thickness of the remaining stock may
i~~
be dimensioned rather than the depth
// of the counterbore.
A spotface is an area where the sur-
face is machined just enough to pro-
vide smooth, level seating for a bolt
head, nut, or washer.
The diameter of the faced area and
either the depth or the remaining thick-
ness are given. A spotface may be
specified by a note only, and not delin-
eated on the drawing. If no depth or
remaining thickness is specified, it is
implied that the spot-facing is the mini-
mum depth necessary to clean up the
surface to the specified diameter.
Fig. 5-2-9 Minimizing leaders. Fig. 5-2-10 Slotted holes. The symbols for counterbore or

BASIC DIMENSIONING 91
 -0 .41

.81CDRILL
0.28
\ya .62 X 82°
\y COUNTERSINK SYMBOL UNIT 5-3
.19 DEEP
COUNTERBORE OR
SPOTFACE SYMBOL
Dimensioning
DEPTH SYMBOL
Common Features
-J-

Tapers
(A) SYMBOLS
Circular Tapers Tapered shanks are
.28 THRU used on many small tools, such as
V?.40X 82°
drills, reamers, counterbores. and
spotfaces. to hold them accurately in
the machine spindle. See Fig. 5-3-1.
COUNTERDRILL COUNTERSINK Taper means the difference in diame-
(A) COUNTERDRILLS AND ter or width in a given length. There
COUNTERSINKS
are many standard tapers: the Morse
taper and the Brown and Sharpe taper
are the most common.
The following dimensions may be
used, in suitable combinations, to
define the size and form of tapered
features:

• The diameter (or width) at one end

of the tapered feature
• The length of the tapered feature
• The rate of taper
• The included angle
• The taper ratio
In dimensioning a taper by means of
the taper ratio, the taper symbol
should precede the ratio figures.

.20-

24 - .26
1.00- 0.60

TA p ER J00-_60^
1.20 1.20

Fig. 5-2-11 Counterdrills, countersinks -1.40-

counterbores, and spotfaces.

1.00-

spotface. countersink, and depth are

shown in Fig. 5-2-12. In each case the
-4°
symbol precedes the dimension.

References and Source Materials

1. ANSI Y14.5. Dimensioning and
{S»— 0.2:1
Tolerancing.

DEPTH SYMBOL
ASSIGNMENTS
(B) APPLICATION
See Assignments 4 through 6 for Unit
5-2 on page 116. Fig. 5-2-12 Hole symbols. Fig. 5-3-1 Dimensioning circular tapers.

92 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 10 X
FlatTapers Flat tapers are used as .10
be the straight pitch, circular pitch, or
OR
locking devices, such as taper keys .10 X 45"- diametral pitch. For cylindrical sur-
and adjusting shims. The methods rec- faces, the latter is preferred.
ommended for dimensioning flat 10 X 45°
The knurling symbol is optional and
tapers are shown in Fig. 5-3-2. is used only to improve clarity on
working drawings.

96 DP RAISED
(Al FOR 45° CHAMFERS ONLY DIAMOND KNURL^

;& _/\ ma
0.75
T
0 75
FULL KNURL

/-96 DP DIAMOND KNURL

IB) FOR ALL CHAMFERS

OR
OR
^MAX .015 CHAMFER

IAI DIAMOND KNURL

TAPER =
' 5
-
18
' 2
= —=
18
I : 6
(C) SMALL CHAMFERS 96 DP STRAIGHT KNURL
.75 MIN AFTER KNURLING
-« — 18-

OR

(Bl STRAIGHT KNURL

NOTE SHOWING THE KNURLING SYMBOL

IS OPTIONAL.

Fig. 5-3-4 Dimensioning knurls.

Fig. 5-3-2 Dimensioning flat tapers.

Chamfers (D) CHAMFERS BETWEEN SURFACES AT Formed Parts

The process of chamfering, that is. cut- OTHER THAN 90° In dimensioning formed parts, the
ting away the inside or outside piece, is Fig. 5-3-3 Dimensioning chamfers. inside radius is usually specified,
done to facilitate assembly. Chamfers rather than the outside radius, but all
are normally dimensioned by giving forming dimensions should be shown
their angle and length. See Fig. 5-3-3. Knurls on the same side if Dimen-
possible.
When the chamfer is 45°. it may be Knurling is specified in terms of type, sions apply to the side on which the
specified as a note. pitch, and diameter before and after dimensions are shown unless other-
When a very small chamfer is per- The letter P
knurling. See Fig. 5-3-4. wise specified. See Fig. 5-3-5.
missible, primarily to break a sharp precedes the pitch number. Where
corner,it may be dimensioned but not control not required, the diameter
is Undercuts
drawn, as in Fig. 5-3-3C. If not other- after knurling is omitted. Where only The operation of undercutting or neck-
wise specified, an angle of 45° is portions of a feature require knurling, ing, that is, cutting a recess in a
understood. axial dimensions must be provided. diameter, is done to permit two parts
Internal chamfers may be dimen- Where required to provide a press fit to come together, as illustrated in Fig.
sioned in the same manner, but it is between parts, knurling is specified by 5-3-6A. It is indicated on the drawing
often desirable to give the diameter a note on the drawing which includes by a note listing the width first and
over the chamfer. The angle may also the type of knurl required, the pitch, then the diameter. If the radius is
be given as the included angle if this is the toleranced diameter of the feature shown at the bottom of the undercut, it
a design requirement. This type of prior to knurling, and the minimum will be assumed that the radius is equal
dimensioning is generally necessary acceptable diameter after knurling. to one-half the width unless otherwise
for larger diameters, especially those Commonly used types are straight, specified, and the diameter will apply
over 2 in. (50 mm), whereas chamfers diagonal, spiral, convex, raised dia- to the center of the undercut. When
on small holes are usually expressed as mond, depressed diamond, and radial. the size of the undercut is unimpor-
countersinks. Chamfers are never The pitch is usually expressed in terms tant, the dimension may be left off the
measured along the angular surface. of teeth per inch or millimeter and may drawing.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 93
 I TRY SYMBOL

20

Fig. 5-3-5 Dimensioning theoretical points

of intersection.

Fig. 5-3-7 Dimensioning symmetrical

features.

USING DESCRIPTIVE NOTES USING " NUMBER OF TIMES" SYMBOL

fH
PART CANNOT FIT FLUSH IN
HOLE BECAUSE OF SHOULDER

K
SAME PART WITH 24 -4.00-
CHAMFER ADDED TO
HOLE TO ACCEPT UNDERCUT ADDED
SHOULDER OF PART PERMITS PART TO

(A) CHAMFER AND UNDERCUT

APPLICATION
FIT FLUSH

22
5
-? — — © — —^l©—
<6
i
I

i
I

^3 X 09
.28
5 HOLES EQSP

(B) PLAIN UNDERCUT

^3 X 09

(C) RADIUSED UNDERCUT

Fig. 5-3-6 Dimensioning undercuts.
.281 -8X .281
8 HOLES EQ SP ON 2.34 EQ SP ON 2.34

Symmetrical Outlines
Symmetrical outlines may be dimen- 4X .40—»-| U— r— 4X .16

sioned on one side of the axis of

symmetry only. See Fig. 5-3-7. Where
only part of the outline is shown,
because of functional drafting pro-
cedures, the size of the part, or space
limitations, symmetrical shapes may
be shown by only one-half of the out-
line, and the symmetry is indicated by
applying the symbol for part symmetry
to the center line. In such cases, the
outline of the part should extend
slightly beyond the center line and ter-
SLOTS X .25
minate with a break line. Note the 4
EQUALLY SPACED
dimensioning method of extending 0 25 EQUALLY
8 HOLES
the dimension lines to act as exten- SPACED ON 1.60
sion lines for the perpendicular
dimensions. Fig. 5-3-8 Dimensioning repetitive detail.

94 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

..
 -

Repetitive Features and The following systems of dimen-

Dimensions sioning are used more commonly for
Repetitive features and dimensions engineering drawings.
may be specified on a drawing by the
use of an "X" in conjunction with the Rectangular Coordinate
numeral to indicate the "number of Dimensioning
times" or "places" they are required. A This is a method for indicating dis-
space is shown between the "X" and tance, location, and size by means of
the dimension. lineardimensions measured parallel or
An "X" which means "by" is often perpendicular to reference axes or
used between coordinate dimensions datum planes that are perpendicular to
specified in note form. Where both are one another.
used on a drawing, care must be taken Coordinate dimensioning with di-
to ensure each is clear. See Fig. 5-3-8. mension lines must clearly identify the
datum features from which the dimen-
Wire, Sheet Metal, DATUM -^ -(ty sions originate. See Fig. 5-4-1.
and Drill Rod Rectangular Coordinate Dimensioning
Wire, sheet metal, and drill rod. which rK
vf Without Dimension Lines Dimensions
manufactured to gage or code
are
sizes,should be shown by their deci-
mal dimensions: but gage numbers,
n
l
may be shown on extension lines with-
out the use of dimension lines or
arrowheads. The base lines may be
drill letters, etc., may be shown in "
1
zero coordinates or they may be
parentheses following those
mensions.
di-
T T \ ^ DATUM labeled as X. Y. and Z. See Figs. 5-4-2
and 5-4-3.
EXAMPLES —t *- Tabular Dimensioning Tabular dimen-
Sheet— .141 (No. 10 USS GA)
sioning is a type of coordinate dimen-
— .081 (No. 12B&SGA)
_«

— — sioning in which dimensions from

mutualh perpendicular planes are
Source Materials Fig. 5-4-1 Rectangular coordinate listed in a table on the drawing rather
dimensioning.
1. ANSI Y 14.5. Dimensioning and than on the pictorial delineation. This
Tolerancing. method is used on drawings which
Mass production refers to parts pro- require the location of a large number
duced in quantity, where special tools of similarly shaped features. See Fig.
and gages are usually provided. 5-4-3.
ASSIGNMENTS Either linear or angular dimensions
See Assignments 7 through 11 for Unit may locate features with respect to one Polar Coordinate
5-3on page 119. another (point-to-point) or from a Dimensioning
datum. Point-to-point dimensions may Polar coordinate dimensioning is com-
be adequate for describing simple monly used in circular planes or cir-
Review for Assignment
parts. Dimensions from a datum may cular configurations of features. It is
Unit 2-6 Drafting Skills
be necessary if a part with more than a method of indicating the position of a
one critical dimension must mate with point, line, or surface by means of a
another part. linear dimension and an angle, other

UNIT 5-4
.30 .70 1.20 90 2.40 3.00 3.60
Dimensioning HOLE HOLE
3.20

Methods
—0-
SYMBOL SIZE 2.00-

A
B
.246

.189
1.60-
^-Q 2

The choice of the most suitable dimen-

sions and dimensioning methods will C .154
c
depend, to some extent, on how the
part will be produced and whether the
drawings are intended for unit or mass
D .125 80- -9-
<>
^
production.
Unit production refers to cases
where each part is to be made sepa-
rately, using general-purpose tools and BASE LINES
machines. Fig. 5-4-2 Rectangular coordinate dimensioning (arrowless dimensioning).

BASIC DIMENSIONING 95
 HOLE HOLE LOCATION Chain Dimensioning
DIA SYMBOL X Y Z <£"-# #$f' <t?
When a series of dimensions is applied
56 A 60 40 18 on a point-to-point basis, it is called
J-: P4
40 THRU <F 4' chain dimensioning. See Fig. 5-4-7. A

&
B| 10 ,
Fa B3
B2 75 40 THRU possible disadvantage of this system is
4.8 <? o,0
B3
B4
60
80
16

16
THRU
THRU
ii & that it may result in an undesirable
accumulation of tolerances between
Ci 18 40 THRU
55 40 THRU individual features. See Unit 5-5.
c2
C3 10 20 THRU
4
C4 30 20 THRU
C5 75 20 THRU Datum or Common-Point
C6 18 16 THRU Dimensioning
3.2 D| 55 8 12 TT When several dimensions emanate
from a common reference point or line,
Fig. 5-4-3 Tabular dimensioning.
the method is called common-point or
datum dimensioning.
True Position Dimensioning
True position dimensioning has many References
advantages over the coordinate di- I. ANSI, Y14.5, Dimensioning and
mensioning system. See Fig. 5-4-6. Tolerancing.
Because of its scope, it is covered as a
0" 1.25
complete topic in Chap. 30.
ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 12 and 13 for Unit 5-4
on page 120.

Review for Assignment

Unit 2-6 Drafting Skills

Fig. 5-4-4 Polar coordinate dimensioning.

than 90°. that is implied by the vertical

UNIT 5-5
and horizontal center lines. See Fig. Limits and Tolerances
5-4-4.

In the 6000 years of the history of tech-

Chordal Dimensioning
nical drawing as a means for the
The chordal dimensioning system may Fig. 5-4-6 True position dimensioning.
communication of engineering infor-
also be used for the spacing of points
mation, it seems inconceivable that
on the circumference of a circle rela-
-.60- .50- .50- .50— such an elementary practice as the tol-
tive to adatum, where manufacturing
erancing of dimensions, which we take
methods indicate that this will be more
so much for granted today, was intro-
convenient. See Fig. 5-4-5.

4>)—©— ©-©
duced for the first time about 70 years
ago.
Apparently, engineers and workers
(A) CHAIN DIMENSIONING came in a very gradual manner to the
realization that exact dimensions and
2.10 shapes could not be attained in the
1.60- manufacture of materials and
— 1. 10-
products.
1.25
60-
The skilled tradespeople of old
prided themselves on being able to
work to exact dimensions. What they
really meant was that they dimen-

(B)
rrr^
DATUM OR COMMON -POINT
sioned objects with a degree of accu-
racy greater than that with which they
could measure. The use of modern
DIMENSIONING measuring instruments would have
Fig. 5-4-7 A comparison between chain and shown the deviations from the sizes
Fig. 5-4-5 Chordal dimensioning. datum dimensioning. which they called exact.

96 BASIC DRAU/1NG DESIGN

 As soon as it was realized that varia- sizes (1.504 and 1.496 in., respectively) Limits of Size These limits are the max-
tions in the sizes of parts had always areknown as the limits. imum and minimum sizes permissible
been present, that such variations Greater accuracy costs more for a specific dimension.
could be restricted but not avoided, money, and since economy in manu-
Tolerance The tolerance on a dimen-
and also that slight variations in the facturing would not permit all dimen-
sion is the total permissible variation in
size which a part was originally sions to be held to the same accuracy,
its size. The tolerance is the difference
intended to have could be tolerated a system for dimensioning must be
between the limits of size.
without its correct functioning being used. See Fig. 5-5-1. Generally, most
impaired, it was evident that inter- parts require only a few dimensions to Maximum Material Size The maximum
changeable parts need not be identical be accurate. material size is that limit of size of a
parts, but that would be sufficient if
it In order that assembled parts may feature which results in the part con-
the significant sizeswhich controlled function properly and to allow for taining the maximum amount of mate-
their fits lay between definite limits. interchangeable manufacturing, it is rial. Thus is the maximum limit of
it

Accordingly, the problem of inter- necessary to permit only a certain size for a shaft or an external feature,
changeable manufacture evolved from amount of tolerance on each of the or the minimum limit of size for a hole
the making of parts to a would-be mating parts and a certain amount of or internal feature.
exact size, to the holding of parts allowance between them.
between two limiting sizes lying so In order to calculate limit dimen-
closely together that any intermediate sions, the following definitions should
size would be acceptable. be clearly understood (refer to Fig.
TOLERANCING
Tolerances are the permissible vari- 5-5-2). All dimensions required in the man-
ations in the specified form, size, or ufacture of a product have a tolerance,
location of individual features of a part except those identified as reference,
from that shown on the drawing. The BASICSIZE 1.500 maximum, minimum, or stock. Toler-
finished form and size into which BASIC SIZE WITH ances may be expressed in one of the
material is to be fabricated are defined TOLERANCE ADDED 1.5001 .004
following ways:
HALF OF TOTAL TOLERANCE /
on a drawing by various geometric LIMITS- LARGEST 1.504 • As specified limits of tolerances
shapes and dimensions. AND SMALLEST 1.496
SIZES PERMITTED
shown directly on the drawing for a
As mentioned previously, the
TOLERANCE- .008
specified dimension
worker cannot be expected to produce
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN • In a general tolerance note, referring
the exact size of parts as indicatedby MIN AND MAX LIMITS
toall dimensions on the drawing for
the dimensions on a drawing: so a cer-
which tolerances are not otherwise
tain amount of variation on each Fig. 5-5-2 Limit and tolerance terminology.
specified
dimension must be tolerated. For
• In the form of a note referring to
example, a dimension given as 1.500 ±
specific dimensions
.004 in. means that the manufactured Basic Size The basic size of a dimen-
part can be anywhere between 1.496 sion is the theoretical size from which Tolerances on dimensions that
and 1.504 in. and that the tolerance the limits for that dimension are locate features may be applied directly
permitted on this dimension is .008 in. derived, by the application of the to the locating dimensions or by the
The largest and smallest permissible allowance and tolerance. positional tolerancing method de-
scribed in Chap. 30. Tolerancing
applicable to the control of form and
runout, referred to as geometric toler-
8.5 8 HOLES
EQ SP ON 3.30 - 3.32, ancing, is also covered in detail in
Chap. 30.
n
H Tolerancing Methods
y~>\
y\ .781
.
- 783n A tolerance applied directly to a
4.92 1_
'//// 1
dimension may be expressed in two
— :468 - .472 ways.
^'25
,
!.2I
0' 754 Limit Dimensioning For this method,
1.750
/, '//// 1
the high limit (maximum value) is
t

*A placed above the low limit (minimum

4 value). When it is expressed in a single
^ _ 1.04
line, the low limit precedes the high
z l.00~*~

limit and they should be separated by a

.40 ROUNDS AND FILLETS R 10
""".36 dash, as shown in Figs. 5-5-3 and 5-5-4.
1.50 Where limit dimensions are used
1.48
E5 and where either the maximum or min-
Fig. 5-5-1 A working drawing. imum dimension has digits to the right

BASIC DIMENSIONING 97
 .250 Plus and Minus Tolerancing (Refer to
l
.246
Fig. 5-5-5.) For this method the dimen-
,
sion of the specified size is given first
and is followed by a plus or minus
1.125 expression of tolerancing. The plus
1.117
value should be placed above the
minus value. This type of tolerancing
can be broken down into bilateral and
unilateral tolerancing. In a bilateral
tolerance, the plus and minus toler-
(A) CIRCULAR FEATURE ances should generally be equal, but
special design considerations may
sometimes dictate unequal values. See
Fig. 5-5-6. The specified size is the

L-
1^ .796
800 ~J design size, and the tolerance repre-
sents the desired control of quality and

u. 808 appearance. In the metric system the

~4
.804 dimension need not be shown to the
same number of decimal places as its
tolerance. For example:
(B) FLAT FEATURE 1.5 ±0.04 not 1.50 ±0.04
Fig. 5-5-4 Limit dimensioning application.
10±0.1 not 10.0±0.1

(A) INCH VALUES

BILATERAL TOLERANCING UNILATERAL TOLERANCING
+0 5
[31.41 03 +0.3 2 holes ^—0 3 2 HOLES
L3I.2J
1.24
1.23 9
31.4 30"""o ^_
31.2 ±0.2 -0.4
1.24
r 1.23
31.2-31.4
+0.25 +0 4
3o 1 -

1.23-1.24 •>I3
JI.B
-0.10 Q

31.4 1.24 MILLIMETER VALUES MILLIMETER VALUES

31.2, 1.23
r
^255 +000
2 DD
-.010
-1

„ 8.05 /. 317 f-
7.87/.3IO 4H0LES O TC +.03
-.06
1
"
-50 u
+04
-.00

INCH VALUES ' INCH VALUES

7.87-8.05 / .310— .317 4 HOLES

[^ -0.2]
(B) DUAL DIMENSIONING [31.3 ±0.1]
+.00
, 23 _|
r
— .20 MAX
R .03 MIN 1 , 31.3 ±0.1 / 1.22 ±.01 1 ^-o. 2 /'- 23 -:o°? ,,

314
J °
31.3 ±0.1 -0.2
1.22 ±01 +_°°
i.23
(C) SINGLE LIMITS
Fig. 5-5-3 Limit dimensioning.

+
/—<3 7.96 ±0.9 .313 ±.003 -0 8.O5_° /.3,6 _JS°

/A
/
8
/ 4 HOLES EQ SP
4 HOLES EQ SP
of the decimal point, the other value
should have the zeros added so that DUAL DIMENSIONING mm/inch DUAL DIMENSIONING mm/inch
both the limits of size are expressed to
the same number of decimal places. Fig. 5-5-5 Plus and minus tolerancing.

98 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 TOTAL TOLERANCE EXAMPLE 1

IN INCHES MILLIMETER CONVERSION

ROUNDED TO
AT LEAST LESS THAN
EXCEPT WHERE STATED OTH-
00004 0004 4 DECIMAL PLACES ERWISE, TOLERANCES ON
0004
004
004
04
3
2
DECIMAL
DECIMAL
PLACES
PLACES
FINISHED DECIMAL DIMEN-
04 4 1 DECIMAL PLACE SIONS ±0.1.
4 AND OVER WHOLE mm

EXAMPLE 2

TOTAL TOLERANCE EXCEPT WHERE STATED OTH-

IN MILLIMETERS INCH CONVERSION
ERWISE. TOLERANCES ON
AT LEAST LESS THAN FINISHED DIMENSIONS TO BE
002 02 5 DECIMAL PLACES AS FOLLOWS:
02 2 4 DECIMAL PLACES
0.2 2 3 DECIMAL PLACES
2 AND OVER 2 DECIMAL PLACES
Dimension (in. Tolerance

Up to 4.00 ±.004
Fig. 5-5-8 Conversion charts for tolerances.
From 4.01 to 12.00 ±.003
From 12.01 to 24.00 ±02
EQUAL BILATERAL TOLERANCES Over 24.00 ±.04
ture. as shown in Fig. 5-5-7. whenever
+012 the ideal position of a feature is mid-
1.000
way in the allowable tolerance range. A comparison between the toleranc-
Where dual tolerancing is required ing methods described is shown in Fig.
5-5-10.
for plus orminus tolerancing, the pre-
ferred method is to have the dominant
dimension placed above or to the left
of the other dimension. When a leader
is used, the preferred method is to

place the dominant value to the left of

UNEQUAL BILATERAL TOLERANCES
Fig. 5-5-6 Application of bilateral
tolerances.
In the inch system the dimension is
given to the same number of decimal
places as its tolerance. For example:
.50O±.OO2 not .50 ±.002
The unilateral tolerance is generally
used to establish the position of a fea-
the other dimension. A slash line is
used to separate the values. Conver-
sion charts for tolerances are
Fig. 5-5-8.
W
here a hole location is more criti-
cal than the location of a radius from
the same center, the hole and radius
are dimensioned and toleranced sepa-
rately, as shown in Fig. 5-5-9.
Tolerance Accumulation
It is necessary also to consider the
shown in effect of each tolerance with respect to
other tolerances, and not to permit a
chain of tolerances to build up a
cumulative tolerance between sur-
faces or points that have an important
relation to one another. Where the
position of a surface in any one direc-
tion is controlled by more than one
tolerance, then the tolerances are
cumulative. Figure 5-5-11 compares
the tolerance accumulation resulting
from three different methods of
dimensioning.

Chain Dimensioning The maximum

variation between any two features is
equal to the sum of the tolerances on
the intermediate distances. This
L-.600 + .002 results in the greatest tolerance
.600 i .02 TOR ({. accumulation, as illustrated by the
Fig. 5-5-9 Multiple tolerance. ± .008 variation between holes X and
Y, as shown in Fig. 5-5-11.

Datum Dimensioning The maximum

General Tolerance Notes The use of gen- variation between any two features is
eral tolerance notes greatly simplifies equal to the sum of the tolerances on
the drawing and saves much layout in the two dimensions from the datum to
its preparation. The following exam- the feature. This reduces the tolerance
ples illustrate the wide
of applica- field accumulation, as illustrated by the
Fig. 5-5-7 Application of unilateral
tion of this system. The values given in ± .004 variation between holes X
tolerances. the examples are typical. and Y.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 99
 LIMIT DIMENSIONING BILATERAL TOLERANCING UNILATERAL TOLERANCING

, HIGH LIMIT ON TOP

1
19 20 + °' 5
0l9.O5

4 72 4 78 4 75 ±0 03 04.72
WIT FIRST -^

MILLIMETERS MILLIMETERS MILLIMETERS

2.26 + .00
2.24 ±02 2 26
2 22

1
0.753 ±003

186 188 187 ±001

X -0 .186
+ .002
-.000
*»<> .°z

INCHES INCHES INCHES

57.4 -MILLIMETER 19.20 +

56.4' * 19 05 56 9 ±.05 19.12 ±0.07
57.4_° 01905 q'

2 26 ,.756 753 ±003 K + .00

,
2 ,
26
-04 075O
2.22 .750
1
l -:oSo

fTl

mm
mm
INCH
P —
i
mm
INCH
+ 06/
'4. 72-4. 78/. 186- 188 INCH 4.75 ±0.03 / .187 ±001 0472 y.\ 86 000
(A) POSITION METHOD (A) POSITION METHOD (A) POSITION METHOD
15
[B7.4 _?] [0.9.05 *5-
]
156.9 ±0.51 [019.12 ±0.07]
±02- 26
+ 00 750
2 24 r 753 ±003 2
-.04

2 —i- [
INCH
mm] [mm]
INCH
r
I \
6 002
-0 14.72-4 781 .186-188 14.75 ±0.031 .187 ±001 [0 4.72 ] .Be!;
,
00
(B) BRACKET METHOD (B) BRACKET METHOD (B) BRACKET METHOD

DUAL DIMENSIONING DUAL DIMENSIONING DUAL DIMENSIONING

Fig. 5-5-10 A comparison of the tolerancing methods.

Direct Dimensioning The maximum
variation between any two features is
controlled by the tolerance on the
dimension between the features. This
results in the least tolerance accumula-
tion, as illustratedby the ± .002
tion between holes X and Y.
References
There are three basic types of fits:
UNIT 5-6
clearance, interference, and tran-
Fits and Allowances sition.
In order that assembled parts may Clearance Fit A fit between mating
varia-
function properly and to allow for parts having limits of size so pre-
interchangeable manufacturing it is scribed that a clearance always results
necessary to permit only a certain in assembly.

1. ANSI Y14.5, Dimensioning and amount of tolerance on each of the

Tolerancing. mating parts and a certain amount of Interference Fit A fit between mating
2. F. L. Spalding, Graphic Science, allowance between them. parts having limits of size so pre-
Vol. 8, No. 2, 1966. scribed that an interference always
results in assembly.
ASSIGNMENT Fits
See Assignment 14 for Unit 5-5 on The fit between two mating parts is the Transition Fit A fit between mating
page 121. relationship between them with parts having limits of size so pre-
respect to the amount of clearance or scribed as to partially or wholly over-
Review for Assignment interference present when they are lap, so that either a clearance or
Unit 2-6 Drafting Skills assembled. interference may result in assembly.

100 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 |— i 20: 02 -I - i
00102
— I - i
20i02 » I
i.00:.02-|. i
20: 02 -J Upper Deviation The algebraic dif-
ference between the maximum limit of
size and the corresponding basic size.

Lower Deviation The algebraic dif-

ference between the minimum limit of
size and the corresponding basic size.
-(4 40:003 RESULTANT )-
Tolerance The difference between the
(A) CHAIN DIMENSIONING (GREATEST TOLERANCE ACCUMULATION) maximum and minimum size limits on
-DATUM LINE a part.
5 60: 02
Tolerance Zone A zone representing
-4 401.02- the tolerance and its position in rela-
-3.40i.02- tion to the basic size.

2 20i 02- Fundamental Deviation The deviation

t 20: 02- closest to the basic size.

DESCRIPTION OF FITS
®- -0- ^V Running and Sliding
These tits, which tolerances and
for
Fits

1440:004 RESULTANT) clearances are given in the Appendix,

represent a special type of clearance
(B) DATUM DIMENSIONING (LESSER TOLERANCE ACCUMULATION) fit.These are intended to provide a
similar running performance, with
4.401.02
suitable lubrication allowance,
throughout the range of sizes.

Locational Fits
Locational fits are intended to deter-
mine only the location of the mating
parts; they may provide rigid or accu-
rate location, as with interference fits.

UPPER
DEVIATION
(C) DIRECT DIMENSIONING (LEAST TOLERANCE ACCUMULATION)
LOWER
Fig. 5-5-11 Dimensioning method comparison. DEVIATION

Allowance FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATION (LETTER)

An allowance an intentional dif-
is

ference in correlated dimensions of

mating parts. It is the minimum clear- LOWER DEVIATION
ance (positive allowance) or maximum
UPPER DEVIATION
interference (negative allowance)
between such parts.
The most important terms relating to
limits and fits are shown in Fig. 5-6-1.
The terms are defined as follow s:
Basic Size The size to which limits or
deviations are assigned. The basic size FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATION (LETTER)
is the same for both members of a fit.

Deviation The algebraic difference

between a size and the corresponding
basic size. Fig. 5-6-1 Illustration of definitions.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 101

or some freedom of location, as with permissible clearance, or interference,
LN3
clearance fits. Accordingly, they are to produce the desired fit between
divided into three groups: clearance parts.
fits, transition fits, and interference Modern industr\ has adopted three
fits. basic approaches to manufacturing.
RC4—| -

Locational clearance fits are in-

1. The completely interchangeable
tended for parts which are normally
assembly. Any and all mating parts
stationary but which can be freely
of a design are toleranced to permit
assembled or disassembled. They run
them to assemble and function
from snug fits for parts requiring accu- (A) SHAFT IN BUSHED HOLE
properly without the need for ma-
racy of location, through the medium
chining or fitting at assembly.
clearance fits for parts such as ball.
2. The fitted assembly. Mating fea-
race, and housing, to the looser fas-
tures of a design are fabricated
tener fits where freedom of assembly is
either simultaneously or with re-
of prime importance.
spect to one another. Individual
Locational transition fits are a com-
members of mating features are not
promise between clearance and inter-
interchangeable.
ference fits, for application where
3. The selected assembly All parts are
.
i_*J
accuracy of location is important but a
mass-produced, but members of
small amount of either clearance or (B) GEAR AND SHAFT IN
mating features are individually BUSHED BEARING
interference is permissible.
selected to provide the required
Locational interference fits are used •LC6
relationship with one another.
where accuracy of location is of prime
importance and for parts requiring
rigidity and alignment with no special
requirements for bore pressure. Such
fits are not intended for parts designed STANDARD INCH FITS
to transmit frictional loads from one
part to another by virtue of the tight-
Standard fits are designated for design (C) CONNECTING-ROD BOLT
purposes specifications and on
in
ness of fit: these conditions are cov-
design sketches by means of the sym- I /-LC2S
ered by force fits.
bols as shown in Fig. 5-6-2. These
symbols, however, are not intended to
-^
IS RC3S
be shown directly on shop drawings:
Drive and Force Fits
instead the actual limits of size shall be
Drive and force fits constitute a special
determined, and the limits shall be (D) LINK PIN (SHAFT BASIS FITS)
upe of interference fit. normalU char-
specified on the drawings.
acterized by maintenance of constant
The letter symbols used are as
bore pressures throughout the range of
follows:
sizes. The interference therefore var-
ies almost directly with diameter, and RC Running and sliding fit

the difference between its minimum LC Locational clearance fit

and maximum values is small, to main- LT Locational transition fit
tain the resulting pressures w ithin rea- LN Locational interference fit

sonable limits. FN Force or shrink fit

Increased demand for manufactured
products led to the development of
These letter symbols are used in (E) CRANK PIN IN CAST IRON
conjunction with numbers represent-
new production techniques. Inter- Fig. 5-6-2 Typical design sketches showing
ing the class of fit: for example. FN4
changeability of parts became the classes of fits.
represents a class 4. force fit.
basis for mass-production, low -cost
Each of these symbols (two letters
manufacturing, and it brought about
and a number) represents a complete
the refinement of machinery, machine
fit. for which the minimum and max-
tools, and measuring devices. Today it
is possible and generally practical to
imum clearance or interference, and perceptible play, for high precision
the limits of size for the mating parts. work such as gages.
design for 100 percent interchange-
are gi\en directly in Appendix tables
ability. RC2 Sliding Fit This fit is intended for
43 through 47. See Fig. 5-6-3.
No part can be manufactured to accurate location, but with greater
exact dimensions. Tool wear, machine maximum clearance than class RCl.
variations, and the human factor all
Running and Sliding Fits
Parts made to this fit move and turn
contribute to some degree of deviation RCl Precision Sliding Fit This fit is easily but are not intended to run
from perfection. It is therefore neces- intended for the accurate location of freely, and in the larger sizes may seize
sarv to determine the deviation and parts which must assemble without with small temperature changes.

102 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 Note: LCI and LC2 locational clear- location fits for nonrunning parts. LC5 Locational Transition Fits
ance fits may also be used as sliding can also be used in place of RC2 as a Locational transition fits are a com-
fits with greater tolerances. free-slide fit, and LC6 may be used as a promise between clearance and inter-
medium running fit having greater tol- ference fits, for application where
RC3 Precision Running Fit This fit is erances than RC5 and RC6. accuracy of location is important, but
about the closest fit which can be either a small amount of clearance or
expected to run freely, and is intended LC7 to LC11 These fits have pro-
interference is permissible.
work for oil-lubricated gressively larger clearances and toler-
for precision
ances, and are useful for various loose
These are classified as follows:
bearings at slow speeds and light jour-
nal pressures, but is not suitable where
clearances for assembly of bolts and LT1 and LT2 These fits average a slight

appreciable temperature differences similar parts. clearance, giving a light push fit, and
are likely to be encountered.
MAXIMUM OR DESIGN SIZE OF
RC4 Close Running Fit This fit is SHAFT = .7497

intended chiefly as a running fit for r~^z>

grease or oil-lubricated bearings on
accurate machinery with moderate
.0004 SHAFT TOLERANCE
surface speeds and journal pressures,
.0013 MAX CLEARANCE «4— MIN DIAMETER OF SHAFT .7497
where accurate location and minimum .7493
""*
MIN CLEARANCE = ALLOWANC
play are desired.
= .0003

RC5 and RC6 Medium Running Fits V,

These fits are intended for higher run-
ning speeds and/or where tempera- A
ture variations are likely to be en- .0005HOLE TOLERANCE- MIN OR DESIGN SIZE OF
7505
countered.
MAX DIAMETER OF HOLE HOLE = 8ASIC SIZE .7500
= .7505 = .7500

RC7 Free Running Fit This fit is in- EXAMPLE - .7500 RC2 FIT ( BASIC HOLE SYSTEM)
tended for use where accuracy is not (A) CLEARANCE FIT
essential, and/or where large tempera-
ture variations are likely to be en- MAXIMUM OR DESIGN SIZE OF
countered.
SHAFT = .7504-N-

T~H£>
fT2 *!

RC8 and RC9 Loose Running Fits These .0008 SHAFT TOLERANCE-*.
fits are intended for use where mate-
rials made to commercial tolerances
.0016 MAX CLEARANCE MIN DIAMETER OF SHAFT .7504
= .7496 ~*
.7496
are involved such as cold-rolled shaft-
ing, tubing, etc.
MAX INTERFERENCE = .0004

v\
-J 21
Locational Clearance Fits
.0012 HOLE TOLERANCE- •MINORDESIGNSIZEOF .7512
Locational clearance fits are intended HOLE = BASIC SIZE .7500
L.
for parts which are normally station- MAX DIAMETER OF HOLE = .7512- = .7500
ary, but which can be freely assembled EXAMPLE - .7500 LT2 FIT (BASIC HOLE SYSTEM)
or disassembled. They run from snug (B) TRANSITION FIT
fits for parts requiring accuracy of
MAXIMUM OR DESIGN SIZE OF
location, through the
ance fits
medium clear-
for parts such as spigots, etc..
SHAFT = .7519- r^z>
to the looser fastener fits where free- SHAFT TOLERANCE (T^Z>
= .0005- -MIN DIAMETER OF SHAFT
dom of assembly is of prime impor- = .7514
tance. .7519
These are classified as follows: MAX INTERFERENCE =ALLOWANCE
_J|J2_ M m INTERFERENCE
-
.0019 = .0006
LCI to LC4 These fits have a minimum V, r-r T7
zero clearance, but in practice the
probability is that the fit will always A 1
have a clearance. These fits are suit- .0008 HOLE TOLERANCE- -MIN OR DESIGN SIZE
OF HOLE = BASIC SIZE -7508
able for location of nonrunning parts
MAX DIAMETER OF HOLE = .7508" = .7500
.7500
and spigots, although classes LCI and
LC2 may also be used for sliding fits. EXAMPLE - .7500 FN2 FIT (BASIC HOLE SYSTEM)

LC5 and LC6 These (C) INTERFERENCE FIT

fits have a small
minimum clearance, intended for close Fig. 5-6-3 Types of inch fits.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 103

 where the max- FOR MEASURING TOOLS FOR MATERIAL
are intended for use
imum clearance must he less than for ^V
the LCI to LC3 fits, and where slight r A^~ \
interference can be tolerated for as- IT GRADES 01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16

sembly by pressure or
blow s.
light hammer
^_ ^V_ J
FOR FITS
LT3 and LT4 These fits average vir- FOR LARGE
tually no clearance, and are for use
MANUFACTURING
TOLERANCES
where some interference can be toler-
Fig. 5-6-4 Applications of international tolerance (IT) grades.
ated, for example: to eliminate vibra-
tion. These are sometimes referred to
Force or Shrink Fits or less permanent assemblies. It is
as an easy keying fit. and are used for
Force or shrink constitute a special
fits suitable for thin sections or long fits, or
shaftkeys and ball race fits. Assembly
type of interference fit, normally char- in cast-iron external members.
isgenerally by pressure or hammer
acterized by maintenance of constant
blows. FN2 Medium Drive Fit Suitable for ordi-
bore pressures throughout the range of
nary steel parts, or as a shrink fit on
LT5 and LT6 These fits average a slight sizes. The interference therefore var-
light sections. It is about the tightest fit
interference, although appreciable ies almost directly with diameter, and
that can be used with high-grade cast-
assembly force will be required when the difference between its minimum
iron external members.
extreme limits are encountered, and and maximum values is small to main-
selective assembly may be desirable. tain the resulting pressures within rea- FN3 Heavy Drive Fit Suitable for heav-
These fits are useful for heavy keying, sonable limits. ier steel parts or as a shrink fit in
for ball race fits subject to heavy duty These fits may be described briefly medium sections.
and vibration, and as light press fits for as follows:
FN4 and FN5 Force Fits Suitable for
steel parts.
FN1 Light Drive Fit Requires light as- parts which can be highly stressed,
sembly pressure, and produces more and/or for shrink fits where the heavy
Locational Interference Fits pressing forces required are im-
Locational interference fits are used TOLERANCE GRADES practical.
MACHINING PROCESSES
4 5
where accuracy of location is of prime 6 ? 3 9 II 12 13

LAPPING & HONING

importance, and for parts requiring CYLINDRICAL GRINDING Basic Hole System
SURFACE GRINDING
rigidity and alignment with no special DIAMOND TURNING In the basic hole system, which is rec-
requirements for bore pressure. Such DIAMOND BORING
BROACHING
ommended for general use. the basic
fits are not intended for parts designed REAMING size will be the design size for the hole,
TURNING
to transmit frictional loads from one BORING and the tolerance will be plus. The
part to another by virtue of the tight- MILLING
PLANING & SHAPING
design size for the shaft will be the
ness of fit, as these conditions are cov- DRILLING basic size minus the minimum clear-
ered by force fits. Fig. 5-6-5 Tolerancing grades for machining ance, or plus the maximum inter-
These are classified as follows: processes. ference, and the tolerance will be

LN1 and LN2 These are lightpress fits,

with very small minimum interference, TOLERANCE ZONE SYMBOL
dowel pins,
suitable for parts such as
which are assembled with an arbor
press in steel, cast iron, or brass. Parts
can normally be dismantled and reas- BASIC SIZE INTERNATIONAL TOLERANCE GRADE
sembled, as the interference is not IT NUMBER I

likely to overstrain the parts, but the FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATION

POSITION LETTERCAPITAL -
interference is too small for satisfac- LETTER FOR INTERNAL DIMENSION
tory fits in elastic materials or light
alloys. (A) INTERNAL DIMENSION (HOLES)
TOLERANCE ZONE SYMBOL-
LN3 This is suitable as a heavy press
fit in steel and brass, or a light press fit

in more elastic materials and light

alloys.
BASIC SIZE INTERNATIONAL TOLERANCE GRADE
LN4 to LN6 While LN4 can be used for IT NUMBER]
I

permanent assembly of steel parts, FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATION

- LOWER CASE
POSITION LETTER
these fits are primarily intended as
LETTER FOR EXTERNAL DIMENSION
press fits for more elastic or soft mate-
(B) EXTERNAL DIMENSION (SHAFTS)
rials, such as light alloys and the more
rigid plastics. Fig. 5-6-6 Tolerance symbol.

104 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

minus, as given in the tables in the Grades to 4 are very precise grades
1 coarsest grade for rough sawing and
Appendix. For example, (see table 43) intended primarily for gage making machining.
for a in. RC7 fit, values of + .0020,
1 and similar precision work, although Grades 12 to 16 are intended for man-
.0025. and -.0012 are given; hence, grade 4 can also be used for very pre- ufacturing operations such as cold
limits will be cise production work. heading, pressing, rolling, and other

+ .0020 Grades 5 to 16 represent a progres- forming operations.

Hole0 1.0000
-.0000 sive series suitable for cutting opera- As a guide to the selection of toler-
tions, such as turning, boring, grind- ances, Fig. 5-6-5 has been prepared to
+ .0000
ing, milling, and sawing. Grade 5 is the show grades which may be expected to
Shaft .9975
-.0012
most precise grade, obtainable by fine be held by various manufacturing pro-
grinding and lapping, while 16 is the cesses for work in metals. For work in
Basic Shaft System
Fits are sometimes required on a basic MAXIMUM
shaftsystem, especially in cases where SIZE OF SHAFT = 20.000-
two or more fits are required on the r~^z>
same shaft. This is designated for SHAFT
TOLERANCE = 0.052-
r^Oi
design purposes by a letter S following
the symbol; for example. RC7S.
fit MAX
Tolerances for holes and shaft are CLEARANCE = 0.169- -MINDIAMETER OF 20.000
SHAFT = 19.948
identical with those for a basic hole MIN CLEARANCE
system, but the basic size becomes the ALLOWANCE = 0.065-

design size for the shaft and the design

size for the hole is found by adding the
minimum clearance or subtracting the 1 ! a 1
HOLE
maximum interference from the basic TOLERANCE = 0.052-« -MINDIAMETER OF 20.117
size. MAX DIAMETER HOLE = 020.065 20.065
OF HOLE = 20.117-
For example, for a l-in. RC7S fit.
EXAMPLE - D9/h9 PREFERRED SHAFT BASIS FIT FOR A 20 SHAFT
values of +.0020. .0025. and -.0012
(A) CLEARANCE FIT
are given; therefore, limits will be

- .0020
Hole0 1.0025
- .0000 MAX SIZE
OF SHAFT = 20.015
^~yZ2>
- .0000
Shaft 1 .000
-.0012 SHAFT TOLERANCE^

PREFERRED METRIC LIMITS MAX CLEARANCE = 0.019- 4— MIN DIAMETER OF 20.015 L

SHAFT = 20.002 20.002 r^
AND FITS
The ISO system of limits and fits for 3 --MAX INTERFERENCE = -0.015

mating parts is approved and adopted

for general use in the
establishes the designation symbols
United States. It ! 1
-•4— MIN DIAMETER OF
1 1
HOLE TOLERANCF = 0.02I-* 20.021
used to define specific dimensional MAX DIAMETER
HOLE = 20.000 -J 20.000
limits on drawings. OF HOLE = 20.021-

The general terms "hole" and EXAMPLE - H7/k6 PREFERRED HOLE BASIS FIT FOR 20 HOLE
"shaft" can also be taken as referring (B) TRANSITION FIT
to thespace containing or contained by
MAX SIZE
two any part, such as
parallel faces of
the width of slot, or the thickness of a
OF SHAFT = 20.000 ryz>
key.
SHAFT TOLERANCE = 0.013- MIN DIAMETER OF
An "International Tolerance grade" SHAFT = 19.987
establishes the magnitude of the toler-
w 20.000 L_
ance zone or the amount of part size MAX 19.987 P^
variation allowed for internal and INTERFERENCE= -0.048-fcJ
MIN INTERFERENCE = -0.014
external dimensions alike. See Table
V> TT3
48. Appendix. There are eighteen tol-
erance grades which are identified by 21 % a i
v<
the prefix IT. such as IT6; ITU. etc. HOLE TOLERANCES 0.021—1 DIAMETER OF
-MIN 19.973
The smaller the grade number the MAX DIAMETER HOLE = 019.952
OF HOLE = 19.973"
smaller the tolerance zone. For gen- EXAMPLE - S7/h6 PREFERRED SHAFT BASIS FITFORA0 20 SHAFT
eral applications of IT grades see Fig. (C)INTERFERENCE FIT
5-6-4. Fig. 5-6-7 Types of metric fits.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 105

other materials, such as plastics, it
may be necessary to use coarser toler-
ance grades for the same process.
A fundamental deviation establishes
the position of the tolerance zone with
respect to the basic size. Fundamental
deviations are expressed by '"tolerance
position letters." Capital letters are
used for internal dimensions, and
lower case letters for external di-
mensions.
Symbols
for holes and shaft are identical with deviation of "h" on the shaft. Nor-
those for a basic hole system. How- mally, the hole basis system is pre-
ever, the basic size becomes the max- ferred. Figure 5-6-7 on page 105 shows
imum shaft size. For example, for a examples of three common fits.
16 Cll/hll fit. which is a Preferred
Fit Symbol A fit is indicated by the
Shaft Basis Clearance Fit, the limits
basic size common to both compo-
for the hole and shaft will be as
nents, followed by a symbol corre-
follows:
sponding to each component, with the
Refer to Tables 50 and 52 of the
internal part symbol preceding the
Appendix.
external part symbol. See Fig. 5-6-8.
Hole limits = 16.095 - 16.205
Shaft limits = 15.890 - 16.000 BASIC SIZE
Minimumclearance 0.095

Tolerance Symbol By combining the IT

Maximum clearance 0.315
grade number and the tolerance posi-
Preferred Fits
tion letter, the tolerance symbol is
established which identifies the actual
First choice tolerance zones are show n
maximum and minimum limits of the to relative scale in Table 48 of the
Appendix. Hole basis fits have a fun- INTERNAL EXTERNAL
part. The toleranced sizes are thus PART SYMBOL PART SYMBOL
defined by the basic size of the part
damental deviation of "H" on the hole,
followed by the symbol composed of a and shaft basis fits have a fundamental Fig. 5-6-8 Fit symbol.

letter and a number. See Fig. 5-6-6 on

page 104.
WIDTH OF FEATURE
Preferred Tolerance Zones
The preferred tolerance zones are
shown in Table 48 of the Appendix. 29.98C

The encircled tolerance zones (13

each) are first choice, the framed toler-
ance zones are second choice, and the
open tolerance zones are third choice.

Hole Basis Fits System

In the hole basis fits system (see
Tables 49 and 51 of the Appendix) the
basic size will be the minimum size of
(A) WHEN SYSTEM IS FIRST INTRODUCED
the hole. For example, for a 25 H8/f7
fit. which is a Preferred Hole Basis

Clearance Fit. the limits for the hole

and shaft will be as follows:
Refer to Tables 49 and 51 of the
Appendix.
Hole limits = 25.000 - 25.033
Shaft limits = 24.959 - 24.980
Minimum clearance = 0.020
Maximum clearance = 0.074
If a 25 H7/s6 Preferred Hole Basis
Interference Fit is required, the limits (B) AS EXPERIENCE IS GAINED
for the hole and shaft will be as
follows:
30f7
Refer to Tables 49 and 51 of the
Appendix.
Hole limits = 25.000 - 25.021
Shaft limits = 25.035 - 25.048
Minimuminterference = -0.014
Maximum interference = -0.048

Shaft Basis Fits System

Where more than tw o fits are required <C) WHEN SYSTEM IS ESTABLISHED
on the same shaft, the shaft basis fits
system is recommended. Tolerances Fig. 5-6-9 Metric tolerance symbols.

106 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 ))

The limits of size for a hole having a identification, the method shown in
UNIT 5-7
tolerance symbol 40H8 (See Table 5 I Fig. 5-6-9C may
be used.
is This would result in a clearance fit of Surface Texture
40.039 MAXIMUM LIMIT 0.025 to 0.089 mm. A description of the
40.000 MINIMUM LIMIT preferred metric fits is shown in Fig.
having
Modern development of high-speed
The limits of size for the shaft 5-6-10.
machines has resulted in higher load-
a tolerance symbol 40f7 (See Table 51
ings and increased speeds of moving
is
parts. To withstand these more severe
39.975 MAXIMUM LIMIT References
operating conditions with minimum
39.950 MINIMUM LIMIT 1. ANSI B4.2. Preferred Metric Lim-
friction and wear, a particular surface
The method shown in Fig. 5-6-9A is its and Fits.
finishis often essential, making it nec-
recommended when the system is first
essary for the designer to accurately
introduced. In this case limit dimen-
describe the required finish to the per-
sions are specified, and the basic size
and tolerance symbol are identified as
ASSIGNMENTS sons who are actually making the
parts.
reference. See Assignments 15 through 18 for Unit
For accurate machines it is no longer
As experience is gained, the method 5-6on page 121.
sufficient to indicate the surface finish
shown in Fig. 5-6-9B may be used.
When the system is established and
by various grind marks, such as "g,"
and stock mate- Review "f," or "fg." It becomes necessary to
standard tools, gages, for Assignments
define surface finish and take it out of
rials are available with size and symbol Unit 2-6 Drafting Skills
the opinion or guesswork class.
All surface finish control starts in
the drafting room. The designer has
the responsibility of specifying the
right surface to give maximum perfor-
mance and service life at the lowest
cost. In selecting the required surface
ISO SYMBOL
finish for any particular part, the
HOLE SHAFT DESCRIPTION
designer bases her or his decision on
BASIS BASIS
past experience with similar parts, on
LOOSE RUNNING FIT FOR WIDE COMMERCIAL ~T field service data, or on engineering
TOLERANCES OR ALLOWANCES ON EXTERNAL
MEMBERS. tests. Such factors as size and function
of the parts, type of loading, speed and
FREE RUNNING FIT NOT FOR USE WHERE direction of movement, operating con-
ACCURACY IS ESSENTIAL, BUT GOOD FOR LARGE
u TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS. HIGH RUNNING ditions, physical characteristics of
Z </)
SPEEDS, OR HEAVY JOURNAL PRESSURES.
both materials on contact, whether
CLOSE RUNNING FIT FOR RUNNING ON ACCURATE they are subjected to stress reversals,
< MACHINES AND FOR ACCURATE LOCATION AT
LU
MODERATE SPEEDS AND JOURNAL PRESSURES. type and amount of lubricant, contami-
nants, temperature, etc.. influence the
H7 g6 G7/h6 SLIDING FIT NOT INTENDED TO RUN FREELY, BUT choice.
TO MOVE AND TURN FREELY AND LOCATE AC-
CURATELY. There are two principal reasons for
surface finish control:
LOCATIONAL CLEARANCE FIT PROVIDES SNUG FIT
FOR LOCATING STATIONARY PARTS, BUT CAN BE
FREELY ASSEMBLED AND DISASSEMBLED. 1. To reduce friction
z 2. To control wear
o K7/h6 LOCATIONAL TRANSITION FIT FOR ACCURATE
LOCATION, A COMPROMISE BETWEEN CLEARANCE
AND INTERFERENCE. Whenever a film of lubricant must
be maintained between two moving
N7/h6 LOCATIONAL TRANSITION FIT FOR MORE AC- parts, the surface irregularities must
CURATE LOCATION WHERE GREATER INTER-
FERENCE IS PERMISSIBLE. be small enough so they will not pene-
trate the oil film under the most severe
H7/p6 LOCATIONAL INTERFERENCE FIT FOR PARTS operating conditions. Bearings, jour-
REQUIRING RIGIDITY AND ALIGNMENT WITH
PRIME ACCURACY OF LOCATION BUT WITHOUT nals, cylinder bores, piston pins, bush-
SPECIAL BORE PRESSURE REQUIREMENTS. ings, pad bearings, helical and worm
MEDIUM DRIVE FIT FOR ORDINARY STEEL PARTS gears, seal surfaces, machine ways,
OR SHRINK FITS ON LIGHT SECTIONS, THE
TIGHTEST FIT USABLE WITH CAST IRON. and so forth, are examples where this
condition must be fulfilled.
FORCE FIT SUITABLE FOR PARTS WHICH CAN BE Surface finish is also important to
HIGHLY STRESSED OR FOR SHRINK FITS WHERE
THE HEAVY PRESSING FORCES REQUIRED ARE the wear of certain pieces which are
IMPRACTICAL. subject to dry friction, such as ma-
Fig. 5-6-10 Description of preferred fits. chine tool bits, threading dies, stamp-

BASIC DIMENSIONING 107


ing dies, rolls, clutch plates, brake
drums, etc.
Smooth on cer-
finishes are essential
tain high-precision pieces. In mecha-
nisms such as injectors and high-
pressure cylinders, smoothness and
lack of waviness are essential to accu-
racy and pressure-retaining ability.
Surfaces, in general, are very com-
plex in character. Only the height,
width, and direction of surface irreg-
ularities will be covered in this section
since these are of practical importance
in specific applications.
Surface Texture Characteristics
Refer to Fig. 5-7-1.
Microinch A microinch is one millionth
of an inch (.000 001 in.). For written
specifications or reference to surface
roughness requirements, microinches
may be abbreviated as u.in.
Micrometer A micrometer is one mil-
lionth of a meter (0.000 001 m). For
written specifications or reference to
surface roughness requirements,
micrometer may be abbreviated as
|i.m.
Roughness Roughness consists of the
finer irregularities in the surface tex-
ture usually including those which
resultfrom the inherent action of the
production process. These are consid-
ered to include traverse feed marks
and other irregularities within the lim-
itsof the roughness-width cutoff.
Roughness-Height Value Roughness-
height value is rated as the arithmetic
average (AA) deviation expressed in
microinches or micrometers measured
normal to the center line. ISO and
many European countries use the term
CLA (center line average) in lieu of
AA. Both have the same meaning.
Roughness Spacing Roughness spacing
isthe distance parallel to the nominal
surface between successive peaks or
ridges which constitute the predomi-
nant pattern of the roughness. Rough-
ness spacing is rated in inches or
millimeters.
Roughness-Width Cutoff The greatest
spacing of repetitive surface irreg-
ularities is included in the measure-
ment of average roughness height.
Roughness-width cutoff is rated in
inches or millimeters and must always
108 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN
-TYPICAL FLAW (SCRATCH)
WAVINESS
WIDTH
MEAN LINE OF
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Fig. 5-7-1 Surface texture characteristics.
be greater than the roughness width in
order to obtain the total roughness
height rating.
Waviness Waviness is the usually
widely spaced component of surface
texture and is generally of wider spac-
ing than the roughness-width cutoff.
Waviness may result from such factors
as machine or work deflections, vibra-
tion, chatter, heat treatment, or warp-
ing strains. Roughness may be consid-
ered as superimposed on a "wavy"
surface. Although waviness is not cur-
rently in ISO Standards, it is included
as part of the surface texture symbol to
follow present industrial practices in
the United States.
Lay The direction of the predominant
surface pattern, ordinarily determined
by the production method used, is the
lay. Lay symbols are specified as
shown in Fig. 5-7-9.
Flaws Flaws are irregularities which
occur at one place or at relatively
infrequent or widely varying intervals
in a surface. Flaws include such
X = FIGURE HEIGHT OF VALUES.
HORIZONTAL EXTENSION BAR REQUIRED
WHEN WAVINESS RATINGS ARE SHOWN.
Fig. 5-7-2 Basic surface texture symbol.
LAY (DIRECTION OF
DOMINANT PATTERN)
f— SAMPLING LENGTH
-—
ROUGHNESS-WIDTH CUTOFF
(INSTRUMENT CUTOFF)
-TYPICAL PEAK TO VALLEY
ROUGHNESS HEIGHT
defects as cracks, blow holes, checks,
ridges, scratches, etc. Unless other-
wise specified, the effect of flaws is
not included in the roughness-height
measurements.
Surface Texture Symbol
Surface characteristics of roughness,
waviness, and lay may be controlled
by applying the desired values to the
surface texture symbol, shown in Figs.
5-7-2 and 5-7-3. in a general note, or
both. Where only the roughness value
is indicated, the horizontal extension
line on the symbol may be omitted.
The horizontal bar is used whenever
any surface characteristics are placed
above the bar or to the right of the
symbol. The point of the symbol
should be located on the line indicating
the surface, on an extension line from
the surface, or on a leader pointing to
the surface or extension line. See Fig.
5-7-4. When numerical values accom-
pany the symbol, the symbol should be
in an upright position in order to be
readable from the bottom. This means
APPROX
SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS ARE
SPECIFIED ABOVE THE HORIZONTAL
LINE OR TO THE RIGHT OF THE
SYMBOL.
 PRESENT SYMBOLS FORMER SYMBOLS
VALUES SHOWN MICROINCHES AND INCHES
VALUES SHOWN IN CUSTOMARY OR METRIC IN 63 /
WAVINESS HEIGHT— ,
r (VAVINESS SPACING WAVINESS H EIGHT->^
\ r ROUGHNESS WIDTH
\ CUTOFF y
wwwwwvv
'.ESS VALUE —v \ »
ROUGHNESS ROUGHNESS HEIGH T- \ Bt C" WAVINESS WIDTH SPECIFYING MAXIMUM ROUGHNESS
-" ^ WIDTH CUTOFF
1 MACHINING
ALLOWANCE ~\^ *
/ C
/ ^___^— — LAY SYMBOL \ /°—u« ^^— MAXIMUM LIMIT
/ PLACED ON TOP
\\\\\\v\\\\\\s ROUGHNESS SPACING 63

V
BASIC SURFACE TEXTURE SYMBOL
/ V BASIC SURFACE TEXTURE SYMBOL \\\\\\\\\\\\\
SPECIFYING MINIMUM AND
MAXIMUM ROUGHNESS
ROUGHNESS HEIGHT RATING ROUGHNESS HEIGHT RATING
30INCHES OR MICROMETERS
AND N SERIES ROUGHNESS
NUMBERS
V V 63 / IN MICROINCHES
VALUES SHOWN ARE IN MICROINCHES
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM 63 63 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM RECOMMENDED ROUGHNESS
ROUGHNESS HEIGHT IN
MICROINCHES OR MICROMETERS V ROUGHNESS HEIGHT
RATINGS IN MICROINCHES
HEIGHT VALUES

MICROINCHES MICROMETERS
N SERIES OF
ROUGHNESS
GRADE
WAVINESS HEIGHT IN INCHES OR 63 -7
.002
jum NUMBERS
V A! in.
MILLIMETERS |F|
V WAVINESS HEIGHT IN INCHES

2000 50 N 12

fi".
F-G 1000 25 N 1 1

WAVINESS SPACING
MILLIMETERS (G)
IN INCHES OR
V 32/
WAVINESS WIDTH IN INCHES 500
250
125
12.5
6.3
3.2
N
N
N
10
9
8
63 / 63 1.6 N 7
LAY SYMBOL IDl LAY SYMBOL
Vi 3
Vl 32 0.8 N 6
16 0.4 N 5
63 .002-1 0.2 N 4
MAXIMUM ROUGHNESS SPACING SURFACE ROUGHNESS WIDTH 8
IN INCHES OR MILLIMETERS (Bl IN INCHES 4 0.1 N 3
VI B Vj_ 008
2 0.05 N 2
63 .002 0.025 N
ROUGHNESS SAMPLING LENGTH
1 1 1

/ .030
ROUGHNESS WIDTH CUTOFF IN
OR CUT OFF RATING IN INCHES
OR MILLIMETERS (Cl vT~ VJ_ 008
INCHES
Fig. 5-7-5 Roughness height ratings.

Fig. 5-7-3 Location of notes and symbols on surface texture symbols.

Application
and extension line are
that the long leg to the surface by a leader line terminat- Plain (Lnplated or Lncoated) Sur-
always on the right. When no numeri- ing in an arrow. The symbol applies to facesSurface texture values specified
cal values are shown on the symbol, the entire surface, unless otherwise on plain surfaces apply to the com-
the symbol may also be positioned to specified. The symbol for the same pleted surface unless otherwise noted.
be readable from the right side. If nec- surface should not be duplicated on
Plated or Coaled Surfaces Drawings or
essary, the symbol may be connected other views.
specifications for plated or coated
parts must indicate whether the sur-
face texture value applies before,
after, or both before and after plating
or coating.

Surface Texture Ratings The roughness

value rating is indicated at the left of
the long leg of the symbol. See Fig.
5-7-4. The specification of only one
rating indicates the maximum value,
and any lesser value is acceptable. The
specification of two ratings indicates
the minimum and maximum values.
and anything lying within that range is
acceptable. See Fig. 5-7-5. The max-
imum value is placed over the min-
imum.
Typical surface roughness-height
ALL SURFACES 6 3
\ / UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED
shown in Fig. 5-7-6.
applications are
The surface roughness range for
NOTE: VALUES SHOWN ARE IN MICROMETERS common production methods is shown
Fig. 5-7-4 Application of surface texture symbols and notes. in Fig. 5-7-7.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 109

 MICROINCHES MICROMETERS
APPLICATION
AA RATING AA RATING

ROUGH, LOW GRADE SURFACE RESULTING FROM SAND CASTING. TORCH OR SAW CUTTING.
lOOo/ 25.2/ CHIPPING OR ROUGH FORGING. MACHINE OPERATIONS ARE NOT REQUIRED AS APPEARANCE
IS NOT OBJECTIONABLE. THIS SURFACE, RARELY SPECIFIED. IS SUITABLE FOR UNMACHINED
CLEARANCE AREAS ON ROUGH CONSTRUCTION ITEMS.

ROUGH, LOW GRADE SURFACE RESULTING FROM HEAVY CUTS AND COARSE FEEDS IN MILLING
TURNING, SHAPING, BORING, AND ROUGH FILING, DISC GRINDING AND SNAGGING. IT IS SUIT-
500/ 12.5/ ABLE FOR CLEARANCE AREAS ON MACHINERY, JIGS, AND FIXTURES. SAND CASTING OR ROUGH
FORGING PRODUCES THIS SURFACE.

COARSE PRODUCTION SURFACES, FOR UNIMPORTANT CLEARANCE AND CLEANUP OPERATIONS,

RESULTING FROM COARSE SURFACE GRIND, ROUGH FILE, DISC GRIND, RAPID FEEDS IN TURN-
ING. MILLING, SHAPING, DRILLING, BORING, GRINDING, ETC., WHERE TOOL MARKS ARE NOT
250/ 6.3 / OBJECTIONABLE. THE NATURAL SURFACES OF FORGINGS, PERMANENT MOLD CASTINGS, EXTRU-
SIONS, AND ROLLED SURFACES ALSO PRODUCE THIS ROUGHNESS. IT CAN BE PRODUCED
ECONOMICALLY AND IS USED ON PARTS WHERE STRESS REQUIREMENTS, APPEARANCE, AND
CONDITIONS OF OPERATIONS AND DESIGN PERMIT.

THE ROUGHEST SURFACE RECOMMENDED FOR PARTS SUBJECT TO LOADS, VIBRATION, AND
HIGH STRESS. IT IS ALSO PERMITTED FOR BEARING SURFACES WHEN MOTION IS SLOW AND
126/ 3.2/ LOADS LIGHT OR INFREQUENT. IT IS A MEDIUM COMMERCIAL MACHINE FINISH PRODUCED BY
RELATIVELY HIGH SPEEDS AND FINE FEEDS TAKING LIGHT CUTS WITH SHARP TOOLS. IT MAY
BE ECONOMICALLY PRODUCED ON LATHES, MILLING MACHINES, SHAPERS, GRINDERS, ETC., OR
ON PERMANENT MOLD CASTINGS, DIE CASTINGS, EXTRUSION, AND ROLLED SURFACES.

A GOOD MACHINE FINISH PRODUCED UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITIONS USING RELATIVELY

HIGH SPEEDS AND FINE FEEDS TO TAKE LIGHT CUTS WITH SHARP CUTTERS. IT MAY BE
6 1.6 / SPECIFIED FOR CLOSE FITS AND USED FOR ALL STRESSED PARTS, EXCEPT FAST ROTATING
\/ SHAFTS, AXLES, AND PARTS SUBJECT TO SEVERE VIBRATION OR EXTREME TENSION. IT IS
SATISFACTORY FOR BEARING SURFACES WHEN MOTION IS SLOW AND LOADS LIGHT OR IN-
FREQUENT. IT MAY ALSO BE OBTAINED ON EXTRUSIONS, ROLLED SURFACES, DIE CASTINGS
AND PERMANENT MOLD CASTINGS WHEN RIGIDLY CONTROLLED.

A HIGH-GRADE MACHINE FINISH REQUIRING CLOSE CONTROL WHEN PRODUCED BY LATHES,

SHAPERS, MILLING MACHINES, ETC., BUT RELATIVELY EASY TO PRODUCE BY CENTERLESS,
CYLINDRICAL OR SURFACE GRINDERS. ALSO, EXTRUDING, ROLLING, OR DIE CASTING MAY
32 / 0.8/ PRODUCE A COMPARABLE SURFACE WHEN RIGIDLY CONTROLLED. THIS SURFACE MAY BE
SPECIFIED IN PARTS WHERE STRESS CONCENTRATION IS PRESENT. IT IS USED FOR BEARINGS
WHEN MOTION IS NOT CONTINUOUS AND LOADS ARE LIGHT. WHEN FINER FINISHES ARE
SPECIFIED, PRODUCTION COSTS RISE RAPIDLY; THEREFORE, SUCH FINISHES MUST BE ANALYZED
CAREFULLY.

A HIGH QUALITY SURFACE PRODUCED BY FINE CYLINDRICAL GRINDING, EMERY BUFFING,

16 / 0.4 / COARSE HONING OR LAPPING. IT IS SPECIFIED WHERE SMOOTHNESS IS OF PRIMARY IMPORTANCE,
SUCH AS RAPIDLY ROTATING SHAFT BEARINGS, HEAVILY LOADED BEARINGS AND EXTREME
TENSION MEMBERS.

A FINE SURFACE PRODUCED BY HONING, LAPPING, OR BUFFING. IT IS SPECIFIED WHERE PACK-

INGS AND RINGS MUST SLIDE ACROSS THE DIRECTION OF THE SURFACE GRAIN, MAINTAINING

V 0.2/ OR WITHSTANDING PRESSURES, OR FOR INTERIOR HONED SURFACES OF HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS.

IT MAY ALSO BE REQUIRED IN PRECISION GAGES AND INSTRUMENT WORK, OR SENSITIVE
VALUE SURFACES, OR ON RAPIDLY ROTATING SHAFTS AND ON BEARINGS WHERE LUBRICATION
IS NOT DEPENDABLE.

A COSTLY REFINED SURFACE PRODUCED BY HONING, LAPPING, AND BUFFING. IT IS SPECIFIED

ONLY WHEN THE REQUIREMENTS OF DESIGN MAKE IT MANDATORY. IT IS REQUIRED IN INSTRU-
V 0.1 / MENT WORK, GAGE WORK, AND WHERE PACKINGS AND RINGS MUST SLIDE ACROSS THE DIREC-
TION OF SURFACE GRAIN SUCH AS ON CHROME-PLATED PISTON RODS, ETC., WHERE LUBRICATION
IS NOT DEPENDABLE.

COSTLY REFINED SURFACES PRODUCED ONLY BY THE FINEST OF MODERN HONING, LAPPING,
V O.O5/
BUFFING, AND SUPERFINISHING EQUIPMENT. THESE SURFACES MAY HAVE A SATIN OR HIGHLY
POLISHED APPEARANCE DEPENDING ON THE FINISHING OPERATION AND MATERIAL. THESE SUR-
FACES ARE SPECIFIED ONLY WHEN DESIGN REQUIREMENTS MAKE IT MANDATORY. THEY ARE
1 / 0.025/ SPECIFIED ON FINE OR SENSITIVE INSTRUMENT PARTS OR OTHER LABORATORY ITEMS. AND
CERTAIN GAGE SURFACES, SUCH AS ON PRECISION GAGE BLOCKS.

Fig. 5-7-6 Typical surface roughness height applications.

110 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 F— —
SURFACE ROUGHNESS AVERAGE OBTAINABLE BY COMMON PRODUCTION METHODS LOCAL NOTES
ROUGHNESS HEIGHT RATING MICROr 1ETERS. ^m (MICROINCHES. //in.) AA
PROCESS l^^\) 50 25 1 2.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0. 8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.0 25 0.0 12
HONE
f/iin.l (20001(1000) I500I (2501 (1251 (63) (3 2) (16) (8) (4) (2) (1 1 (0 5)

1 FLAME CUTTING
SNAGGING

—
1
1
1

i
[sawing 55
;

PLANING. SHAPING
i DRILLING

—=—
[chemical MILLING
ELECT. DISCHARGE MACH. !

j 1

[milling 'ROUGHNESS VALUE SHOWN IN

-

broaching
MICROMETERS.
,

[reaming 1 ^^^—
1 ELECTRON BEAM GENERAL NOTES
LASER
ALL SURFACES xx/ )*
ELECTROCHEMICAL

— ^^^ (A)
'
(
1
'

BORING TURNING
•

i 1
1

|bARREL FINISHING (B) ALL SURFACES xx/ )*

(

ELECTROLYTIC GRINDING UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED

[ROLLER BURNISHING
1
^K
(C)ALLI
1

GRINDING I"
1

HONING 1

SURFACE xx/ ( I*
ELECTROPOLISH 1

[polishing UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED.

LAPPING
|

SUPERFINISHING
1

(D) SURFACES MARKED Ao BE xx

[SAND CASTING
|hOT ROLLING SOCIETY, MILITARY, COMPANY OR
|
FORGING APPLICABLE SPECIFICATIONS MAY
PERM MOLD CASTING BE ADDED THUSLY:
INVESTMENT CASTING 'IN ACCORDANCE WITH SPECIFI
EXTRUDING CATIONS XXXX".
COLD ROLLING. DRAWING
DIE CASTING
* INSERT THE APPLICABLE WORD:

>5 O "MACHINED", "CAST",

o z" uj
>
.a -
>z
*
oS: CO
(J*
<a: _l
1- >'
"FORGED". ETC.
s < - : w
5< si zS
_i

P 5
; _
um
uj

"1
ill _ r
- < Oh
O
O
H
t/5
O

TYPICAL APPLICATION
<
o
(T </)
x<
.

V) u.
5S
u
XS
i !
z ;/>
- _ :il
I sO
I 00
2s
i
Z
O
1a
<2%
Fig. 5-7-8 Surface texture notes.
go V>C/)Z 2D
— -z S: a 4 z z o< 2"
>> 55 V. _ -
D o5w« II u-S
to
Z3CC
IL-lO
<- - 52 95* uj <
13
u-O ma
a
-
> UJ
; o< DOC
OCu. 5 3
oz
(331
-' -O^ "I
3
«ZO
3<O
uj a: 3111
1

<r tc c/> (OCA

the symbol should be supplemented by
THE RANGES SHOWN ABOVE ARE TYPICAL OF THE PROCESSES LISTED.
the words NO LEAD.
HIGHER OR LOWER VALUES MAY BE OBTAINED UNDER SPECIAL CONDITIONS Roughness sampling length or cutoff
rating is in inches or millimeters and is
KEY AVERAGE APPLICATION ^^mmm LESS FREQUENT APPLICATION located below the horizontal extension
(Fig. 5-7-3). Unless otherwise spec-
Fig. 5-7-7 Surface roughness range for common production. ified, roughness sampling length is .03
in. (0.8 mm). See Fig. 5-7-10.

Waviness-height rating
is specified waviness value is a minimum, the
ininches or millimeters and is located abbreviation MIN should be placed
Notes
above the horizontal extension of the after the value.
Notes relating to surface roughness
symbol (Fig. 5-7-3). Any lesser value is Lay symbols which indicate the
can be local or general.
acceptable. directional pattern of the surface tex-
Waviness spacing is indicated in ture are shown in Fig. 5-7-9. The sym- General Note Normally, a general note
inches or millimeters and is located bol located to the right of the long leg
is is used where a given roughness

above the horizontal extension and to of the symbol. On surfaces having par- requirement applies to the whole part
the right, separated from the waviness- allel or perpendicular lay designated, or the major portion. Any exceptions
height rating by a dash (Fig. 5-7-3). the lead resulting from machine feeds to the general note are given in a local
Any lesser value is acceptable. If the may be objectionable. In these cases. note. See Fig. 5-7-8.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 111

 SYMBOL DESIGNATION EXAMPLE
REMOVALOF MATERIAL BY MACHINING IS

OPTIONAL OBLIGATORY
LAY PARALLEL TO THE LINE REPRE
SENTING THE SURFACE TO WHICH THE
SYMBOL IS APPLIED
A •DIRECTION
OF TOOL
MARKS

LAY PERPENDICULAR TO THE LINE

1 REPRESENTING THE SURFACE TO

WHICH THE SYMBOL IS APPLIED.
A
DIRECTION
OF TOOL
Fig. 5-7-11
material
Indicating the removal of
on the surface texture symbol.

LAY ANGULAR IN BOTH DIRECTIONS

X TO LINE REPRESENTING THE SURFACE

TO WHICH SYM80L IS APPLIED.
A
-DIRECTION
OF TOOL
MARKS
MACHINED SURFACES
In preparing working drawings or parts
to be cast, molded, or forged, the
drafter must indicate the surfaces on

M LAY MULTIDIRECTIONAL.

s/m
the drawing which will require machin-
ing or finishing. The symbol v identi-
fies those surfaces which are produced
by machining operations. See Fig.
be
5-7-11. It indicates that material is to
provided for removal by machining.
LAY APPROXIMATELY CIRCULAR
Where all the surfaces are to be
C RELATIVE TO THE CENTER OF THE
SURFACE TO WHICH THE SYMBOL IS
APPLIED.
machined, a general note such as
FINISH ALL OVER may be used,
and the symbols on the drawing may
be omitted. Where space is restricted,
the machining symbol may be placed
LAY APPROXIMATELY RADIAL RELA- on an extension line.

R TIVE TO THE CENTER OF THE SUR-

FACE TO WHICH THE SYMBOL
APPLIED.
IS
Machining symbols, like
sions, are not normally duplicated.
dimen-

They should be used on the same view

as the dimensions that give the size or
location of the surfaces concerned.
The symbol is placed on the line repre-

senting the surface or. where desir-

LAY NONDIRECTIONAL, PITTED OR
PROTUBERANT. able, on the extension line locating the

A surface. Figures 5-7-12 and 5-7-13 show

examples of the use of machining
symbols.
Fig. 5-7-9 Lay symbols.

PRESENT SYMBOL FORMER SYMBOL

LAY SYMBOLS

^6/0 030 63/ -030 32/ 010

^^^m^^
STANDARD ROUGHNESS SAMPLING LENGTH VALUES
INCHES

.003 0.08
.010 0.25
030 0.8
.100 2.54
.300 8
1.000 25.4

Fig. 5-7-10 Lay and roughness sampling

MOVABLE JAW MATL: CI

length specifications. Fig. 5-7-12 Application of machining symbols.

112 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 CASTING SIZE
(ALLOWANCE
PROVIDED FOR
MACHINING)

1.50
CORED
HOLE

2.750-4UNC-2A
.44
J ^ .70 CBOR
VR .20 -
40DEEP
2 HOLES
Fig. 5-7-15 Indicating machining allowance on
Fig. 5-7-13 Extra metal allowance for machined surfaces. drawings.

MACHINING ALLOWANCE IN MILLIMETERS

mm EXTRA METAL ALLOWED

2
FOR MACHINING d.
X MEANS Fig. 5-7-16 Symbol for removal of material
not permitted.

Fig. 5-7-14 Indication of machining allowance.

±L
Material Removal Allowance drawings use today. When called
in
<
When itdesirable to indicate the
is upon to make changes or revisions to a
> V
amount of material to be removed, the drawing already in existence, a drafter
amount of material in inches or milli- must adhere to the drawing conven-
<
meters is shown to the left of the sym- tions shown on that drawing. 7V
bol. Illustrations showing material
removal allowance are shown in Figs.
5-7-14 and 5-7-15.
+ ss
References and Source Materials
ANSI Y14.36. Surface Texture S ^
Material Removal Prohibited 1.

S
When necessary to indicate that a
it is

surface must be produced without 2.

3.
Symbols.
GAR.
General Motors. Fig. 5-7-17
+
Former machining symbols.
material removal, the machining pro-
hibitedsymbol shown in Fig. 5-7-16
must be used. Review for Assignments
Unit 5-1 Basic Dimensioning
Former Machining Symbols ASSIGNMENTS Unit 5-2 Dimensioning Circular
Former machining symbols, as shown See Assignments 19 through 22 for Features
in Fig. 5-7-17, may be found on many Unit 5-7 on page 125. Unit 5-6 Fits and Allowances

BASIC DIMENSIONING 113

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 5 \

^^50 r
30
i
;
\^Z rrv 5° r-

MATL -SAE 1020

.I0THICK

Fig. 5-1-A Template no. 1.

Assignments for Unit 5-1, Basic

Dimensioning
1 Select one of the template drawings (Fig.
5-1-A or 5-1-B) and on a B- or A3-size
sheet make a one-view drawing, com-
plete with dimensions, of the part. Scale
is full or I.I.
2. Select one of the parts shown in Figs.
5-1-C to 5-1-F and on a B- or A3-size
3. Select one of the parts shown in Figs.
5-1-G to 5-1-1 and on a B- or A3-size
sheet make a three-view drawing, com-
plete with dimensions, of the part. Place
the dimensions on the view which best
shows the shape of the part or feature.
Scale is full or 1:1.

sheet make a three-view drawing, com-

FRONT
plete with dimensions, of the part. Scale
is full or 1:1.

Fig. 5-1-C Cross slide.

Fig. 5-1-D Notched block. Fig. 5-1-E Angle plate.

114 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

PARTIAL RIGHT
SIDE VIEW
Fig. 5-1 -H Separator.

Fig. 5-1-1 Stand.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 115

Assignments for Unit 5-2,
Dimensioning Circular Features
4. Select one of the problems shown in
Figs.5-2-A and 5-2-B. On a B- or A3-size
sheet make a one-view drawing, com-
plete with dimensions, of the part. Scale
is full or 1:1.

5. Select one of the parts shown in Figs.

5-2-C to 5-2-G and on a B- or A3-size
sheet make a three-view drawing, com-
plete with dimensions, of the part. Scale
is full or 1:1.

6. Select one of the parts shown in Fig.

5-2-H and on a B- or A3-size sheet
redraw the part and add dimensions.
Select one of the scales shown to scale
the drawing. Scale is full or 1:1.

.348
8 HOLES
MATL - .08 THICK
GASKET MATERIAL
Fig. 5-2-A Gasket.

.27 THRU
.40 X 82° CSK
2 HOLES

Fig. 5-2-B Dial indicator

1.50

.25
.40 DEEP
4HOLES EQUALLY SP
ON 2.12

.28 THRU
.50 CBORE
.25 DEEP
2 HOLES

Fig. 5-2-C Guide block.

116 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 .56

.50
HOLES

1.00-
R.50
Fig. 5-2-D Bracket

.36 Fig. 5-2-F Offset plate

R 17

Fig. 5-2-E Shaft support

Fig. 5-2-G Yoke.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 117

 1
i

i i

t —VV

J L_L

J , L -r-r^

10 10 20 30 *0 50 60 70 60 90 2 3

METRIC

Fig. 5-2-H Problems in dimensioning practice.

118 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 3.50- .20

1.25- 0.75

J
A B

Fig. 5-3-A Handle.

Fig. 5-3-B Selector shaft.

Assignments for Unit 5-3,

Dimensioning Common Features 26

7. Redraw the handle shown in Fig. 5-3-A

on a B- or A3-sjze sheet. Scale is full or P0.8 DIAMOND KNURL
1:1. The following features are to be
012
added and dimensioned.

(a) .12 x 45° chamfer

3-C Screwdriver.
(o) 33P diamond knurl for 1.20 in. start-
ing .80 in. from left end
(c) 1:8 circular taper for 1.20 in. length
on right end of 01.25
(d) .16 in. undercut on 0.75
x 0.54
(e) 0.189 x .25 in. DEER 4 holes
equally spaced
J
(/) .10 x 30' chamfer. The. 10 in. dimen-
sion taken horizontally along the
shaft.
8. On a B- or A3-size sheet redraw the
selector shaftshown in Fig. 5-3-B and
dimension. Scale the drawing for sizes.
9. On an A3- or B-size sheet make a one-
view drawing of the
(plus a partial view
blade), with dimensions, of the screw-
driver shown in Fig. 5-3-C. Scale is 1:1.

10. On a B- or A3-size sheet make a one-

view drawing with dimensions of the
indicator rod shown in Fig. 5-3-D. Scale
is full or 1:1.

11. On an A3- or B-size sheet make a half- MATL - SAE 3115

view drawing of one of the parts shown
in Fig. 5-3-E or 5-3-F Add the symmetry
symbol to the drawing and dimension.
Scale is 1:1 for 5-3-E and 10:1 for 5-3-F Fig. 5-3-D Indicator rod

BASIC DIMENSIONING 119

 64 PITCH
DIAMOND KNURL

0.04
2 HOLES EQ
SPACED ON 0.35

R20^
12 HOLES
MATL 2mm THICK
-

Fig. 5-3-E Gasket.

Assignments for Unit 5-4,

Dimensioning Methods
12. Select one of the problems shown in MATL - SAE 1050

Figs. 5-4-A and 5-4-B, and on an A3- or Fig. 5-3-F Adjusting locking plate.
B-size sheet make a working drawing of
the part. The arrowless dimensioning
For Fig. 5-4-B
shown is to be replaced with rectangu-
• Holes E and D are located from left
lar coordinate dimensioning and has the
and bottom edges.
following dimensioning changes.
• Holes A and C are located from center
For Fig. 5-4-A
of hole D.
• Holes A, E, and D are located from the
• Hole B is located from center of hole E.
zero coordinates.
• Holes B are located from center of hole For the sake of clarity, some dimensions
may best be shown on the part. Scale for
• Hole C is located from center of hole drawings is 1:1.

D 13. Divide a B- or A3-size sheet into four

quadrants by bisecting the vertical and
horizontal sides. In each quadrant draw
the adapter plate shown in Fig. 5-4-C.
Different methods of dimensioning are
to be used for each drawing. The meth-
ods are rectangular coordinate, chordal,
arrowless, and tabular. Scale is full or 1:1.

1.00

CO O O (0
o r-. o n

HOLE SIZE MATL - SAE 1008

.12 THICK
A .30
HOLE SIZE
MATL -SAE 1006 THICK
3
A 8 B .16

B 4
C .24
C 5
D .40 X 2.75
D 76
-3.12
E 12 E .50
X .188 THK
Fig. 5-4-A Cover plate. Fig. 5-4-B Transmission cover. Fig. 5-4-C Adapter plate.

120 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 V R e "

LIMITS AND TOLERANCES LIMITS AND TOLERANCES LIMITS AND TOLERANCES

-3.44 1.06-

2.381.01-

+.00
3.50 F -54- 1.75 ±.01
-.02 +.00
-3.00
-.03
+.01
~I.251.03HI.00
-2.001.02-
751.0 Ir—
:
K
T°B°- °°r'
rXXX
XXX +.00
XXX
XXX
,.502
.498
1. 00
-.02
^--^
La 7Rn +00 °
-0.750 XXX
XXXl — 2 2501.001
-
-.001

-.000
-0.2401.001 2 HOLES
D
COMPLETE THIS CHART FROM THE COMPLETE THIS CHART FROM THE COMPLETE THIS CHART FROM THE
INFORMATION GIVEN ABOVE INFORMATION GIVEN ABOVE INFORMATION GIVEN ABOVE

BASIC SIZE BASIC SIZE BASIC SIZE

TOLERANCE TOLERANCE TOLERANCE
LIMITS MAX LIMITS MAX LIMITS MAX
OF SIZE MIN OF SIZE MIN OF SIZE MIN

Fig. 5-5-A Inch limits and tolerances.

Assignment for Unit 5-5, Limits Assignments for Unit 5-6, Fits
and Tolerances and Allowances
14. Calculate the sizes and tolerances for 15. Using the tables of fits located in the
one of the drawings shown in Fig. 5-5-A Appendix, calculate the missing dimen-
or 5-5-B. sions in any of the four charts shown in

Figs. 5-6-A to 5-6-D.

LIMITS AND TOLERANCES LIMITS AND TOLERANCES LIMITS AND TOLERANCES

— 90 11.5-

70 10.25-

M 50 10.25-
,

75
0.76
G D.25K— R
50 10.5-

J_ H
: 12.50
12.46
25
0.05
T e—
020 L-XX
0.02
+O.O2 3 HOLES
|O
-0 6 +0.02 2 HOLES
D
COMPLETE THIS CHART FROM THE COMPLETE THIS CHART FROM THE COMPLETE THIS CHART FROM THE
INFORMATION GIVEN ABOVE INFORMATION GIVEN ABOVE INFORMATION GIVEN ABOVE

BASIC SIZE BASIC SIZE BASIC SIZE

TOLERANCE TOLERANCE TOLERANCE

LIMITS MAX LIMITS MAX LIMITS
OF SIZE OF SIZE OF SIZE

Fig. 5-5-B Metric limits and tolerances.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 121

 CLEARANCE FITS INTERFERENCE FITS CLEARANCE AND INTERFERENCE FITS

0K-
0.7500 +.0020
I.50I8
E_r
c ,

1. 5024 in .I.25I0
.9993
v 1.0000 _| L^l.2500

J
L^_i

Ql. DIMENSION SHAFT (J) TO HAVE A TOL-

XX ERANCE OF .0012 AND A MINIMUM CLEAR-
ANCE OF .0025.
D0 .75OOl Q2. DIMENSION BUSHING (K) TO HAVE A
G 1. 2500
.00 1
~^~
.
I

TOLERANCE OF .0010 AND A MAXIMUM

.0000 INTERFERENCE OF .0016.
H ~1 Q3. DIMENSION SHAFT (J) TO HAVE A TOL-
1.2469
r j ERANCE OF .0012 AND A MINIMUM
CLEARANCE OF .0014.
XX Q4. DIMENSION BUSHING (K) TO HAVE A
C0 .7492 TOLERANCE OF .0008 AND A MAXIMUM
INTERFERENCE OF .0022.

COMPLETE THIS CHART FROM COMPLETE THIS CHART FROM COMPLETE THIS CHART FROM
THE INFORMATION GIVEN ABOVE THE INFORMATION GIVEN ABOVE THE INFORMATION GIVEN ABOVE

TOLERANCE TOLERANCE Ql
ON HOLE ON PART
TOLERANCE TOLERANCE
ON SHAFT ON SLOT
MINIMUM MINIMUM Q3
CLEARANCE INTERFERENCE
MAXIMUM MAXIMUM Q4
CLEARANCE INTERFERENCE
Fig. 5-6-A Inch fits.

CLEARANCE FITS (RUNNING OR SLIDING) TRANSITION FITS (LOCATIONAL) INTERFERENCE FITS (FORCE OR SHRINK)

CLEARANCE CLEARANCE

i r H7/h6 , 1
L ^1 INTERFERENCE-

LOCATIONAL -4- - 4- 0E -|-02O

25
CLEARANCE ^ 1
-
0M
~LF 32

TRANSITION
IUIM-1 trrrJ A
K7/h6
i\//no — /
1 =j= ~"
LOCATIONAL-W- 4-0 30 ' 0H U7/h6 FORCE FIT
G7/h6 SLIDING FIT TRANSITION U —
gT
'

77Z
T
interference INTERFERENCE r^
1 f^
CLEARANCE
H7/p6 _^_ -0 35
LOCATIONAL
INTERFERENCE "Tk

COMPLETE THIS CHART USING THE PROPER

LIMIT AND FIT TABLES
C 19
LJ H7/s6 SHRINK FIT
H9/d9 RUNNING FIT

COMPLETE THIS CHART USING THE PROPER COMPLETE THIS CHART USING THE PROPER
LIMIT AND FIT TABLES LIMIT AND FITTABLES

G7/h6

H9/d9

Fig. 5-6-B Metric fits.

122 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 r T

CLEARANCE FITS INTERFERENCE FITS CLEARANCE AND INTERFERENCE FITS

h r |
44.96
r XX
1
019.05+0.02
0K -i

44.70 7ZZA
— 25.40
25.35
25.47
25.42 44.45 *"
31.75
3 .62
1

rA
44.20

LA
1
1

XX LZj J
_
1

1 01 DIMENSION SHAFT (J) TO HAVE A TOL-

XX ERANCE OF 0.05 AND A MINIMUM CLEAR-
ANCE OF 0.02.
D0I9 +0° 2 ^ Q2. DIMENSION BUSHING (K) TO HAVE A
G 32 ±0.12- - J 1
TOLERANCE OF 0.07 AND A MAXIMUM
INTERFERENCE OF 0.22.
"1 3175 -0.12 - 1
Q3. DIMENSION SHAFT (J) TO HAVE A TOL-
ERANCE OF 0.02 AND A MINIMUM
CLEARANCE OF 0.05.
r
C v 10 XX Q4. DIMENSION BUSHING (K) TO HAVE A
-0.05
TOLERANCE OF 0.07 AND A MAXIMUM
I INTERFERENCE OF 0.25.
COMPLETE THIS CHART FROM COMPLETE THIS CHART FROM COMPLETE THIS CHART FROM
THE INFORMATION GIVEN ABOVE THE INFORMATION GIVEN ABOVE THE INFORMATION GIVEN ABOVE

TOLERANCE TOLERANCE Ql
ON HOLE ON PART
TOLERANCE TOLERANCE Q2
ON SHAFT ON SLOT
MINIMUM MINIMUM Q3
CLEARANCE INTERFERENCE
MAXIMUM MAXIMUM Q4
CLEARANCE INTERFERENCE
Fig. 5-6-C Metric fits.

CLEARANCE FITS (RUNNING OR SLIDING) TRANSITION FITS (LOCATIONAL) INTERFERENCE FITS (FORCE OR SHRINK)

CLEARANCE CLEARANCE
L 2_l INTERFERENCE-,

LOCATIONAL-L
HI FARANCF v
- -j-
1 —
0E
r-
'

I I
02.00
_^
T~WZ\
01.25-
— T0M
lt3 — ^j=m
TRANSITION-.
,
Lf
a J
LOCATIONAL-W- -4-01.25 ]
- 0H FN FORCE FIT
TRANSITION u — ~ I

'

T INTERFERENCE
INTERFERENCE

LN2 - 0J i
01.50
LOCATIONAL --02.00
INTERFERENCE
A*
COMPLETE THIS CHART USING THE PROPER
LIMIT AND FIT TABLES
C 1.00
FN4 SHRINK FIT
RC5 RUNNING FIT

COMPLETE THIS CHART USING THE PROPER COMPLETE THIS CHART USING THE PROPER
LIMIT AND FITTABLES LIMIT AND FITTABLES

Fig. 5-6-D Inch fits.

BASIC DIMENSIONING 123

16. Using the fit tables in the Appendix,
complete the table shown in Fig. 5-6-E.

.500 .812
LT I

.188
LC 3

E2^^2
-

>
» ^H
—
'

.312
RC 7

(A) SHAFT IN BUSHED (B) GEAR AND SHAFT IN (C) CONNECTING-ROD (D) LINK PIN (E) CRANK PIN IN
HOLE BUSHED BEARING BOLT (SHAFT BASIS FITS) CAST IRON

INCH FITS

010 018
H7/p6- H7/u6-

06 I--j
H8/f7 -j P^l—% 016
H8/f7
m
020 -^
^
H7/p6 LJ
(A) SHAFT IN BUSHED (B) GEAR AND SHAFT IN (C) CONNECTING-ROD (D) LINK PIN (E) CRANK PIN IN
HOLE BUSHED BEARING BOLT (SHAFT BASIS FITS) CAST IRON

METRIC FITS

BASIC LIMITS OF SIZE

CLEARANCE OR
DESIGN INTERFERENCE
SKETCH DIAMETER SYMBOL BASIS FEATURE
SIZE
MAX MIN MAX MIN

HOLE
A .375 HOLE
(10)
SHAFT

HOLE
A .250 HOLE
[6] SHAFT

HOLE
B .500 HOLE
[12] SHAFT

HOLE
.625
B HOLE
[16] SHAFT

HOLE
B .750 HOLE
[20]
SHAFT

HOLE
.312
C SHAFT
[8]
SHAFT
HOLE
.188
D HOLE
[5]
SHAFT

HOLE
.312
D
[8]
SHAFT
SHAFT

.812
HOLE
E
[18]
HOLE
SHAFT

Fig. 5-6-E Fit problems.

124 basic r;
!
» NG DESIGN
1 7. On an A- or A4-size sheet make a detail
drawing of the roller guide base shown
in Fig. 5-6-F Use scales at bottom of

page. Other considerations are:

[a] Keyseat to be for standard square

key and limits on the hole controlled
by either an H9/d9 (metric) or RC6
(inch) fit.

[b\ Control critical machine surfaces to

0.8 (j.m or 32 u.in.

(c)Dimension in metric or decimal inch.

18. On an A- or A4-size sheet make a detail
drawing of the spindle shown in Fig.
5-6-G. Use scales at bottom of page.
Other considerations are:

[a] "A" diameter to have an LC3

H7/h6 (metric)
(inch)
<t> ®
or fit.

[b\ "B" diameter requires a 96 diamond

knurl or its equivalent. Fig. 5-6-F Roller guide base.
[c] "C" diameter to have an LT3 (inch) or
H7/K6 (metric) fit.
[d] "D" diameter to be a minimum relief

(undercut).
[e] "E" to be a standard No. 807 Wood-
ruff key in center of segment and the
diameter to be controlled by an RC3
(inch) or H7/g6 (metric) fit.

[f] "F" to be undercut for a standard

retaining ring and controlled form to
manufacturer's specifications.
[g] Dimensions in decimal inch or
metric.

Assignments for Unit 5-7,

Surface Texture
1 9. On an A3- or B-size sheet make a work-
ing drawing of the cross shown in
slide
Fig. 5-7-A. Scale is 1:1. The following
surface texture information is to be

added to the drawing: RIBS BOTH SIDES

The dovetail slot is to have a maximum
roughness value of 3.2 u.m and a
machining allowance of 2 mm.
The ends of the shaft support are to
have maximum and minimum roughness
values of 1 .6 and 0.8 u.m and a machin-
ing allowance of 2 mm.
The hole is to have an H8 tolerance.

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R2

FRONT MATL - MALLEABLE IRON
Fig. 5-7-A Cross slide.

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

METRIC

INCH

BASIC DIMENSIONING 125

20. On a B- or A3-size sheet make a working
drawing of the column bracket shown in
Fig. 5-7-B. Scale is full. The following
surface texture information is to be
added to the drawing.
The bottom of the base is to have a
maximum roughness value of 125 |xin.
and a machining allowance of .06 in.
The tops of the bosses are to have a
maximum roughness value of 250 (j.in.
and a machining allowance of .04 in.
The end surfaces of the hubs support-
ing the shafts are to have maximum and
minimum roughness values of 63 and 32
(xin. and a machining allowance of .04

in.

The large hole is to be dimensioned for

an RC4 fit. The small hole is to be dimen-
sioned for an LN3 fit for plain bearings.
AND FILLETS R 2.5
MATL - MALLEABLE IRON

Fig. 5-7-C Adjustable base plate.

22. On a B- or A3-size sheet make a working

drawing of the link shown in Fig. 5-7-D.
The amount of material to be removed
from the end surfaces of the hub is .09 in.
and .06 in. on the bosses and bottom of
the vertical hub. The two large holes are
to have an LN3 fit for journal bearings.
Scale is full.

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .10

MATL - MALLEABLE IRON

0.75 X .1

2.50

FRONT VIEW
Fig. 5-7-B Column bracket. 1.88

R 1.56

21. On an A3- or B-size sheet make a work-

ing drawing of the adjustable base plate
.50
shown in Fig. 5-7-C. The amount of 4 HOLES EQUALLY
material to be removed on the surfaces
SPACED ON 02.25
requiring machining is 2 mm. The center
hole is to be dimensioned having an H8 ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .12

tolerance. Scale is 1:1. Fig. 5-7-D Link.

126 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

CHAPTER 6
Working
Drawings

Shape Description This term refers to Size Description Dimensions which

UNIT 6-1 the selection and number of views to show the and location of the shape
size
Working Drawings show or describe the shape of the part. features are then added to the drawing.
The part may be drawn in either pic- The manufacturing process will influ-
torial or orthographic projection, the ence the selection of some dimensions,
A working drawing is a drawing that
latter being used more frequently. Sec- such as datum features. Tolerances are
supplies information and instructions tional views, auxiliary views, and then selected for each dimension.
for the manufacture or construction of
enlarged detail views may be added to Specifications This term refers to gen-
machines or structures. Generally, the drawing in order to provide a eral notes, material, heat treatment,
working drawings may be classified clearer image of the part. finish, general tolerances, and number
into two groups: detail drawings,
which provide the necessary informa-
0.56
tion for the manufacture of the parts, 12 HOLES EQ SPACED ON 05.90-
and assembly drawings, which supply
the necessary information for their
assembly.
Since working drawings may be sent
to other companies to make or assem-
ble the parts, the drawings should con-
form with the drawing standards of
that company. For this reason, most 07.10
2.36
companies follow the drawing stan-
dards of their country. The drawing
standards recommended by the Amer-
ican National Standards Institute
(ANSI) and the Canadian Standards
Association (CSA), which is very simi-
lar to ANSI, have been adopted by
the majority of industries in North
America.

NORDALE MACHINES COMPANY

DETAIL DRAWINGS PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA

A drawing (Fig. 6-1-1) must sup-

detail COVER PLATE
DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS
ply the complete information for the MATERIAL - AISI 1020 NO. REQD - 4
construction of a part. This informa-
UNLESS OTHERWISE SCALE -1:2 DRAWN J HeU#\
tion may be classified under three SPECIFIED
TOLERANCES t .02
€3 DATE- 4,20.82 CHECKED F»U^~«^
A4-765
headings: shape description, size
description, and specifications. Fig. 6-1-1 A simple detail drawing.

WORKING DRAWINGS 127

required. This information is located another factor to consider. The draw- may be as follows:
on or near the title block or strip. ing number usually carries a prefix or
1. Dimensions. Is the part fully dimen-
suffix number or letter to indicate the
Additional Drawing Information In addi- sioned, and are the dimensions
sheet size, such as A-571 or 4-571; the
tion to the information pertaining to clearly positioned? Is the drawing
letter A indicates that it is made on an
the part, a detail drawing includes dimensioned to avoid unnecessary
8.50 x 11.00 in. sheet,and the number
additional information such as drawing shop calculations?
4 indicates that the drawing is made on
number, scale, method or projection, Scale. Is the drawing to scale? Is
date, name of part or parts, and the
a 210 x 297 mm sheet.
2.

the scale shown?

drafter's name. 3. Tolerances. Are the clearances and
The selection of paper size is deter-
DRAWING CHECKLIST tolerances specified by the linear
mined by the number of views se- As an added precaution against errors and angular dimensions and by
lected, the number of general notes occurring on a drawing, many com- block notes
local, general, or title
required, and the drawing scale used. panies have provided checklists for suitable for proper functioning?
If the drawing is to be microformed. drafters to follow before a drawing is Are they realistic? Can they be
then the lettering size would be issued to the shop. A typical checklist liberalized?

H m-936
93O
f

01.50-
ROUNDS AND
FILLETS R3 12

^_ -

jaL
€ JU 3
7^ >-.05
A
(A) CASTING (C) FORGING

-.936
r .93O

.62 —
T
.05

(B) WELDMENT UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED FINISH IS ^/

TOLERANCE ON DIMENSIONS i0.5
(D) MACHINING DRAWING FOR FORGED
PART SHOWN IN (C)
Fig. 6-1-2 Manufacturing process Influences the shape of the part.

128 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

4. Standards. Have standard parts, ingshowing the original rough forged grouped according to the department
design, materials, processes, or part and one detail of the finished in which they are made. For example,
other items been used where forged part. See Figs. 6-1-2C and wood, fiber, and metal parts are used
possible? 6-1-2D. in the assembly of a transformer.
5. Surface Texture. Have surface Three separate detail sheets one for —
roughness values been shown wood parts, one for fiber parts, and the
ASSIGNMENTS may be —
where required? Are the values third for the metal parts
shown compatible with overall See Assignments 1 through 3 for Unit drawn. These parts would be made in
design requirements? 6-1on page 133. the different shops and sent to another
6. Material. Have proper material and area for assembly. In order to facilitate
heat treatment been specified? assembly, each part is given an identi-
Review for Assignments
fication part number which is shown
Unit 5-1 Basic Dimensioning
on the assembly drawing. A typical
Unit 5-2 Dimensioning Circular
Qualifications of a Detailer detail drawing showing multiple parts
Features
The detailer should have a thorough is illustrated in Fig. 6-2-1.
Unit 5-3 Dimensioning Common
understanding of materials, shop pro- are few, the assembly
If the details
Features
cesses, and operations in order to drawing may appear on the same sheet
Unit 10-10 Sand Castings
properly dimension the part and call or sheets.
for the correct finish and material. In
addition, the detailer must have a
thorough knowledge of how the part
functions in order to provide the cor- UNIT 6-2 ASSIGNMENT
rect data and tolerances for each
dimension. Multiple Detail See Assignment 4 for Unit 6-2 on page
134.
The detailer may be called upon to
work from a complete set of instruc-
Drawings
tions and drawings, or he or she may
be required to make working drawings Detail drawings may be shown on sep-
of parts which involve the design of the arate sheets, or they may be grouped Review for Assignment
part. Design considerations are limited on one or more large sheets. Unit 3-2 Shape Description
in this chapter, but are covered in Often the detailing of parts is Chapter 5 Basic Dimensioning
detail in Chap. 33.

MANUFACTURING METHODS 33P DIAMOND KNURL 2-56UNC-2B

-i-l .20 I— /
The type of manufacturing process will
influence the selection of material and
detailed feature of a part. See Fig.
IS- 028

6-1-2. For example, if the part is to be 41-1

cast,rounds and fillets will be added.
f— .40—
Additional material will also be
pT
required where surfaces are to be • 2 CENTER PIN

PT HANDLE MATL - AISI 4310 REQD

finished. - I
I

MATL AISI 4310 REQD

The more common manufacturing • I

33P STRAIGHT KNURL

processes are machining from stan-
dard stock; prefabrication which 33PSTRAIGHT KNURL 4-4UNC-2A-LH
includes welding, riveting, soldering, 2-56UNC-2A
brazing, and gluing; forming from
sheet stock; casting; and forging. The
latter two processes can be justified
only when large quantities are required
and for specially designed parts. All
these processes are described in detail PT - 4 CENTER SCREW
MATL - AISI 4310 I REQD
in other chapters. PT - 3 SCREW
Several drawings may be made for MATL - AISI 4310 2 REQD
the same part, each one giving only the G3-
information necessary for a particular
SCALE -2:1 DRAWN J U«Ut\ DRAFTING SPECIALTIES CO.
step in the manufacture of the part. A CHICAGO. ILLINOIS
COMPASS DETAILS A3- 259
DATE - 5/22/82 CHECKED ^ii«uMa*.
part which is to be produced by forg-
ing, for example, may have one draw- Fig. 6-2-1 Detail drawing containing many details on one drawing.

WORKING DRAWINGS 129

UNIT 6-3
Drawing Revisions
Revisions are made to an existing
drawing when manufacturing methods
are improved, to reduce cost, to cor-
rect errors, and to improve design. A
clear record of these revisions must be
registered on the drawing.
All drawings must carry a change or
revision table, either
hand side or across the bottom of the
drawing. In addition to a description of
drawing changes, provision may be
made for recording a revision symbol,
a zone location, an issue number, a
date, and the approval of the change.
Should the drawing revision cause a
dimension or dimensions to be other
than the scale indicated on the draw-
ing, then the dimensions that are not
to scale should be indicated by the
method shown in Fig. 5-1-16. Typical
revision tables are shown
At times, when there are a large
number of revisions to be made, it may
be more economical to make a new
drawing. When this is done, the words
REDRAWN and REVISED should
appear in the revision column of the
new drawing. A new date is also
shown for updating old prints.
— 2
©
X 45o
© 140-
(A) DRAWING REVISIONS
REVISIONS
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
/ LENGTH WAS 150
2 CHAM PER ADDED
(B) VERTICAL REVISION BLOCK
ZONE OR CHANGE SYMBOL
v-DATE
\ ^-APPROVAL
REVISION i
V i
\ illustrated in Fig. 6-4-1. It is important
TABLE DESCRIPTION
(CI HORIZONTAL REVISION BLOCK
Fig. 6-3-1 Drawing revisions.
130 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN
References
I. ANSI Y14.5, Dimensions and
Tolerancing.
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 5 for Unit 6-3 on page
136.
Review for Assignment
Unit 5-1 Not-to-Scale Drawings
down the right-
UNIT 6-4
Assembly Drawings
All machines and mechanisms are
composed of numerous parts. A draw-
ing showing the product in its com-
pleted state is called an assembly
drawing.
Assembly drawings vary greatly in
in Fig. 6-3-1.
the amount and type of information
they give, depending on the nature of
the machine or mechanism they
depict. The primary functions of the
assembly drawing are to show the
product in its completed shape, to indi-
cate the relationship of its various
components, and to designate these
components by a part or detail num-
ber. Other information that might be
given includes overall dimensions,
capacity dimensions, relationship di-
mensions between parts (necessary
information for assembly), operating
instructions, and data on design char-
acteristics.
Design Assembly Drawings
When a machine is designed, an
assembly drawing or a design layout is
first drawn to clearly visualize the per-
formance, shape, and clearances of the
various parts. From this assembly
DATE &
drawing, the detail drawings are made
and each part is given a part number.
To assist in the assembling of the
3-2-71
machine, part numbers of the various
details are placed on the assembly
drawing. Small circles .31 to .50 in. (8
to 12 mm) indiameter, that contain the
part number are then attached to the
corresponding part with a leader, as
that the detail drawings not use identi-
cal numbering schemes when several
bills of material are used.
Installation Assembly
Drawings
This type of assembly drawing is used
when many unskilled people are
employed to mass-assemble parts.
Since these people are not normally
trained to read technical drawings,
simplified pictorial assembly drawings
similar to the one shown in Fig. 6-4-2
are used.
Assembly Drawings for
Catalogs
Special assembly drawings are pre-
pared for company catalogs. These
assembly drawings show only perti-
nent details and dimensions that would
interest the potential buyer. Often one
drawing, having letter dimensions
accompanied by a chart, is used to
cover a range of sizes, such as the
pillow block shown in Fig. 6-4-3B.
Bills of Material
A bill of material is an itemized list of
all the components shown on an
assembly drawing or a detail drawing.
See Fig. 6-4-4. Often, a bill of material
is placed on a separate sheet for ease of
handling and duplicating. Since the bill
of material is used by the purchasing
department to order the necessary
material for the design, the bill of
material should show the raw material
size, rather than the finished size of
the part.
For castings, a pattern number
should appear in the size column in
lieu of the physical size of the part.
Standard components, which are
purchased rather than fabricated, such
as bolts, nuts, and bearings, should
have a part number and appear on the
bill of material. Information in the
descriptive column should be suffi-
cient for the purchasing agent to order
these parts.
Parts lists for bills of material placed
on the bottom of the drawing should
read from bottom to top, while bills of
material placed on the top of the draw-
ings should read from top to bottom.
This practice allows additions to be
made at a later date.
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 6 for Unit 6-4 on page
136.
LEADER WITH ARROW TOUCHING PART A SQUARE

t- CIRCLE .40
\ TO 50 MIN
\IN DIAMETER

3.00 MA)

A CHART IS USED WITH THIS TYPE OF

DRAWING TO COVER A RANGE IN SIZES

Fig. 6-4-1 Identification numbers on (A) DRILL PRESS (B) PILLOW BLOCK
assembly drawings. Fig. 6-4-3 Assembly drawings used in catalogs.

PT
QTY ITEM MATL DESCRIPTION
NO.

1 BASE CI PATTERN #A3I54 1

1
CAP CI PATTERN #B7I56 2

1
SUPPORT MS 38 X 2 00 X 4 38 3

1 BRACE MS 25 X 00 X 2 00 4

1
COVER ST .1345 1 * 10 GA USS) X 6.00 X 7 50 5

1 SHAFT CRS 6 50 6

2 BEARINGS SKF RADIAL BALL # 6200Z 7

2 RETAINING CLIP TRUARC N5000-725 8

1 KEY ST WOODRUFF #608 9

1 SET SCREW CUP POINT HEX SOCKET 25UNC X i

50 10

4 BOLT-HEX HD-REG SEMI-FIN 38UNC X 50LG 1 1

4 NUT-REG HEX ST :
-
12

4 LOCK WASHER-SPRING ST 38 - MED 13

14

(A) TYPICAL BILL OF MATERIAL PARTS 7 TO 13 ARE PURCHASED ITFMS

-SOME SUGGESTED SIZES

5.24-

t 62—4-

DESCRIPTION

ITEM JG

DETAIL A IB) SAMPLE SIZES

Fig. 6-4-2 Installation assembly drawings. Fig. 6-4-4 Bill of material.

WORKING DRAWINGS 131

UNIT 6-5 reordering parts. Exploded assembly ASSIGNMENT
drawings, like that shown in Fig. 6-5-1
Exploded Assembly are used extensively in these cases, for
See Assignment 7 for Unit 6-5 on page
137.
they are easier to read. This type of
Drawings assembly drawing is also used fre-
quently by companies that manufac-
Review for Assignment
Unit 14-1 Drawings
Pictorial
In manyinstances parts must be identi- ture do-it-yourself assembly kits, such
Unit 14-8 Technical Illustration
fied or assembled by persons unskilled asmodel-making kits.
in the reading of engineering drawings. For this type of drawing, the parts
Examples are found in the appliance- are aligned in position. Frequently,
repair industry, which relies on assem- shading techniques are used to make
bly drawings for repair work and for the drawings appear more realistic. UNIT 6-6
Detailed Assembly
5260*
25975^^^
25973
-Q
2I599-*/
Drawings
'
2597...© -

ViTI
23059^jJ-
,'
25847
(0^23143
C£,244M -
(©»-7320-i
23058^"M.20989+2ONC Often these are made for fairly simple
objects, such as pieces of furniture,
when the parts are few in number and
are not intricate in shape. All the
dimensions and information necessary
for the construction of each part and
for the assembly of the parts are given
directly on the assembly drawing.
Separate views of specific parts, in
enlargements showing the fitting
together of parts, may also be drawn in
addition to the regular assembly draw-
ing. Note that in Fig. 6-6-1 the enlarged
views are drawn in picture form, not
as regular orthographic views. This
method is peculiar to the cabinetmak-
ing trade and is not normally used in
mechanical drawing.
ROTO HAMMER
(A) PICTORIAL EXPLODED ASSEMBLY ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 8 for Unit 6-6 on page
^ •:-•:; 138.
1/4" LOCK WiSHERIZI
W-20 HEX NUT (2)
MOUNTING HOOK [i/a~2QTHt) Review forAssignment
BRACKET
Unit 6-4 Assembly Drawings
Unit 6-1 Detail Drawings

UNIT 6-7
Subassembly
Drawings
Many completely assembled items,
such as a car and a television set. are
assembled with many preassembled
components as well as individual
parts. These preassembled units are
referred to as subassemblies. The
(B) ORTHOGRAPHIC EXPLODED ASSEMBLY assembly drawings of a transmission
Fig. 6-5-1 Exploded assembly drawings. for an automobile and the transformer

132 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 SEE DETAIL "A" DETAIL "A" for a television set are typical exam-
ples of subassembly drawings.
Subassemblies are designed to sim-
plify final assembly as well as permit
the item to be either assembled in a
more suitable area or purchased from
an outside source. This type of draw-
ing shows only those dimensions
which would be required for the com-
pleted assembly. Examples are size of
the mounting holes and their location,
shaft locations, and overall sizes. This
type of drawing is found frequently in
catalogs.

ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 9 for Unit 6-7 on page
138.

Review for Assignment

Unit 6-4 Assembly Drawings
Fig. 6-6-1 Detailed assembly drawing. Unit 2-6 Phantom Lines

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 6

Assignment for Unit 6-1,
Working Drawings
1. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a working

drawing of one of the parts shown in Fig.

6-1 -A or 6-1-B. Select appropriate views MATL - MALLEABLE IRON
and dimensions and add to the drawing ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .06
the informationneeded so that the parts
can be completely manufactured. Scale is
to suit. ENLARGED VIEW OF T-SLOT
2. On a B- or A3-size sheet, select one of the
parts shown in Fig. 6-1-C or 6-I-D and
make a three-view working drawing. Bal-
ance the views on the paper, and with the
use of a miter line project all lines and
points from one view to the other. Dimen-
sions are to be converted to millimeters if

required. Only the dovetail and T slot

dimensions are critical and must be taken
to an accuracy of one point beyond the
decimal point. All other dimensions are to
be rounded off to whole numbers.
3. On a B- or A3-size sheet make detail
drawings of any of the parts assigned by
your instructor from the assembly draw-
ings shown in Fig. 6-1-E or 6-1-F The
scale and selection of views are to be
decided by the student. Fig. 6-1-A Cross slide

WORKING DRAWINGS 133

 FINISH ALL SURFACES ON THE TEE
AND DOVETAIL SLOTS
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R. 06
MATL- CI

1.40

3.30

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R2

MATL - MALLEABLE IRON

Fig. 6-1 -B Guide bracket.

0.440

Fig. 6-1-D Locating stand.

7.5 X 80 DEEP
.125 x 27 NPT
2.50 3 RIBS M24 PREVAILING TORQUE NUT
8mm WOODRUFF
THICK KEY*809-
EQUALLY
SPACED,

:
RONT

FINISH ALL SURFACES ON THE TEE

AND DOVETAIL SLOTS
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .06
MATL -CI

Fig. 6-1 -C Cross slide.

Assignment for Unit 6-2,

Multiple Detail Drawings
4. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make detail
drawings of all the parts shown of one of
the assemblies in Fig. 6-2-A or 6-2-B. Since

time is money, select only the views nec-

essary to describe each part. Below each
part show the following information: part -<t 200-
number, name of part, material, number 8x4 KEYSEAT
required. Scale is full or 1:1 Fig. 6-1-E Pulley assembly.

134 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 I

RI.20- ® FRAME (6) WASHER

(D SHAFT (J)
NUT
(3) PULLEY (J)
BOLT
(?) COLLAR
(J)
WASHER

-0 .60 CORE

1.000 - 12 UNF - 2A
1.00 —

2.00

-4. GO-

'S. 20-

Fig. 6-1 -F Adjustable pulley.

0 28
+0.01

_±J
'

' T -0 50
MATL- SAE 1025 MATL - SAE 1050

Fig. 6-2-A Shaft support. Fig. 6-2-B Shaft pivot support.

WORKING DRAWINGS 135

 .0.50
6HOLES EQUALLY BACK SURFACE
SPACED ON 04.38

5.75

REVISIONS:
REVISIONS:
1. 0.50 TO BE 0.53
2. 5.75 TO BE 6.00
1. 88 TO BE 92
2. 12 TO BE 14
3. 2.25 TO BE 2.30 MATL- NEOPRENE
4. 2.38 TO BE 2.25
3. 08 TO BE 010
4. 28 TO BE 30
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .06
MATL- MALLEABLE IRON
Fig. 6-3-B Gasket.
Fig. 6-3-A Axle cap.

Assignment for Unit 6-3,

Drawing Revisions 625 SQ
5. one of the drawings shown in Fig.
Select
6-3-A or 6-3-B and make appropriate PT - SCREW
I

MATL - SAE 1112

revisions to these drawings, recording the 01.06
changes in the drawing revision column. .625-IIUNC-2A END OF SCREW
0.38 X .10 LG
Assignment for Unit 6-4, 01.25
Assembly Drawings PT 2 - POST
6. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a one- CAST STEEL
view assembly drawing of one of the
assemblies shown in Fig. 6-4-A or 6-4-B.
For 6-4-B show a round bar (0
Fig. 1 in.) in

phantom being held in position. PT 4

MATL - SAE
-MED DIAMOND KNURL
Include on the drawing a bill of material
-PT 3 - WEDGE
and identification part numbers. Scale is
MATL - SAE 1050
full or 1:1.

Assignment for Unit 6-5, PT 5 - BLOCK

Exploded Assembly Drawings . MATL - SAE 1020

7. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make an

exploded assembly drawing in
orthographic projection of one of the
assemblies shown in Fig. 6-5-A or 6-5-B.
Use center and holes.
lines to align parts
To make the more realistic,
parts appear
shading techniques are recommended.
Scale is ].]. Fig. 6-4-A Tool post holder.

136 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 PT I - ADJUSTING SCREW
MATL - SAE 1112

P 0.8 DIAMOND KNURL

PT I - POST
MATL - SAE 1112 43 18
REQDI

EEN AT ASSEMBLY
END OF SCREW
10 X 6 LG

PT 2 - YOKE
MATL -
CAST STEEL

PT 2 - BRACKET
16 MATL - 2.38 (#I3G S GA)
I REQD

1.5 X 45° CHAMFER

PT 3 - SHAFT
PT 3 - BASE
MATL - SAE 1112
REQD
MATL - SAE
I

1020

\vJ^R 10 PT 6 - RETAINING RING

EXT SERIES 5133
REQD
V-block clamp. MATL - STEEL
Fig. 6-4-B

14

8
PT 5 - BUSHING
MATL - BRASS
REQD
I

PT 4 - WHEEL
MATL - HARD RUBBER
REQD
I

Fig. 6-5-B Caster.

0.750 DRILL & REAM FOR NO. 4 TAPER PIN-

.12 X .3H ^.438-20NF
-

0.56
i_
I2^_ IC 0.31
R.62-

BE
T~i5H 38i—
06
.438-20 NF-2B
PT3 STUD PT FORK
I 2 REQD MATL C I

4 REQD MATL- STEEL

50-

BILL OF MATERIAL
j ari
PT
FORK
ITEM QTY MATL
2 C
DESCRIPTION
1.

?GtvTT -1.50
2.62
01.38

±:
1

2 RING 1 STEEL
3 STUD 4 STEEL
NO 4 TAPER PIN 2 PURCHASED 41
0.750 f*
PT2 RING f*-.82^H

Fig. 6-5-A Universal Joint.

WORKING DRAWINGS 137

Assignment for Unit 6-6, Assignment for Unit 6-7, ommended to show the interior features.
Detailed Assembly Drawings Subassembly Drawings Include on the drawing pertinent dimen-
8. On an A3- or B-size sheet, make a detailed 9. On an A3- or B-size sheet make a one- sions, identification numbers on assembly
assembly drawing of one of the assem- view subassembly drawing of one of the drawing, a bill and a phantom
of material,
blies shown in Fig. 6-6-A or 6-6-B. Include assemblies shown in Fig. 6-7-A or 6-7-B. A outline of the adjoining part or features.
on the drawing the method of assembly broken-out or partial section view is rec- Scale is 1:1 or full.
(i.e., nailing, wood screws, doweling, etc.)

and a bill of material. Include in the bill of

material the assembly materials. Use scale
1:5 for Fig. 6-6-A and 1.50 in. = 1 ft. for
Fig. 6-6-B.

PT2 END
DETAIL OF LEG

R 25

Fig. 6-6-A Book rack.

MATL -SPRUCE
NOTE: WOOD SIZES (THICKNESS AND WIDTH) ARE NOMINAL SIZES
Fig. 6-6-B Saw horse.

PT I - TOP PLATE ^Ur ROUNDS AND FILLETS R3

MATL - MALLEA

PT 2 - WHEEL
MATL - MALLEABLE IRON
Fig. 6-7-A Wheel assembly.

138 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 —

BILL OF MATERIAL
PT ITEM MATL DESCRIPTION QTY
1 IDLER PULLEY CI A - 5432
2 IDLER PULLEY FRAME CI A - 1734

3 IDLER PULLEY BUSHING BR2

4 IDLER PULLEY SHAFT CRS
5 HEX NUT STEEL .625 UNC
6 WOODRUFF KEY STD NO. 405
7 OILER STD .125

-1.09
PT I IDLER PULLEY

Fig. 6-7-B Idler pulley.

WORKING DRAWINGS 139

CHAPTER 7
Sections
Conventions
object to be cut or brokenaway on an
UNIT 7-1 imaginary cutting plane. The exposed
or cut surfaces are identified by sec-
Sectional Views tion lining or cross-hatching. Hidden
lines and details behind the cutting-
Sectional views, commonly called sec- plane line are usually omitted unless
tions, are used to show interior detail they are required for clarity or dimen-
that is too complicated to be shown sioning. It should be understood that
clearly by regular views containing only in the sectional view is any part of
many hidden lines. For some assembly the object shown as having been
drawings, they show a difference in removed.
materials. A sectional view is obtained A sectional view frequently replaces
by supposing the nearest part of the one of the regular views. For example,
a regular front view is replaced by a
front view in section, as shown in Fig.
7-1-1.
Whenever practical, except for
revolved sections, sectional views
should be projected perpendicular to
the cutting plane and be placed in the
normal position for third-angle pro-
jection.
When the preferred placement is not
practical, the sectional view may be
removed to some other convenient
position on the drawing, but it must be
clearly identified, usually by two capi-
tal letters, and labeled.
CUTTING-PLANE LINE
Cutting-Plane and Viewing-
Plane Lines
Cutting-plane and viewing-plane lines
ARROW INDICATES DIRECTION OF SIGHT (Fig. 7-1-2) are used to indicate the
location of cutting planes for sectional
views and the viewing position for
removed partial views. Two forms of
SECTION VIEW cutting-plane lines are approved for
Fig. 7-1-1 A full-section drawing. general use.
140 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN
and
The first form consists of evenly
spaced, thick dashes with arrowheads
(Fig. 7-1-2A). The second form con-
sists of alternating long dashes and
pairs of short dashes (Fig. 7-1-2A). The
long dashes may vary in length, de-
pending on the size of the drawing.
Both forms of lines should be drawn
to stand out clearly on the drawing.
The ends of the lines are bent at 90° and
terminated by bold arrowheads to indi-
cate the direction of sight for viewing
the section.
The cutting-plane line can be omit-
ted when corresponds to the center
it
line of the part and it is obvious where
the cutting plane lies. On drawings
with a high density of line work, cut-
ting-plane lines may be modified by
omitting the dashes between the line
ends for the purpose of obtaining clar-
ity, as shown in Fig. 7-1-2B.
OR
LXT
(A) CUTTING-PLANE LINES
PART
(B) MODIFIED VERSION
Fig. 7-1-2 Cutting-plane and viewing-plane
lines.
 -HIDDEN LINES SHOW
INTERIOR POORLY

lAi SIDE VIEW NOT SECTIONED

Fig. 7-1-5 Cutting-plane line may be
omitted when it corresponds with the center

FRONT SECTION REMOVED line.

CUTTING PLANE
CUTTING-PLANE LINE

1. IRON AND GENERAL 2. CORK, FELT,

PURPOSE USE FOR FABRIC. LEATHER.
ALL MATERIALS FIBER

SECTION VIEW REPLACES

CONVENTIONAL SIDE VIEW
3. MARBLE. SLATE, 4. BRONZE, BRASS,
PORCELAIN. COPPER, AND
GLASS. ETC. COMPOSITIONS
(B) SIDE VIEW IN FULL SECTION

Fig. 7-1-3 Full-section view.

Full Sections Section Lining

When the cutting plane extends en- Section lining, sometimes referred to
tirely
line
through the object in a straight
and the front half of the object is
theoretically removed, a full section is
obtained. See Figs. 7-1-3 and 7-1-4.
This type of section is used for both
as cross-hatching, can serve a double
purpose. It indicates the surface that
has been theoretically cut and makes it
stand out clearly, thus helping the
observer to understand the shape of
7. MAGNESIUM,
ALUMINUM. AND
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
m&
8. THERMAL
INSULATION

detail and assembly drawings. When

the section is on an axis of symmetry,
it is not necessary to indicate its loca-

tion. See Fig. 7-1-5. However, it may

the object. Section lining may also
indicate the material from which the
object is to be made, when the lining
symbols shown in Fig. 7-1-6 are used.
%
V/f, /^
/g/y '/fy
yk
be identified and indicated in the nor- 10. SOUND INSULATION
mal manner to increase clarity, if so Section Lining for Detail Drawings Since
desired. the exact material specifications for a

~ V/ vzx
1 1 WHITE METAL.
ZINC. LEAD,
12. RUBBER. PLASTIC.
ELECTRICAL
BABBITT AND INSULATION
V/ ALLOYS
^UZZZZZZz^/ ////////y// f

-^^ 1

V/;///.>/ <
V//////JVA
CONCRETE

W*/ % 14.

V7A '//, E2
(C) GOOD PRACTICE HIDDEN
(A) INCOMPLETE LINES BEHIND (Bl POOR PRACTICE HIDDEN LINES OMITTED. VISIBLE
WITH GRAIN
CUTTING PLANE NOT SHOWN LINES NOT NECESSARY LINES SHOWN 16. WATER AND
15. WOOD OTHER LIQUIDS
Fig. 7-1-4 visible and hidden lines on
section views. Fig. 7-1-6 Symbolic section lining.

SECTIONS AMD CONVENTIONS 141

part are usually given elsewhere on the to the major outline of the object. The
drawing, the general-purpose section same angle is used for the whole "cut"
UNIT 7-2
lining symbol is recommended for surface of the object. If the part shape Two or More
most detail drawings. An exception would cause section lines to be paral-
may be made for wood when it is desir- lel, or nearly so, to one of the sides of Views on
Sectional
able to show the direction of the grain.
The lines for section lining-are thin
the part, then some angle other than
45° should be chosen. See Fig. 7-1-7.
One Drawing
and are usually drawn at an angle of 45° The spacing of the hatching lines
should be reasonably uniform to give a Iftwo or more sections appear on the
good appearance to the drawing. The same drawing, the cutting-plane lines
pitch, or distance between lines, nor- are identified by two identical large,
mally varies between .03 and .12 in. (1 single-stroke, Gothic letters, one at
and 3 mm) depending on the size of the each end of the line, placed behind the
area to be sectioned. arrowhead so that the arrow points
(A)
Large areas shown in section need away from the letter. The identifica-
not be entirely section-lined. See Fig. tion letters should not include I, O, Q,
CORRECT INCORRECT
7-1-8. Section lining around the outline and Z. See Fig. 7-2-1.
Fig. 7-1-7 Direction of section lining.
will usually be sufficient, providing Sectional view subtitles are given
clarity is not sacrificed. when identification letters are used
Dimensions or other lettering should and appear directly below the view,
''''/S>\ not be placed in sectioned areas. When incorporating the letters at each end of
/ /
,
/ this is unavoidable, the section lining the cutting-plane line thus: SECTION
/ should be omitted for the numerals or A-A, or abbreviated, SECT. B-B.
.
/1 lettering. See Fig. 7-1-9. When the scale is differentfrom the
///// Sections which are too thin for effec- main view, it is stated below the sub-
/ / tive section lining, such as sheet-metal title thus
/ items, packing, and gaskets, may be SECTION A-A
///////////. shown without section lining; or the SCALE 1:4
area may be filled in completely. See
Fig. 7-1-8 Outline section lining.
Fig. 7-1-10.

ASSIGNMENT
ASSIGNMENT See Assignment 2 for Unit 7-2 on page
See Assignment 1 for Unit 7-1 on page 154.
153.
Review for Assignment
Review for Assignment Unit 5-2 Countersinks, Counter-
Unit 10-1 Sand Castings bores, and Spot Faces
Unit 5-2 Spot Faces Unit 4-3 Drawing a Hexagon
Unit 2-6 Drawing Circles and Arcs Unit 5-3 Dimensioning Tapers

B^ LETTER PLACED BEHIND ARROW

,1, i
'

Fig. 7-1-9 Section lining omitted to ——

id---*
accommodate dimensions.
4
A
r
D \-^h\ »

NOTE HIDDEN LINES SHOWN ON

'
SECTION VIEWS. OTHERWISE
^
J,
ii i
'

FEATURES D AND E MAY BE

1
i
'
MISTAKEN AS BEING SOLID.
1

l////Vr|TJ///////y\ I ////A
OR
SECTION A-A SECTION B-B
Fig. 7-2-1 Detail drawing having two
Fig. 7-1-10 Thin parts in section. section views.

142 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN


UNIT 7-3
Half Sections
A half section is a view of an assembly
or object, usually symmetrical, show-
ing one half of the view in section. See
Figs. 7-3-1 and 7-3-2. Two
cutting-
plane lines, perpendicular to each
other, extend halfway through the
view, and one quarter of the view is
considered removed with the interior
exposed to view.
Similar to the practice followed for
full-section drawings, the cutting-
plane line need not be drawn for half
sections when it is obvious where the
cutting took place. Instead, center drawing for detail drawings is the diffi-
lines may be used. When a cutting culty in dimensioning internal features
plane is used, the common practice is without adding hidden lines. How-
to show only one end of the cutting- ever, hidden lines may be added for
plane line, terminating with an arrow dimensioning, as shown in Fig. 7-3-3.
to show the direction of sight for view-
ing the section.
On the sectional view a center line
or a visible object line may be used to
divide the sectioned half from the
unsectioned half of the drawing. This
type of sectional drawing is best suited
for assembly drawings where both
internal and external construction is
shown on one view and where only
overall and center-to-center dimen-
sions are required. The main disadvan-
tage of using this type of sectional [-•— 02 '0 -»-|

HIDDEN LINES ADDED FOR DIMEN-

SIONING
FRONT SECTION REMOVED -

Fig. 7-3-3 Dimensioning half-section view.

ARROWS INDICATE DIRECTION
OF SIGHT
CUTTING-PLANE LINE
CENTER LINE-
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 3 for Unit 7-3 on page
\/////V/, 154.

Review for Assignment

Unit 19-1 Vee-Belt Drive
Unit 9-1 Dimensioning of Key seats
DIRECTION OF SIGHT
Unit 9-1 Keys
Unit 5-2 Double-Arrow Dimension-
ing
Fig. 7-3-1 A half-section drawing.

CENTER LINES OR CUTTING-PLANE LINES MAY

BE USED ON VIEWS WHICH ARE NOT SECTIONED

UNIT 7-4
OR Threads in Section

True representation of a screw thread

is seldom provided on working draw-

ings because it would require very

laborious and accurate drawing in-
volving repetitious development of the
helix curve of the thread. A symbolic
representation of threads is now stan-
dard practice.
Three types of conventions are in
general use for screw thread represen-
OR tation. See Fig. 7-4-1. These are known

i-c as pictorial, schematic, and simplified

representations. Simplified represen-
tation should be used whenever it will
A CENTER LINE OR A VISIBLE OBJECT LINE MAY BE USED TO clearly portray the requirements.
DIVIDE THE SECTIONED HALF FROM THE UNSECTIONED HALF.
Schematic and pictorial representa-
Fig. 7-3-2 Half-section views. tions require more drafting time, but

SECTIONS AND CONVENTIONS 143

 UNIT 7-5
Assemblies in Section

SECTION LINING ON
ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS
General-purpose section lining is rec-
ommended for most assembly draw-
ings, especially if the detail is small.
Symbolic section lining is generally
not recommended for drawings that
will be microformed.
General-purpose section lining

(B) SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION

Fig. 7-4-2
te>^
Threaded assembly.
should be drawn at an angle of 45° with
the main outlines of the view. On adja-
cent parts, the section lines should be
CHAMFER CIRCLE drawn in the opposite direction, as
shown in Figs. 7-5-1 and 7-5-2.

F^l z^^)
r"^Q PART A V PART C
r-nr ^.~j NOTE: EXTERNAL
EXTERNAL THREADS ARE SHOWN
ON THREADED
-END OF FULLTHREAD ASSEMBLIES.

/////%* V/////A
V///j\
V//A^ +///////>
Y///Y?,
INTERNAL

(C) SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION ( ANSI I

Y// -PART B

vzmw&m 1 Fig. 7-5-1 Direction of section lining.

EXTERNAL
1 1
\»»M»»SWS>»M.
YAY/< v//
BEFORE ASSEMBLY AT ASSEMBLY K ','.','

Fig. 7-4-3 Drawing threads in assembly 7

drawings.
(A) ADJACENT PARTS
INTERNAL
views, the externally threaded part L
IS
(Dl SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION (ISO)
always shown covering the internally
Fig. 7-4-1 Threads In section. threaded part, as illustrated in Fig.
7-4-3.

are sometimes necessary to avoid con-

fusion with other parallel lines or to
ASSIGNMENT
more clearly portray particular aspects See Assignment 4 for Unit 7-4 on page
of the threads. 154.

Threaded Assemblies Review for Assignment

Any of the thread conventions shown Unit 8-2 Thread Conventions
here may be used for assemblies of Unit 8-2 Pipe Threads (B) SPACING OF SECTION LINING
threaded parts, and two or more meth- Unit 8-1 Threading Considerations ACCORDING TO SIZE OF AREA
ods may be used on the same drawing, Unit 7-18 Intersections of TO BE SECTIONED.
as shown in Fig. 7-4-2. In sectional Unfinished Surfaces Fig. 7-5-2 Arrangement of section lining.

144 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 For additional adjacent parts, any the cutting plane, should not be sec-
suitable angle may be used to make tioned except that a broken-out sec-
UNIT 7-6
each part stand out separately and tion of the shaft may be used to Offset Sections
clearly. Section lines should not be describe more clearly the key, key-
purposely drawn to meet at common seat, or pin. See Fig. 7-5-4.
In order to include features that are not
boundaries.
in a straight line, the cutting plane may
When two or more thin adjacent
be offset or bent, so as to include sev-
parts are filled in, a space is left
eral planes or curved surfaces. See
between them, as shown in Fig. 7-5-3.
Symbolic section lining is used on ASSIGNMENT Figs. 7-6-1 and 7-6-2.

special-purpose assembly drawings

An offset section
is similar to a full
See Assignment 5 for Unit 7-5 on page section in that the cutting-plane line
such as illustrations for parts catalogs,
154. extends through the object from one
display assemblies, promotional mate-
rials, etc., when it is desirable to dis-
side to the other. The change in direc-
tion of the cutting-plane line is not
tinguish between different materials
shown in the sectional view.
(Fig. 7-1-6).
Review for Assignment
All assembliesand subassemblies
Unit 8-3 Bolt Sizes
pertaining to one particular set of
Unit 6-4 Assembly Drawings ASSIGNMENT
drawings should use the same sym-
Unit 6-4 Billsof Material See Assignment 6 for Unit 7-6 on page
bolic conventions.
Unit 5-2 Spot Faces 156.
Unit 8-3 Bolted Assemblies
Shafts, Bolts, Pins, Keyseats, and Similar Unit 19-6 Plain Bearings Review for Assignment
Solid Parts, in Section Shafts, bolts, Unit 2-6 Phantom Lines Unit 16-2 Simplified Drafting
nuts, rods, rivets, keys, pins, and simi- Unit 7-14 Conventional Breaks Unit 17-1 Drawings for Numerical
lar solid parts, the axes of which lie in Unit 5-6 Classification of Fits Control

STEEL PLATES GASKETS

Fig. 7-5-3 Assembly of thin parts in section.

GEAR TEETH

NOTE: CHANGE IN DIRECTION

OF CUTTING-PLANE LINE NOT
SHOWN IN SECTION VIEW

Fig. 7-5-4 Section lining used to distinguish

between stationary and moving parts. Fig. 7-6-1 An offset section.

SECTIONS AND CONVENTIONS 145

 ALTERNATE CROSS-HATCHING
AND HIDDEN LINES USED TO
INDICATE RIB

SECTION D-D

SECTION A-A
Fig. 7-6-2 Positioning offset sections.

those shown in Fig. 7-7-1B, the top rib

UNIT 7-7 is aligned with the bottom rib to show

its true relationship with the hub and

Ribs, Holes, and Lugs
in Section
RIBS IN SECTIONS
A true-projection sectional view of a
part, such as shown in Fig. 7-7-1,
would be misleading when the cutting
plane passes longitudinally through
the center of the rib. To avoid this
impression of solidity, a section not
showing the ribs section-lined or
cross-hatched is preferred. When
there is an odd number of ribs, such as
flange. If the rib is not aligned or
revolved, it appears distorted on the
sectional view and is therefore mis-
leading.
At times it may be necessary to use
an alternative method of identifying
ribs in a sectional view. Figure 7-7-2 Fig. 7-7-2 Alternate method of showing
ribs in section.
shows a base and a pulley in section. If
rib A of the base were not sectioned as
previously mentioned, it would appear ribs on the base and the ribs and spaces
exactly like rib B in the sectional view on the pulley, alternate section lining
and would be misleading. Similarly, on the ribs is used. The line between
rib C shown on the pulley may be over- the rib and solid portions is shown as a
looked. To distinguish between the broken line.

HOLES ARE ROTATED TO CUTTING PLANE TO SHOW THEIR

TRUE RELATIONSHIP WITH THE REST OF THE ELEMENT TRUE PROJECTION GIVES
lA A DISTORTED IMPRESSION

SECTION B-B
TRUE PROJECTION

HOLE AND RIB ARE ROTATED

TO CUTTING PLANE
IA) CUTTING PLANE PASSING THROUGH BOTH RIBS (B) CUTTING PLANE PASSING THROUGH ONE RIB AND ONE HOLE

Fig. 7-7-1 Preferred and true projection through ribs and holes.

146 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 UNIT 7-8
Revolved and
Removed Sections

Revolved and removed sections are

used to show the cross-sectional shape
of ribs, spokes, or arms when the
shape is not obvious in the regular
views. See Figs. 7-8-1 to 7-8-3. Often
end views are not needed when a
revolved section is used. For a
revolved section, draw a center line
through the shape on the plane to be
described, imagine the part to be
rotated 90°, and superimposed on the
view the shape that would be seen
when rotated. See Figs. 7-8-1 and
SECTION B-B SECTION C-C

I) HOLES ALIGNED (2) LUGS ALIGNED AND SECTIONED

— LINE SHOULD NOT

GO THROUGH
SECTION

SECTION D-D

131 LUGS ALIGNED AND SECTIONED (4) LUG NOT SECTIONED

Fig. 7-7-3 Aligning holes and lugs in section drawings.

IB) REVOLVED SECTION (CI PARTIAL VII

SHOWING REVOLVED
SECTION
HOLES IN SECTIONS Some lugs are shown in section, and
some are not. When the cutting plane
Holes, like ribs, are aligned as shown passes through the lug crosswise, the
in Fig. 7-7-1 to show their true relation-
lug is sectioned; otherwise, the lugs
ship to the rest of the part.
are treated in the same manner as ribs.

LUGS IN SECTION ASSIGNMENT

Lugs, like ribs and spokes, are also See Assignment 7 for Unit 7-7 on page
aligned to show their true relationship 156.
to the rest of the part, because true
projection may be misleading. Figure Review for Assignment
7-7-3 shows several examples of lugs in Unit 10-1 Bosses
section. Note how the cutting-plane Unit 5-1 Dual Dimensioning
ID) REVOLVED SECTION (El PARTIAL \
line is bent or offset so that the features Unit 7-17 Foreshortened Projection WITH MAIN VIEW BROKEN SHOWING REVOLVED
may be clearly shown in the sectional Unit 7-18 Intersection of Unfinished FOR CLARITY SECTION

view. Surfaces Fig. 7-8-1 Revolved sections.

SECTIONS AMD CONVENTIONS 147

 £ -r=r=r
-s*-
jzm 5g The removed section differs in that
the section, instead of being drawn
right on the view, is removed to an
open area on the drawing (Fig. 7-8-2).
Frequently the removed section is
drawn to an enlarged scale for clar-
ification and easier dimensioning.
Removed sections of symmetrical
parts should be placed, whenever pos-
sible, on the extension of the center
SECTION A-A SECTION B-B VIEW D-D
line (Fig. 7-8-2B).
SECTION C-C
DOUBLE SIZE DOUBLE SIZE DOUBLE SIZE DOUBLE SIZE On complicated drawings where the
(A) REMOVED SECTIONS AND REMOVED VIEW
placement of the removed view may be
some distance from the cutting plane,
auxiliary information, such as the ref-
erence zone location (Fig. 7-8-4), may
be helpful.

Placement of Sectional Views

Whenever practical, except for re-
volved sections, sectional views
ENLARGED DETAIL OF TEETH should be projected perpendicular to
(—— 1.00 ——I
SCALE 8:1 the cutting plane and be placed in the
normal position for third-angle projec-
(8) CRANE HOOK (C) NUT
tion. See Fig. 7-8-5.
Fig. 7-8-2 Removed sections. When the preferred placement is not
practical, the sectional view may be
THIN OBJECT removed to some other convenient
LINE WHEN 7-8-3. If the revolved section does not
position on the drawing, but it must be
SUPERIMPOSED interfere with the view on which it is
clearly identified, usually by two capi-
THICK OBJECT revolved, then the view is not broken
tal letters, excluding I, O, Q, and Z,
LINE WHEN VIEW IS unless it would provide for clearer
BROKEN and be labeled.
dimensioning. When the revolved sec-
tion interferes or passes through lines
on the view on which it is revolved,
then the general practice is to break
ASSIGNMENT
the view (Fig. 7-8-3). Often the break is See Assignment 8 for Unit 7-8 on page
used to shorten the length of the 156.
object. In no circumstances should the
Fig. 7-8-3 Revolved (superimposed)
lines on the view pass through the sec- Review for Assignment
sections.
tion. When superimposed on the view, Unit 7-14 Conventional Breaks
the outline of the revolved section is a Unit 7-18 Intersections of
DRAWING CALLOUT MEANS THIS
thin, continuous line. Unfinished Surfaces

*1
FOR SECTION E E
ZONE A-61
(ZONI SEE ZONE B-9

E (B-9)

FOR VIEW SHOWING

WHERE SECTION E E
IS TAKEN SEE

ZONE A-6

SECTION E-E

Fig. 7-8-4 Reference zone location. Fig. 7-8-5 Placement of sectional views.

148 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 UNIT 7-9 UNIT 7-10 ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 10 for Unit 7-10 on
Spokes and Arms in Partial or Broken- page 158.
Section Out Sections Review for Assignment
Unit 9-3 Retaining Rings
A comparison of the true projection of Where a sectional view of only a por-
wheel with spokes and the wheel
the tion of the object is needed, partial
with a web is made in Figs. 7-9-1 A and sections may be used. See Fig. 7-10-1.
B. This comparison shows that a pre- An irregular break line is used to show UNIT 7-11
ferred section for the wheel and spokes the extent of the section. With this
is desirable so that it will not appear to
j
type of section, a cutting-plane line is Phantom or Hidden
be a wheel with a solid web. In pre- not required.
I

ferred sectioning, any part that is not

Sections
solid or continuous around the hub is
(drawn without the section lining,
=*=* A phantom section is used to show the
even though the cutting plane passes typical interior shapes of an object in
through the spoke. When there is an one view when the part is not truly
odd number of spokes, as shown in symmetrical in shape, as well as to
Fig. 7-9-1C, the bottom spoke is show mating parts in an assembly
.aligned with the top spoke to show its drawing. See Fig. 7-11-1. It is a sec-
true relationship to the wheel and to tional view superimposed on the regu-
the hub. If the spoke were not re- lar view without the removal of the
f

.volved or aligned, it would appear dis- front portion of the object. The section
torted in the sectional view. lining used for phantom sections con-
sists of thin, evenly spaced, broken
lines.
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 9 for Unit 7-9 on page
158.

Review for Assignment

Unit 9-2 Pin Fasteners
Unit 7-18 Intersections of
Unfinished Surfaces Fig. 7-10-1 Broken-out or partial sections.
Fig. 7-11-1 Phantom or hidden section.

ASSIGNMENT
I See Assignment
page 159.
11 for Unit 7-11 on

I
222ZZ2
SECTION A-A
SECTION B-B
RED
I
SECTION B-B
TRUE PROJECTS
Review
Unit 5-3
Unit 5-6
for Assignment
Undercuts
Fits and Allowances
* PULLEY WITH WEB IBI HANDWHEEL WITH EVEN NUM8ER OF SPOKES Unit 6-4 Design Assembly Drawings

UNIT 7-12
Sectional Drawing
Review
In Units 7-1 through 7-11 the different
SECTION C-C SECTION C-C SECTION D-D SECTION D-D types of sectional views have been
PREFERRED TRUE PROJECTION PREFERRED TRUE PROJECTIOI\
explained and drawing problems have
IC) HANDWHEEL WITH ODD NUMBER OF SPOKES IDI HANDWHEEL WITH ODD NUMBER OF OFFSET SPOKES been assigned with each type of sec-
Fig. 7-9-1 Preferred and true projection through spokes. tion drawing.

SECTIONS AND CONVENTIONS 149

 In the drafting office, it is
who must decide which views are
required to fully explain the part to be
made. In addition, the drafter must
select the proper scale(s) which will
show the features clearly.
the drafter CONVENTION circular pitch, or a diametral pitch. For
cylindrical surfaces, the latter is pre-
> fix
VI J
ferred. The pitch of the teeth for
coarse knurls (measured parallel to the
axis of the work) is 14 teeth per inch
iAi SERRATED SHAFT (TPI) or about 2 mm; for medium

O
This unit has been designed to knurls. 21 TPI or about 1.2 mm; and for
re\iew the sectional-view options fine knurls. 33 TPI or 0.8 mm. The
open to the drafter. L_ + _ medium-pitch knurl is the most com-
monly used.
ASSIGNMENT D SHAFT As a time-saver, the knurl symbol is
shown on only a part of the surface
See Assignment 12 for Unit 7-12 on being knurled.
page 160. — 3" Holes
Review for Assignment ;md knurling A series of similar holes is indicated by
Units 7-1 to 7-1 1 Sectional Drawings draw ing one or tw o holes and showing
Unit 6-1 Working Drawings onlv the center for the others. See Fig.
7-13-1E and F.

Repetitive Parts
UNIT 7-13 STRAIGHT KNURLING
Repetitive parts, or intricate features,
are show n by draw ing one in detail and
Conventional the others in simple outline only. A
Representation of covering note is added to the drawing.
See Fig. 7-13-lGandH.
Common Features HOLES IN CIRCULAR PI
Square Sections
-#- -9- -4- -*---
Square sections on shafts and similar
To simplify the representation of com-
parts may be illustrated by thin,
mon features, a number of conven- -»--»-»-»-
crossed, diagonal lines, as shown in
tional drafting practices are used. -IOLES IN LINEAR PITCH Fig. 7-13-l[I].
Many conventions are deviations from
purpose of clar-
true projection for the ~
ity:others are used to save drafting
J
:•
—^.r—^r^^ —^ -:-
ASSIGNMENT
^
time. These conventions must be r

;
EATED PARTS See Assignment 13 for Unit 7-13 on
executed carefully, for clarity is even
page 160.
more important than speed.
Many drafting conventions such as ^ru^jxixixr^ f\j\~zzif\rv
u ] Review for Assignment
those used on thread, gear, and spring iHi REPEATED DETAILS
Unit 2-2 Enlarged Scales
drawings appear in various chapters
-hex 60 - 84 TWO FLATS Unit 3-7 One- and Tw o-View
throughout the text. Only the conven- across flats DIAMETRICALLY
[

r: iOO OPPOSITE
Drawings
tions not described in those chapters
Unit 5-3 Dimensioning Common
appear here.
Features

Repetitive Details
Repetitive features, such as gear and
spline teeth, are shown by drawing a
partial view showing two or three of
.
these features, with a phantom line or
lines to indicate the extent of the
remaining features. See Fig. 7-13-1A
and B. Alternatively, gears and splines
may be shown with a solid thick line
representing the basic outline of the
part and a thin line representing the
root of the teeth. This is essentially the
same convention that is used for screw
threads. The pitch line may be added
b\ using the standard center line.
Fig. 7-13-1 Conventional representation of UNIT 7-14
common features.
Conventional Breaks
Knurls
Knurling is an operation which puts Long, simple parts such as shafts,
patterned indentations in the surface bars, tubes, and arms need not be
of a metal part to provide a good finger drawn to their entire length. Conven-
grip. See Fig. 7-13-1C and D. Com- tional breaks located at a convenient
monly used types of knurls are position may be used and the true
straight, diagonal, spiral, convex, length indicated by a dimension. See
raised diamond, depressed diamond, Fig. 7-14-1. Often a part can be drawn
and radial. The pitch refers to the dis- to a larger scale to produce a clearer
tance between corresponding indenta- drawing if a conventional break is
tions, and it may be a straight pitch, a used. The breaks used on circular

150 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 transparent materials are also suitable
for outside views. Other symbols
which may be used to indicate areas of

(A) SOLID ROUND different materials are shown in Fig.

7-15-1. It isnot necessary to cover the
-THICK LINE
entire area affected with such sym-
bolic lining, as long as the extent of the
area is shown on the drawing.

IB) TUBULAR ROUND

COARSE WIRE MESH FINE WIRE MESH

O
o o o
O o oo o
O O O O O

(Dl TUBULAR RECTANGULAR MARBLE

Fig. 7-15-1
PERFORATED METAL

Symbols to indicate materials of

± OR

construction. i

1 1

Transparent Materials (B)

These should generally be treated in
Fig. 7-16-1 Conventional representation of
the same manner as opaque materials;
external intersections.
i.e., details behind them are shown
with hidden lines if such detail is
necessary.

(F) SHORT BREAK ASSIGNMENT

Fig. 7-14-1 Conventional breaks.
See Assignment 15 for Unit 7-15 on
page 161.
known as "S breaks," may be
objects,
drawn freehand, with an irregular Review for Assignment
curve, or a template or compass. i lT
Unit 2-2 Enlarged Views
i
Unit 6-6 Detail Assembly Draw-

ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 14 for Unit 7-14 on
Unit 7-14
Appendix
ings
Conventional Breaks
Sheet-Metal Gage Sizes 7
<
7
/
/ E
t
page 160.
PREFERRED TRUE
Review for Assignment
Fig. 7-16-2 Conventional representation of
Unit 4-3 Drawing a Hexagon UNIT 7-16 cylindrical intersections.
Unit 3-9 Enlarged Views
Cylindrical
Intersections
ASSIGNMENT
UNIT 7-15
The intersections of rectangular and See Assignment 16 for Unit 7-16 on
Materials of circular contours, unless they are very page 162.
large, areshown conventionally as in
Construction and 7-16-2. The same con-
Figs. 7-16-1 Review for Assignment
vention may be used to show the inter- Unit 5-6 Fits
Symbols used to indicate materials in section of two cylindrical contours, or Unit 5-7 Surface Texture Symbols
sectional views are shown in Fig. 7-1-6. the curve of intersection may be Unit 7-10 Views
Partial
Those shown for concrete, wood, and shown as a circular arc. Unit 7-8 Revolved Sections

SECTIONS AND CONVENTIONS 1 51

UNIT 7-17 Holes Revolved to Show True be indicated conventionally by a line
Distance from Center coinciding with the theoretical line of
Foreshortened Drilled flanges in elevation or section intersection. The need for this conven-
should show the holes at their true dis- tion is demonstrated by the examples
Projection tance from the center, rather than the shown in Fig. 7-18-1, where the upper
true projection. top views are shown in true projection.
When the true projection of a feature Note that in each example the true pro-
would result in confusing foreshort- jection would be misleading. In the
ASSIGNMENT
ening, should be rotated until it is
it case of the large radius, such as shown
parallel to the line of the section or See Assignment 17 for Unit 7-17 on in Fig. 7-18-1D, no line is drawn. Mem-
projection. See Fig. 7-17-1. page 162. bers such as ribs and arms that blend
into other features terminate in curves
REVOLVE RIB AND HOLE Review for Assignment called runouts. Small runouts are usu-
UNTIL PARALLEL TO Unit 5-6 Fits ally drawn freehand. Large runouts
OTHER VIEW
Unit 5-7 Surface Finish are drawn with an irregular curve, tem-
Unit 9-1 Keys plate, or compass. See Fig. 7-18-2.
Unit 7-8 Revolved Sections

ASSIGNMENT
UNIT 7-18 See Assignment 18 for Unit 7-18 on
page 163.
Intersections of
Review for Assignment
(Al ALIGNMENT OF RIB AND HOLES Unfinished Surfaces Unit 5-2 Dimensioning Circular
Features
The intersections of unfinished sur- Unit 5-7 Surface Texture Symbols
faces that are rounded or filleted may Unit 3-11 Miter Lines

TRUE TRUE
PROJECTION PROJECTION
Id
/-y-REVOLVE
PART UNTIL NO LINE-
PARALLEL
TO OTHER
VIEW
(B) ALIGNMENT OF PART PREFERRED PREFERRED
PROJECTION PROJECTION
LARGE
RADIUS
REVOLVE ARM UNTIL
PARALLEL TO OTHER
VIEW-

IC)

TRUE
PROJECTION

PREFERRED
PROJECTION rsi
PREFERRED
PROJECTION

(C) ALIGNMENT OF ARM

(Dl (E)
Fig. 7-17-1 Alignment of parts and holes to
show true relationship. Fig. 7-18-1 Conventional representation of rounds and fillets.

152 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 /-FLAT

1
1

3
c
L~
mm
o_> ZI c
O.

(B) [Dl

(E) (Fl
^=^ (G) (HI

Fig. 7-18-2 Conventional representation of runouts.

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 7

Assignment for Unit 7-1,
Sectional Views
1 . Selectone of the problems shown in Fig.
7- 1 -B, and on a B- or A3-size
-A or 7- 1

sheet make a two-view working draw-

ing of the part, showing one of the
views in full section. Scale is full or 1:1.

R.76 ^R.50
.500
2 HOLES

0.34
.70 SF
6 HOLES

1.60
-0
MATL -GRAY IRON
I I

I8SFON FAR SIDE

FILLETS R3 4 HOLES EQSPON0 66
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .10 MATL - MALLEABLE IRON
Fig. 7-1-A Shaft base. Fig. 7-1-B Flanged elbow.

SECTIONS AND CONVENTIONS 1 53

Assignment for Unit 7-2, Two or
HOLE FOR «4
More Sectional Views on One TAPER PIN-;
Drawing
2. Selectone of the problems shown in Fig.
7-2-A or 7-2-B and on a B- or A3-size
sheet make a working drawing of the
part showing the appropriate views in
DDDD
sections. Refer to the Appendix for taper
sizes. Scale is 1:1. DRAWING SET-UP

HEX 1.50 ACROSS CORNERS

Assignment for Unit 7-3,
Half Sections
3. Select one of the problems shown in Fig.
7-3-A or 7-3-B. On a B- or A3-size sheet,
make a two-view working drawing of
the part, showing the side view in half
section. Scale is full or 1:1. [l;>£=£--=f.L.L
J L
A -*IB
MATL - SAE 1012
Assignment for Unit 7-4,
Fig. 7-2-A Casing.
Threads in Section
4. Select one of the problems shown in Fig.
7-4-A or 7-4-B. On a -07
B- or A3-size sheet
011 CBORE
make working drawing of the part.
a 1 5 DEEP
r- 2
Z HULC3 FOR w
HOLES run # TAPER PIN
Determine the number of views and the
I

best type of section which will clearly

describe the part. Scale is full or 1:1.
FILLETS R3
MATL - GRAY IRON 044
14 -- 32
A
Assignment for Unit 7-5, 010 '
O '
' * F,_AT

Assemblies in Section J~t-4__y

5. On an A3- or B-size sheet, make a one-
view section assembly drawing of one of -—I 1
1
— 38 -
the problems shown in Fig. 7-5-A or
7-5-B. Include on your drawing a bill of
materials and identify the parts on the
assembly. Assuming that this drawing DRAWING SETUP
— 38
~-

T; ._.
SfrW
—(12
R?r
I 1../
itir
1— ^
t — *— — 1
(-17-

* _"

will be used in a catalog, place on the

drawing the dimensions and informa-
:l+Tl|!-4-
tion required by the potential buyer.
L -r- 1
Scale is 1:1 or full.

-07
011 X 82° CSK
Fig. 7-2-B Housing. 2 HOLES

MATL- MALLEABLE IRON

ROUNDS AND Fl LLETS R 12

KEYSEAT FOR
SQ KEY AND
INTERCHANGEABLE
ASSEMBL

KEYSEAT FOR SQ KEY

MATL - MALLEABLE IRON

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R3
Fig. 7-3-A Double-V pulley. Fig. 7-3-B Step-V pulley.

154 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 10-24 UNC-2B HEX 2.25 ACROSS FLATS
.56DEEP 4 HOL
EQ SPACED ON

HEX 100 A/F 125 INCH NPT

MATL -CAST STEEL
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .06

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R 3 MATL - MALLEABLE IRON

Fig. 7-4-B Pipe plug.

.500-I2UNC 2B
BOTH SIDES
Fig. 7-4-A Valve body.

PT 3 - AXLE SUPPORT
MATL- MALLEABLE IRON ^j

PT I - TOP PLATE
MATL - MALLE
016

HOLES

PT 5 - BUSHING
0I 6 MATL - BRONZE

FIT BETWEEN PARTS

H8/f7 4 AND 5
H7/p6 3 AND 5
H8/f7 2 AND4

FASTEN ASSEMBLY TO A 6mm STEEL PLATE BY

FOUR M 10 X 50mm LG HEX HD BOLTS, NUTS AND
LOCK WASHERS. SHOW THE STEEL PLATE IN
PHANTOM LINES.
PT 2 -
WHEEL
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R3
MATL - MALLEABLE IRON
Fig. 7-5-A Caster.

SECTIONS AND CONVENTIONS 1 55

 PARTIAL DETAIL OF MOUNTING BRACKET
Assignment for Unit
xK Offset Sections
one
7-6,

6. Select of the problems shown in Fig.

7-6-A or 7-6-B. On a B- or A3-size sheet,
make a working drawing of the part
Scale or 1.1.
is full

PT I - LINK
MATL - MALLEABLE IRON
ROUNDS
CLEARANCE
HOLES FOR
75 X 12 HI BOLTS Assignment for Unit 7-7,
Ribs, Holes, and Lugs in Section
(4106 ILN3 FIT 7. Select one of the problems shown in Fig.
WITH BUSHINGI
— 0150 IRC 4 FIT WITH SHAFTI 7-7-A or 7-7-B. On a B- or A3-size sheet
I 88 ILN 3 FIT IN LINKI make a three-view working drawing of
the part showing the front and side
views in section. Both parts are to be
used here and abroad, so a dual dimen-
PT 3 - BUSHING
sioning system must be used. Scale is full
MATL - BRONZE
or 1:1.

01 50 IRC 4 FIT IN BUSHINGI PT 4 - SHAFT

8USHING MATL - SAE 1020 8.00 LG
MATL - BRONZE
Assignment for Unit 7-8,
- 0.750 Revolved and Removed Sections
(RC 4 FIT IN 8. Selectone of the problems shown in Fig.
- BUSHINGI
FASTEN ASSEMBLY TO THE 6 INCH STEEL MOUNTING
BRACKET SHOWN BY FOUR .375 X 1.25 LG HEX HD
7-8-A or 7-8-B and on a B- or A3-size
PT 5 - SHAFT
MATL - SAE BOLTS. NUTS AND LOCK WASHERS. SHOW THE sheet make a working drawing of the
1020 12.00 LG STEEL PLATE IN PHANTOM LINES.
part. For clarity it is recommended that
an enlarged removed view be used to
Fig. 7-5-B Connecting link. show the detail of the small hole. Scale is

full or 1:1.

LOCATION
HOLE HOLE SIZE
X Y 2
A 500-I3UNC-2B .25 .38

B 0.281 CSK 0.50X82° 2.25 134

C 10.281 CBORE05O X .25 DEEP 1.12 3.50

D| 2 : 3.50 .75

D2 0.31 3.50 1.75

E 500-I3UNC-2B X .75 DEEP 2.62 75

F| 0.50 £8 1.00

F2 0.50 1.25 1.00

F3 050 3.25 1.00

REPLACE END VIEW WITH
SECTIONS L-L, M-M, AND N-N 1=4 0.50 4.00 3.00

G 0.12 THROUGH 3.00 .75

x
-*->l -»J M
I

-*J N
v
^
.50
A R50

1
.69
F|

~J-
4 "7p
-rr-taJr Tj
1
y

1
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .12
DRAW TOP. FRONT AND 3 SECTION VIEWS
MATL - MALLEABLE IRON

±7 .25
1

Fig. 7-6-A Base plate.

156 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 —

HOLE SIZE LOCATION

HOLE
X Y Z
A| 12 16 9
A2 12 100 9
A3 12 30 92
A4 12 87 92

Bl 08 38 32
B2 08 80 32

Cl M6 X 12 DEEP 12 50
C2 M6 104 52
D 06 CBORE 12X6 DEEP 58 70

E 10X12 DEEP 58 1 1

F| 06 32 20
F2 06 70 20

X
^22 —J
XT"
— 'h -*— ' J

REPLACE END VIEW WITH

SECTIONS G-G, H-H, AND J-J. f-zTL4 ^ — |:-.Ki--J-
MATL- MALLEABLE IRON
Fig. 7-6-B Mounting plate. ROUNDS AND FILLETS R3

.250-20UNC-2B

MATL- MALLEABLE IRON

ROUNDS AND FILLETS RIO

MATL- CAST STEEL

•
0.501

I '
^ /0 .62 CORE -01.02
375, 2 HOLES
Fig. 7-8-A Idler support.
Fig. 7-7-A Bracket bearing.

.250-20 UNC-2B
2HOLES- —r ROUNDS AND FILLETS 06R

45° BOTH ENDS

MATL - MALLEABLE IRON

1 1

T ROUNDS AND FILLETS R3

MATL - MALLEABLE IRON
Fig. 7-7-B Shaft support. Fig. 7-8-B Shaft support.

SECTIONS AND CONVENTIONS 157

Assignment for Unit 7-9,
Spokes and Arms in Section
9. Selectone of the problems shown in Fig.
7-9-A or 7-9-B and on a B- or A3-size
sheet make a two-view working draw-
ing. Draw the side view in full section,
and show a revolved section of the
spoke in the front view. Scale is full or
1:1.

Assignment for Unit 7-10,

Partial or Broken-Out Sections
1 0. Select one of the problems shown in Fig.
7- 0-A or 7- 0-B and make a two-view
1 1

working drawing on a B- or A3-size

sheet.- Use partial sections where clarity
of drawing can be achieved. Scale is full
or 1:1.

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R.I2

MATL - MALLEABLE IRON V ^0 500
\ 5 HOLES

5GROOVES FOR N5000-5I

INTERNAL RETAINING RING
Fig. 7-10-A Tumble box (SEE APPENDIX)

Fig. 7-9-A Handwheel.

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R

MATL- CAST STEEL

GROOVE FOR N50OO-5I

NTERNAL RETAINING RING
(SEE APPENDIX)

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R3

MATL- MALLEABLE IRON

Fig. 7-9-B Offset handwheel. Fig. 7-10-B Hold-down bracket.

158 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 1

1.25

.06X .06 NECK

MATL - BRONZE

.750 LN 2
3.00 FlT p OR BUSHING
VIEW A-A

HOUSING
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R.IO
Fig. 7-1 1-A Drill-Jig assembly. MATL- MALLEABLE IRON

20

Assignment for Unit 7-11,

Phantom or Hidden Sections
11. On an A3- or B-size sheet, make a two- MATL- BRONZE
view assembly drawing of one of the BUSHING
assemblies shown in Fig. 7-1 1-A or
7- -B. The front view is to be drawn as
1 1

a phantom section drawing. Scale is 1 :

or full. Show only the bushing hole sizes

and their locations on the drawing.

MATL- MALLEABLE IRON

HOUSING

MATL- BRONZE
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R3 BUSHING
H7/s6 FIT FOR BUSHING IN HOUSING

Fig. 7-11-B Housing.

SECTIONS AND CONVENTIONS 159

Assignment for Unit 7-12,
Sectional Drawing Review
12. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a three-
view working drawing of one of the
SCALE 10
parts shown in Fig. 7-12-A or 7-12-B.
I

From the information on section draw-

ings found in Units 7-1 to 7- select 1 1 ,

appropriate sectional views which will PD33

DIAMOND KNURL
improve the clarity of the drawing. Scale
is full or 1:1.

0.031
12 HOLES EQ
SPACED ON 0.32
Assignment for Unit 7-13,
Conventional Representation of
Common Features
13. On make a work-
a B- or A3-size sheet,
ing drawing of one of the parts shown in
Fig. 7- 3-A or 7- 3-B. Wherever possi-
1 1

ble, simplify the drawing by using con-

ventional representation of features.

1.80
MATL- SAE 1050
2 HOLES Fig. 7-13-A Adjustable locking plate.
-0.53
4 HOLES

MATL - ASTM CLASS 30 GREY IRON

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R.I2
FILLETS R.50
Fig. 7-12-A Two-post column base. MATL -SAE 1040

SCALE 10

16.1
2HOLES
SYMMETRICAL
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R3 ABOUT CENTER
MATL- MALLEABLE IRON LINE 0.75 SPHERICAL

-06
RIBS8mm THICK
LOCATED ON P0.8 DIAMOND KNURL
CENTER LINES 04.5-i

Fig. 7-1.2-B Shaft support base. Fig. 7-1 3-B Clock stem.

160 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

 .12 X 45°
Assignment for Unit 7-14,
Conventional Breaks
14. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a work-
ing drawing of one of the parts shown in
Fig. 7- 4-A or 7- 4-B. Use conventional
1 1

breaks to shorten the length of the part.

An enlarged view is also recommended
where the detail cannot be clearly
shown at full scale. Scale is 1:1.

HEX 1.12 ACROSS

CORNERS Assignment for Unit 7-15,
Materials of Construction
15. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a detailed
assembly drawing of one of the assem-
blies shown in Fig. 7-15-A or 7-15-B.
FINISH -HEAT TREAT Enlarged details are recommended for
MATL- SAE 1080 the steel mesh and joints. Use conven-
tional breaks to shorten the length. Scale
is 1 .4 (inches) or 1 :5 (metric).

Fig. 7-14-A Hand chisel.

M6
4 HOLES

2X12 DEEP
GROOVE^
50
•
25 DEEP
25X 25 LG ;
7

: i
2X12 DEEP
GROOVE
ON CENTER
50-

N 12.5
25
ENLARGED EXPLODED VIEW AT "B"

PINE FRAME
r- I6USSGA
PERFORATED
\METAL

ENLARGED VIEW AT "A'

— BUTT WELD SEAM

LI. 50 X 1.50 X .25

Fig. 7-15-A Barbecue grill. Fig. 7-15-B Room divider.

SECTIONS AND CONVENTIONS 161

Assignment for Unit 7-16,
Cylindrical Intersections
16. On an A3- or B-size sheet, make a work-
ing drawing of one of the parts shown in
Fig. 7-16-A or 7-16-B. For 7-16-A a
finished surfaces are to have a 3.2-|j.m or Assignment for Unit 7-17,
equivalent For Fig. 7- 6-B an LN3
finish. 1 Foreshortened Projection
fit is required for the two large holes. 17. On an A3- or B-size sheet, make a detail
Finished surfaces are to have a 63-u.in. drawing of one of the parts shown in
finish with an .06-in. material-removal Fig. 7- 7-A or 7- 7-B. All surface finishes
1 1

bushing to be pressed (H7/s6) into the

is allowance. Use your judgment in select- are to be .6 ^m or 63 pun. Keyed holes
1

large hole and the stepped smaller hole ing the number of views required and will have H9/d9 or RC6 fits with shafts.
is to have a running fit (H8/f7) with its deciding whether some form of sectional Where required, rotate the features to
respective shaft. These sizes are to be view would be desirable to improve the show their true distances from the cen-
given as limit dimensions. All other readability of the drawing. Scale is 1:1. ters and edges. To show the true shape
of the ribs or arms, a revolved section is

recommended. Scale is 1:1.

06
3HOLES
EQ SPACED

KEYSEAT FOR
SQKEY

40
5 I—— 3 RIBS EQ SPACED
BETWEEN HOLES
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .06
MATL- CAST STEEL

Fig. 7-1 7-A Clutch. Fig. 7-1 7-B Mounting bracket.

162 BASIC DRAWING DESIGN

mA,
Assignment for Unit 7-18, have a maximum roughness of 0.8 p.m ness of 25 1 jiin. with no restrictions on
Intersections of Unfinished and a maximum waviness of 0.05 mm for waviness.
Surfaces a 25-mm length. The back surface The 8-C are to have a
slots in Fig. 7- 1

18. On an A3- or B-size sheet, make a three-

should have a maximum roughness of and a machining
surface finish of 3.2 u.m
view detail drawing of one of the prob- 3.2 ixm with no restrictions on waviness. allowance of 2 mm. The base is to have
lems shown in Figs. 7-18-A through For Fig. 7-18-B the back surface and the same surface finish but with a 3-mm
7-18-C. Scale is 1:1. Surface finish notch should have an equivalent control machining allowance.
requirements are essential for all parts. as the T slot in Fig. 7- 8-A The faces on
1

For Fig. 7- 8-A the T slot surfaces should

1
the boss should have a maximum rough-

7
0.40
0.75 X 82° CS 12 X 82° CSK
2 HOLES 2 HOLES

ROUNDS AND F
MATL- MALLEA ROUNDS AND FILLETS R3
01.12 MATL - MALLEABLE IRON
Fig. 7-18-A Cut-off stop. Fig. 7-18-B Sparker bracket.

NOTE: RIBAND WALL THICKNESS 3mm

EXCEPT WHERE OTHERWISE SHOWN.
MATL - MALLEABLE IRON
Fig. 7-18-C Pipe vise base. VIEW IN DIRECTION OF ARROW A ROUNDS AND FILLETS R2

SECTIONS AND CONVENTIONS 163

PART 2 Fasteners,
Materials,
and Forming
Processes
CHAPTER 8
Threaded
AJ Fasteners

UNIT 8-1
Thread Forms 2 1 -

Fastening devices are important in the

construction of manufactured prod-
ucts, in the machines and devices used
in manufacturing processes, and in the
construction of all types of buildings.
Fastening devices are used in the
smallest watch to the largest ocean
See Fig. 8-1-1.
liner.

There are two basic kinds of fas-

teners: permanent and removable.
Rivets and welds are permanent fas-
teners. Bolts, screws, studs, nuts,
pins, rings, and keys are removable
fasteners. As
industry progressed, fas-
tening devicesbecame standardized,
and they developed definite charac-
teristics and names. A thorough
knowledge of the design and graphic
representation of the more common
fasteners is an essential part of
drafting.
The cost of fastening, once consid-
ered only incidental, is fast becoming
recognized as a critical factor in total
product cost. "It's the in-place cost
that counts, not the fastener cost" is an
old saying of fastener design. The art
of holding down fastener cost is not
learned simply by scanning a parts cat-
alog. More subtly, it entails weighing
such factors as standardization, auto-
matic assembly, tailored fasteners,
and joint preparation. Fig. 8-1-1 Fasteners. (Industrial Fasteners Institute!

THREADED FASTENERS 165

Standardization A favorite cost-reduc-
ing method, standardization, not only
cuts the cost of parts but also reduces
paperwork and simplifies inventory
and quality control. By standardizing
on type and size, it may be possible to
reach the level of usage required to
make power tools or automatic assem-
bly feasible.
SCREW THREADS
A screw thread is a ridge of uniform
section in the form of a helix on the
external or internal surface of a cylin-
der. See Fig. 8-1-2.
The pitch of a thread P is the dis-
tance from a point on the thread form
to the corresponding point on the next
form, measured parallel to the axis.
See Fig. 8-1-3. The lead L is the dis-
tance the threaded part would move
parallel to the axis during one com-
plete rotation in relation to a fixed mat-
ing part (the distance a screw would
enter a threaded hole in one turn).

THREAD FORMS
Figure 8-1-4 shows some of the more
common thread forms in use today.
The ISO metric thread shown in Fig.
8-1-4 will eventually replace all the V-
6
4 5 7
PROFILE OF A STRAIGHT
shaped metric and inch threads. As for
-CIRCUMFERENCE I - LINEON THE EXTERNAL the other thread forms shown, the pro-
SURFACE OF A CYLINDER
Fig. 8-1-2 The helix. portions will be the same for both met-
ric- and inch-size threads.
The knuckle thread is usually rolled
ANGLE OF THREAD-
HELIX ANGLE or cast. A familiar example of this form
is seen on electric light bulbs and sock-

ets. See Fig. 8-1-5. The square and

acme forms are designed to transmit
motion or power, as on the lead screw
of a lathe. The buttress thread takes
pressure in only one direction
against the surface perpendicular to
the axis.

CREST ^-ROOT
INTERNAL THREAD EXTERNAL THREAD THREAD REPRESENTATION
Fig. 8-1-3 Screw-thread terms.
True representation of a screw thread
CREST-FLAT OR ROUNDED- is seldom provided on working draw-

ings because it would require very

-1K0..2P
L! A
f^^A
_cno
-0.12 P
laborious and accurate drawing
involving repetitious development of
the helix curve of the thread. See Figs.
8-1-3 and 8-1-6. Symbolic representa-
ISO METRIC SCREW THREAD UNIFIED NATIONAL SCREW AMERICAN NATIONAL SCREW tions of threads are now standard prac-
THREAD (INCH SIZES) THREAD (INCH SIZES) tice. There are two basic thread rep-

SHARP V WORM BUTTRESS

Fig. 8-1-4 Common thread forms and proportions. Fig. 8-1-5 Application of a knuckle thread.

166 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 NOTE: ROOT LINES AND CREST
LINES ARE NOT PARALLEL

<B) (D)

Fig. 8-1-7 Steps in drawing detailed representation of screw thread.

other side of the V's, completing the the internal square thread is drawn in

thread profile. At D, draw the root section. Note the reverse direction of
lines, which complete the pictorial rep- the lines.
resentation of the threads.
Detailed Representation of Acme Threads
Detailed Representation of Square Threads The depth of the acme thread is one-
The depth of the square thread is one- See Fig. 8-1-8E through
half the pitch.
half the pitch. In Fig. 8-1-8A, lay off H. The stages drawing acme threads
in
spaces equal to Pll along the diameter are shown at E. The pitch diameter is
Fig. 8-1-6 The helix of a square thread. and add light lines to locate the depth midway between the outside diameter
of thread. At B draw the crest lines. At and the root diameter and locates the
C draw the root lines, as shown. At D pitch line. On the pitch line, lay off

resentations used, the detailed and

simplified. /-I4.5 (DRAWN 15°)

DETAILED REPRESENTATION
Detailed Representation of Screw Threads
The detailed representation for V-
shaped threads uses the sharp-V pro-
Straight lines are used to represent
file.

the helices of the crest and root lines.

The order of drawing the screw
threads is shown in Fig. 8-1-7. The
pitch is seldom drawn to scale; gener-
ally it is approximated and drawn to
look good. Lay off the pitch P and the
half-pitch Pll, as shown in Fig. 8-1-7A.
Adjust the triangle to the slope, and
draw the crest lines (if a drafting
machine is used, set the ruling arm to
the slope of the crest line). At B draw
the V profile for one thread, top and
bottom, locating the root diameter.
Draw light construction lines for the
root diameter. At C set the ruling face
of the 30° triangle and draw one side of
the remaining V's (thread profile).
SQUARE THREADS ACME THREADS
Reverse the triangle and draw the Fig. 8-1-8 Steps in drawing detailed representation of square and acme threads.

THREADED FASTENERS 167

half-pitch spaces and draw the root would be turned in a right-hand (clock- THREADED ASSEMBLIES
lines to complete the view. The con- wise) direction. See Fig. 8-1-9. For
It is often desirable to show threaded
struction shown at F is enlarged. some special applications, such as
assembly drawings in detailed
form,
A sectional view of an internal acme turnbuckles, left-hand threads are
e.g.. inpresentation or catalog draw-
thread shown at G. Other represen-
is required. When such a thread is neces-
ings. Hidden lines are normally omit-
tationsused for internal threads are sary, the letters LH
are added after the
ted on these drawings, as they do
hidden lines and sections. These are thread designation.
nothing to add to the clarity of the
shown at H. drawing. See Fig. 8-1-11.

RIGHT- AMD LEFT-HAND SINGLE AND MULTIPLE

THREADS References and Source Material
THREADS 1. ANSI Y14.6, Screw Threads.
Most screws have single threads. It is 2. Machine Design, Materials refer-
Unless designated otherwise, threads
understood that unless the thread is
are assumed to be right-hand. A bolt ence issue, March 1981.
designated otherwise, it is a single
being threaded into a tapped hole
thread. The single thread has a single
MOTION
ridge in the form of a helix. See Fig. ASSIGNMENTS
8-1-10. The
lead of a thread is the dis- See Assignments and 1 2 for Unit 8-1 on
tance traveled parallel to the axis in page 184.
one rotation of a part in relation to a
fixed mating part (the distance a nut
Review for Assignments
would travel along the axis of a bolt Unit 12-2 Steel Specifications
with one rotation of the nut). In single
(A) RIGHT-HAND THREAD Unit 7-14 Conventional Breaks
threads, the lead equal to the pitch.
is
Unit 7-13 Conventional Representa-
A double thread has two ridges, tion of Common Features
started 180° apart, in the form of heli-
Unit 4-2 Arcs Tangent to Circles
ces; and the lead is twice the pitch. A
triple thread has three ridges, started
120° apart, in the form of helices: and
the lead is 3 times the pitch. Multiple
threads are used where fast movement UNIT 8-2
is desired with a minimum number
MOTION
of rotations, such as on threaded
Simplified
(B) LEFT-HAND THREAD mechanisms for opening and closing Representation of
Fig. 8-1-9 Right- and left-hand threads. windows.
Threads
Two types of conventions are in gen-
eral use for screw-thread representa-
HK tion. These are known as detailed (as
explained in Unit 8-1), and simplified
representations. Simplified represen-
tation should be used whenever it will
clearly portray the requirements.
IA) SINGLE THREAD Detailed representation requires more
drafting time, but is sometimes neces-
LEAD-2P— sary to avoid confusion with other par-
f-«— (A) EXTERIOR VIEW
allel lines or to more clearly portray
|

particular aspects of the threads.

SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION
B' DOUBLF THREAD
Simplified representation, as shown in
Fig. 8-2-1B shouldbe used whenever it
conveys the required information
without confusion, because it requires
the least amount of drafting effort. In
thissystem the thread crests, except in
hidden views, are represented by a
C T RIPLE THREAD thick outline and the thread roots by a
Fig. 8-1-10 Single and multiple threads. Fig. 8-1-11 Detailed threaded assembly. thin broken line. The end of the full-

168 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 ^-NOMINAL DIAMETER
EXTERNAL THREADS INTERNAL THREADS
\ r-number of threads per inch
\ \ y threadseries
.750-IOUNC-

(Al PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION 'FORMERLY KNOWN AS SEMICONVENTIONAL)

USED ON ENLARGED DETAIL AND OTHER SPECIAL APPLICATIONS

r'--
-'--- -.
(A) BASIC THREAD CALLOUT
y//y///-/f.
CLASS OF THREAD FIT-, , — DESIGNATION
// FOR EXTERNAL
.750-10 UNC-2A-, THREAD

END OF FULL THREAD

EXTERNAL THREAD
CLASS OF THREAD FIT-
(Bl SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION
USED WHENEVER IT CONVEYS THE INFORMATION WITHOUT LOSS OF CLARITY
DESIGNATION FOR
INTERNAL THREAD
Fig. 8-2-1 American National Standard Thread conventions.

INTERNAL THREAD
(B> TOLERANCE CALLOUT
625-11 UNC-2A
,80 DEEP

(A) EXTERNAL THREAD

(CI BLIND HOLE

-2.00-2 SQUARE
(B) INTERNAL THREAD Fig. 8-2-3 Simplified and detailed
Fig. 8-2-2 Former schematic thread representation of threads in assembly
conventions. drawings. 2.00

form thread is indicated by a thick line INCH THREADS

(D) MISCELLANEOUS THREAD FORMS
across the part, and imperfect or
In the United States a great number of Fig. 8-2-4 Thread specifications for inch-size
runout threads are shown beyond this
threaded assemblies are still designed threads.
line by running the root line at an angle
using inch-sized threads. In this sys-
to meet the crest line. If the length of
tem the pitch is equal to
runout threads is unimportant, this
portion of the convention may be
1

omitted.
The former schematic thread repre- Number of threads per inch

sentation is shown in Fig. 8-2-2. The number of threads per inch is

set for different diameters in what is r-CHAMFER SHOWN AT BEGINNING OF THREAD

THREADED ASSEMBLIES
Either thread convention
for assemblies of threaded parts, and
both methods may be used on the
same drawing, as shown in Fig. 8-2-3.
In sectional views, the externally
threaded part is always shown cover-
ing the internally threaded part.
called a thread series. For the Unified \ CHAMFER SIZE NEED NOT BE SHOWN
National system there is the coarse-
may be used thread series and the fine-thread
series. See Fig. 8-2-4.
In addition, there is an extra-fine-
thread series, UNEF, for use where a
-RECESS SHOWN AT END OF THREAD
small pitch is desirable, such as on RECESS SIZE NEED NOT BE SHOWN
thin-walled tubing. For special work Fig. 8-2-5 Omission of thread information
and for diameters larger than those on detail drawings.

THREADED FASTENERS 169

specified in the coarse and fine series, Coarse-Thread Series This series is r- metric designation
\ ^nominal diameter
the Unified Thread system has three intended for use in general engineering \\ pitch
y
series that provide for the same num- work and commercial applications. MI6x 1.5-

ber of threads per inch regardless of Fine-Thread Series The fine-thread

the diameter. These are the 8-thread series is for general use where a finer
series, the 12-thread series, and the 16- thread than the coarse-thread series
thread series. These are called con- is desirable. In comparison with a

stant pitch threads. coarse-thread screw, the fine-thread

screw is stronger in both tensile and
torsional strength and is less likely to
Thread Class loosen under vibration. PITCHMAY BE OMITTED
FOR COARSE THREADS
Three classes of external thread
(classes 1A, 2A, and 3A) and three Thread Grades and Classes The fit of a
classes of internal thread (classes IB, screw thread is the amount of clear-
2B, and 3B) are provided. These ance between the internal and external
amount of allow-
classes differ in the threads when they are assembled.
ances and tolerances provided in each For each of the two main thread ele-
class. ments pitch diameter and crest
The general characteristics and uses —
diameter a number of tolerance
of the various classes are as follows. grades have been established. The
number of the tolerance grades reflects (A) BASIC THREAD CALLOUT
Classes 1A and IB These classes pro-
the size of the tolerance. For example,
duce the loosest fit, that is, the greatest
grade 4 tolerances are smaller than
amount of play in assembly. They are PITCH
DIAMETER TOLERANCE POSITION"
grade 6 tolerances, and grade 8 tol-
useful for work where ease of assem- TOLERANCE | TOLERANCE GRADE 7/
erances are larger than grade 6 toler- SYMBOL
bly and disassembly is essential, such TOLERANCE
ances. CREST I
as for some ordnance work and for DIAMETER I
POSITION j //
In each case, grade 6 tolerances TOLERANCE TOLERANCE ///
stove bolts and other rough bolts and SYMBOL
)
GRADE—-,///
should be used for medium-quality \

nuts.
length-of-engagement applications. MI6x 1.5 - 5g6g-7

Classes 2A and 2B These classes are
designed for the ordinary good grade
of commercial products, such as
machine screws and fasteners, and for
most interchangeble parts.
Classes 3A and 3B These classes are
intended for exceptionally high-grade
commercial products, where a particu-
larly close or snug fit is essential and
the high cost of precision tools and
machines is warranted.
The tolerance grades below grade 6 are
intended for applications involving
fine quality and/or short lengths of
engagement. Tolerance grades above
grade 6 are intended for coarse quality
and/or long lengths of engagement.
In addition to the tolerance grade, a
positional tolerance is required. This
(B) TOLERANCE CALLOUT
tolerance defines the maximum-mate-
rial limits of the pitch and crest diam-
eters of the external and internal
threads and indicates their relationship
to the basic profile.

Thread Designation In conformance with current coating

Thread designation for inch threads, (or plating) thickness requirements
whether external or internal, is ex- and the demand for ease of assembly, a
series of tolerance positions reflecting THROUGH HOLE
pressed in this order: diameter (nom-
inal or major diameter), number of the application of varying amounts of
BLIND HOLE
threads per inch, thread form and allowance has been established as
series, and class of fit. follows: (C) INTERNAL THREAD CALLOUT

For external threads:

METRIC THREADS • Tolerance position e (large allow- -M50x 10 SQUARE
Metric threads are grouped into diame- ance)
ter-pitch combinations distinguished • Tolerance position g (small allow-
50
from one another by the pitch applied ance)
to specific diameters. See Fig. 8-2-5. • Tolerance position h (no allowance)
The pitch for metric threads is the dis-
For internal threads:
tance between corresponding points
(D) MISCELLANEOUS THREAD FORMS
on adjacent teeth. In addition to a • Tolerance position G (small allow-
coarse- and fine-pitch series, a series ance) Fig. 8-2-6 Thread specifications for metric
of constant pitches is available. • Tolerance position H (no allowance) threads.

170 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 Thread Designation A complete designation for an ISO changed. When pipe is ordered, the
ISO metric screw threads are defined metric screw thread comprises, in outside diameter and wall thickness (in
by the nominal size (basic major diam- addition to the basic designation, an inches or millimeters) are given. In
eter) and pitch, both expressed in milli- identification for the tolerance class. calling for the size of thread, the note
meters. An "M"
specifying an ISO The tolerance class designation is sep- used is similar to that for screw
! metric screw thread precedes the nom- arated from the basic designation by a threads. See Fig. 8-2-8.
i inal size, and an "x" separates the dash and includes the symbol for the
EXAMPLE 1
i nominal size from the pitch. For the pitch diameter tolerance followed
immediately by the symbol for crest
4 x 8NPT
coarse-thread series only, the pitch is
where 4 = nominal diameter of pipe,
I
not shown unless the dimension for the diameter tolerance. Each of these
in inches
length of the thread is required. In symbols consists of a numeral indicat-
= number of threads per
:

8
: specifying the length of thread, an "x" ing the grade tolerance followed by a
inch
is used to separate the length of thread letter representing the tolerance posi-
from the rest of the designations. For tion (a capital letter for internal threads
N = American Standard
P = pipe
external threads, the length of thread and a lowercase letter for external
may be given as a dimension on the threads). Where the pitch and crest
T = taper thread

drawing. diameter symbols are identical, the

References and Source Material
For example, a 10 mm diameter, 1.25 symbol need be given only once.
1. American National Standards
pitch, fine-thread series is expressed For external threads, the length of
Institute.
asM10 x 1 .25. A 10 mm diameter, 1 .5 thread is given as a dimension on the
pitch, coarse-thread series is drawing. The length given is to be the
expressed as M10; the pitch is not minimum length of full thread. For ASSIGNMENTS
shown unless the length of thread is threaded holes that go all the way See Assignments 3 through 6 for Unit
required. If the latter thread were 25 through the part, the term THRU is 8-2on page 185.
mm long and this information was re- sometimes added to the note. If no
quired on the drawing, then the thread depth is given, the hole is assumed to Review for Assignments
callout would be M10 x 1.5 x 25. go all the way through. For threaded Unit 6-4 Bills of Materials
holes that do not go all the way Unit 2-6 Phantom Line Applica-
INCH THREADS C THREADS through, the depth is given in the note, tion
I- -M5
•M6
for example, M
12 x 1.75 x 20 DEEP. Unit 7-13 Knurled Parts
312 M8 The depth given is the minimum depth Unit 6-4 Assembly Drawings
375-
.438
MI0 of full thread. Unit 9-4 Springs
500
1

-MI2
Neither the chamfer shown at the Number
i

.562 MI4 Appendix Drill Sizes

625- -MI6 beginning of a thread, nor the relief
'118
750 recess at the end of a thread where a
-M20
875- M22 small diameter meets a larger diameter
'
M24 is required to be dimensioned, as UNIT 8-3
shown in Fig. 8-2-6. A comparison of
•M30 customary and metric thread sizes is Common Threaded
shown in Fig. 8-2-7.
Fasteners
M36
'

M39 PIPE THREADS FASTENER SELECTION 1

PREFERRED SIZES- 1

The pipe universally usedis the inch- Fastener manufacturers agree that
Fig. 8-2-7 Comparison of thread sizes. sized pipe and, as such, will not be product selection must begin at the
design stage. For it is here, when a
product is still a figment of someone's
imagination, that the best interests of
IMPERFECT THREADS
the designer, production manager,
and purchasing agent can be served.
-4-8NPTOR4 NPT (NUMBER OF THREADS OMITTED! Designers, naturally, want optimum
performance; production people are

>-TAPER I 16 ON DIA
(Bl
a
CONVENTION USED FOR
STRAIGHT OR TAPERED
THREADS
(CI
^^fl

f^r, ..?

CONVENTION USED TO
SHOW DIRECTION AND
TAPER OF THREAD
interested in the ease and economics of
assembly; purchasing agents are keen
to minimize initial costs and stocking
costs.
The answer, pure and simple, is to
determine the objectives of the partic-
-•-I |—-NORMAL HAND ENGAGEMENT
ular fastening job and then consult fas-
(Al TERMINOLOGY
Fig. 8-2-8 Pipe thread terminology and conventions

THREADED FASTENERS 171

 Bolts A bolt is a threaded fastener
CD
which passes through clearance holes
in assembled parts and threads into a
OVAL UNDERCUT FILLISTER TRUSS PAN HEXAGON HEXAGON
HEAD OVAL HEAD HEAD HEAD HEAD HEAD WASHER nut. Bolts and nuts are available in a
HEAD variety of shapes and sizes. The square
(A) SCREWS and hexagon head are the two most
popular designs.
@zn Qzjbi Studs Studs are shafts threaded at both
ends, and they are used in assemblies.
HEX HEAD SQUARE HEAD One end of the stud is threaded into
(B) BOLTS
one of the parts being assembled; and
the other assembly parts, such as
washers and covers, are guided over
the studs through clearance holes and
DOUBLE-END STUD CONTINUOUS-THREAD STUD
(C) STUDS are held together by means of a nut
Fig. 8-3-1 Common threaded fasteners. which is threaded over the exposed
end of the stud.

tener suppliers. These technical For a given application, a designer

experts can often shed light on the sit-
uation and then recommend the right
item at the best in-place cost.
Machine screws are among the most
common fasteners in industry. See
Figs. 8-3-1 and 8-3-2. They are the easi-
est to install and remove. They are also
among the
least understood. To obtain
maximum machine-screw efficiency,
thorough knowledge of the properties
of both the screw and the materials to
be fastened together is required.
PAN FLAT
HEAD HEAD
(Al MACHINE SCREWS
^n
should know the load which the screw
must withstand, whether the load is
one of tension or shear, and whether
the assembly will be subject to impact
shock or that perennial nemesis, vibra-
tion. Once these factors have been
determined, then the size, strength,
head shape, and thread type can be
selected.
FASTENER DEFINITIONS
Machine Screws Machine screws have
either fine or coarse threads and are
available in a variety of heads. They
may be used in tapped holes or with
nuts.
Cap Screws A cap screw is a threaded
fastener which joins two or more parts
by passing through a clearance hole in
FILLISTER
HEAD one part and screwing into a tapped
hole in the other. A cap screw is tight-
ened or released by torquing the head.
Cap screws range in size from .25 in. (6
mm) in diameter and are available in
five basic types of head.
Explanatory Data
A bolt is designed for assembly with a
nut. A screw has features in its design
which make it capable of being used in
a tapped or other preformed hole in the
work. Because of basic design, it is
possible to use certain types of screws
in combination with a nut. Any exter-
nally threaded fastener which has a
majority of the design characteristics
that assist its proper use in a tapped or
other preformed hole is a screw,
regardless of how it is used in its ser-
vice application.
THE CHANGE TO METRIC
FASTENERS
In the United States, the Industrial
Fasteners Institute (IFI) has under-
taken a major compilation of standards
in its 296-page volume Metric Fastener
Standards. It covers more than 30 met-
ric fastener standards which have been
developed by the IFI over the past few
years.

Captive Screws Captive screws are

those that remain attached to the panel FASTENER CONFIGURATION
or parent material even when disen-
(B) CAP SCREWS
gaged from the mating part. They are Head Styles
used to meet military requirements, to Which of the various head configura-
tions to specifydepends on the type of
rrm prevent screws from being lost, to
speed assembly and disassembly oper-
driving equipment used (screwdriver,

~ ations, and to prevent damage from

socket wrench, etc.), the type of joint
load, and the external appearance
loose screws falling into moving parts
desired. The head styles shown in Fig.
or electrical circuits.
4gP Tapping Screws Tapping screws cut or
8-3-3 can be used for both bolts and
screws but are most commonly identi-
(C) BOLTS form a mating thread when driven into fied with the fastener category called
Fig. 8-3-2 Fastener application. preformed holes. machine screw or cap screw.

172 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AMD FORMING PROCESSES

 Drive Configurations
<e Figure 8-3-4 shows sixteen different
driving designs.
HEX CAP SLOTTED PHILLIPS" CLUTCH
TYPE A
Shoulders and Necks
The shoulder of a fastener is the
® m m
TORQ-SET' TRIPLE MULTI- CLUTCH
enlarged portion of the body of a
threaded fastener or the shank of an
unthreaded fastener. See Fig. 8-3-5.
SQUARE SPLINE TYPE G
Point Styles
y-
1 r)
TRI-WING"
mTORX
=
(§)
SCRULOX"
o
SLAB
The point of a fastener is the configura-
tion of the end of the shank of a headed
fastener, or each end of a headless fas-
HEAD tener. Standard point styles are shown
in Fig. 8-3-6.

m (+
REED &
Cup Most widely used when the cut-
ting-in action of point is not objec-
tionable.
POZIDRIV" PRINCE SQUARE HEXAGON
(FREARSON)
Fig. 8-3-4
Flat Used when frequent resetting of a
Drive configurations.
part required. Particularly suited for
is

use against hardened steel shafts. This

WASHER (FLANGED) OVAL
the head, and protects the material point is preferred where walls are thin
finish during assembly. or the threaded member is a soft
material.
Oval Characteristics of this head type

FLAT
1 fp FILLISTER
are similar to those of the

Flat
flat head but
it is sometimes preferred because of its

neat appearance.

Available with various head

and
angles, this fastener centers well
Cone Used for permanent location of
parts. Usually spotted in a hole to half
its

Oval
is
length.

Used when frequent adjustment

necessary or for seating against
provides a flush surface. angular surfaces.

The deep slot and small head

Fillister HalfDog Normally applied where per-
allow a high torque to be applied dur- manent location of one part in relation
ing assembly. to another is desired. It is spotted in a
shaft hole.
Truss Thishead covers a large area. It
isused where extra holding power is
TRUSS 12-POINT required, holes are oversize, or the PROPERTY CLASSES OF
Fig. 8-3-3 Common head material is soft.
FASTENERS
styles.

12-Point This twelve-sided head is nor-

Hex and Square The hex head is the
most commonly used head style. The
hex head design offers greater
strength, ease of torque input, and area
than the square head.
mally used on aircraft-grade fasteners. Inch Fasteners
Multiple sides allow for a very sure The strength of customary fasteners for
grip and high torque during assembly. most common uses is determined by
the size of the fastener and the material

Pan This head combines the qualities

of the truss, binding, and round head
types.
OVAL SHOULDER ROUND SHOULDER
Binding This type of head is commonly
used in electrical connections be-
cause its undercut prevents fraying of
stranded wire.

Washer (flanged) This configuration

eliminates the need for a separate SQUARE (CARRIAGE)
assembly step when a washer is re- NECK OVAL HALF DOG

quired, increases the bearing areas of Fig. 8-3-5 Shoulders and necks. Fig. 8-3-6 Point styles.

THREADED FASTENERS 173

 HEAD
DESIGNATION
GRADE grade s
CD
GRADE 3
3
GRADE S GRADE 8

MINIMUM 0-NO
TENSILE REQUIRE-
STRENGTH MENTS M
KIPS 1-55 110 120 133 150
2-69 100 115
64 105 SQUARE
55

Fig. 8-3-7 Mechanical requirements for inch-size threaded fasteners.

COUNTERSUNK

from which it is made. Property percent of 1040 is 10.4. The first two
classes are defined by the Society of numerals of the three-digit symbol are
Automotive Engineers (SAE), or the 10. The minimum yield strength of 940 FLANGED
American Society for Testing and MPa is equal to approximately 90 per-
Materials (ASTM). cent of the minimum tensile strength of
Figure 8-3-7 lists the mechanical 1040 MPa. One-tenth of 90 percent is 9.
requirements of inch-sized fasteners The last digit of the property class is 9.
and their identification patterns. Machine screws are normally avail- 12 - POINT FLANGED
able only in classes 4.8 and 9.8; other
Metric Fasteners bolts, screws, and studs are available
For mechanical and material require- in allclasses within the specified prod-
ments, metric fasteners are classified uct size limitations given in Fig. 8-3-7.
under a number of property classes. For guidance purposes only, to PAN
Bolts, screws, and studs have seven property
assist designers in selecting a
property classes of steel suitable for class, the following information may
general engineering applications. The be used.
property classes are designated by
numbers where increasing numbers • Class 4.6 is approximately equiv-
CARRIAGE
generally represent increasing tensile
alent to grade 1 and ASTM
SAE
strengths. The designation symbol A 307, grade A.
consists of two parts: the first numeral
• Class 5.8 is approximately equiv-
of a two-digit symbol or the first two alent to SAE grade 2.

numerals of a three-digit symbol • Class 8.8 approximately equiv-

is

approximates one-hundredth of the alent to SAE grade 5 and ASTM

minimum tensile strength in megapas-
A 449.

cals;and the last numeral approxi- • Class 9.8 has properties approx-
mates one-tenth of the ratio expressed imately 9 percent stronger than SAE
as a percentage of minimum yield grade 5 and A 449. ASTM TRACK
• Class 10.9 is approximately equiv-
strength and minimum tensile
strength. alent to SAE grade 8 and ASTM
A
354 grade BD.
EXAMPLE 1 A
property class 4.8 fas-
tener (see Fig. 8-3-8) has a minimum
tensile strength of 420 MPa and a mini-
mum yield strength of 340 MPa. One
MINIMUM MINIMUM
percent of 420 is 4.2. The first digit is 4. PROPERTY NOMINAL TENSILE YEILD
The minimum CLASS DIAMETER STRENGTH STRENGTH
yield strength of 340
MPa is equal to approximately 80 per- <£. MPa MPa
PLOW
cent of the minimum tensile strength of 4.6 M5THRU M36 400 240
420 MPa. One-tenth of 80 percent is 8.
4.8 Ml. 6 THRU M16 420 340
5.8 M5THRU M24 520 420
The last digit of the property class is 8. 8.8 M16THRU M36 830 660
9.8 M1.6 THRU M16 900 720
EXAMPLE 2 A property class 10.9 fas- 10.9 M5THRU M36 1040 940 ELEVATOR
tener (see Fig. 8-3-8) has a minimum 12.9 M1.6THRU M36 1220 1100

tensile strength of 1040 MPa and a min-

Fig. 8-3-8 Mechanical requirements for
imum yield strength of 940 MPa. One metric bolts, screws, and studs. Fig. 8-3-9 Common bolts.

174 FASTENERS. MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

BOLT STYLES PROPERTY
IDENTIFICATION SYMBOL studs with an interference fit thread
CLASS BOLTS, SCREWS STUDS SMALLER the markings are located at the nut
The more common types of bolt styles AND STUDS THAN MI2 end. Studs smaller than .50 in. or M12
are shown in Fig. 8-3-9. A brief expla- use different identification symbols.
4.6 4.6
nation of their uses follows. 4.8 4.8 -
5.8 5.8 -
Hex The most commonly used of the
standard fasteners. The hex head
8.8 (1) 8.8 o Nuts
9.8 (I) 9.8 4-
design offers greater strength and ease The customary terms regular and thick
10.9 (1) 10.9
of torque input than the square head. for describing nut thicknesses have
12.9 12.9 A been replaced by the terms style 1 and
Square This bolt is supplied in two NOTE PRODUCTS MADE OF LOW CARBON The design of
I:
style 2 for metric nuts.
strength grades and in popular sizes. MARTENSITE STEEL SHALL BE ADDITIONALLY
IDENTIFIED BY UNDERLINING THE NUMERALS. style 1 and 2 steel nuts shown in Fig.
Countersunk For flush mounting of Fig. 8-3-10 Metric property class 8-3-11 is based on providing sufficient
identification symbols for bolts, screws, and nut strength to reduce the possibility of
assemblies.
studs. thread stripping. There are three prop-
Flanged This head provides a large erty classes of steel nuts available. See
bearing area; it often eliminates the screws of sizes .25 in. or M5 and larger Fig. 8-3-12.
need for a separate washer. are marked to identify their strength.

12-Point Flanged Also referred to as
air-
craft-type.
Pan Presents a smooth, attractive
external appearance. It is tightened
by torquing the mated nut. Recom-
mended by the IFI to replace the round
head.
CarriageNormally made with a round
head for an attractive external ap-
pearance has ribs or flats on the shank
;
The property class symbols for metric Hex Flanged Nuts These nuts are
fasteners are shown in Fig. 8-3-10. The intended for general use in applica-
symbol is located on the top of the bolt tions requiring a large bearing contact
head or screw. Alternatively, for hex- area, such as where the nut face is to
head products, the markings may be bear directly on the work of overslot-
indented on the side of the head. ted or oversized clearance holes or
All studs of size .25 in. or M5 and against material of relatively low com-
larger are identified by the property pressive strength, or where the condi-
class symbol. The marking is located tions might normally necessitate the
on the extreme end of the stud. For use of a flat washer under a hex nut.
The two styles of flanged hex nuts dif-
fer dimensionally in thickness only.

to prevent turning when the bolt is

The standard property classes for hex
tightened.
flanged nuts are identical to the hex
Lag A square-headed fastener with a nuts. All metric nuts are marked to

threaded conical point. Normally used identify their property class.

in wood or in concrete with an expan-

sion anchor.

Track One of the family of bolts de-

signed specifically for use with rail-
DRAWING A BOLT AND NUT
road tracks. The version shown has an Bolts and nuts are not normally drawn
elliptical neck to prevent rotation. on detaildrawings unless they are of a
special size or have been modified
Bent A threaded rod with an end
y- 1
' *-y slightly. On some assembly drawings it
formed in theshape of an eye or right may be necessary to draw the nut and
angle bend. -J- -*- -
bolt. Approximate nut and bolt sizes

Plow Usually made for flush mount- are shown in Fig. 8-3-13. Actual sizes
ing, this bolt has a square countersunk WliTTU" are found in the Appendix. Nut and

head which may also include a key to bolt templates are also available and

prevent turning. are recommended as a cost-saving

STYLE 2 device. Conventional drawing practice
Elevator This large diameter flat-head Fig. 8-3-11 Hex-nut styles. is to draw the nuts and bolt heads in the

bolt provides a nearly flush surface across-corners position in all views.

and large bearing area for use with
PROPERTY NOMINAL SUGGESTED PROPERTY
softer materials. Its square neck pre- CLASS OF MATING
CLASS NUT SIZE 80LT, SCREW OR STUD
vents rotation.
M5THRU M36 4.6. 4.8. 5.8
5
STUDS
Fastener Markings 9 M5 THRU MI6 5 8. 9.8
M20THRU M36 5 8. 8.8
Studs, as shown in Fig. 8-3-14. are still
Slotted and crossed recessed screws of
10 M6.3 THRU M36 10.9
used in large quantities to best fulfill
all and other screws and bolts of
sizes
sizes .25 in. or M4 and smaller need Metric nut selection for bolts, the needs of certain design functions
Fig. 8-3-12
not be marked. All other bolts and screws, and studs. and for overall economy.

THREADED FASTENERS 175

 size; thread information; stud length;
material, including grade identifica-

p tion; and finish (plating or coating) if

(A) CAP SCREW

5 required.

EXAMPLE
TYPE 2 DOUBLE-END STUD.
.500—13 UNC— 2A x 4.00,
CADMIUM PLATED
Continuous-Thread Studs To avoid pos-
sible misunderstanding in specifying
continuous-thread studs, it is recom-
Q7 IB) HEX BOLT
mended that they be designated in the
following sequence: Product name,
nominal size, thread information, stud
length, material and finish (plating or
coating) if required.

EXAMPLE
TYPE 3 CONTINUOUS THREAD
STUD. M24 x 3 x 200, STEEL CLASS
8.8, ZINC PHOSPHATE AND OIL

(C) 12 SPLINE FLANGE SCREW WASHERS

Washers are one of the most common
forms of hardware and perform many
—J I.05D -«— — \
varied functions in mechanically fas-
tened assemblies. They may only be
required to span an oversize clearance
hole, to give better bearing for nuts or
i
1
1
I

screw faces, or to distribute loads over

a greater area. Often, they serve as
locking devices for threaded fasteners.
(Dl HEX NUTS They are also used to maintain a
Fig. 8-3-13 Approximate head proportions for hex-head cap screws, bolts, and nuts. spring-resistance pressure, to guard
surfaces against marring, and to pro-
vide a seal.

Classification of Washers
diameter of the thread and a minimum Washers are commonly the elements
body diameter equal to the rolled which are added to screw systems to
thread blank size. keep them tight, but not all washers
(A) DOUBLE END are locking types. Many washers serve
Type 3: Finished, Full Body These studs other functions, such as calibrated and
have a maximum body diameter equal uncalibrated load distribution, surface
to basic major diameter of the thread protection, insulation, sealing, electri-
and a minimum body diameter equal to cal connection, and spring-tension
(B) CONTINUOUS THREAD the specified minimum major diameter take-up devices.
Fig. 8-3-14
of the thread.
Studs.
FlatWashers Plain, or flat, washers are
Type 4: Finished, Close Body These used primarily to provide a bearing
studs have body diameter tolerances surface for a nut or a screw head, to
Stud Standards as specified by the purchaser.
There are four basic types of studs. cover large clearance holes and to dis-.

tribute fastener loads over a larger

Type 1: Unfinished These studs have an

unfinished body with no specific body

Designation area —
particularly on soft materials
such as aluminum or wood. See Fig.
Double-End Studs To avoid possible
tolerances. 8-3-15.
misunderstanding in specifying dou-
Type 2: Finished, Full or Undersize ble-end studs, it is recommended that Conical Washers These washers are
Body These studs have a maximum they be designated in the following used with screws to effectively add
body diameter equal to the basic major sequent Type and name; nominal spring take-up to the screw elongation.

1 76 FASTENERS. MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 *.*.(> Many plain, cone, or tooth washers
EXTERNAL TYPE are available with special mastic seal-
/ > ing compounds firmly attached to the
washer. These washers are used for
sealing and vibration isolation in high-
INTERNAL TYPE production industries.
(C)
RAMP CONICAL
Fig. 8-3-15 Flat and conical washers. Terms Related to Threaded
HEAVY DUTY
INTERNAL TYPE Fasteners
The tap drill size for a threaded
(tapped) hole a diameter equal to the
is

minor diameter of the thread. The

COUNTERSUNK TYPE clearance drill size, which permits the
free passage of a bolt, is a diameter
slightly greater than the major diame-
ter of the bolt. See Fig. 8-3-19. A coun-

(A)

Fig. 8-3-16
PLAIN (B)

Helical spring washers.

NONLINK POSITIVE
EXTERNAL-INTERNAL
TYPE

# terbored hole is a circular, flat-bot-

tomed recess that permits the head of a
bolt or cap screw to rest below the
surface of the part. A countersunk hole
is an angular-sided recess that accom-

DOME TYPE modates the shape of a flat-head cap

screw or machine screw or an oval-
They are usually made of hardened head machine screw. Spot-facing is a
spring steel. machine operation that provides a
Belleville is a term commonly, but smooth, flat surface where a bolt head
incorrectly, applied to coned (conical) or a nut will rest.
washers. Cone washers do not have
DISHED TYPE
any auxiliary locking features other
than friction, and in the flattened posi-
tion, they are the equivalent of any flat
SPECIFYING FASTENERS
washer as far as locking action is In order for the purchasing department
concerned. to properly order the fastening device
PYRAMIDAL TYPE -"7*^ which has been selected in the design,
Helical Spring Washers These washers
the following information is required.
are made of slightly trapezoidal wire
(Note: The information listed will not
formed into a helix of one coil so that Fig. 8-3-17 Tooth lock washers.
apply to all types of fasteners):
the free height is approximately twice
the thickness of the washer section. 1. Type of fastener
See Fig. 8-3-16. 2. Thread specifications
3. Fastener length
Tooth Lock Washers Made of hardened
4. Material
carbon steel, a tooth lock washer has
5. Head style
teeth that are twisted or bent out of the
6. Type of driving recess
plane of the washer face so that sharp
7. Point type (setscrews only)
cutting edges are presented to both the
8. Property class
workpiece and the bearing face of the
9. Finish
screw head or nut. See Fig. 8-3-17.
EXAMPLES
Spring Washers There are no standard
designs for spring washers. See Fig. .375—16 UNC— 2A x 4.00
8-3-18. They are made in a great vari- HEX BOLT, ZINC PLATED
ety of sizes and shapes and are usually M10 x x
1.5 50, 9.8 12-SPLINE
selected from a manufacturer's catalog FLANGE SCREW, CADMIUM
for some specific purpose.
PLATED
Special-Purpose Washers Molded or
TYPE 2 DOUBLE-END STUD, M10
stamped nonmetallic washers are x 1.5 x 100, STEEL CLASS 9.8,
available in many materials and may CADMIUM PLATED
be used as seals, electrical insulators,
8 9
or for protection of the surface of
7 NUT, HEX, STYLE 1, .500 UNC
assembled parts. Fig. 8-3-18 Typical spring washers design. STEEL

THREADED FASTENERS 177

 BOLT CAP SCREW USED MACHINE SCREW CAPSCREW STUD
AS A BOLT UNIT 8-4
Special Fasteners

SETSCREWS
Setscrews are used as semipermanent
fasteners to hold a collar, sheave, or
(A) THREADED ASSEMBLIES
gear on a shaft against rotational or
translational forces. In contrast to
010.49 most fastening devices, the setscrew
0I6CBORE 0| M6 X X 15 DEEP is essentially a compression device.
1X6 DEEP I

Forces developed by the screw point

on tightening produce a strong clamp-
ing action that resists relative motion
between assembled parts. The basic
CLEARANCE COUNTERBORE COUNTERSINK SPOTFACE BLIND TAPPED problem in setscrew selection is to find
the best combination of setscrew form,
size, and point style that provides the
required holding power.
Setscrews can be categorized in two
ways: by their forms and by the point
style desired. See Fig. 8-4-1. Each of
AX Idi
CLEARANCE CLEARANCE TAPPED CLEARANCE the standardized setscrew forms is
available in any one of six point styles.
Conventional approach to setscrew
selection is usually based on a rule-of-
thumb procedure: The setscrew diam-
-010.49 ^-8-32UNC ^-.500-l3UNC ^-06.5
eter should be roughly equal to one-
(B) DIMENSIONING HOLES half the shaft diameter. This rule of
thumb often gives satisfactory results,
but its range of usefulness is limited.
TYPE CONTINUOUS
2
MIO X 1.5X60 CAP THREAD STUD
SCREW. CLASS 8.8 FIL HD- M6X I X60, CLASS 8.!
Setscrews and Keyseats When a set-
screw is combination with a
used in
.375 -I6UNCX 4.00 8-32UNCX 1.00
HEX BOLT, ZINC PLATED F H M S-
key, the screw diameter should be
equal to the width of the key. In this
combination the setscrew is locating
the parts in an axial direction only. The
torsional load on the parts is carried by
the key.
The key should be tight-fitting, so

.500 HELICAL SPRING that no motion transmitted to the

is
PLAIN LOCKWASHER STYLE
screw. Under high reversing or alter-
I

NUT, HEX STYLE I

WASHER FACE
.375 - I6UNC M6X I, CLASS 9
nating loads, a poorly fitted key will
(C) DESCRIPTION OF FASTENERS cause the screw to back out and lose its
Fig. 8-3-19 Specifying threaded fasteners and holes.
clamping force.

KEEPING FASTENERS TIGHT

MACH SCREW, PHILLIPS ROUND ASSIGNMENTS
HD, 8—32 UNC x 1.00 LG, BRASS Fasteners are inexpensive, but the
See Assignments 7 and 8 for Unit 8-3 cost of installing them can be substan-
WASHER, FLAT 8.4 ID x 17 OD x G n page 186 tial. Probably the simplest way to cut
2 THK, STEEL LOCKWASHER. assembly costs is to make sure that,
once installed, fasteners stay tight.
References and Source Material The American National Standards
1. Machine Design, Fastening and Institute has identified three basic
joining reference issue,Nov. 1981. Review for Assignments locking methods: free-spinning, pre-
2. "Fastening Technology '77," Unit 7-1 Full Sections vailing-torque, and chemical locking.
Design Engineering and Staff of Unit 4-3 Drawing a Hexagon Each has its own advantages and dis-
Stelco's "Fastener Facts." Appendix Nut and Bolt Sizes advantages. See Fig. 8-4-2.

1 78 FASTENERS. MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 STANDARD POINTS locking feature are engaged. Locking
action is maintained until the nut is
CUP
Most generally used- Suitable for quick and semi- removed. Prevailing-torque locknuts
permanent location of parts on soft shafts, where
cutting in of edges of cup shape on
are classified by basic design prin-
shaft is not
objectionable. TOOTHED WASHER ciples:
SINGLE-THREAD
FLAT LOCKNUT GRIP SCREW 1. Thread deflection causes friction
Used where frequent resetting is required, on hard
to develop when the threads are
and where minimum damage to shafts
steel shafts,

is necessary. Flat is usuaily ground on shaft for mated; thus the nut resists loos-
UJ better contact.
ening.
CONICAL PREASSEMBLED 2. The out-of-round top portion of the
rh For setting machine parts permanently on shaft,
SERRATED TOOTH WASHER AND SCREW
tapped nut grips the bolt threads

w which should be spotted to receive cone point. Also

used as a pivot or hanger.

SPHERICAL
(A) FREE-SPINNING
3.
and resists rotation.
The slotted section of locknut is
pressed inward to provide a spring

rh 1
Should be used against shafts spotted, splined or
grooved to receive it. Sometimes substituted for 4.
frictional grip on the bolt.
Inserts, either nonmetallic or of soft
i
'

cup point.
metal, are plastically deformed by
the bolt threads to produce a fric-
HALF DOG NONMETALLIC PLUG
For permanent location of machine parts, although
NYLON PLUG FOR tional interference fit.
WEDGING ACTION GRIPS BOLT THREADS
cone point
Point should
is usually
fit
preferred for this purpose.
closely to dia. of drilled hole in
5. A soring wire or pin engages the
shaft. Sometimes used in place of a dowel pin. bolt threads to produce a wedging
or ratchet-locking action.
STANDARD HEADS
HEXAGON SOCKET
Standard size range No. to 1.0 in. (2 to 24mm) Free-Spinning Locknuts
threaded entire length of screw in .06 in. (2mm) STRIP INSERT THREAD DEFORMATION
increments from .25 to .62 in. (6 to 16mm) ,12 in ,
Free-spinning locknuts are free to spin
(3mm) increments from .62 to 1.0 in, (16 to 24mn
Coarse or fine thread series. on the bolt until seated. Additional
(B) PREVAILING TORQUE
tightening locks the nuts.
Fig. 8-4-2 Typical setscrew installation
SLOTTED Free-spinning locknuts are often
locking fasteners.
CD Standard size range: No. 5 to .75 in. (3 to 20mm)
threaded entire length of screw. Coarse or fine
specified when long travel of nut on
thread series. bolt is unavoidable. Since most free-
and bolt. Metallic types usually have
spinning locknuts depend on clamping
deformed threads or contoured thread
force for their locking action, they are
FLUTED SOCKET profiles that jam the threads on assem-
usually not recommended for joints
bly. Nonmetallic types make use of
that might relax through plastic defor-
Same as hexagon socket. No. and (2 to 3mm}
nylon or polyester insert elements that
have four flutes. All others have six flutes.
I

produce interference fits on assembly. mation or for fastening materials that

might crack or crumble.
A_^*33i Chemical locking is achieved by
SQUARE HEAD coating the fastener with an adhesive.
Standard size range: No. 10 to 1.50 in. (5 to 36n
Entire body threaded. Coarse or fine-thread
series. Sizes .25 in.
is

(6mm) and larger are Other Locknut Types

normally available
Fig. 8-4-1 Setscrews.
Free-spinning devices include
toothed and spring lockwashers and
screws and bolts with washerlike
heads. With these arrangements, the
fasteners spin free in the clamping
direction,which makes them easy to
assemble, and the break-loose torque
is greater than the seating torque.
However, once break-loose torque is
exceeded, free-spinning washers have
no prevailing torque to prevent further
loosening.
Prevailing-torque methods
use of increased friction between nut
in coarse threads only.
LOCKNUTS
A locknut is a nut with special internal
means for gripping a threaded fastener
or connected material to prevent rota-
tion in use. Generally it has the dimen-
sions, mechanical requirements, and
other specifications of a standard nut,
but with a locking feature added.
Locknuts are divided into two gen-
eral classifications: prevailing-torque
and free-spinning types. These are
shown in Fig. 8-4-3.
Prevailing-Torque Locknuts
Prevailing-torque locknuts spin freely
for a few turns, and then must be
wrenched to final position.
make imum holding and locking power is
reached as soon as the threads and the
Jam nuts are thin nuts used under full-
sized nuts to develop locking action.
The large nut has sufficient strength to
elasticallydeform the lead threads of
the bolt and jam nut. Thus, a consider-
able resistance against loosening is
built up. The use of jam nuts is de-
creasing; a one-piece, prevailing-
torque locknut usually is used instead
at a savings in assembled cost.
The jam nut is considered ideal for
assemblies where long travel of nut on
bolt under load is necessary to bring
mating parts into position.
Slotted and castle nuts have slots
which receive a cotter pin that passes
through a drilled hole in the bolt and
The max- thus serves as the locking member.
These nuts are essentially free-spin-
ning nuts with the locking feature

THREADED FASTENERS 179


Nonmetallic collar clamped
nut produces locking action.
this
added after the preload condition is
developed. Castle nuts differ from
slotted nuts in that they have a circular
crown of a reduced diameter.
Single-thread engaging locknuts are
spring steel fasteners which may be
speedily applied. Locking action is
Threaded elliptical spring-steel insert grip*
in the top of provided by the grip of the thread-
the bolt and prevents turning.
engaging prongs and the reaction of the

of this prevailing-torque Three sectors of tapered cone, preformed

Slotted section
deflected inwardly, are elastically returned to circu-
nut forms beams which are
form when the nut is applied.
inward and grip the bolt.

(A) PREVAILING TORQUE LOCKNUTS

Use of locknut on a

U«!SSa#=Jc><^
n For holding a motor
spring clamp.

mounting securely in
Deformed bearing surface. Teeth on the
position.
bearing surface "bite" into work to provide
a ratchet locking action. Nylon insert flows around the bolt rather
than being cut by the bolt threads to pro-
vide locking action and an effective seal.

Use of locknut on a
laT
bolted connection For an extruded part
that requires pre- assembly.

&V-V-M* determined play.

Jam nut, applied under a large Nut with a captive-toothed washer. When
regular nut, is elastically deformed lightened, the captive washer provides the
against bolt threads when the large locking means with spring action between
nut is tightened. the nut and working surface.

(B) FREE-SPINNING LOCKNUTS

Use of locknut for For rubber-insulated

tubular fastening. and cushion mount-
ings where the nut
must remain station-

ary.

(THE
Single-thread locknut,which is speedily
Slotted nut uses a cotter pin through a
applied, lock by grip of arched prongs
hole in the bolt for locking action.
when bolt or screw is tightened.

Useof locknut where

For spring-mounted
assembly is subjected
connections where
(C) OTHER TYPES to vibratory or cyclic
the nut must remain
motions that could
stationary or is sub-
adjustment. cause loosening.
ject to
Fig. 8-4-3 Locknuts.
Fig. 8-4-4 Typical locknut applications.

180 FASTENERS. MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

arched base. Their use is limited to 3. Clinch nuts: They are specially metal provides a ramp that the screw
nonstructural assemblies and usually designed nuts with pilot collars climbs as it turns. Another type of
to screw sizes below 6 in diameter. mm which are clinched or staked into impression has the thread-engaging
See Fig. 8-4-4 for typical uses of the parent part through a precut elements spirally formed to match
locknuts. hole. the pitch of the screw threads (Fig.
4. Self-piercing nuts: A form of clinch 8-4-6C).
nut that cuts its own hole.
CAPTIVE OR SELF-RETAINING
NUTS INSERTS
SINGLE-THREAD ENGAGING
Self-retained or captive nuts provide a Inserts are a special form of nut
NUTS designed to serve the function of a
permanent, strong, multiple-thread
fastener in many
types of thin mate- Single-thread engaging nuts are tapped hole in blind or through-hole
rials. See Fig. They are espe-
8-4-5. formed by stamping a thread-engaging locations. See Fig. 8-4-7. They are
cially good where there are blind loca- impression in a flat piece of metal. The sometimes referred to as solid bush-
tions, and they can generally be stamped impression can take a number ings. Another basic type of screw-
attached without damaging finishes. of shapes; for example, shear-formed thread insert consists of precision-
Methods of attaching these types of helical prongs engage and lock on the formed wire, spirally coiled to provide
nuts vary and tools required for assem- screw-thread root diameter (Fig. threads of proper form for installation
bly are generally uncomplicated and 8-4-6A), or a protruding truncated in a tapped hole. This is known as a

inexpensive. In this section, the self- cone (Fig. 8-4-6B) stamped into the wire insert.
retained nuts are grouped according to
four means of attachment:

1. Plate or anchor nuts: These nuts

have mounting lugs which can be
riveted, welded, or screwed to the
part.
2, Caged nuts: A spring-steel cage
retains a standard nut. The cage
snaps into a hole or clips over an
edge to hold the nut in position.

4r

(A) PLATE NUT (B) CAGED NUT

PILOT HOLE

CTr WORKPIECE

PILOT COLLAR!

31 COMPLETED CLINCH

(C) CLINCH NUT

(I) UNIVERSAL PIERCE NUT

(2) HIGH-STRESS PIERCE NUT

(31 PIERCE NUT WITH CORNERS CLINCHED

(D) PIERCE NUTS (C) SPIRAL-FORMED THREAD IFI SANDWICH PANEL INSERT

Fig. 8-4-5 Captive or self-retaining nuts. Fig. 8-4-6 Single-thread engaging nuts. Fig. 8-4-7 Inserts.

THREADED FASTENERS 181

SEALING FASTENERS Two types of sealed-joint construc- References and Source Material
tions are possible with fasteners. See 1. Machine Design, Fastening and
Fasteners hold two or more parts Fig. 8-4-8. In one approach, the fas- joining reference issue, Nov. 1981.
together, but they can perform other teners enter the sealed medium and are
functions as well. One important auxil- separately sealed.
iar\ function is that of sealing gases
ASSIGNMENTS
The second approach uses a sepa-
and liquids against leakage. rate sealing element which is held in See Assignments 9 and 10 for Unit 8-4
place by the clamping forces produced on page 186.
by conventional fasteners, such as
rivets or bolts. Review for Assignments
Unit 7-5 Shafts in Section
Unit 9-2 Pin Fasteners
(A) FASTENERS (B) SEALING ELEMENT
Sealing Fastener Types
SEPARATELY SEALED CLAMPED IN PLACE There are many methods of obtaining a
seal using sealing fasteners, as shown
Fig. 8-4-8 Types of sealed-joint
construction. in Fig. 8-4-9. UNIT 8-5
Fasteners for Light-
SEALING SCREWS
Gage Metal, Plastic,
and Wood

LEAD WASHER
TAPPING SCREWS
MASTIC SEALING LIQUID PLASTIC MOLDED BRONZE SLEEVE
COMPOUND COATING RUBBER RING Tapping screws cut or form a mating
thread when driven into drilled or
cored holes. These one-piece fasteners
*>— Sl^-v
;

:-T^---------^ permit rapid installation, since nuts are

...j
-<r~ not used and access is required from
only one side of the joint. The mating
PREASSEMBLED PREASSEMBLED METAL PREASSEMBLED O-RING O-RING WITH
NEOPRENE WASHER AND NEOPRENE WASHER NYLON WASHER TEFLON WASHER thread produced by the tapping screw
AND O-RING
fits the screw threads closely, and no
SEALING RIVETS
clearance is necessary. This close fit
usually keeps the screw tight, even
under vibrating conditions. See Fig.
<^>
V 7 8-5-1.
Tapping screws are practically all
n n case-hardened and. therefore, can be
driven tight and have a relatively high
MOLDED SOFT-ALUMINUM PLASTIC INTERFERENCE ultimate torsional strength. The
RUBBER RING WASHER JACKET FIT screws are used in steel, aluminum
SEALING NUTS (cast, extruded, rolled, or die-formed)

(^>
9 f , M
MOLDED RUBBER GASKET
OR O-RING

SEALING WASHERS

M ^

MOLDED NYLON- MOLDED RUBBER LAMINATED NYLON FLOWED-IN

SEAL RING TOROID NEOPRENE SLEEVE SEALANT
TO METAL
TYPE U TYPE 21

Fig. 8-4-9 Sealing fasteners. Fig. 8-5-1 Self-tapping screws.

182 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 HEAVY GAGE SHEET METAL AND LIGHT GAGE SHEET METAL.
STRUCTURAL STEEL. USE TYPES AB, B, BP, C.
USE TYPES B, BP, C, U, D, F, G, T.

^5:zP^ ^S^W
Holes may be dnlled or clean- Two parts may have pierced
punched. holes to nest burrs. This results Holes may be drilled or clean-punched the same size in both sheet
in a stronger joint. metal parts. For thicker sheet metal and structural steel, a clear-

ance hole should be provided in the part to be fastened. Hole size

depends on thickness of the workpiece.
Notes: I. Use hex-head on Type B and BP screws.
2. Type C screw for sheet metal only; maximum thick-
ness, .135 in. or 3.5mm.
Use a pierced hole in workpiece Extruded hole may also be used 3. With Type U screws, material should be thick enough
if clearance hole is needed in in workpiece if clearance hole to permit sufficient thread engagement— at least one
part to be fastened. is needed in fastened part. screw diameter.

PLASTICS. CASTINGS AND FORGINGS

USE TYPES B, BP, U, D, F, G, T, BF, BT. USE TYPES B, BP, U, D, F, G, T, BF
BF, BT.

Holes may be cored if it is practical to maintain close tolerances.

Screw holes may be molded or drilled. If material is brittle or fri- Otherwise blind drill holes to recommended hole size. Provide a
able, molded holes should be formed with a rounded chamfer, and clearance hole for screw in the part to be fastened. The hole in
drilled holes should be machine chamfered. Provide a clearance in the casting, if it is a blind hole, should be deeper than the screw
the part to be fastened. Depth of penetration should be held with- penetration to allow for chip clearance.
in the "minimum and maximum" limits recommended. The hole Notes: I. Hole in fastened part may be the same size as work-
should be deeper than the screw penetration to allow for chip piece hole for Type U screws.
clearance. 2. Types B, BP, BF, BT are only suitable for use in non-
ferrous castings.

Fig. 8-5-2 Tapping-screw application chart.

die castings, cast iron, forgings, plas- drilling or punching, but they must be
tics,reinforced plastics, asbestos, and driven by a power screwdriver.
resin-impregnated plywood. See Fig.
8-5-2. Special Tapping Screws
Types C, D, F, G, and T tapping Typical special tapping screws are the
screws are available in both coarse- self-captive screws and double-thread TAPPING SCREWS WITH PREASSEMBLED WASHERS. THESE
(A)
ARE AVAILABLE IN A GREAT VARIETY OF THREAD FORMS.
and fine-thread series. Coarse threads combinations for limited drive. Self- HEAD STYLES. AND WASHER CONFIGURATIONS.
should be used with weak materials. captive screws combine a coarse-
Self-drilling tapping screws, types pitched starting thread (similar to type
BSD and CSD, have special points for B) with a finer pitch (machine-screw
drilling and then tapping their own thread) farther along the screw shank.
holes. See Fig. 8-5-3. These eliminate Sealing tapping screws, with pre-
assembled washers or O-rings (Fig.
8-5-4B) can be used to control leaks, (8) TAPPING SCREWS WITH PREASSEMBLED SEALING WASHERS
OR COMPOUNDS.
squeaks, crazing of enamel, and elec-
Fig. 8-5-4 Special tapping screws.
trolysis in all types of metal structures
and assemblies.
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment II for Unit 8-5 on paee
187.
References and Source Material
Machine Design, Fastening and join- Review for Assignments
Fig. 8-5-3 Self-drilling tapping screws. ing reference issue, Nov. 1981. Unit 7-1 Sectional Drawings

THREADED FASTENERS 183

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 8

8.75-

*fe*h ^

SHARP V THREAD
-.12 X .06 NECK ^BUTTRESS THREAD PITCH = 2.5
PITCH = .25 TRIPLE THREAD
-.06 X 45° CHAMFER
LEFT HAND
MATL - SAE 1050 MATL - SAE I II2
DRAW TO SCALE 2
DRAW TO FULL SCALE
:

JACK SCREW
I

KNUCKLE THREAD 044 X 6 W NECK

PITCH = 125
SQUARE THREAD
.

PITCH = 12 SINGLE THREAD

1.12 01.000

DRAW TO SCALE: 2 X SIZE MATL - SAE 1006

FUSE PLUG DRAW TO SCALE I : I

Fig. 8-1-A Jack screw and fuse. Fig. 8-1-B Guide rod and plug.

Assignments for Unit 8-1, 2.00X .25 WIDE NECK -HEX 3.00 A/F
Thread Forms 2.50 - 2 SQUARE THREAD -2.50 - 2 DOUBLE ACME THREAD
1. On a B- or A3-size sheet draw the two

parts shown in Fig. 8- 1 -A or 8- 1 -B. Use

pictorial representation forthe threads.
Use conventional breaks to shorten the
lengths of tne guide rod and jack screw.
2. On a B- or A3-size sheet draw either
Figure 8- 1 -C or 8- -D showing the con-
1

nector and supports. The supports are to

be drawn in section. Scale is full or 1:1.

Fig. 8-1-C Connector and supports.

184 FASTENERS. MATERIALS. AND FORMING PROCESSES

 Assignments for Unit 8-2,
END ROD Simplified Representation of
Threads
3. On an A3- or B-size sheet, make a two-
view assembly drawing of the parallel
clamps shown in Fig. 8-2-A Use sim-
plified thread connections and include
on your drawing a bill of material calling
for all the parts. The only dimension
required on the drawing is the maximum
opening of the jaws. Identify the parts
on the assembly. Scale is 1:1.
4. On an A3- or B-size sheet make detail
drawings of the parts shown in Fig.
8-2-A. Scale is 1:1. Use your judgment
for the number of views required for

Fig. 8-1 -D Connector. each part.

5. On a B- or A3-size sheet make a one-
view assembly drawing of the turn-
buckle shown in Fig. 8-2-B. Draw the
assembly in its shortest length and show
the maximum position in phantom lines.

The only dimensions required are the

minimum and maximum distances
between the eye centers. Scale is full.
6. On a B- or A3-size sheet make detail
drawings of the parts shown in Fig.
8-2-B. Scale is full.

3I2-I8UNC-2A

.3I2-I8UNC-2B

.3I2-I8UNC-2B-LH
.312-18 UNC-2A-LH

Fig. 8-2-A Turnbuckle

PT 2 STATIONARY JAW
I REQD MATL-SAE 1020
' AS SHOWN OTHERWISE

REQD PT 6 MACHINE SCREW RD HD

MATL-SAE 1020 M3 X 10 LG - REQDI

Fig. 8-2-B Parallel clamps.

THREADED FASTENERS 185

 .375 STUD
Assignments for Unit 8-3, THREADED INTO .312 HEX
Common Threaded Fasteners .375 HEX .250 - 20 FHMS BASE WITH HEX CAP SCREW AND
7. On a B- or A3-size sheet draw the four BOLT AND THREADED INTO NUT AND PLATE LOCKWASHER ON
section shown NUT BASE WASHER A SPOTFACE SURFACE
fastener assemblies in full
-2.00- -2.00
in Fig. 8-3-A. Dimension both the clear-
ance and the threaded holes. A top view
may be drawn, if desired. Scale is full.
777ft; ~ZZ77 2 .25

8. On an A3- or B-size sheet, draw the

standard fastener assemblies
five
in full sec-
.50 I
tion shown in Fig. 8-3-B. Use simplified 1.50
thread symbols. Scale is 1:1. Dimension

both the clearance and the threaded

holes. If desired, a top view of the fas-
teners may be drawn.
X
1.00-
Fig. 8-3-A Threaded fasteners.

2
Assignments for Unit
Special Fasteners
9. On a B- or A3-size sheet
8-4,

make a one-
T~
TP TP
view assembly drawing of the flexible
CONNECTION A CONNECTION B CONNECTION C CONNECTION D
coupling shown in Fig. 8-4-A. The shafts, M 10 X 30 LG M 10X40 LG STUD MIO X30 LG MIO X 1.25 X 25 LG
which are coupled, are .50 in. in diame-
1 HEX HD CAP SCREW THREAD EACH END 20 LG FLHD CAP SCREW SOCKET HEAD CAP SCREW
HEX NUT STYLE AND AND SPRING LOCKWASHER
ter and are to be shown in the assembly.
I

SPRING LOCKWASHER
They are to extend beyond the coupling
for approximately 2.00 in. and end with
a conventional break. Show the set- r M 10X 25 LG HEX HEAD CAP SCREW AND
screws and keys in position. Scale is full.
LI00 X75X 10- / SPRING LOCKWASHER, BOTH SIDES

10. On an A3- or B-size sheet, make a one-

view assembly drawing of the adjust- M 12 X 40 LG HEX HD BOLT AND
NUT WITH SPRING LOCKWASHER- 65
able shaft support shown in Fig. 8-4-B.
-50-
Draw the base in full section. A broken-
out section is recommended to clearly
show the setscrews in the yoke. Add
1—32- 136
part numbers to the assembly drawing
200
and include a bill of material. Do not
dimension. Scale is 1:1. Fig. 8-3-B Standard fasteners.

MAXIMUM BORE A B c D E F

.9375 3.00 3.75 1.75 .88 1.50 2.38

1.1875 3.50 4.69 2.19 1.06 1.81 2.75

1.4375 4.00 5.62 2.62 1.25 2.12 3.12

1.6875 5.00 6.56 3.06 1.44 2.44 3.50

1.9375 5.50 7.50 3.50 1.50 2.50 4.00

PARALLEL
SQUARE KEYWAY 2.1875 6.00 8.44 3.94 1.81 3.06 4.38
BETWEEN SHAFTS
Fig. 8-4-A Flexible couplings DIMENSIONS SHOWN ARE IN INCHES

186 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 PT3 YOKE
PT5 BEARINGS
MATL-CI REQD MATL-BRONZE 2 REQD
I

ROUNDS AND
FILLETS R 3

M 10
3 HOLES ^<»
| PT 7 SET SCREW 20.3
MIOX 10 LG 20.0
20 HEX SOCKET 25 PRESS FIT
IN PT4
PT6 SET SCREW io' I
DOG POINT
I REQD
MIO X 30 LG 2 REQD

20SLIDE FIT
PT8 HEX HD JAM NUT FOR PT 2
M 10 2 REQD
32
CSK 06 X 90° PT2 VERTICAL SHAFT
3HOLES MATL-STEEL REQDI

SPACED AT 90°
PT4 BEARING HOUSING
MATL-STEEL REQD I

20 SLIDE FIT FOR PT 2

38

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R 3

METRIC
NOTE-DIAMETERS SHOWN
FOR SLIDE AND PRESS FITS
r0 8 SLOTS ARE NOMINAL DIMENSIONS

70

Courtesy Boston Gear Works

PT BASE
I

MATL-CI REQD
I

Fig. 8-4-B Adjustable shaft support.

Assignment for Unit 8-5,

Fasteners for Light-Gage Metal,
Plastic, and Wood
11. On a B- or A3-size sheet draw the two
assemblies shown in Fig. 8-5-A. Either
inch or metric fasteners may be used. In
each assembly indicate the hole and fas-
tener size. Scale to suit.

TAPPING SCREW ASSEMBLY

The steel post is fastened to the panel by two
rows of tapping screws. The steel strap is
held to the post by a single tapping screw
16 GA STEEL
which has the equivalent strength (body
STRAP
area) of at least three of the other tapping
screws.

WOOD FASTENERS 13 GA STEEL POST

The steel postheld to the wood furring
is

with no. 8 RHWS. For safety reasons, the

-
18GA STEEL
PANEL 12 GA STEEL POST
screw holding the steel strap must be flush
with the face of the strap. no. 10 wood A TAPPING SCREWS WOOD SCREWS
screw is required. Fig. 8-5-A Special fastener problems.

THREADED FASTENERS 187

CHAPTER 9
Miscellaneous
Types of
Fasteners

tangular with rounded ends. Two- dimensions of the key. The numbering
UNIT 9-1 thirds of this key sits in the shaft, one- system, which originated many years
Keys, Splines, and third sits in the hub.
The Woodruff key is semicircular
ago. is identified with the fractional-
inch system of measurement. The last
Serrations and fits into a semicircular keyseat in two digits of the number give the nor-
the shaft and a rectangular keyway in mal diameter in eighths of an inch, and
the hub. The width of
the key should the digits preceding the last two give
KEYS be approximately one-quarter the the nominal width in thirty-seconds of
A key is a piece of steel lying partly in a diameter of the shaft, and its diameter an inch. For example, a No. 1210
groove in the shaft and extending into should approximate the diameter of Woodruff key indicates a key i:/v> x '%
another groove in the hub. These the shaft. Half the width of the key in., or a % x VA in. key.
grooves are called keyseats and key- extends above the shaft and into the In calling up keys on a bill of mate-
ways. See boxes 6 and 8 in Fig. 9-1-1. A hub. Refer to the Appendix for exact rial, only the information shown in the
key is used to secure gears, pulleys, sizes. Woodruff keys are identified by column "Specifications" in Fig. 9-1-2
cranks, handles, and similar machine a number which gives the nominal need be given.
parts to shafts, so that the motion of
the part is transmitted to the shaft, or
I RETAINING COMPOUND JOINT 2 PRESS FIT 3 KNURLEDJOINT
the motion of the shaft to the part,
without slippage. The key may also act
in a safety capacity; its size is
gener-
ally calculated so that when overload-
c^ CtD ,

ing takes place, the key will shear or

break before the part or shaft breaks. 4 TAPERED SHAFT 5 SLIDING FIT 6 DRIVEN KEY
There are many kinds of keys. The
most common types are shown in Fig. CfclD
9-1-2. Square and flat keys are widely
used in industry. The width of the
square and flat key should be approx-
7 SPLINES 8 SLIP FIT WITH KEY 9 BRAZED JOINT
imately one-quarter the shaft diame-
ter, but for proper key selection refer
to the Appendix. These keys are also U^t
available with a 1 100 taper on their top
:

surfaces and are then known as square

taper or flat tapered keys. The key way 10 SETSCREW 12 SPLIT HUB
in the hub is tapered to accommodate
the taper on the key. C£3)
The gibhead key is the same as the
square or flat tapered key but has a
head added for easy removal.
The Pratt and Whitney key is rec- Fig. 9-1-1 Miscellaneous types of fasteners. (Design Engineering, Oct. 1968.

188 FASTENERS, MATERIALS. AND FORMING PROCESSES

 ASSEMBLY SHOWING for square and flat keys, specifying
TYPE OF KEY SPECIFICATION
KEY, SHAFTAND HUB first the width and then the depth. See
Fig. 9-1-4.
SQUARE
.25 SQUARE KEY, 1.25 LG
OR
SPLINES AMD SERRATIONS
.25 SQUARE TAPERED A splined shaft a shaft having multi-
is

M^" KEY, 1.25 LG ple grooves, or keyseats. cut around

its circumference for a portion of its

length, in order that a sliding engage-

.188 X .125 FLAT KEY, ment may be made with corresponding
1.00 LG internal grooves of a mating part.
OR
Splines are capable of carrying
.188 X .125 FLAT TAPERED
KEY, 1.00 LG heavier loads than keys, permit lateral
1
movement of a part while maintaining
positive rotation, and allow the
GIB HEAD
LA .375 SQUARE GIB-HEAD
KEY, 2.00 LG
attached part to be indexed or changed
to another angular position.
Splines have either straight-sided
teeth or curved-sided teeth. The latter
w type known as an involute spline.
i
4-

Involute Splines These splines are simi-

PRATT AND WHITNEY
lar in shape to involute gear teeth but
NO. 15 PRATT AND have pressure angles of 30, 37.5, or
WHITNEY KEY 45°. There are two types of fits, the
side jit and the major-diameter fit. See
Fig. 9-1-5.

WOODRUFF Parallel-Side Splines The most popular

are the SAE parallel-side splines, as
NO. I2I0WOODRUFF KEY shown in Fig. 9-1-6. They have been
used in many applications in the auto-
motive and machine industry.
Serrations are shallow, involute
splines with 45° pressure angles. They
Fig. 9-1-2 Common keys.
are primarily used for holding parts,
such as plastic knobs on steel shafts.
Dimensioning of Keyseats must be dimensioned on the drawing,
Drawing Data
Keyseats are dimensioned by width, for example, .50 x .25 x R.04.
It isessential that a uniform system of
depth, location, and. if required, Since standard milling cutters for drawing and specifying splines and
length. The depth is dimensioned from Woodruff keys have the same appro- serrations be used on drawings. The
the opposite side of the shaft or hole. priate number, it is possible to call for
conventional method of showing
See Fig. 9-1-3. a Woodruff keyseat by the number
Tapered Keyseats The depth of tapered only. r-CLEARANCE
keyseats in hubs, which is shown on Where it is desirable to detail Wood- -I —. ^-CONTACT
the drawing, is the nominal depth H/2 ruff keyseats on a drawing, all dimen-
minus an allowance. This is always the sions are given in the form of a note in
depth at the large end of the tapered the following order: width, depth, and CLEARANCE
keyseat and is indicated on the draw- radius of cutter.
ing by the abbreviation LE. Woodruff keyseats may alternately
The radii of fillets, when required. be dimensioned in the same manner as (A) SIDE FIT

W X H X R

ir 25 X 313 X 50 WOODRUFF KEYSEAT

—\ wf—
1.125

U
1.250
1.22

J.

'
1.247 (B) MAJOR DIAMETER FIT
Fig. 9-1-4 Alternate method of detailing a
Fig. 9-1-3 Dimensioning. woodruff keyseat. Fig. 9-1-5 Involute splines.

MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF FASTENERS 189

 J~L OR ^V ance is not critical, allow pins to
SPLINES SERRATION protrude the length of the chamfer
at each end for maximum locking
SYMBOLS USED IN CALLOUT WHEN
NECESSARY TO SHOW DIFFERENCE effect.
FROM A SCREW THREAD

f\*~30°SIDE
PITCH
FIT. PD. N Machine Pins
NUMBER Four types are generally considered to
UNDER LOAD
OF be most important: hardened and
- R
M R R
ground dowel pins and commercial
straight pins, taper pins, clevis pins,
1

and standard cotter pins. Descriptive

data and recommended assembly
Fig. 9-1-6 Sizes of SAE parallel-side splines. practices for these four traditional
types of machine pins are presented in
on a drawing shown in Fig. (A) INVOLUTE SPLINE
splines is Fig. 9-2-1. For proper size selection of
9-1-7. The drawing callout is shown in cotter pins, refer to Fig. 9-2-2.
Fig. 9-1-8. Distance L does not include _TT_ SAE STD, N = 6

the cutter runout. The drawing callout

shows the symbol indicating the type Radial Locking Pins
of spline follow ed by the type of fit, the Two basic pin forms are employed:
pitch diameter, number of teeth and solid withgrooved surfaces and hollow
pitch for involute splines, and number spring pins, which may be either slot-
of teeth and outside diameter for ted or spiral-wrapped.
straight-sided teeth.

Grooved Straight Pins

(B) STRAIGHT-SIDED TEETH Locking action of the grooved pin is
ASSIGNMENT
provided by parallel, longitudinal
See Assignment 1 for Unit 9-1 on page grooves uniformly spaced around the
Fig. 9-1-8 Drawing callout for splines.
204. pin surface. Rolled or pressed into
solid pin stock, the grooves expand the
Review for Assignment effective pin diameter. When the pin is
Unit 7-5 Assemblies in Section driven into a drilled hole correspond-

PITCH CYLINDER
UNIT 9-2 ing in size to nominal pin diameter,
elastic deformation of the raised
Pin Fasteners groove edges produces a secure force-
fit with the hole wall. Figure 9-2-3

Pin fasteners are an inexpensive and shows six of the grooved-pin construc-
effective approach to assembly where tions that have been standardized. For
-SPLINE LENGTH-)
loading is primarily in shear. They can typical grooved pin applications and
(Al EXTERNAL SPLINE
be separated into two groups: semiper- size selection, refer to Figs. 9-2-4 and
manent and quick-release. 9-2-6.

SEMIPERMANENT PINS Hollow Spring Pins

Resilience of hollow cylinder walls
Semipermanent pin fasteners require under radial compression forces is the
application of pressure or the aid of
principle of spiral-wrapped and slotted
tools for installation or removal. The tubular pins. Both pin forms are made
two basic types are machine pins and
-PITCH DIA to controlled diameters greater than
INTERNAL SPLICE radial-locking pins.
(B) the holes into which they are pressed.
The following general design rules Compressed when driven into the
apply to all types of semipermanent
hole, the pins exert spring pressure
pins:
against the hole wall along their entire
• Avoid conditions where the direc- engaged length to develop locking
tion of vibration parallels the axis of action.
the pin. Standard slotted tubular pins are
• Keep the shear plane of the pin a designed so that several sizes can be
minimum distance of 1 diameter used inside one another. In such com-
<Ci ASSEMBLY DRAWINGS from the end of the pin. binations, shear strengths of the indi-
Fig. 9-1-7 Representing splines on • In applications where engaged vidual pins are additive. For spring pin
drawings. length is at a minimum and appear- application refer to Fig. 9-2-5.

190 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 HARDENED AND GROUND TAPER PIN COTTER
CLEVIS PIN PIN
DOWEL PIN
t

'~
ID*— nil (rS '

U_2l [Q Lj

Standardized nominal d am- in Standard pins have a taper of Standard nominal diameters Sizes have been standardized in
eters ranging from .12 to .88 1 :48 measured on the diameter. for clevis pins range from .19 to nominal diameters ranging from
(3 to 22 mml. Basic dimension is the diameter 1.00 (5 to 25mm). Basic function .03 to .75 (1 to 20mm). Locking
1.Holding laminated sections of the large end. Used for light of the clevis pin is to connect device for other fasteners. Used
together with sui faces e 1 duty service in the attachment mating yoke, or fork, and eye with a castle or slotted nut on
-
n up tight oi sepaic of wheels, levers and similar members in knuckle-joint assem- bolt, screws, or studs,
it provides

some fixed lea components to Torque

shafts. blies. Held place by a small
in -aconvenient, low-cost locknul
some fixed relationship. capacity is determined on the cotter pin or other fastening assembly. Hold standard clevis
2.fastening machine paits basis of double shear, using the means, it provides a mobile pins in place. Can be used with
where accuracy of ai gnmi average diameter along the joint construction, which can be or wothout a plain washer as an
a primary consideration. tapered section in the shaft for , disconnected for adjust- artificial shoulder to lock parts
3. locking components on area calculations. ment or maintenance. in position on shafts.
shafts, in the foi m of tra
verse p.n key.

Fig. 9-2-1 Machine pins.

LONGITUDINAL
TRANSVERSE KEY KEY
SHAFT PIN TAPER PIN
NOMINAL NOMINAL COTTER END DIA DIA PIN DIA
THREAD COTTER PIN PIN CLEARANCE" in. (mm) NO.
SIZE SIZE HOLE
— rt rr in. (mm) in. (mml 3 094 2 5
138 25
250 (61 078 (. 91 500 (141 .56 (5. 125 1

078 121 094 (2 41 562 (161 133 <5i 2 56

-
133 (61 2 56
500 : 2) -

23 750 (201 250 (6) 4 56 (51

375 .221 250 (6) 4 2.9 (61
750 1201 - •
27 !
1

000 (24. 312 (81 6 250

1000 1241 .88 151 203 15 6i
I 062 '261 312 (81 6
203 (5 6. 39
I
125 (23) 375 (10. 7
l
250 1301 234 (6 31 :

1375 (361 234 (6 3.

500l (42. 250 <6l 266 16 31 48 i
(83 (301 375 ('Oi 7
55 4 1250 (321 375 "OI 7
750I (48. ;

1375 '341 - 7 375

1438 (361 .438 mi 7

•DIST \NCE FROM EX1 = E"E = ." = BOLTC P, 1500 138) 500 (121 3 43S
SCRE VV TO CENTER F COTTER PIN h (OLE

Fig. 9-2-2 Recommended cotter pin sizes. Fig. 9-2-4 Recommended groove pin size,?.

SOLID WITH GROOVED SURFACES HOLLOW SPRING PINS

DOWEL APPLICATION

«5
TYPE A TYPE A3

Full-length grooves. Used for general Full-length grooves with pilot section at
purpose fastening. one end to facilitate assembly. Expanded
dimension of this pin is held to a maxi-
mum over the full grooved length to

TYPE B
3 provide uniform locking action. It is
recommended for applications subject to
severe vibration or shock loads where
maximum locking effect is required.
SPIRAL WRAPPED
USED AS A SPACER TO PREVENT SHAFT ROTATION

Grooves extend half length of the pin.

Used as a hinge or linkage "bolt" but
also can be employed for other func-
tions in through-drilled holes where a
locking fit over only part of the pin
TYPE D COTTER PIN
KEYING PULLEY TO SHAFT
length is required.
Reverse tapered grooves extend half the
pin length.It is the counterpart of the

Type B pin for assembly in blind holes.

SLOTTED TUBULAR

Half-length groove section centered

along the pin surface. Used as a
TYPE E

TYPE U
3 ^
cotter pin or in similar functions
where an artificial shoulder or a Full-length grooves with pilot section at
locking fit over the center portion both ends for hopper feeding. Same as E IN LIGHT GAGE
of the pin is required. Type C.

Fig. 9-2-5 Spring pin application. (Drive

Lok.)
Fig. 9-2-3 Radial locking pins.

MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF FASTENERS 1 91

 Positive-Locking Pins
For some quick-release fasteners, the
locking action independent of inser-
is

tion and removal forces. As in the case

KEYING GEAR TO SHAFT
ROLLER PINS
LEVER AND SHAFT ASSEMBLY
LOCKING GEAR TO SHAFT
TYPE A3
LINKAGE PIN
ATTACHING KNOB TO SHAFT
PINNING "V" PULLEY
TO SHAFT
T HANDLE FOR VALVE
of push-pull pins, these pins are pri-
marily suited for shear-load applica-
tions. However, some degree of ten-
sion loading usually can be tolerated
without affecting the pin function.
Positive-locking pins can be divided
into three categories: heavy-duty cot-
ter pins, single-acting pins, and dou-
ble-acting pins.
Heavy-duty cotter pins employ a
forged, high-carbon-steel body to
replace the conventional split-cotter
construction. Locking action is pro-
vided by a tempered-steel snap ring
mounted on the head of the pin.
Single-acting pins have locking
action controlled by a plunger-actu-
ated locking mechanism. In normal
(locked) position, the locking element
projects beyond the surface of the pin
shank to provide a positive lock.
Either ball- or pin-type locking ele-
ments may be employed.
Double-acting pins are a modifica-
tion of single-acting types and have a
bidirectional, spring-located plunger.
Movement of the plunger in either
direction along its barrel releases the
locking balls.

TYPE E Reference and Source Material

I. Machine Design, Fastening and
Fig. 9-2-6 Grooved pin application.
joining reference issue, November
1981.

QUICK-RELEASE PINS
tO ASSIGNMENTS
Commercially available quick-release
pins vary widely in head styles, types See Assignments 2 through 5 for Unit
of locking and release mechanisms, 9-2on page 204.
and range of pin lengths. See Fig.
9-2-7.
Review forAssignment
Quick-release pins may be divided (Ai COMMON TYPES
Unit 8-3 Washers
into two basic types: push-pull and Unit 7-5 Assemblies in Section
positive-locking pins. The positive- ^
locking pins can be further divided into
three categories: heavy-duty cotter iJDRAW-BAR HITCH PIN
CLEVIS-SHACKLE PIN RIGID COUPLING PIN
UNIT 9-3
pins, single-acting pins, and double-
acting pins. Retaining Rings
Push-Pull Pins TUBING LOCKPIN ADJUSTMENT PIN SWIVEL HINGE PIN
Retaining rings, or snap rings, are
These pins are made with either a solid (Bl APPLICATIONS used to provide a removable shoulder
or a hollow shank, containing a detent
Fig. 9-2-7 Quick-release pins. to accurately locate, retain, or lock
assembly in the form of a locking lug,
components on shafts and in bores of
button, or ball backed up by some type force is applied in assembly or removal housings. See Fig. 9-3-1. They are
of resilient core, plug, or spring. The to cause it to retract against the spring easily installed and removed, and
detent member projects from the sur- action of the resilient core and release since they are usually made of spring
face of the pin body until sufficient the pin for movement. steel, retaining rings have a high shear

192 FASTENERS. MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

strength and impact capacity. In addi-
tion to fastening and positioning, a
number of rings are designed for taking
up end play caused by accumulated
tolerances or wear in the parts being
retained. In general, these devices can
be placed into three categories which
INTERNAL
describe the type and method of fabri-
(A) AXIAL AND RADIAL IB) AXIAL ASSEMBLY
cation: stamped retaining rings, wire- ASSEMBLY

formed rings, and spiral-wound retain-

ing rings.
L X^»
STAMPED RETAINING RINGS
- C-l
Stamped retaining rings,
-Jp
'
L I
wire-formed rings with their uniform
in contrast to
i_r
cross-sectional area, have a tapered EXTERNAL INTERNAL EXTERNAL

ROWED BEVELED
radial width which decreases sym-
metrically from the center section to (D) END-PLAY TAKE-UP

the free ends. The tapered construc-

tion permits the rings to remain circu-
r~
lar when they are expanded for assem-
bly over a shaft or contracted for
insertion into a bore or housing. This
constant circularity ensures maximum '
^
contact surface with the bottom of the INTERNAL EXTERNAL GRIP RING
groove. (C) SELF-LOCKING

Stamped retaining rings can be clas-

Fig. 9-3-1 Retaining ring application. (Waldes Kohinoor, Inc.
sified into three groups: axially

AXIAL ASSEMBLY RINGS

O
INTERNAL EXTERNAL
JASIC TYPES
o
INTERNAL
INVERTED RINGS
o
EXTERNAL
O
EXTERNAL
HEAVY-DUTY RINGS
o
EXTERNAL

END PLAY RINGS

INTERNAL EXTERNAL INTERNAL EXTERNAL EXTERNAL EXTERNAL

BOWED RINGS BEVELED RINGS LOCKING-PRONG RADIAL RINGS
SELF-LOCKING RINGS

CIRCULAR EXTERNAL RINGS

O O
CIRCULAR INTERNAL
RINGS
GRIP EXTERNAL RINGS TRIANGULAR RETAINER

RADIAL ASSEMBLY RINGS

n
EXTERNAL
CRESCENT RING
c
EXTERNAL
E-RINGS
c
EXTERNAL
REINFORCED E-RING
o
EXTERNAL
INTERLOCKING RING

Fig. 9-3-2 Stamped retaining rings. (Machine Design, Vol. 53 No. 26, 1981.)

MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF FASTENERS 193

assembled rings, radially assembled
rings, and self-locking rings which
do not require grooves. Ax i ally
assembled rings slip over the ends o\'
shafts or down into bores, while radi-
allyassembled rings have side open-
ings which permit the rings to be
snapped directly into grooves on a
shaft.
Commonly used types of stamped
retaining rings are illustrated and com-
pared in Fig. 9-3-2.
WIRE-FORMED RETAINING
RINGS
The wire-formed retaining ring is
split ring formed and cut from spring
w ire of uniform cross-sectional size
and shape. The wire is cold-drawn or
rolled into shape from a continuous
coil or bar. Then the gap ends are cut
into various configurations for ease of
application and removal.
Rings are available in many cross-
sectional shapes, but the most com-
monly used are the rectangular and cir-
for each cycle of operation. Examples The most common form of this type
are valve, die, and switch springs. is thesame diameter through its entire
length, and it is known as a straight
Variable- Action Springs Variable-action
spring. Tapered and cone-shaped
springs have a changing range of ac-
springs are used quite extensively, and
tion because of the variable condi-
sometimes a combination of straight
tions imposed upon them. Examples
and tapered sections works to good
are suspension, clutch, and cushion
advantage.
springs.
Compression Spring Ends Figure 9-4-3A
Static Springs Static springs exert a
shows the ends commonly used on
comparatively constant pressure or
compression springs.
tension between parts. Examples are
Plain open ends are produced by
packing or bearing pressure, anti-
straight cutoff with no reduction of
rattle, and seal springs.
helix angle. See Fig. 9-4-4. The spring
should be guided on a rod or in a hole
TYPES OF SPRINGS to operate satisfactorily.
a
Ground open ends are produced by
The type or name of a spring is deter-
parallel grinding of open-end coil
mined by characteristics such as func-
springs. Advantages of this type of end
tion,shape of material, application, or
areimproved stability and a larger
design. Figure 9-4-1 illustrates com-
number of total coils.
mon springs in use. Figure 9-4-2 desig-
nates spring nomenclature.
Compression Springs
A compression spring is an open-coil,
helical spring that offers resistance to a

cular, or round, cross sections. compressive form. It has a wide vari-

ety of uses and is made in various
forms and from different shapes of —— |-*-SIZE OF MATERIAL
SPIRAL-WOUND RETAINING wire, depending upon its application. Fig. 9-4-2
I

Spring nomenclature.
RINGS
Spiral-wound retaining rings consist
of two or more turns of rectangular <Jj DIRECTION OF
^"^FORCE ITYPI
material, wound on edge to provide a a
continuous crimped or uncrimped coil.
COIL
IAI COMPRESSION SPRINGS
Reference and Source Material firrrr
(Bl EXTENSION SPRING

1. Machine Design, Fastening and

joining reference issue, Nov. 1981.

ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 6 for Unit 9-3 on page
206.
3
Review for Assignment FLAT COIL

Unit 7-5 Assemblies in Section (C) POWER SPRING (DITORSION SPRINGS

COILSPRING
UNIT 9-4
Springs

Springs may be classified into three

general groups according to their
application.

Controlled Action Springs Controlled

action springs have a well-defined IE)
LEAF

FLATSPRINGS
©
BELLEVILLE

function, or a constant range of action Fig. 9-4-1 Types of springs.

194 FASTENERS. MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 Power Springs
I s^i7 JjjJjjjjJ ^i^7 ttt'utl/K/d

SQUARED AND GROUND ENDS SQUARED OR CLOSED PLAIN ENDS — GROUND Clock or Motor Type Aflat coil spring,
ENDS NOT GROUND
also known as a clock or motor spring,
-
consists of a strip of tempered steel
wound on an arbor and usually con-
fined in a case or drum.
MACHINE HALF LOOP
OPEN
Flat Springs
Flat springs are made of flat material
formed in such a manner as to apply
RECTANGULAR HOOK
force in the desired direction when
deflected in the opposite direction.

MACHINE CUTOFF THREADED PLUG TO FIT PLAIN END SPRING Leaf Springs A leaf spring is composed
of a series of flat springs nested
(B) END STYLES FOR EXTENSION SPRINGS together and arranged to provide
approximately uniform distribution of
stress throughout its length. Springs
may be used in multiple arrangements,
as shown in Fig. 9-4-5.

DOUBLE TORSION Belleville Springs Belleville springs are

STRAIGHT TORSION
SPECIAL ENDS STRAIGHT OFFSET washer shaped, made in the form of a
(C) END STYLES FOR TORSION SPRINGS short, truncated cone.
Fig. 9-4-3 End styles for helical springs. Belleville washers may be as-
sembled in accommodate
series to
greater deflections, in parallel to resist
greater forces, or in combination of
series and parallel, as shown in Fig.
made from round or 9-4-6.
Plain closed ends are produced with pulling force. It is

a straight cutoff and with reduction of square wire.

helix angle to obtain closed-end coils,
resulting in a more stable spring.
Ground closed ends are produced by
parallel grinding of closed-end coil
springs, resulting in maximum sta-
bility.
Extension Springs
An extension spring is a close-coiled
helical spring that offers resistance to a
OPEN-END PLAIN
r words, providing a torque, are called
Extension Spring Ends The end of an
extension spring is usually the most
highly stressed part. Thus, proper con-
sideration should be given to its
tion.The types of ends shown in Fig.
9-4-3B are most commonly used on
extension springs. Different types of
ends can be used on the same spring.
Torsion Springs
Springs exerting pressure along a path
which is a circular arc, or, in other
torsion springs, motor springs, power
springs, etc. The term torsion spring
SPRING DRAWINGS
On working drawings, a schematic
drawing of a helical spring is recom-
selec-
mended to save drafting time. See Fig.
9-4-7. As in screw-thread representa-
tion, straight lines are used in place of
the helical curves. On assembly draw-
is

usually applied to a helical spring of

round, square, or rectangular wire,
loaded by torque.
The variation in ends used is almost Fig. 9-4-5 Leaf springs — multiple
limitless, but a few of the more com- arrangements.
mon tvpes are illustrated in Fig.
9-4-3C.

Torsion Bar Springs A torsion bar spring

is a relatively straight bar anchored at
one end, on which a torque may be
LEFT-HAND exerted at the other end, thus tending
"COILS HELIX
to twist it about its axis. A torsion bar
-CLOSED-END PLAIN is sometimes favored because of its
SERIES PARALLEL

Fig. 9-4-4 high efficiency in material utilization. Fig. 9-4-6 Belleville spring installation.
Coil definitions.

MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF FASTENERS 195

 reduce assembly costs. See Fig.
9-4-10.
The spring clip is generally self-
retaining, requiring only a flange,
panel edge, or mounting hole to clip to.
Basically, spring clips are light-duty
fasteners and serve the same function
(A) PLAIN ENDS (Bl PLAIN-END Id SQUARED ENDS OR ID) CONICAL as small bolts and nuts, self-tapping
GROUND SQUARE-ENDS GROUND
screws, clamps, spot welding, and
Fig. 9-4-7 Schematic drawing of compression springs. formed retaining plates.

Dart-Type Spring Clips

ings, springs are normally shown in
section, and either cross-hatching
lines or solid black shading is recom-
mended, depending on the size of the
wire's diameter. See Fig. 9-4-8.
SPRING CLIPS
Spring clips are a relatively
of industrial fasteners. They perform
multiple functions, eliminate the han-
dling of several small parts, and thus
Dart-shaped panel retaining elements
have hips to engage within panel or
new class component holes. The top or arms of
the fastener can be formed in any
shape to perform unlimited fastening
functions.

Dimensioning Springs The following

information should be given on a draw-
ing of a spring:
FREE LENGTH
• Size, shape, and kind of material
used in the spring
• Diameter (outside or inside)
• Pitch or number of coils
• Shape of ends
• Length -TYPE OF END
• Load and rate (not covered in this DIAOF WIRE-
text)
(Al COMPRESSION (Bl EXTENSION (CI TORSIONAL

EXAMPLE Fig. 9-4-9 Dimensioning springs.

ONE HELICAL TENSION SPRING

3.00 LG (OR NUMBER OF COILS),
PITCH .25. 18 B & S GA
.50 ID.
SPRING BRASS WIRE
In using single-line representation,
the dimensions should state the
applicable size of material required to
ensure correct interpretation on such
features as inside diameter, outside
diameter, and end loops. See Fig.
9-4-9. (A) DART-TYPE SPRING CLIPS

%a®&®&^M
(B) STUD RECEIVER CLIPS (C) CABLE, WIRE AND TUBE CLIPS

:'/.'. )

(Bl SMALL SPRINGS

ID) SPRING MOLDING CLIPS (E) U-SHAPED. S SHAPED AND C-SHAPED CLIPS
Fig. 9-4-8 Showing helical springs on
assembly drawings. Fig. 9-4-10 Spring clips.

196 FASTENERS. MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

Stud Receiver Clips large, are held together by these fas- Basically, a rivet
is a ductile metal
There are three basic types of stud teners. Rivets are classified asperma- pin which
inserted through holes in
is
receivers: push-ons, tubular types, nent fastenings, as distinguished from two or more parts, and the ends are
and self-threading fasteners. All are removable fasteners, such as bolts and formed over to securely hold the parts.
designed to make attachments to screws. Another important reason for rivet-
unthreaded studs, rivets, pins, or rods ing is versatility, with respect to both
of metal or plastic. the properties of rivets as fasteners
^i^^7,
L <
^D^^CT
Z2ZZ and the method of clinching.
Cable, Wire, and Tube Clips
• Part materials: Rivets can be used to
These fasteners incorporate self-
join dissimilar materials, metallic or
retaining elements for engaging panel
nonmetallic, in various thicknesses.
holes or mounting on panel edges and
i
flanges.
• Multiple functions: Rivets can serve
Spring-clip cable, wire, and tubing as fasteners, pivot shafts, spacers,
electric contacts, stops, or inserts.
fasteners are front-mounting devices, 4! • Fastening finished parts: Rivets can
requiring no access to the back of the
panel.
be used to fasten parts that have
DOUBLE-RIVETED already received a final painting or
LAP JOINT
Spring Molding Clips other finishing.
(A) LAP JOINTS
Molding retaining clips are formed Riveted joints are neither watertight
with legs that hold the clips to a panel >C>,>C^,,,C>i,G}>
i
PBj i
"
.

12 ". —3
i r .

—uLU
i r. 'i nor airtight, although such a joint may
and arms that positively engage the be attained at some added cost by
flanges of various sizes and shapes of using a sealing compound. The riveted
trim molding and pull the molding parts cannot be disassembled for
tightly to the attaching panel. maintenance or replacement without
knocking the rivet out and clinching a
U-Shaped, S-Shaped, and new one in place for reassembly. Com-
C-Shaped Spring Clips mon riveted joints are shown in Fig.
These spring clips get their names from 9-5-1.
The fastening function is
their shapes.
SINGLE-RIVETED DOUBLE-RIVETED
accomplished by using inward com- BUTT JOINT BUTT JOINT Large Rivets
pressive spring force to secure assem- (B) BUTT JOINTS Large rivets are used in structural
bly components or provide self-reten- Fig. 9-5-1 Common riveted joints. work of buildings and bridges. Today,
tion after installation. however, high-strength bolts have
almost completely replaced rivets in
field connections because of cost,
References and Source Material
obd/j~\ strength, and the noise factor. Rivet
1. General Motors Corporation.
T joints are of two types: butt and
2. The Wallace Barnes Company *ttf XT lapped. The more common types are
Limited. -|d|-
shown in Fig. 9-5-2. In order to show
3. Machine Design, Fastening and BUTTON HIGH BUTTON CONE the difference between shop rivets
joining reference issue, Nov. 1981. HEAD HEAD HEAD
(rivets that are put in the structure at
-— i.8 d r*
the shop) and field rivets (rivets that
ASSIGNMENT 0.7 D
_L are used on the site), two types of sym-
T bols are used. In drawing shop rivets,
See Assignment 7 for Unit 9-4 on page the diameter of the rivet head is shown
206.
on the drawings. For field rivets, the
PAN FLAT-TOP ROUND-TOP
shaft diameter is used. Figure 9-5-3
HEAD COUNTERSUNK COUNTERSUNK
HEAD HEAD shows the conventional rivet symbols
Fig. 9-5-2 Approximate sizes and types of adopted by the American and Cana-
UNIT 9-5 large rivets .50 in. |12 mm) and up. dian Institutes of Steel Construction.

Rivets SHOP RIVETS FIELD RIVETS

RIVET HEAD DIA SHAFT DIA
COUNTERSUNK COUNTERSUNK FLATTENED TO 6 FLATTENED TO 10
AND CHIPPED NOT OVER 3 12 AND 16 RIVETS 20 RIVETS AND OVER COUNTERSUNK
STANDARD RIVETS P 1 "
II,,, I">
IS
to
<9
u.t/1
o9
to to mto
a popular method of fasten-
!

Riveting is

ing and joining, primarily because of

-0— -jfe-4— 4—&--4--4h-4—b-- 4h-^l—+—k—+~jh -^nT
its simplicity, dependability, and low

cost. A myriad of manufactured prod-

hNH^j-jH-ihHhNhn i i
ucts and structures, both small and Fig. 9-5-3 Conventional rivet symbols.

MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF FASTENERS 197

Small Rivets Types of Small Rivets Full Tubular This rivet has a drilled
Design of small rivet assemblies is (Fig. 9-5-4) shank with a hole depth more than 1 12
influenced b\ two major consider- percent of the mean shank diameter. It
Semitubular This is the most widely can be used to punch its own hole in
ations:
used type of small rivet. The depth of fabric, some plastic sheets, and other
the hole in the rivet, measured along soft materials, eliminating a prelimi-
1. The joint itself,strength, ap-
its
the wall, does not exceed 112 percent
nary punching or drilling operation.
pearance, and configuration mean shank diameter. The hole
of the
2. The operation, in
final riveting may be extruded (straight or tapered) The rivet body is
Bifurcated (Split)
terms of equipment capabilities and or drilled (straight), depending on the sawed or punched to produce a
production sequence. manufacturer and/or rivet size. pronged shank that punches its own
hole through fiber, wood, or plastic.
*=*
ft Compression This rivet consists of two
SEMITUBULAR FULL TUBULAR SPLIT COMPRESSION elements: the solid or blank rivet and
the deep-drilled tubular member.
FLAT TAPERED STRAIGHT
Pressed together, these form an inter-
HEAD TYPES HOLE TYPES
ference fit.

Fig. 9-5-4 Basic types of small rivets.

Design Recommendations
EQUAL (Fig. 9-5-5)

Select the Right Rivets Basic types are

covered in Fig. 9-5-4. Rivet standards
for all types but compression rivets

BEST have been published by the Tubular

HEAVY AND THIN and Split Rivet Council.
GAGE STOCK
RELOCATED RIVET
Rivet Diameters The optimum rivet
ORIGINAL RIVET
LOCATIONS diameter is determined not by perfor-
mance requirements but by econom-
STAR CLINCH
ics —
the costs of the rivet and the
RELOCATED RIVETS* labor to install it. A recommended size
RIVET SYMMETRY CANVAS BETTER for most applications is 1.4 times the
WASHER
square root of the thickness of the
£^ f-

WASHER * BEST
workpiece. On the other hand, the
required rivet shank length is fixed by
COMPRESSIBLE MATERIALS the amount of rivet material needed for
clinching and the total material thick-
ness. The rivet length-to-diameter
POO\ BEST ratio should not exceed 6:1.

TIGHT JOINTS
POOR BEST Rivet Positioning The location of the
HOLE CLEARANCE
POOR BEST
rivet in the assembled product influ-
FLANGE CLEARANCE ences both joint strength and clinching
requirements. The important dimen-
sions are edge distance and pitch
BEST distance.
POOR BEST
COUNTERBORING Edge distance is the interval be-
EDGE CLEARANCE tween the edge of the part and the cen-
ter line of the rivet.
The recommended edge distance for
plastic materials, either solid or lami-
BETTER BETTER BETTER
nated,is between 2 and 3 diameters,
.FLATS. depending on the thickness and inher-
J-FLAT J\ BETTER V WASHER
ent strength of the material.
E
CLEARANCE HOLE FOR TOOL HEAO
Pitch distance —
the interval be-
BEST BETTER -WASHER
tween center lines of adjacent rivets
BEST BEST BEST
ROD AND TUBE JOINTS CHANNEL SECTIONS
BEST
WEAK MATERIALS
— should not be too small. Unnec-
essarily high stress concentrations
Fig. 9-5-5 Design types for small rivets. in the riveted material and buckling

198 FASTENERS, MATERIALS. AND FORMING PROCESSES

at adjacent empty holes can result if
the pitch distance is less than 3 times
the diameter of the largest rivet in the
assembly (metal parts) or 5 times the
diameter (plastic parts).
Edge Distance The average recom- Spacing Rivet pitch (Fig. 9-5-7, top)
mended edge distance (Fig. 9-5-7, top) should be 3 times the diameter of the
is twice the diameter of the rivet. rivet. Depending upon the nature of
CUT AT RIVET HEAD AND GRIND

BLIND RIVETS
Blind riveting is a technique for setting
a rivet without access to the reverse
side of the joint. However, blind rivets
may also be used in applications in
which both sides of the joint are actu-
PULL-THROUGH BREAK MANDREL-CLOSED END
ally accessible.
(A) PULL-MANDREL RIVETS (D) CHEMICALLY EXPANDED RIVETS
Blind rivets are classified according
Fig. 9-5-6 Basic types of blind rivets and methods of setting. (Machine Design, Vol. 53, No. 26,
to the methods with which they are
1981.1
set: pull-mandrel, drive-pin, and
chemically expanded. See Fig. 9-5-6.
SPACING AND CLEARANCE

Design Considerations
(Fig. 9-5-7)
EDGE DISTANCE
Type of Rivet Selection depends on a
number of factors, such as speed of BEFORE AFTER
SETTING SETTING
assembly, clamping capacity, avail- w/n tm/M mill HOLE CLEARANCE
able sizes, adaptability to the assem-
~ 3D~
, ;

(A) IB)

BACKUP CLEARANCE
bly, ease of removal, cost, and struc-
i/h \
y'vjjTf/ffi'Tx

tural integrity of the joint.

Joint Design Factors that must be

known include allowable tolerances of
rivet length versus assembly thick-
CL = iRi-. r.E BLIND HOLE OR SLOTS
ness, hole clearance, joint configura-
tion, and type of loading. JOINTS
V - t.
.' r~T.
^
Speed of Installation The fastest, most 7 v~
••
it •

efficient installation is done with

power tools — air. hydraulic, or elec-
tric. Manual such as special
tools,
pliers, can be used efficiently with WEATHERPROOF JOINTS
practically no training.

In-Place Costs Blind rivets often have —z^~

lower in-place costs than solid rivets or
PIVOTED JOINTS
tapping screws because of low tooling
investment, high installation speed,
FLUSH JOINTS RUBBER. PLASTIC AND FABRIC JOINTS
and single-operator requirements.
ATTACHING
Loading A blind-rivet joint is usually in
compression or shear, both of which
the rivets can support somewhat better
than tensile loading. ATTACHING SOLID RODS

Material Thickness Some rivets can be

set in materials as thin as .02 in. (0.5
JOINING SHEET METAL
mm) if the head is properly formed and

shank expansion is carefully con- ATTACHING TUBING 5±5=

trolled during setting. If possible, how-
ever, it is best to form the blind head HONEYCOMB SECTIONS
against the thicker sheet of a combina-
tion. Also, if one component is of com-
JOINING TUBING MAKING USE OF PULL-UP
pressible material, rivets with extra-
large head diameter should be used. Fig. 9-5-7 Blind rivet design data. (Machine Design, Vol. 53. No. 26, 1981.

MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF FASTENERS 199

load, it may be desirable to decrease or reasonably rigid, present no problem tion, welded fasteners are grouped into
increase this distance. for most small rivets. However, when resistance-welded threaded fasteners
the material is very flexible or is a fab- and arc-welded studs.
Length The amount of length needed ric, set the rivet as shown at A
or B,
(Fig. 9-5-7. top) for clinching action with the upset head against the solid
depends on material
varies greatly and member. If this practice is not possi-
RESISTANCE-WELDED
being fastened, necessary strength, ble, use a back-up strip as shown at C FASTENERS
and the method of riveting. Most rivet (Fig. 9-5-7, middle). Simply defined, a resistance-welded
manufacturers provide data on grip
There are a number of
Pivoted Joints fastener is an externally or internally
ranges of their rivets to simplify selec-
ways of producing a pivoted assembly. threaded metal part designed to be
tion for the user.
Three are shown in Fig. 9-5-7, middle. fused permanently in place by stan-
Back-Up Clearance Full entry of the dard production welding equipment.
Attaching SolidRod When attaching a Two methods of resistance welding are
rivet is essential for tightly clinched
rod to other members, the usual prac- used to attach these fasteners (Fig.
joints. Sufficient back-up clearance
tice is to pass the rivet completely 9-6-1): projection welding and spot
(Fig. 9-5-7, top) must be provided to
through the rod (Fig. 9-5-7, bottom). welding.
accommodate the full length of the
unclinched rivet, A. Attaching Tubing Attaching tubing is an With either method, the fusion of the
application for which the blind rivet is fastener to the metal-part surface is the
Blind Holes or Slots A useful applica- ideally suited. result of the natural resistance of metal
tion of a blind rivet is in fastening
members in a blind hole (Fig. 9-5-7, Joining Tubing This tubing joint is a
top). At A, the formed head bears common form of blind riveting, used
against the side of the hole only. As for both structural and low-cost power
could be expected, this joint is not as transmission assemblies (Fig. 9-5-7,
strong as the other two (B and C), but bottom).
the clinching action of the rivet head
Making Use of Pull-Up By judicious
provides sufficient strength for light
positioning of rivets and parts that are
tension loads and moderate shear
to be assembled with rivets, the set-
SPOT IVELOr.G
loads.
ting force can sometimes be used to
Fig. 9-6-1 Basic methods for attaching
pull together unlike parts (Fig. 9-5-7,
Riveted Joints Riveted cleat or batten resistance-welded fasteners.
holds a butt joint, A. The simple lap bottom).
joint, B, must have sufficient material Honeycomb Sections Inserts should be
beyond the hole for strength. Exces- employed to strengthen the section
sive material beyond rivet hole C may and provide a strong joint.
curl up or vibrate or cause interference
problems, depending on the installa- References and Source Material
tion (Fig. 9-5-7, middle). I. Machine Design, Fastening and
joining reference issue, Nov. 1981.
Flush Joints Generally, flush joints are
made by countersinking one of the sec-
tions and using a rivet with a counter- ASSIGNMENT
sunk head, A.
See Assignment 8 for Unit 9-5 on page
Another popular method of provid-
206.
ing flush assembly and gaining addi-
tional bearing strength is to dimple the
Review for Assignment
sheet by forming a conical projection
Unit 7-5 Assemblies in Section
on the back of the sheets with a die, C.

Weatherproof Joints A hollow-core

rivet can be sealed by capping it, A; by
plugging it, B; or by using both a cap
and a plug, C. To obtain a true seal,
however, a gasket or mastic should be UNIT 9-6
used between the sections and perhaps
under the rivet head. An ideal solution
Welded Fasteners
is to use a closed-end rivet, D (Fig.
9-5-7, middle). The most common forms of welded
fasteners are screws and nuts. Welded
Rubber, Plastic, and Fabric Joints Some pins or unthreaded studs generally
plastics, such as reinforced molded serve as locating or bearing surfaces,
Fig. 9-6-2 Application of resistance-welded
Fiberglass, or polystyrene, which are rather than as fasteners. In this sec- fasteners. (Ohio Nut and Bolt Co.)

200 FASTENERS. MATERIALS. AND FORMING PROCESSES

 i:. 1

:^^ to a controlled current under pressure. Design Considerations

The most common forms of weld Before fasteners can be used, three
fasteners are screws and nuts. Pins are basic requirements must be met. See
also available but generally serve as Figs. 9-6-3 and 9-6-4.
a locating or bearing surface when
applied as a welded component rather
1. The materials to be joined, both
Fig. 9-6-3 Basic types of weld projection. than as a fastener. See Fig. 9-6-2.
part and fastener, must be suitable
for resistance welding.
2. The parts to be welded must be por-
table enough to be carried to the
Use Projection-Weld welder.
Fasteners When Use Spot-Weld Fasteners When 3. Production volume should be great
• Suitable projection welding equipment is • Suitable rocker-arm welding equipment is enough to justify tooling costs.
available. available.
Figure 9-6-5 shows typical resis-
• Appearance is an important consideration. Pro- • Appearance of the part surface opposite the
jection welding does not mark the surface on the weld is not critical. Spot welding leaves a slight
tance-welded fasteners.
opposite side of the weld. indentation from the electrode tips.

• Simultaneous welding of multiple fasteners Other spot welds are being performed on parts
required.
is •

of the assembly.
ARC-WELDED STUDS
• Spacing between fasteners must be kept close. • Length of production run without maintenance There are two basic stud welding pro-
• Fasteners must be welded to part sections of is not too important. Spot-welding electrode tips cesses: electric-arc and capacitor-
varying thicknesses. will mushroom to some extent in production discharge.
• Fasteners must be welded to parts of unusual welding. Shorter runs before refacing or redress-
shape or a watertight weld joint is required. ing must be expected. Electric-Arc Stud Welding The more
• Welding fixtures can be used for easier locating • Dissimilar materials, such as aluminum, copper, widely used stud welding process is a
or automatic feeding. or magnesium, are being welded. semiautomatic electric-arc process in
• Length of production run without maintenance • Shape, size, or space requirements do not permit which the heat for end welding the
is critical. use of projection welded fasteners. studs is from a motor. generator or
Fig. 9-6-4 Guide to weld fastener selection.

Spotwe d Nuts Project! >n Weld Nuts

7 M

Application Factors
Flat Surfaces
Curved Surfaces (concave)
"<?
W ^J
A
7 45> 4'>}0
Y A
A
T T Y
(ft

A
A
T
T
A Y
"$>
A Y
^A Y
Y
A

Round Surfaces (convex) y A T T T A Y Y Y A Y

Tubing A T A Y Y
Channels
Narrow Flanges
A A —— -
A Y A Y
A A ,
A Y A Y
"
Offset A Y Y
Wall Corners A Y
Blind Hole A A
Wire T A
Through Hole A A Y A A Y Y Y A A
Tension Against Weld A A » T A A Y A A
Hermetic Seal T A
Right Angle T T Y A Y
Extra Thread A A A A

Bridging A A A A
Dual Tapped A
Self Locating Pilot A a A A A A
No Hole Required in Sheet Y Y T r 1 A T A A Y A Y A
Used with Keyhole Slot Y
Pilotless A A A A

-
N
s jotwel d S<rews a nd Pins
?tl
->
y > ^\ \ , Ti
'%Jt
\
U V
Projection
V
W* Id
l\ W »
Screw i and Pins
1I \V
LEGEND A Single Tab F Button Projection J Blind-Hole Flange V Button. Right Angle

Through-Hole Spade
8 Targeted G Four-Button Projec- K S Spade
C Double Tab •ion l Tee Shape P Keyhole-Slot, Right- T Hermetic Seol
W Through-Hole Pin
Angle Spade Pin
D Dual Tapped H Pilotless M Hermetic Seol
U Button P(0|ertion.
X Blind Hole Pm
E Dual Projection I Right-Angle Bracket N Right Angle Spade Q Through-Hole Blind Hole Y Spade Pin

Fig. 9-6-5 Resistance-welded fasteners.

MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF FASTENERS 201

 IAI UNIFORM STRESS
transformer-rectifier supplying dc cur-
rent which passes through an arc from
the stud (electrode) to the plate (work).
Electric-arc stud welding is used to
IAI
ITENSILE ICI CLEAVAGE
V
best advantage when the base plate is

hea\y enough to support the full

i<0 A
strength of the welded fastener; how- |

ever, lighter-gage materials are often <BI SHEAR 'Di PEEL

arc-welded. As a general rule, to avoid Fig. 9-7-1 Basic types of stress on bonded IBl CONCENTRATED STflESS
burn-through, the plate thickness joints. (3M Co.)
Fig. 9-7-2 Stresses caused by fasteners.
should be at least one-fifth the weld
base diameter.

Capacitor-Discharge Stud Welding The

second basic stud welding process
derives its heat from an arc produced
by a rapid discharge of stored electri-
cal energy, with pressure applied dur-
ing or immediately following the elec-
trical discharge.
Design Considerations
In most instances, the thickness of the
plate for stud attachment will deter-
mine the stud welding process. Elec-
tric-arc stud welding is generally used
for fasteners .32 in. (8 mm) and larger.
The two capacitor-discharge methods
are used for smaller diameters.
References and Source Material
Machine Design. Fastening and
I.
joining reference issue, Nov.
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 9 for Unit 9-6 on page
208.
Review for Assignment
Unit 7-10 Partial Sections
Stress, on the other hand, is the 4. Adhesives maintain the integrity of
force pulling materials apart. See Fig. the bonded material. They elimi-
9-7-1. The basic types of stress in nate holes needed for mechanical
adhesives are: fasteners and surface marks result-
ing from spot welding, brazing, etc.
1. Tensile. Pull is exerted equally over
the entire joint. Pull direction is
Limitations
straight and away from the adhesive
1. Adhesive bonding can be slow or
bond. All adhesive contributes to
require critical processing. This is
bond strength.
particularly true in mass produc-
2. Shear. Pull direction is across the
tion. Some adhesives require heat
adhesive bond. The bonded mate-
and pressure, or special jigs and fix-
rials are being forced to slide over
tures, to establish the bond.
one another.
2. Adhesives are sensitive to surface
3. Cleavage. Pull is concentrated at
conditions. Special surface prepa-
one edge of the joint and exerts a
ration may be required for optimum
prying force on the bond. The other
bonding results.
edge of the joint is theoretically
3. Some adhesive solvents present
under zero stress.
hazards. Special ventilation may be
1981. 4. Peel. One surface must be flexible.
required to protect employees from
Stress is concentrated along a thin
toxic vapors.
line at the edge of the bond.
4. Environmental conditions can re-
Resistance to stress is one reason for duce bond strength of some adhe-
the rapid increase in the use of adhe- sives. Some do not hold well when
sives for product assembly. The fol- exposed to low temperatures, high
lowing points elaborate on stress humidity, severe heat, chemicals,
resistance and the other advantages of water, etc.
adhesives.

Advantages JOINT DESIGN

1. Adhesives allow uniform distribu- Joints should be specifically designed
UNIT 9-7 tion of stress over the entire bond for use with structural adhesives. This

Adhesive Fastenings area. See Fig. 9-7-2. This eliminates is largely a matter of common sense
stress concentration caused by and experience. Two basic factors
rivets, bolts, spot welds, and simi- should be the design guidelines. First,
Industrial designers and manufactur- lar fastening techniques. Lighter, structural joints should be designed so
ers are relying on adhesives more than thinner materials can be used with- that all the bonded area shares the load
ever before. They allow greater ver- out sacrificing strength. equally. Second, the joint configura-
satility in design, styling, and mate- 2. Adhesives can effectively bond dis- tion should be designed so that basic
rials. They can also cut costs. How- similar materials. Laminates of dis- stress is primarily in shear or tensile,
ever, as with any engineering tool, similar material can often produce with cleavage and peel minimized or
there are limitations as well as ad- combinations superior in strength eliminated.
vantages. and performance to either adherent The following structural joints and
alone. their advantages and disadvantages
Continuous contact between mat- some typical design alterna-
ADHESION VERSUS STRESS 3. illustrate
ing surfaces effectively bonds and tives.They are not, of course, the limit
Adhesion is the force that holds mate- seals against many environmental of possible adhesive bonded joints.
rials together. conditions. See Fig. 9-7-3.

202 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AMD FORMING PROCESSES


Lap Joints
Lap joints are most practical and
applicable in bonding thin materials.
The simple lap joint is offset. This can
result in cleavage and peel stress under
load when thin materials are used. A
tapered single lap joint is more effi-
cient than a simple lap joint. The
tapered edge allows bending of the
joint edge under stress. The joggle lap
joint gives more uniform stress dis-
tribution than either the simple or
tapered lap joint. The joint can be
formed by simple metal-forming oper-
ations. The curing pressure is easily
applied.
The double-butt lap joint gives more
uniform stress distribution in the load-
bearing area than the above joints.
This type of joint, however, requires
—
scarf lap joints have better resistance self-aligning during assembly and act
to bending forces than double-butt as a reservoir for void-filling-type
joints. This type of joint, however, adhesives.
also requires machining.
Cylindrical Joints
Angle Joints The T joint and overlap slip joint are
Angle joints give rise to either peel or typical for bonding cylindrical parts
cleavage stress depending on the gage
such as tubing, bushings, and shafts.
of the metal. Typical approaches to the
With adhesive bonding, all available
reduction of cleavage are illustrated.
contact area contributes to carrying
the load.
Butt Joints
A straight butt joint has poor re-
sistance to cleavage. The following Corner Joints — Sheet Metal
recessed butt joints are recommended: Corner joints can be assembled with
landed scarf tongue and groove, con- adhesives by using simple supplemen-
ventional tongue and groove, and scarf tary attachments. This permits joining
tongue and groove. The landed scarf and sealing in a single operation. Typi-
tongue and groove joints act as stops cal designs are right-angle butt joints,

machining which is not always feasible which can control adhesive line thick- slip joints, and right-angle support
with thinner-gage metals. Double- ness. Tongue and groove joints are joints.

Corner Joints
Rigid Members
SIMPLE LAP "T" JOINT Corner joints, as in storm doors or
decorative frames, can be adhesive-
TAPERED SINGLE LAP bonded. End lap joints are the simplest
design type, although they require
machining. Adhesives requiring pres-
ANCE TO CLEAVAGE FORCES.
JOGGLE LAP 30NOEDSHAFT ASSEMBLY sure during curing may be utilized in
(D) CYLINDRICAL JOINTS such designs. Mortise and tenon joints
DOUBLE BUTT LAP are excellent from a design standpoint,
but they also require machining. The
Z-. mitered joint with a spline is best if
DOUBLE SCARF LAP both members are hollow extrusions.
(A) LAP JOINTS

Stiffener Joints
Deflection and flutter of thin metal
RIGHT ANGLE BUTT sheets can be minimized with adhe-
(El CORNER JOINT-SHEET METAL sive-bonded stiffeners. When such
assemblies are flexed, peel stresses are
[ exerted on the adhesives. If the flanges
on the stiffening section can bend with
the sheet, minimum peel stress on the
bond will result. Increasing sheet gage
(B) ANGLE JOINTS
or decreasing the gage of the stiffener
flange will give equivalent results.

CORNER JOINTS-RIGID MEMBERS

TYPICAL
\
CONVENTIONAL
(F)

Reference and Source Material

ADHESIVE BONDED
BUTT JOINT
TONGUE AND GROOVE 1. 3M Company.

r r ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 10 for Unit 9-7 on page
CORRUGATED BACKING
208.
(C) BUTT JOINTS
(E) STIFFENER JOINTS
Review for Assignment
Fig. 9-7-3 Adhesive joint design. (3M Co.) Unit 7-5 Assemblies in Section

MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF FASTENERS 203

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 9
Assignments for Unit 9-2,
Assignment for Unit 9-1, Refer to manufacturers' catalogs for

Keys, Splines, and Serrations

Pin Fasteners pin sizes and provide the complete infor-

On A3 -size sheet, complete the mation to order each fastener. Scale is as

1 . On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the two 2. a B- or
assemblies shown in Fig. 9-2-A or shown.
fastener assemblies shown in Fig. 9- 1 -A pin
9-2-B, given the following information:
3. Prepare detail drawings of the parts
or 9-l-B. The following fasteners are
shown in Fig. 9-2-C. Use your judgment
used:
For Fig. 9-2-A for the scale and selection of views.
For Fig. 9- 1 -A • Assembly A, Slotted tubular spring Include a bill of material.
• Assembly A. flat key pins are used to fasten the cap and 4. On an A3- or B-size sheet, make a two-
• Assembly B. serrations handle to the shaft. Scale is half size. view assembly drawing of the crane
• Assembly B. A clevis pin whose area is
hook shown in Fig. 9-2-D. The hook is to
For 9-l-B
Fig.
equal to the four rivets is used to fas- be held to the U-frame with a slotted
• Assembly A. square key
ten the trailer hitch to the tractor draw locknut. A spring pin is inserted through
• Assembly B: Woodruff key
bar. Scale is half size. the locknut slots to prevent the nut from
Refer to the Appendix and manufac- For 9-2-B
Fig.
turning. A clevis pin with washer and
turers' catalogs for sizes and use your • Assembly A. A type E grooved pin
cotter pin holds the pulley to the frame.
judgment for dimensions not shown. Include on the drawing a of material.
holds the roller to the bracket. A
bill

Show the dimensions for the keyseats

washer and cotter pin are used to fas-
Scale is 1:1.

and serrations. Scale is full or 1:1. 5. Prepare detail drawings of the parts in
ten the bracket to the pushrod. Scale is

1:1.
assignment 4. Use your judgment for the
• Assembly B. A type A3 grooved pin
scale and selection of views.

holds the V-belt pulley to the shaft.

Scale is 1:1.

ASSEMBLY B (SERRATIONS) ASSEMBLY B (WOODRUFF KEY)

Fig. 9-1 -A Key and serration fasteners. Fig. 9-l-B Key fasteners.

204 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 - r

1.00 CAP - 12 PUSH ROD- Cy^l (CO

^SPRING /

0.50 SHAFT — 35

IH-Bgg i-
I I GA BRACKET-

025 ROLLER
(

CAM PROFILE
3LE
^ ' 4 nn
4.00 LG
i i

LOCKING PLATE AND STOP^ —"1.00-

ASSEMBLYA (CABINET HANDLE) ASSEMBLY A (CAM FOLLOWER )

— 6.5— —6.5—
r
-e~CM 1.00 2.00
030 HUB
M\ 100 V-BELT PULLEY

_L_
-^
3.50 ~— 1.00

2.75
—
-4 - 0.38 RIVETS IN
TRAILER HITCH
-020 SHAFT

ASSEMBLY

I l_c ^y ^ W
s —
|

1 c _/ —O OS=" — 20^
ASSEMBLY B (DRAW 8AR HITCH)

1 \
:r-.

ASSEMBLY B IV-BELT PULLEY)

Fig. 9-2-A Pin fasteners. Fig. 9-2-B Pin fasteners.

18

-OILLESS BUSHING

Fig. 9-2-C Wheel assembly. Fig. 9-2-D Crane hook.

«# y
MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF FASTENERS 205
Assignments for Unit 9-3, Assignments for Unit 9-4, trols the lever. The spring is fastened to
Springs the neck in the pin and through the
Retaining Rings
On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the hole in the lever. Scale
6. Divide a B- or A3 -size sheet into two
is 1:1.
7.

sections, and draw the assemblies
shown in Fig. 9-3-A or 9-3-B. Complete
the assemblies by adding suitable retain-
ing rings as per the information supplied
below. Refer to manufacturers' catalogs
and show on the drawing the catalog
Add
number for the retaining ring.
and groove sizes. Scale is full or 1:1. Use
your judgment for dimensions not
shown.
For Fig. 9-3-A
• Assembly A. An external radial retain-
two assembly drawings as shown in Fig. • Assembly B. A compression spring
9-4-A or 9-4-B. Complete the drawings mounted on the shaft of the handle
from the information supplied below, provides sufficient pressure to hold
and make detail drawings of the springs the lever in position, thus maintaining
in the spaces provided. Use your judg- the door against the panel. To open
ment for sizes not given. the door, the handle is pushed in and
turned. This action compresses the
ring
9-4-A
For Fig. spring and forces the lever away from
license plate holder
• Assembly A. The is
the notch in the panel edge, thus per-
held to the frame of the car by a hinge. mitting the lever to turn. Scale is 1:1.
A torsion spring is required to keep
the plate holder in position. The tor-
slipped over the hinge
Assignment for Unit 9-5,
sion spring is

pin during assembly and one end of

Rivets
ing ring mounted on the shaft is to act
the spring passes through the hole in
8. On a B- or A3-size sheet, draw the two
as a shoulder for the shaft support. An
assembly drawings shown in Fig. 9-5-A
external axial retaining ring is required the bumper. The other end of the
or 9-5-B. Complete the drawings from
to hold the gear on the shaft. spring is locked into the spring-retain-
the information supplied below. Refer to
• Assembly B. The plunger and punch ing notch in trie license plate holder.
manufacturers' catalogs for rivet type
are held into the punch holder by Scale is half or 1 :2.

• Assembly B. Flat springs are posi-

and sizes, and on each assembly show
internal retaining rings.
the callout for the rivets. Use your judg-
tioned openings C and D in the tape
in
For Fig. 9-3-B deck player. These springs hold the ment for sizes not given.
• Assembly A. External self-locking
cassette against the bottom, and the For Fig. 9-5-A
retaining rings hold the roller shaft in
locating pin positioned in the left side • Assembly A. Padlock brackets are
on the bracket.
position
of the tape deck. Scale is half or :2.
1
riveted to the locker door and door
• Assembly B. An external self-locking
9-4-B frame with two blind rivets in each
ring holds the plastic housing to the For Fig.
bracket. Scale is full.
viewer case. An internal self-locking • Assembly A. An extension spring con-
• Assembly B. The roof truss is
ring holds the lens in position.
assembled in the shop with five
evenly spaced .50-in. ( 1 2-mm) rivets
in each angle. Use quarter scale.

For Fig. 9-5-B

• Assembly A. The grill is held to the
panel by four truss-head full tubular
rivets. Scale is 1:1.

• Assembly B. The support is held to the

plywood panel by drive rivets uni-
formly spaced on the gage lines. Two
rivets hold the bracket to the support.
Scale is 1:1.

ASSEMBLY A (EXTERNAL RETAINING RINGS)

CARD STOCK

THREADED

-PUNCH HOLDER ASSEM8LY A ASSEMBLY B

ASSEMBLY B (INTERNAL RETAINING RINGSI (EXTERNAL SELF-LOCKING (EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL SELF-LOCKING)
Fig. 9-3-A Retaining ring fasteners. Fig. 9-3-B Retaining ring fasteners.

206 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 1

-LICENSE PLATE
_£
HOLDER 10.00 X 5.75 -LOCKER DOOR 14 GA -PADLOCK
'
BRACKET
12 GA

SPRING RETAINING NOTCH-

A /

±=£
— 0.25 HINGE PIN
MAX I
CL .12-1

4 DOOR FRAME

ASSEMBLY A (BLIND RIVETS)

ASSEMBLY A (TORSION SPRING)

.^p.
0.25
LOCATING

">|L
H^ 2L4.00 X4.00 X .38

44 GUSSET

TAPE DECK
PLAYER "^t- 2L3.50 X 2.50 X .38

7.88 X 2.00-
. SECTION A-A
in
- I.OO-j
CA
i

I I . .
t D
A 02 1l— A
O3 i

'ON
t 04 i
*
ASSEMBLY B (LARGE STRUCTURAL RIVETS)

ASSEMBLY B (FLAT SPRINGSI

Fig. 9-4-A Spring fasteners. Fig. 9-5-A Rivet fasteners.

n -PLASTIC
PANEL
"I
s 4 THICK

-*-

I_

ASSEMBLY A (EXTENSION SPRING) ASSEMBLY A (SMALL RIVETS)

1
-LEVER 44 X 20
TTTTTTP RIVET GAGE LINES

017 WASHER -
l ^SUPPORT 10 GA

016 SPRING HOLDER

014 INSIDE -
X 26
RETAINING RING

-BRACKET I I GA ,

JlllllL
ASSEMBLY B (COMPRESSION SPRING) ASSEMBLY B (DRIVE RIVETS)

Fig. 9-4-B Spring fasteners. Fig. 9-5-B Rivet fasteners.

MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF FASTENERS 207

Assignment for Unit 9-6,
Welded Fasteners
9. On a B- or A3-size sheet, draw the two
assemblies shown in Fig. 9-6-A or 9-6-8.
Refer to manufacturers' catalogs and the
Appendix for standard fastener compo-
nents.Complete the drawings from the
information supplied below. Use your
judgment for sizes not given. Scale is full
or 1:1.

For Fig. 9-6-A

• Assembly A
Two resistance-welded
threaded fasteners, one on each side
of the pipe, are required. The bracket
L_4^
drops over the fasteners, and lock- ASSEMBLY A (PIPE ATTACHMENT! ASSEMBLY B (LEAKPROOF ATTACHMENT!

washers and nuts secure the bracket Fig. 9-6-A Welded fasteners.
to the pipe.
• Assembly B. A leakproof attaching
method (stud welding) is required to
hold the adapter to the panel.

For Fig. 9-6-B

• A spot-weld nut is to be
Assembly A.
attached to the panel. A hole in the
clamp permits a machine screw to fas-
ten the pipe clamp to the nut.
• Assembly B. A right-angle bracket is to
be fastened (projection welding) to
the bottom plate. The vertical plate is
secured to the bracket by a machine
screw and lockwasher.

Assignment for Unit 9-7,

Adhesive Fastenings ASSEMBLY A (TAB ATTACHMENT! ASSEMBLY B (RIGHT-ANGLE ATTACHMENT)

10. On a B- or A3-size sheet, draw the two Fig. 9-6-B Welded fasteners.
adhesive-bonded assemblies shown in
Fig. 9-7-A or 9-7-B. Complete the draw-
ings from the information supplied
below and the adhesive chart in the
Appendix. List the adhesive product
number and state the method of applica-
tionyou would recommend. Use your 0.25 RIVETS
.25 GUSSET
judgment for sizes not shown, and
dimension the joint. Scale is to suit.

For Fig. 9-7-A

• Assembly A. The riveted joint shown
is to be replaced by a joggle lap joint.

It must be fast-drying.

• Assembly B. The sheet-metal corner PLASTIC PANEL \JV - 40

joint shown is to be replaced by a slip

ASSEMBLY A (BUTT JOINT)
joint. It must be water-resistant.

For Fig. 9-7-B

• Assembly A. Three pieces of wood are
to be assembled into the shape
shown. Joint design has not been
shown.
• Assembly B. The riveted joint shown is
to be replaced by a joggle lap joint.
Must meet specification requirements
of MMM-A-121.
STEEL PLATE
ALUMINUM PLATE

ASSEMBLY B (SLIP JOINT) ASSEMBLY B (LAP JOINT)

Fig. 9-7-A Adhesive fastenings. Fig. 9-7-B Adhesive fastenings.

208 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

CHAPTER 10
UNIT 10-1
Castings
FORMING PROCESSES 1
When a component of a machine takes
shape on the drawing board of the
designer, the method of its manufac-
ture may still be entirely open. The
number of possible manufacturing pro-
cesses is increasing day by day. and
the optimum process is found only by
carefully weighing technological ad-
vantages and drawbacks in relation to
theeconomy of production.
The choice of the manufacturing
process depends on the size and shape
of the component. Manufacturing pro-
cesses are therefore important to the
engineer and drafter in order to prop-
erly design a part. They must be famil-
iar with the advantages, disadvan-
tages, costs, and machines necessary
for manufacturing. Since the cost of
the part is influenced by the produc-
tion method, such as welding or cast-
ing, the designer must be able to
choose wisely the method which will
reduce the cost. In some cases it may
be necessary to recommend the pur-
chase of a new or different machine in
order to produce the part at a competi-
tive price.
This means the designer should
design the part for the process as well
as for the function. Most of all. un-
necessarily close tolerances on non-
functional dimensions should be
avoided.
Forming
Processes
This chapter covers the following
manufacturing processes: casting,
forging and powder metallurgy. Form-
ing by means of welding and stamping
(punches and dies) is covered in
Chaps. 11 and 27. respectively.
CASTING PROCESSES 2-3
Casting is the process whereby parts
are produced by pouring molten metal
into a mold. A typical cast part is
shown in Fig. 10-1-1. Casting processes
for metals can be classified by either
the type of mold or pattern or the pres-
sure or force used to fill the mold. Con-
ventional sand, shell, and plaster
molds utilize a permanent pattern, but
the mold is used only once. Permanent
molds and die-casting dies are ma-
chined in metal or graphite sections
and are employed for a large number of
castings. Investment tasting and the
relatively new full-mold process in-
volve both an expendable mold and an
expendable pattern.
Fig. 10-1-1 Typical cast part. (General
Motors Corp.)
Casting metals are usually alloys or
compounds of two or more metals.
They are generally classed as ferrous
or nonferrous metals. Ferrous metals
are those which contain iron, the most
common being gray iron, steel, and
malleable iron. Nonferrous alloys,
which contain no iron, are those con-
taining metals such as aluminum, mag-
nesium, and copper.
Sand Mold Casting
The most widely used casting process
for metals uses a permanent pattern of
metal or wood that shapes the mold
cavitywhen loose molding material is
compacted around the pattern. This
material consists of a relatively fine
sand, which serves as the refractory
aggregate, plus a binder.
A typical sand mold, with the vari-
ous provisions for pouring the molten
metal and compensating for contrac-
tion of the solidifying metal, and a sand
core for forming a cavity in the casting
are shown in Fig. 10-1-2. Sand molds
consist of two or more sections: bot-
iovci'idrag). top {cope), and intermedi-
ate sections {cheeks) when required.
The sand is contained in flasks
equipped with pins and plates to
ensure the alignment of the cope and
drag.
Molten metal is poured into the
sprue, and connecting runners provide
flow channels for the metal to enter the
mold cavity through gates. Riser cav-
ities are located over the heavier sec-
tions of the casting. A vent is usually
added to permit the escape of gases
FORMING PROCESSES 209
 xrxi
i -

CORE PR NTS

RTING TO MAKE THE SAND MOLD _L

^= |^.--r- Fig. 10-1-3 Core prints and chaplets.
(General Motors Corp.)

-SHELL-MOLD HALF

IE] PARTING FLASKS TO REMOVE PATTERN

AND TO ADD CORE AND RUNNER
BOTTOM BOARD f-^
EH ROLLING OVER THE DRAG A -A"E =
wn
SPRLt —RISE PLATE J
EJECTOR PINS-

Fig. 10-1-4 Shell mold being stripped from

pattern.

r,
K \\\\\\\\\\\\\<\\H

(Ci PREPARING TO RAM MOLDING SAND IN COPE (F) SAND MOLD READY FOR POURING

POURING BASIN -r RISER CAVITY

CORED HOLE
Fig. 10-1-5 Pouring slurry over a plaster-
mold pattern.

surfaces. Allowance depends on the

•'
'
OVING RISER AND GATE SPRUE
AND ADDING POURING BASIN
Fig. 10-1-2 Sequence in preparing a sand casting.
which are formed during the pouring of
metal.
When a hollow casting is
form called a core is usually used.
Cores occupy that part of the mold
which is intended to be hollow in the
casting. Cores, like molds, are formed
of sand and placed in the supporting
impressions or core prints in the
molds. The core prints ensure positive
location of the core in the mold and. as
such, should be placed so that they
support the mass of the core uniformly
to prevent shifting or sagging. Metal
core supports called chaplets, which
are used in the mold cavity and which
fuse into the casting, are sometimes
used by the foundry in addition to core
prints.See Fig. 10-1-3. Chaplets and
their locations are not usually spec-
ified on drawings.
AND RUNNER TO
SPRUE. RISER. BE
REMOVED FROM CASTING
PINS
(Gl CASTING AS REMOVED FROM THE MOLD
In producing sand molds, a metal or
wooden pattern must first be made.
required, a The pattern, normally made in two
parts, is slightly larger in every dimen-
sion than the part to be cast, to allow
for shrinkage when the casting cools.
This is known as shrinkage allowance.
and the pattern maker allows for it by
using a shrink rule for each of the cast
metals.
Drafts or slight tapers are also
placed on the pattern to allow for easy
withdrawal from the sand mold. The
parting line location and amount of
draft are very important considera-
tions in the design process.
In the construction of patterns for
castings in which various points on the
surface of the casting must be
machined, sufficient excess metal
should be provided for all machined
metal used, the shape and size of the
part, the tendency to warp, the
machining method, and setup.
The molten metal is poured into the
pouring basin and runs down the sprue
to a runner and into the mold cavity.
When the metal has hardened, the
sand mold is broken and the casting
removed. Next the excess metal,
gates, and risers are removed and
remelted.
Shell Mold Casting 2
The refractory sand used in shell mold-
ing is bonded by a thermostable resin
that forms a relatively thinshell mold.
A heated, reusable metal pattern plate
(Fig. 10-1-4) is used to form each half of
the mold by either dumping a sand-
resin mixture on top of the heated pat-
tern or by blowing resin-coated sand
under air pressure against the pattern.
Plaster Mold Casting
Plaster of Paris and fillers are mixed
with water and setting-control agents
to form a slurry. This slurry is poured

210 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 7
around a reusable metal or rubber pat-
tern and sets to form a gypsum mold.
See Fig. 10-1-5. The molds are then
dried, assembled, and filled with mol-
ten (nonferrous) metals. Plaster mold
casting is ideal for producing thin,
sound walls. As in sand mold casting, a
new mold required for each casting.
is

Castings made by this process have

smoother finish, finer detail, and
(21 THE WAX PATTERN (31 THE CLUSTER ASSEMBLY
greater dimensional accuracy than
sand castings.

Permanent Mold Casting

This process makes use of a metal
mold, similar to a die, which is utilized
to produce many castings from each
mold. See Fig. 10-1-6. It is used to pro-
J?
|
duce some ferrous alloy castings, but
due to rapid deterioration of the mold
caused by the high pouring tempera-
I tures of these alloys, and the attendant
!
high mold cost, the process is confined
largely to production of nonferrous
! alloy castings. ,\.-

REFRACTORY MOLD FIRED MOLD

Investment Mold Casting (4) (51 (6) THE CASTING

Investment castings have been better Fig. 10-1-7 Investment mold casting.

j
known in the past by the term lost wax
I castings. The term investment refers
to the refractory material used to
I encase the wax patterns.
This process uses both an expend-
I able pattern and an expendable mold.
I Patterns of wax, plaster, or frozen
mercury are cast in metal dies. The
|
molds are formed either by pouring a
I slurry of a refractory material around
the pattern positioned in a flask or
! building a thick layer of shell refrac-
extracted from the mold, but are va- used to hold the metal against the outer
porized by the molten metal. walls of the mold with the volume of
The full mold process is suitable for metal poured determining the wall
individual castings and for small series thickness of the casting. Rotation
of up to five castings. The advantages speed is rapid enough to form the cen-
itoffers are obvious: it is very eco- tral hole without a core. Castings made
nomical and reduces the delivery time by this method are smooth, sound,
required for prototypes, articles ur- and clean on the outside because
gently needed for repair jobs, or indi- impurities, being lighter than the
by vidual large machine parts. metal, work toward the inner surface
of the molten metal while rotating.

f
toryon the pattern by repeated dipping
into slurriesand drying. The arrange-
ment of the wax patterns in the flask
method is shown in Fig. 10-1-7.
Full Mold Casting
(
The characteristic feature of the full
I mold process is the use of lost patterns
\ made of foamed plastic. These are not
Centrifugal Casting The impurities can be removed by
In the centrifugal casting process, machining.
commonly applied to cylindrical cast-
ing of either ferrous or nonferrous
alloys, a permanent moldrotatedis
Continuous Casting
Continuous casting produces semi-
rapidly about the axis of the casting
finished shapes such as uniform sec-
while a measured amount of molten
tion rounds, ovals, squares, rectan-
metal is poured into the mold cavity.
See Fig. 10-1-8. The centrifugal force is
COVER POURING SPOUT

i
\^Q~~~l
POURING SPRUE r DRY SAND CORE
WW. \\3

— HALFOPENMOLD SHOWN
POSITION
EJ L.
HALF MOLD SHOWN IN
IN CLOSED POSITION-

MOLD CAVITY- ////T// S <'/7///,

Y
BASE -

\i T^^\\ Fig. 10-1-8 Centrifugal mold equipment.

(General Motors Corp.)
Fig. 10-1-6 Permanent mold. (General Motors Corp.

FORMING PROCESSES 211

gles.and plates. These shapes are cast Die Casting
from nearly all ferrous and nonferrous One of the least expensive, fastest, and
metals by continuously pouring the most efficient processes used in the
molten metal into a water-jacketed production of metal parts is die cast-
mold. The metal solidifies in the mold, ing. Die castings are made by forcing
and the solid billet exits continuously molten metal into a die or mold. Large
into a water spray. These sections are quantities, accurately cast, can be pro-
processed further by rolling, drawing, duced with a die-casting die, thus elim-
or extruding into smaller, more intri- inating or reducing machining costs.
cate shapes. Iron bars cast by this pro- Many parts are completely finished
cess are finished by machining. when taken from a die. Since die cast-
ings can be accurate to within .001 in.
process for a given part requires an
evaluation of the type of metal, the
number of castings required, their
shape and size, the dimensional accu-
racy required, and the casting finish
required. When the casting can be pro-
duced by a number of methods, selec-
tion of the process is based on the most
economical production of the total
requirement. Since final cost of the
part, rather than price of the rough
casting, is the significant factor, the

POURING SLOT (0.02 mm) of size, internal and external number of finishing operations neces-
r LADLE threads, gear teeth, and lugs can read- sary on the casting is also considered.
-DIE PISTON ROD-
ily be cast. Those processes that provide the clos-
Die casting has its limitations. Only est dimensions, the best surface finish,
nonferrous alloys can be die-cast eco- and the most intricate detail generally
nomically because of the lack of a suit- require the smallest number of finish-
able die material to withstand the ing operations.
CHAMBER 1 higher temperatures required for steel A direct comparison of the ca-
(A) COLD-CHAMBER TYPE and iron. pabilities,production characteristics,
Die-casting machines are of two and limitations of several processes is
types: the submerged-plunger type for indicated in Fig. 10-1-10.
low-melting alloys containing zinc, tin,
lead, etc., and the cold-chamber type
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 3
for high-melting nonferrous alloys
containing aluminum and magnesium. The advantages of using castings for
See Fig. 10-1-9. engineering components are well
METAL
HOLDING appreciated by designers. Of major
P0T
GOOSENECK J DIE- importance is the fact that they can
IB) SUBMERGED-PLUNGER TYP.E
SELECTION OF PROCESS produce shapes of any degree of com-
Fig. 10-1-9 Die-casting machines. Selection of the most feasible casting plexity and of virtually any size.

SURFACE
PROCESS METALS USUAL MASS MINIMUM RELATIVE CASTING MINIMUM DIMENSIONAL FINISH,
CAST RANGE PRODUCTION SETUP COST DETAIL THICKNESS TOLERANCES RMS
QUANTITIES FEASIBLE in. (mm) (jlin.)
(mm)
SAND All ferrous Less than 1 lb. 3, without Very low to high Fair .12 to .25 ± .03 (0.8) 350
(Green, Dry, and nonferrous (0.5 kg) to mechanization depending on (3 to 6)
several tons
and Core) mechanization
10 to .25
CO2 Sand
1? 5 tn fil
± 02 (0.5) 250

SHELL All ferrous 0.5 to 30 lb. 50 Moderate to high Fair to .03 to .10 ± 015 (0.4) 200
and nonferrous (0.2 to 15 kg) depending on good (0 8 to 2.5)
mechanization

PLASTER Al, Mg, Cu, L'-ss than 1 lb. 1 Moderate Excellent .03 to .08 ± .01 (0.2) 100
and Zn alloys to 3000 lb. (0.5 (0 8 to 2)
to 1350 kq)

INVESTMENT All ferrous Less than oz. to 1

50 lb 25 Moderate Excellent 0.2 to .06 ± .005 (0.1) 80
and nonferrous (30 g to 25 kg) (0.5 to 1.5)

PERMANENT
MOLD Nonferrous and 1 to 40 lb. 10 5 tc 2C kg) 100 Moderate Poor .18 to .25 ± .02 (0.5) 200
Metal Mold cast iron to high (4.5 to 6)

Graphite Mold Steel 5 to 300 lb. (2 to 150 kg) 100 .25 ± .03 (0.8) 200

DIE Sn, Pb, Zn, Al, Less than lb. to 20 1 lb. 1000 High Excellent .05 to .08 ± .002 (0.5) 60
Mg, and Cu alloys (0.5 to 10 kg) (1.2 to 2)

* Values listed are primarily for aluminum alloys, but data applies generally to other metals also.
T Depends on surface area. Double if dimension is across parting line.

Fig. 10-1-10 General characteristics of casting processes.

212 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

Solidification of Metal
in a Mold
While this is not the first step in the
sequence of events, it is of such funda-
mental importance that it forms the
most logical point to begin understand-
ing the making of a casting.
Consider a few simple shapes trans-
formed into mold cavities and filled
with molten metal.
In a sphere, heat dissipates from the
surface through the mold while solid-
ification commences from the outside
and proceeds progressively inward, in
a series of layers. As liquid metal solid-
ifies, it contracts in volume, and unless
feed metal is supplied, a shrinkage cav-
ity may form in the center.
ing the corner is of importance. If they gressively to one or more suitable loca-
are materially different, as in Fig. tions where feeder heads can be placed
10-1-12D, contraction in the lighter to offset liquid shrinkage.
member will occur at a different rate
Fillet See Fig. 10-1-14.
All-Sharp Angles
from that in the heavier member. Dif-
Filletshave three functional purposes:
ferential contraction is the major cause
to reduce stress concentration in the
of casting stress, warping, and
casting in service; to eliminate cracks,
cracking.
tears, and draws at reentry angles; and
to make corners more moldable to
General Design Rules
eliminate hot spots.
Design for Casting Soundness See Fig.
Bring the Minimum Number of Adjoining
10-1-13. Most metals and alloys shrink
Sections Together See Fig. 10-1-15. A
when they solidify. Therefore, the
well-designed casting brings the mini-
design must be such that all members
of the parts increase in dimension pro-
mum number of sections together and
avoids acute angles.
See Fig. -— CORNERS COOL FASTER

10-1-11.

The designer must realize that a

shrinkage problem exists and that the
foundry worker must attach risers to
the casting or resort to other means to
x\V\\^
overcome
When
it.

the simple sphere has solid-

nun
ified further, it continues to contract in
SQUARE CORNER MOLD ROUND CORNER MOLD
volume, so that the final casting is
(Bl

smaller than the mold cavity.

Consider a shape with a square cross FILLET TOO LARGE CORRECT
CAUSES SHRINKAGE OR UNIFORM COOLING
one shown in Fig.
1

section such as the WEAK METAL STRUCTURE RATE OBTAINED

plt.t (C) (D)
10-1-12A. Here again, cooling proceeds
at right angles to the surface and is
necessarily faster at the corners of the
casting. Thus, solidification proceeds INTERNAL CORNER MOLD FILLET ADDEDTO
more rapidly at the corners. <CI INTERNAL CORNER
ID!
The resulting hot spot prolongs Fig. 10-1-14 Fillet all-sharp angles.
Fig. 10-1-12 Cooling effect on mold cavities
solidification, promoting solidification (Meehanite Metal Corp.)
filled with molten metal. (Meehanite Metal
shrinkage and lack of density in this Corp.)
area. The only logical solution, from
the designer's viewpoint, is the provi-
sion of very generous fillets or radii at
the corners. Additionally, the relative
size or shape of the two sections form-
A COREO HOLE WILL HELP
A CIRCULAR WEB WITH TO SPEED UP SOLIDIFICATION
ADJOINING SECTIONS IS WHERE A NUMBER OF SECTIONS
PREFERRED CAN JOIN.

INCORRECT CORRECT ^5°^"

LIGHT SECTION
AT TOP
OUTER LAYER SOLIDIFIES FIRST PREVENTS FEEDING

STAGGERED SECTIONS MINIMIZE HOT SPOTS EFFECTS. ELIMI

NATE STRUCTURAL WEAKNESS AND REDUCE DISTORTION

ct=jcz
3 ft t

TO PREVENT UNEVEN COOLING. BRING THE MINIMUM NUMBER

OF SECTIONS TOGETHER OR STAGGER SO THAT NO MORE THAN
IMPROVED DESIGN TWO SECTIONS CAN JOIN
HEAT DISSIPATING
Fig. 10-1-13 Design members so that all Fig. 10-1-15 Bring the minimum number of
Fig. 10-1-11 Circular mold cavity filled with parts increase progressively to feeder risers. adjoining sections together. (Meehanite
molten metal. (Meehanite Metal Corp.) Metal Corp.)

FORMING PROCESSES 213

Design All Sections as Nearh Uniform in reduce the mass. If too shallow in thereby offsetting the dangers of
Thickness as Possible Shrink defects depth or too widely spaced, they are cracking.
and casting strains existed in the cast- ineffectual.
Use an Odd Number of Spokes A wheel
ing illustrated in Fig. 10-1-16. Redesign-
Bosses and Pads Should Not Be Used having an odd number of spokes will
ing eliminated excessive metal and
Unless Absoluely Necessary Bosses and not have the same direct tensile stress
resulted in a casting that was free from
pads increase metal thickness, create along the arms as one having an even
was lighter in mass, and pre-
defects,
hot spots, and cause open grain or number and will have more resiliency
vented the development of casting
draws. Blend these into the casting by to casting stresses.
strains in the light radial veins.
tapering or flattening the fillets.
Wall Thicknesses Walls should be of
Avoid Abrupt Section Changes Elimi- — Bosses should not be included in cast-
minimum thickness, consistent with
nate Sharp Corners at Adjoining Sec- ing design when the surface to support
good foundry practice, and should pro-
tions See Fig. 10-1-17. The difference bolts, etc., may be obtained by milling
vide adequate strength and stiffness.
in the relative thickness of adjoining or countersinking.
Wall thicknesses for different mate-
sections should be a minimum and not
Spoked Wheels See Fig. 10-1-19. A rials are as follows:
exceed a 2:1 ratio.
curved spoke is preferred to a straight
When a change of thickness must be 1. Walls of gray-iron castings and alu-
one. It will tend to straighten slightly,
less than 2:1. it may take the form of a minum sand castings should not be
fillet: where the difference must be less than .16 in. (4 mm) thick.
greater, the form recommended is that 2. Walls of malleable iron and steel
of a wedge. castings should not be less than .18
Wedge-shaped changes in wall in. (5 mm) thick.
thickness are to be designated with a INCORRECT 3. Walls of bronze, brass, or magne-
taper not exceeding 1 in 4. IAI RIBS TOO SHALLOW sium castings should not be less
than .10 in. (2.4 mm) thick.
Design Ribs for Maximum Effectiveness
See Fig. 10-1-18. Ribs have two func- Parting Lines A parting line is a line
tions: to increase stiffness and to along which the pattern is divided for
INCORRECT molding, or along which the sections of
<B RIBS TOO WIDELY SPACED a mold separate. Selection of a parting
line depends on a number of factors:

• Shape of the casting

• Elimination of machining on draft
CORRECT surfaces
<C PROPERLY DESIGNED RIBS
• Method of supporting cores
• Location of gates and feeders

INCORRECT Holes in Castings Small holes usually

are drilled and not cored.
. = = : :
- ; ; ;
'D' THIN RIBS SHOULD BE AVOIDED WHEN JOINED
Fig. 10-1-16 Design
sections as nearly
all
TO A HEAVY SECTION OTHERWISE. THEY WILL
LEAD TO HIGH STRESSES AND CRACKING
uniform in thickness as possible. (Meehanite
Metal Corp.)

INCORRECT

^^ WWWM _
AS POSSIBLE. JUNCTION BETWEEN RIBS
AIN CASTING SHOULD PREVENT ANY
ACCUMULATION OF METAL

(Ai BAD DESIGN IBI FAIR DESIGN INCORRECT CORRECT

(A) USE AN ODD NUMBER OF CURVED SPOKES

IF RIBS SHOULD SOLIDIFY BEFORE THE CASTING
SECTION THEY ADJOIN

ICI GOOD DESIGN (Dl BEST IN SOME CASES

;Z=)
\j
^ CAREFULLY BLEND SECTIONS
-ED RIBBED DESIGNS HAVE THE
3RM METAL SECTIONS
NIFORI . K LING

INCORRECT CORRECT
-3S SHOULD APPROXIMATE
(El PROPORTIONS FOR CHANGING THICKNESS •
.ESS IBI AVOID EXCESSIVE SECTION VARIATION
Fig. 10-1-17 Avoid abrupt changes. Fig. 10-1-18 Design ribs for maximum Fig. 10-1-19 Spoked-wheel design.
(Meehanite Metal Corp.) effectiveness. (Meehanite Metal Corp.) (Meehanite Metal Corp.)

214 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 I

Drafting Practices 2 On small, simple parts all casting infor- for any particular application, the
It important that a detail drawing
is mation included on the finished
is designer is influenced primarily by the
give complete information on all cast drawing. See Fig. 10-1-20. On more physical characteristics such as
parts, e.g.: complicated parts, it may be necessary strength, hardness, density, resistance
to show additional casting views and to wear, mass, antifrictional proper-
• Machining allowances
sections to completely illustrate the ties, conductivity, corrosion resis-
• Surface texture
construction of the casting. These tance, shrinkage, and melting point.
• Draft angles
additional views should show the
• Limits on cast surfaces that must be Machining Allowance In the construc-
rough casting outline in phantom lines
controlled tion of patterns for castings in which
and the finished contour in solid lines.
• Locating points various points on the surface of the
• Parting lines Material In the selection of material casting must be machined, sufficient
excess metal should be provided for all
machined surfaces. Unless otherwise
specified; Fig. 10-1-21 may be used as
a guide to machine finish allowance.

Filletsand Radii Generous fillets and

CASTING SIZE 'ALLOWANCE PROVIDED '

FOR MACHININGI radii (rounds) should be provided on

cast corners and specified on the draw-
ing.

Casting Tolerances A great many fac-

tors contribute to the dimensional vari-

DIMENSIONS EXTERNAL
CASTING WITHIN SURFACE
ALLOY THIS RANGE FINISH
CAST IRON UP TO 8.00 .06
ALUMINUM 8.00 TO 16.00 .09
16.00 TO 24.00 .12
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED BRONZE, ETC.
DRAFT ANGLE- INTE RNAL SURFACES 2° 24.00 TO 32.00 .18
EXTERNALSURFACES 1° SAND CASTINGS OVER 32.00 .25
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .12
I

06 -/ EXCEPT WHERE NOTED PEARLITIC UP TO 8.00 .06

NORDALE MACHINES CO.
MALLEABLE 8.00 TO 16.00 .09
PITTSBURGH, PA AND STEEL 16.00 TO 24.00 .18

FACE PLATE SAND CASTINGS OVER 24.00 .25

MATL-C PERMANENT AND UP TO 12.00 .06

SC ^ LL F Ij * A^i-^-.
L _ |
[j ' .
SEMIPERMANENT 12.00 TO 24.00 .09
DATE 82 07 04 CH £ X/Ux, MOLD CASTINGS OVER 24.00 .18

(Al WORKING DRAWING OF A CAST PART PLASTER UP TO 8.00 .03

MOLD CASTING 8.00 TO 12.00 .06
OVER 12.00 .10

" * Fig. 10-1-21 Guide to machining allowance

for castings.

DIMENSIONS STANDARD
TYPE OF
WITHIN
DRAWING
CASTING TOLERANCE
THIS RANGE ( ± 1

UP TO 8 00 .03
IRON AND 8.00 TO 16.00 .06
ALUMINUM 16.00 TO 24.00 .07

SAND CASTINGS 24.00 TO 32.00 .09

034
OVER 32.00 .12

PEARLITIC. UP TO 8.00 03
I MALLEABLE TO 16.00
8.00 06
I IRON AND STEEL 16 TO 24.00
00 09
SAND CASTINGS OVER 24.00 .12

PERMANENT UP TO 5.00 03
MOLD CASTING 5 00 TO 12 00 03
-08 x 18 LG DOWELS 2 REQD (SEMIPERMANENT 12.00 TO 24.00 .06

MOLD CASTING) OVER 24 00 09

_L y PITTSBURGH PLASTER
UP TO 4 00
4.00 TO 8.00
02
02
ROUND AND FILLETS R 3
MOLD CASTING TO 12.00
8 00 03
-OR FACE PLATE OVER 12 00 06
USE SHRINK RULE FOR CAST IRON
MATL WHITE PINE
CENTRIFUGAL UP TO 50 02
'-*..
:-•. '";-.
PRECISION 50 TO 5 00 02
REFERENCE DWG A756 DATE 82 07 04
CASTING OVER 5 00 02
IBi PATTERN DRAWING FOR THE CAST PART SHOV.'

Fig. 10-1-20 Cast part drawings. Fig. 10-1-22 Guide to casting tolerances.

FORMING PROCESSES 215

 r t ations of castings. However, the stan-
dard drawing tolerances specified in
Fig. 10-1-22 can be satisfactorily
attained in the production of castings.
CASTING DATUMS 2
It is recognized that in many cases a

drawing is made of the fully machined

end product: and casting dimensions,
Draft All casting methods require a draft, and machining allowances are
draft or taper on all surfaces perpen- left entirely to the patternmaker or
dicular to the parting line, to facilitate foundry worker. However, for mass-
removal of the pattern and ejection of production purposes it is generally
(Al DRAFT ANGLES
the casting. The permissible draft must advisable to make a separate casting
> be specified on the drawing, in either drawing, with carefully selected
degrees of taper for each surface, datums, to ensure that parts will fit
inches of taper per inch of length, or into machining jigs and fixtures and
millimeters of taper per millimeter of will meet final requirements after
-I- length. machining. Under these circum-
Suitable draft angles for general use, stances, dimensioning requires the
for both sand and die castings, are 1° selection of two sets of datum sur-
for external surfaces and 2° for internal
faces, lines, or points —
one for the
(Bl DRAFT AND MACHINING ALLOWANCE
Draft for removal of pattern
surfaces, as shown in Fig. 10-1-23.
The drawing must always clearly
casting and one for the machining to —
Fig. 10-1-23 provide common reference points for
from mold. indicate whether the draft should be measuring, machining, and assembly.
added to, or subtracted from, the cast- To select suitable datums, it will be
ing dimensions. necessary to know how the casting is
to be made, where the parting line or
DATUM SURFACE B •DATUM SURFACE C lines are to be, and how the part is
going to fit into machining jigs and
fixtures.
The first step in dimensioning is to
) I J I select a primary datum surface for the
casting, which is sometimes referred
EEL to as the base surface, and to label
Fig. 10-1-24 Casting datums. A it

DATUM SURFACE B-

w
e^ <k i

SECTION A-A

DATUM SURFACE A-

-DATUM LINEC

Fig. 10-1-25 Machined casting drawing illustrating datum lines, set-up points, and finish mark symbols.

216 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

DATUM A. See Fig. 10-1-24. This pri- body of the casting, so that mea-
mary datum should be a surface which surements from it to the main sur-
meets the following criteria as closely faces of the casting will be least
as possible: affected by cored surfaces, parting
lines, or gated surfaces.
1. It must be a surface, or datum tar-
5. It should be a surface, or target
gets on a surface (see Fig. 10-1-25),
areas on a surface, on which the
which can be used as the basis for
part can be clamped without caus-
measuring the casting and which
ing any distortion, so that the cast-
can later be used for mounting and
ing will not be under a distortional
locating the part in a jig or fixture,
stress for the first machining oper-
for the purpose of machining the
ation.
finished part.
6. It should be a surface which will
2. Itshould be a surface which will not
provide locating points as far apart
be removed by machining, so that
as possible, so that the effect of any
control of material to be removed is
flatness error will be minimized.
not lost, and can be checked at final
inspection. The second step is to select two
3. It should be parallel with the top of other planes to serve as secondary and
the mold, or parting line; that is, a tertiary surfaces. These planes should
surface which has no draft or taper. be at right angles to one another and to
4. It should be integral with the main the primary datum surface. They prob-
ably will not coincide with actual sur-
faces, because of taper or draft, except
at one point, usually a point adjacent
to the primary datum surface. These
are labeled DATUM B and DATUM
C, respectively, as shown in Fig.
10-1-26.
In the case of a circular part, the
PRIMARY DATUM end-view center lines may be selected
DATUM PLANE A as secondary and tertiary datums, as
shown in Fig. 10-1-27. In this case,
PRIMARY DATUM - PLANE A
unless otherwise specified, the center
lines represent the center of the out-
SECONDARY DATUM
DATUM PLANE B side or overall diameter of the part.
MACHINING DATUMS
The first step in dimensioning the
machined or finished part is to select a
primary datum surface for machining
and to label it DATUM D. This surface
is the first surface on the casting to be
machined and is thereafter used as the
SECONDARY DATUM - PLANE B
datum surface for all other machining
operations. It should be selected to
meet the following criteria:
TERTIARY DATUM
DATUM PLANE C
Fig. 10-1-26
TERTIARY DATUM - PLANE C
Datum planes and datum
targets. Fig. 10-1-27 Datums for circular casting.
1. It isgenerally preferable, though
not essential, that it be a surface
which is parallel to the primary
casting datum surface.
2. It may be a large, flat, machined
surface or several small areas of
surfaces in the same or parallel
planes.
3. If the primary casting datum sur-
face smooth and does not require
is
machining, as in die castings, or if
suitable target areas have been
selected, the same surface may be
used as the machining datum
surface.
4. If the primary casting datum sur-
face of sand castings appears to be
the only suitable surface, it is rec-
ommended that three or four pads
be provided, which can be
machined to form the machining
datum surface, as shown in Fig.
10-1-28.
5. When pads or small target areas are
selected, they should be placed as
far apart as possible and located
where the part can be readily
clamped or fixtures without
in jigs
distorting or interfering with other
it
machining operations.
The second step is to select two
other surfaces to serve as secondary
and tertiary datums. If these datum
surfaces are required only for locating
and dimensioning purposes, and not
for clamping in a jig or fixture, some
suitable datums other than flat,
machined surfaces may be chosen.
These could be the same datums as
used for casting, if the locating point in
each case is clearly defined and is not
removed in machining. For circular
parts, a hole drilled in the center, or a
turned diameter other than the outside
diameter, may provide suitable center
lines for use as secondary datum sur-
faces, as shown in Fig. 10-1-29.
The
third step is to specify the
datum-locating dimension, that is, the
dimension between each casting
datum surface and the corresponding
machining datum surface. See Fig.
10-1-28. There is never more than one
I— DATUM LOCATING DIMENSION
t^—H—=^TZ]
t m
CASTING DATUM— '
*- MACHINING DATUM
Fig. 10-1-28 Primary machining datum.
FORMING PROCESSES 217
 In the simplest example of impres-
UNIT 10-2 sion-die forging (Fig. 10-2-2) the work-
Forging and Powder piece is cylindrical and is placed in the

bottom-half die. On closing the top-

Metallurgy half die, the cylinder undergoes elastic
compression until its enlarged sides
FORGING touch the side walls of the die impres-
sion. At this point, a small amount of
Forging consists of plastically deform- excess material begins to form the
ing, either by a squeezing pressure or flash between the two die faces. In the
-'NESFOR 0G sharp blows, a cast or sintered ingot, a further course of die approach, this
"
V D TO DIMENSION SHOWN
-

wrought bar or billet, or a powder- flash is gradually thinned.

Fig. 10-1-29 Machining datums for
parts.
such dimension from each casting
datum surface.
Dimensions
When suitable datum surfaces have
been selected, with datum-locating
dimensions for the machined casting
drawing, dimensioning may
with dimensions being specified
directly from the datums to all main
surfaces. However, where it is neces-
sary to maintain a particular relation-
ship between two or more surfaces or
features, regular point-to-point dimen-
sioning is usually the preferred
method. This will generally include all
such items as thickness of ribs, height
of bosses, projections, depth of
grooves, most diameters and radii, and
center distances between holes and
similar features. Whenever
specify dimensions to surfaces or sur-
face intersections, rather than to radii
centers or nonexistent center lines.
Dimensions given on the casting
drawing should not be repeated,
except as reference dimensions, on the
circular
metal shape, to produce a desired
shape with good mechanical proper-
ties. Practically all ductile metals can
be forged. See Fig. 10-2-1.
Types of Forgings
Closed-Die Forgings Closed-die forg-
ings are made by hammering or
pressing metal until it conforms
closely to the shape of the enclosing
dies. Grain flow in the closed-die-
proceed,
forged parts can be oriented in the
direction requiring greatest strength.
Three-dimensional control of the
material to be forged requires a closed
die, a simple and common form of
which is the impression die.
possible,
-f
IB) TONGHOLD
- p= ::c c '.'=: mpress on
The forging impression die gives
control over all three directions, ex-
cept when the die is similar to that
shown in Fig. 10-2-2, and the deform-
ing forging machine tool has an
unlimited stroke (e.g., a hammer or
hydraulic press). In the latter case, the
die must be shaped to allow complete
closing of the striking faces at the end
of the stroke. See Fig. 10-2-3.
In practice, closed-die forging has
become the term applied to all forging
operations involving three-dimen-
sional control. However, it is seen that
the dieis only closed by virtue of flash
formation.
Forging dies can be divided into
three main classes: single-impression,
double-impression, and interlocking.
See Fig. 10-2-4.
Single-impression dies have the im-
pression of the desired forging en-
tirely in one half of the die.
IS FIRST FORGED
-STRIKING FACE
<}
Wi

flnfm> it
machined part drawing. .

References and Source Material

«^ff" 4
A
A
B
PREFORMED IMPRESSION
1. American Iron and Steel Institute.
Fig. 10-2-2 Compression in impression dies.
"Principles of Forging Design."
2. General Motors Corporation.

3. Meehanite Metal Corporation.

[(in 1 thill! * ii
:

•FLASH GUTTER
ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 1 through 3 for Unit
10-1 on page 223. B -OCKING AND FINISHING

Review forAssignments
Unit 7-8 Revolved and Removed
Sections IG) AF7= CRANKS ARE TWISTED INTO POSITION
Unit 7-4 Threads in Section Fig. 10-2-1 The forging of a crankshaft.
Unit 6-1 Detail Drawings (wyman-Gordon Co.) Fig. 10-2-3 Forging die with flash gutter.

218 FASTENERS, MATERIALS. AND FORMING PROCESSES

 Design Considerations undesirable flow of metal. A cold shut
causes a weak spot that may be opened
Comer and Fillet Radii It is important in
into a crack by heat treatment. Cold
forging design to use correct radii
shuts are most likely to form at fillets
where two surfaces meet. Corner and
in deep depressions or in deep sec-
fillet radii on forgings should be suffi-
tions, especially where the metal is
— PARTING LINE cient to facilitate the flow of metal for
confined. See Fig. 10-2-7. In these
(A) SINGLE IMPRESSION DIE sound forgings and to permit eco-
cases larger fillets are required, as
nomical manufacture.
shown in Fig. 10-2-6.
Stress concentrations resulting from
abrupt changes in section thickness or Draft Angle Draft is one of the first fac-

direction are minimized by corner and tors to be considered in designing a

fillet radii of correct size. Any radius forged part. See Fig. 10-2-8. Draft is
larger than recommended will increase defined as the angle of taper given to
die life. Any radius smaller than rec- the side walls of the die in order to
— PARTING LINE
'

ommended will decrease die life. See facilitate removal of the forging.
(B) DOUBLE IMPRESSION DIE Fig. 10-2-6 for recommendations. Where little or no draft is allowed,
— FORGING Sharp cause the formation of
fillets stripper or ejection mechanisms must
cold shuts. In a forging, a cold shut is a be used. The usual amount of draft for
lap where two surfaces of metal have exterior contours is 7° and for interior
folded against each other, forming an contours 10°.

-PARTING LINE

(CI INTERLOCKING DIE

Fig. 10-2-4 Forging dies. (General Motors
Corp.)

H
R METAL MOVED TO
Double-impression dies have part of OVER |TOANDINCL I. STOCK BETWEEN UPPER 2.
AND LOWER DIES THE EDGE OF DIE
the impression of the desired forging i 1.00 (251 .06 (1 5) DEPRESSION
00 (25) L50 (351 .09 (2.51
sunk in each die in such a manner that 1.50(351 |
2.00 1501 12(3)
2.00 (501 300 (801 .18(4.51
no part of the die projects past the
parting line into the other die. This MIN CORNER RADII
3. METAL DROPPING INTO 4. METAL AT BOTTOM
type is the most common class of DIE DEPRESSION OF DIE DEPRESSION
forging. 12 (3) MIN WE8

Trimming
Because the quantity of forging metal -R 06 (1.5) MIN 5. METAL FLOW IS 6. METAL FLOW AT B
SLOWER AROUND A CAUSING COLD SHUT
is generally in excess of the space in H
R Fig. 10-2-7 Cold shut. (General Motors
the die cavity, space is provided be- OVER |TOANDINCL
Corp.)
tween the die surfaces for the escape 30(8) R = H

of the excess metal. This space is .30 (81 .50 (131 " 4
called the flash space, and the excess
metal which flows into it is called FILLET RADII FOR SMALL RIBS

flash. The flash thickness is propor-

mass of the forging.
tionate to the
The removed from forgings
flash is

by trimming dies which are formed to

the outline of the part. These dies FILLET RADII WHEN METAL IS CONFINED
shear or punch the forging out of the
flash, leaving a scaror mark, the width
and raggedness of which depends on
the quality and state of wear of the DRAFT
dies. See Fig. 10-2-5.

DEPTH OF A FORGED RECESS SHOULD

NOT EXCEED 0.67 X DIA
FILLET RADII WHEN METAL IS NOT CONFINED
- ".'ING FLASH AFTER TP Fig. 10-2-6 Corner and fillet radii. (General
L_y \_
Fig. 10-2-5 Flash trimming. Motors Corp.) Fig. 10-2-8 Draft application.

FORMING PROCESSES 219

 DRAFT EQUIVALENT -PARTING LINE should originate from the parting line.
O. This surface should then be used to
establish other dimensions, as shown
DEPTH OF DRAFT ANGLE OF DRAFT ~J SECTION A-A in Fig. 10-2-11.
FLAT PARTING
^PARTING LINE
Allowance for Machining When a forg-
ing is machined, allowance must
to be
DEPTH WANGLE OF be made for metal to be removed.
OF DRAFT 50 70 100
V I
-J
A SECTION A- Composite Drawings Generally, a
024 035
O18
437) (0.614) 10882)
SIMPLE LOCKED PARTING forged part should be shown on one
(0

r PARTING LINE drawing with the forging outline shown

050 070
40 "°»
(O^, II 2281 (1.763)
in phantom lines, as in Fig. 10-2-12.
Forging outlines for machining allow-
;

074 .106
ance should not be dimensioned unless
60|l5,
S, 1 8421 (2.6451 SECTION A-A
the amount of finish cannot be con-
100 .140 COMPOUND LOCKED PARTING trolled by the machining symbol.
80 ( 20) ,°™
(1750) (2.456) 13 5271
Fig. 10-2-10 Parting line application. Separate drawings for rough forg-
(General Motors Corp.) ings should be made only when the
00 (25) 1
088 .23 .176
(2187) 13070) (4408) part is complicated and the outline of
the rough forging cannot be clearly
Fig. 10-2-9 Die draft equivalent. (General
Motors Corp.) visualized, or where the outline of the
rough forging must be maintained for
XX. tooling purposes.
Die draft equivalent is the amount of
Where both the forging and machin-
offset that resultsfrom draft. Figure
ing drawings are shown on the same
10-2-9shows the draft equivalents for x
sheet, as in Fig. 10-2-13, place the
varying angles and depth of draft.
1 -,.-. headings FORGING DRAWING and
Parting Line The surfaces of dies that MACHINING DRAWINGdirectly
meet forgings are the striking sur-
in under the corresponding views.
faces. The line of meeting is the parting
line. The parting line of the forging XXX
must be established in order to deter-
POWDER METALLURGY
mine the amount of draft and its Powder metallurgy is the process of
location. making parts by compressing and sin-
The location and the type of parting tering various metallic and nonmetallic
as applied to simple forgings are shown powders into shape. See Fig. 10-2-14.
in Fig. 10-2-10. -DRAFT GREATER THAN STANDARD Dies and presses known as briquet-
ting machines are used to compress
Fig. 10-2-11 Dimensioning. (General Motors
Drafting Practices Corp.) the powders into shape. These bri-
In preparing forging drawings, it is
important to consider drafting prac-
XX.XXX-XX.XXX LINE REAM
tices which may be peculiar to forg- XX x XXO CHAMFER
2 HOLES
ings. such as:

• Dimensioning SECTION A-A

• Draft anglesand parting lines FOUR TIMES SCALE
• Corner and fillet radii
• Forging tolerances FORGE GM, PART NUMBER AND
VENDOR IDENTIFICATION AS SHOWN-
• Allowance for machining
• Material specifications
• Heat treatment
• Location of trademark, part num-
ber,and vendor specification
Dimensioning It is generally desirable
to apply dimensions to the forged part
of the depths of the die impressions.
Draft is additive to these dimensions
MAX MISMATCH XX
and should be expressed in degrees or
linear dimensions. PARTING LINE
FORGE TO PHANTOM LINES
When the depth of the die impres-
sion is located, only one dimension Fig. 10-2-12 Composite forging drawing. (General Motors Corp.

220 FASTENERS. MATERIALS. AND FORMING PROCESSES

 Axial Variations Slots having a depth
greater than one-fourth the axial length
of the part require multiple punch
action and result in higher production
costs. See Fig. 10-2-15.

Corner Reliefs Corner reliefs can be

molded or machined. A molded corner
relief will save machining. See Fig.
10-2-16.

Reverse Tapers Reverse tapers cannot

be molded. They must be machined.
See Fig. 10-2-17.

MATERIAL XXXX EST MASS 2.5 LB TOLERANCES- THICKNESS +.05-02

ALL DRAFT ANGLES 70 -MISMATCH .02
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED -DIE WEAR .035

FILLETS AND ROUNDS R .10

(A) FORGING DRAWING t

v
i

25PERCENT AXIAL ^MORE THAN 25

LENGTH A OR LESS PERCENT AXIAL
LENGTH A
PREFERRED NOT RECOMMENDED
Fig. 10-2-15 Axial variations. (General
Motors Corp.)

UA UA
13:

-CAN BE MOLDED -MUST BE MACHINED

±zr ^CL
PREFERRED NOT RECOMMENDED
(B) MACHINING DRAWING Fig. 10-2-16 Corner relief. (General Motors
Fig. 10-2-13 Separate forging and machining drawings. Corp.)

quets or compacts are then sintered or Ejection from the DieThe shape of the
heated an atmosphere-controlled
in part must permit ejection from the
furnace, bonding the powdered ma- die. The design requirements for some
terials. parts can be achieved only by subse-
quent machining, as in some corner
reverse tapers, holes at
relief designs, CAN BE MACHINED CANNOT BE MOLDED
right angles to the directionof press- Reverse taper. (General Motors
Design Considerations Fig. 10-2-17
ing, diamond knurls, and undercuts. Corp.)
The following should be considered
when powder metal parts are designed
in order to realize the maximum bene-
fitsfrom the powder metallurgy pro-
POWDER-FILL -UPPER
cess. This process is most applicable SHOE PUNCH a
to the production of cylindrical, rec-
tangular, or irregular shapes that do
not have large variations in cross-sec-
tional dimensions. Surface indenta-
tions or projections can be formed on
LOWER
A
either end or both ends of a part. -CORE ROD ^-DIE BARREL
PUNCH OR PILOT
Splines, gear teeth, axial holes, coun- ISTRIPPERI

terbores, straight knurls, serrations,

slots, and keyseats present few prob- FILL BRIQUETTE STRIP EJECT
lems. Fig. 10-2-14 Compacting sequence. (General Motors Corp.)

FORMING PROCESSES 221

Holes at Right Angles to the Direction of the die and produces a high-strength Chamfers Care in the design of cham-
Pressing Right-angle holes must be part. See Fig. 10-2-22. fers minimizes sharp edges on tools

machined. See Fig. 10-2-18. and improves tool life. See Fig.
Flanges A .06-in. (1.5-mm) minimum 10-2-26.
Knurls Straight knurls can be molded; flange overhang is desired to provide
diamond knurls cannot. See Fig. longer tool life. See Fig. 10-2-23. Holes A variety of odd-shaped holes
10-2-19. can be produced economically by the
Blind Holes If a flange is opposite the
powder metallurgy process. See Fig.
Undercuts Undercuts must be ma- blind end of the hole, the part must be 10-2-27.
chined. See Fig. 10-2-20. modified to allow powder to fill in the
die. See Fig. 10-2-24.
Wall Thickness In general, sidewalls
bordering a depression or hole should Changes in Cross Section Large changes References and Source Material
be a minimum of .03 in. (0.8 mm) thick. in cross section should be avoided
1. Frank Burbank, "Forging," Ma-
See Fig. 10-2-21. because they cause density variation. chine Design, vol. 37, no. 21, 1965.
Warping and cracking are likely to 2. General Motors Corporation.
Corners A
fillet radius must be pro-
occur during sintering. See Fig.
vided under the flange on a flanged
10-2-25.
part. It allows uniform powder flow in ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 4 and 5 for Unit 10-2
M
&
1

1
1
on page 224.
i i
i

Review for Assignments

-R.006 MIN -SHARP Unit 6-1 Detail Drawings
PREFERRED NOT RECOMMENDED Unit 7-1 Full Sections
Fig. 10-2-22 Corners. (General Motors
CAN BE MACHINED CANNOT BE MOLDED
Corp. |

Fig. 10-2-18 Right-angle hole. (General

Motors Corp.

01 MIN DEPTH

-CAN BE MOLDED u CANNOT BE MOLDED

Fig. 10-2-19 Knurls. (General Motors Corp.) PREFERRED NOT RECOMMENDED
Fig. 10-2-23 Flanges. (General Motors
Corp.)

PREFERRED NOT RECOMMENDED

Fig. 10-2-26 Chamfers with flat hand.

1 tzz
ftff
(General Motors Corp.)

1 1
-CAN BE MACHINED '-CANNOT BE MOLDED PREFERRED NOT RECOMMENDED
Fig. 10-2-20 Undercuts. (General Motors Fig. 10-2-24 Blind holes. (General Motors
Corp.)
Corp.)
kn^ki
MIN DIA = 08 OR
.20 TO .25 X A

NOT RECOMMENDED — .03 MIN

Fig. 10-2-21 Wall thickness. (General Motors Fig. 10-2-25 Change in cross section.
PREFERRED NOT RECOMMENDED
Corp.) (General Motors Corp.) Fig. 10-2-27 Holes. (General Motors Corp.

222 FASTENERS. MATERIALS. AND FORMING PROCESSES

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 10
Assignments for Unit 10-1,
Castings
1 On a B- or A3-size sheet, complete the
detail drawing of the base for the adjust-
able shaft support assembly shown in Fig.
1 0-1 -A. Cored holes are to be used for the
shaft holes. Scale is full or 1:1.

2. On an A3- or B-size sheet, complete the

detail drawing of the fork for the hinged
*,-£ irT
pipe vise assembly shown in Fig. 10-1-B.
_ L1r _.
Use your judgment for dimensions not
given. Scale is 1:1.

3. On a B- or A3-size sheet, prepare both the

casting and the machining drawings for
the connector shown in Fig. 10-1-C.
Draw a one-view full section, complete
with the necessary dimensions for each
drawing. Scale is full or 1:1.

Fig. 10-1-B Pipe vise.

0.25
4HOLES
EQ SPACED

1.60 1_

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R 06

MATL -SAE 1110
Fig. 10-1-A Adjustable shaft support. Fig. 10-1-C Connector.

FORMING PROCESSES 223

 .344
SFACE
.625
4 HOLES

r 1.25 / PARTING
LINE

3.20
.. V-

Fig. 10-2-A Bracket.

Assignments for Unit 10-2,

Forging, Cold Heading, and
Powder Metallurgy
4. On a B- or A3-size sheet, prepare a forg-
ing drawing of one of the parts shown in
Fig. 10-2-A or 10-2-B. Scale is full or 1:1.
5. On a B- or A3-size sheet prepare a forg-
ingdrawing for the wrench handle
shown in Fig. I0-2-C. Scale is full or 1:1.

r& ~>J ROUNDS AND FILLETS R3

-STAMP NUMBERS 3 HIGH

"JHEX 24 A F

Fig. 10-2-B Open-end wrench.

0.812
10 - 24NC X .32 DEEP
0.312

HANDLE DETAIL

WRENCH HANDLE
MATL - FORGED STEEL
I REQUIRED
Fig. 10-2-C Wrench handle.

224 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

CHAPTER 11
Welding
Drawings

UNIT 11-1
CRANKS ^^^J^ssf^f Designing for
AND

CRANKSHAFTS Welding 2 1 -

The primary importance of welding is

LINKS
$5=®! to unite various pieces of metal so that
they will operate as a unit structure to
support the loads to be carried. In
AND
order to design such a structure, which
will be both economical and efficient,
CLEVISES
the drafter must have a knowledge of
the basic principles of welding practice
and an understanding of the advan-
tages and limitations of the process.
WHEELS In order to produce an economical
and pleasing design, the designer
should endeavor to utilize the method
of construction which is clearly the
most advantageous for the application
under consideration. This may mean a
combination of welding and bolting, or
LEVERS even the incorporation of pressings,
forgings, or even castings where they
may be advantageous. The possibility
of using structural steel shapes and
tubes should also be kept in mind. See
Figs. 11-1-1 and 11-1-2.

Fig. 11-1-1 A variety of weldments. (James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation.)

Fig. 11-1-2 Design ideas for fabricated parts. James| F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation.

WELDING DRAWINGS 225

 Of more than 40 welding processes TYPE OF JOINT APPLICABLE WELDS welding employs electricity. But no
used in industry today, only a few are arc is generated. Instead, heat is cre-

industrially important. Arc welding, ated from resistance losses as a high-

gas welding, and resistance welding SLOT amperage current is sent across a joint
are the three most important types of SQUARE-GROOVE between two mating surfaces.
BEVEL GROOVE
welding. JGROOVE
FLARE BEVELGROOVE
The workpieces are melted along a
SPOT
common edge or surface so that their PROJECTION DESIGN OF WELDED
molten metal —
and usually a filler SEAM
STRUCTURES
metal also —
is allowed to form a com- SQUARE GROOVE
V-GROOVE
mon pool or puddle. The pieces are BUTT JOINT BEVEL GROOVE
In designing machine frames and simi-
fused when the puddle solidifies. See UGROOVE by weld-
lar structures for fabrication
JGROOVE
Figs. 11-1-3 and 11-1-4.
FLARE-V-GROOVE
ing, the main considerations, apart
Gas welding, the most common FLARE BEVEL-GROOVE from ensuring that the part will fulfill
EDGE-FLANGE
form of which oxyacetylene weld-
is itsintended function, are usually con-
FILLET
ing, gets its heat from the burning of fined to the necessity for evolving an
SQUARE GROOVE
flammable gases. This process is slow V-GROOVE article which will be pleasing in
CORNER JOINT BEVEL-GROOVE
compared to other modern welding UGROOVE
appearance and which can be eco-
methods, so gas welding is normally JGROOVE nomically produced. In this respect
FLARE-V-GROOVE
confined to repair and maintenance FLARE-BEVEL GROOVE the drafter has more scope for the
work rather than being a major mass- EDGE FLANGE application of his or her inventiveness
CORNER FLANGE
production technique. See Fig. 11-1-5. SPOT than other branches of welding
in
The major industrial welding pro- PROJECTION design. The
drafter should try to avoid
SEAM
cess is arc welding, where heat is gen- being unduly influenced by the design
erated by an electric arc struck FILLET principles which have been developed
PLUG
between a welding electrode, or rod, SLOT for other methods of construction. For
and the workpiece. The arc is quite BEVEL-GROOVE example, in designing machinery parts
JGROOVE
hot. and melting and subsequent solid- FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE for fabrication, especially when they
ification of the weld metal occur very SPOT
are intended to replace or supersede
PROJECTION
rapidly. SEAM castings and forgings, it is generally
Resistance welding is also widely PLUG any
essential for the drafter to avoid
used, especially in mass-production SLOT tendency to design on the basis of
SQUARE-GROOVE
work. As in arc welding, resistance BEVEL-GROOVE making the weldment look like a cast-
V GROOVE
ing for forging.
UGROOVE
JGROOVE
EDGE FLANGE
CORNER FLANGE
Weight (Mass) Saving
SPOT When castings are to be superseded by
PROJECTION
SEAM
weldments, the higher labor costs of
EDGE the weldment must be offset by sim-
plifying the design and reducing the
Fig. 11-1-4 Basic welding joints.
AVOID BEND IF POSSIBLE
weight or mass. With a casting some
extra thickness usually has been pro-
(A) BEND WHERE POSSIBLE
vided to allow for defective metal and
maybe for shifting cores. With steel
METAL OR ALLOY GAS ARC there is practically no risk of defective
ALUMINUM material so that this surplus can be
-COMMERCIALLY PURE X X eliminated. Moreover, since cast iron
-Al-Mn ALLOY X X
BRASS. COMMERCIAL X has less than half the tensile strength of
AVOID STOCK
>CK T-6AR
T-
BRONZE. COMMERCIAL X
steel, the mass or size of a steel part
COPPER IDEOXIOIZEDI X
(B) USE STANDARD FORMS5 IRON can be reduced proportionately. For
-GRAY AND ALLOY X
-MALLEA8LE example, for the same overall dimen-
LEAD X sions, because of the higher stresses
tf PREFERRED
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS
STEELS. CARBON
X
X X that can be allowed, a steel section
need be no more than half the thick-
-LOW AND MEDIUM CARBON X X
-HIGH CARBON X ness of a cast-iron one. This is shown
(C) AVOID MACHINING OF WELD METAL -TOOL STEEL
STEEL. CAST
in the drawing of a pump base in Fig.
X X
STEELS. STAINLESS 11-1-6.
77777177777777777, -CHROMIUM X
AVOID :^RED CHROMIUM-NICKEL X X
(D) USE THICK PADS WHEN MACHINING PADS Conclusion
ARE REQUIRED To a large extent, the ultimate cost
Fig. 11-1-5 Weldability of various metals and
Fig. 11-1-3 Preferred welding design. alloys. of the job is usually the yardstick

226 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 tie"
100," *hk
*
1_ ^
ahoU
*> !,ndS
*«ip*"
-fho<t&
/7
lAj (C

a
6.00- *J0U'

IE) (F)

Fig. 11-1-7 Various types of boss

attachments.

Aft. a// -these, ho/d dowm

necessity if »/e, msde.
the bose. natty hgid P order to enable the most suitable raw
material to be selected to ensure effi-
(A) ORIGINAL PUMP BASE SUBJECT OF COST STUDY ciency, economy, and pleasing appear-
ance. Steel plates will no doubt pro-
ideei
vide the basic element in the majority
of cases, and by flamecutting there is
no limit to the variety of shapes that
can be produced.

rf ^^i®
r
g-7 Steel plate surfaces are usually flat
and smooth enough to be used as seat-
ing or bolting surfaces without further
machining. Moreover, where bearings
in a plate are required or should a
machined surface be considered desir-
&X notion shout
/CO times barter able for the seating of bolt heads, col-
resistance 1b
lars, washers, etc., it is often not
twitt than
_ nest iron essential to weld on bosses such as
open Station
;tt/73»~
would ordinarily be employed on a
&&*'*
casting. By making the plate a little

&jei 3 ki-'7*li > thicker than normal, the machined

>^~C#tr-/70£!- areas can be spot-faced into the plate
Use diagonal btaoing (or nutated
resistance to twisting surface. The spot-facing costs about
Ctn/i is usually several hundred *-
as resistant to twnt as ordinary bran the same as a boss machining opera-
formed end eutomatitatly tion, but the work in preparation and
v

rtMmi /it/ ^utitn welding on of bosses is eliminated.

(B) ALTERNATIVE BASE DESIGNS See Fig. 11-1-7 for types of boss
Fig. 11-1-6 Design of pump base. attachments.

by which the advantages of any type tion must be prepared for welding, the References and Source Material
of construction are measured. The various components must then be 1. American Welding Society.
drafter should, therefore, review those assembled and fitted; finally, there is 2. Machine Design. Fastening and
factors which are contributory to the the actual welding which may be fol- joining reference issue, Nov. 1981.
cost of a weldment. Although the cost lowed by stress relieving.
of steel is low compared with that of
cast iron or cast steel, and generally it Choice of Raw Materials ASSIGNMENT
is possible to use less metal in a weld- In this type of design, the drafter has a See Assignment 1 for Unit 11-1 on
ment than in an equivalent casting, it is wide choice of raw materials, plates, page 242.
essential to remember that there are structural shapes, forgings. tubes,
more operations involved in the pro- castings, etc. Careful consideration of Review for Assignment
duction of a weldment than there are in the function of the various compo- Unit 6-4 Billsof Material
the case of a casting. The plate or sec- nents of the structure is desirable in Unit 6-6 Detailed Assembly Drawing

U/ELDING DRAWINGS 227

 — H-LEGSIZE
UNIT 11-2
-j

FACE

Welding Symbols
The introduction of welding symbols
enables the designer to indicate clearly
(A) FILLET WELD
the type and size of weld required to
meet design requirements, and it is V^ */- GROOVE OR
\ *"1 L INCLUDED ANGLE
becoming increasingly important for \ I /^RFVFI ANGLE

the designer to specify the required

type of weld correctly. Points which
must be made clear are the type of
GROOVE RADIUS
weld, the joint preparation, the weld
size, the root gap (if any), and the (B) GROOVE WELD
degree of penetration required. These
points can be clearly indicated on the
drawing by the welding symbol. See
Fig. 11-2-1.
Welding symbols are a shorthand
WHICHEVER
,

:
30
.62

IS
(81

.62 1161 T,

BIGGER
D
161 T,

MIN
MAX
T
= 2.2

62 1
X

161
T,

OR T 2
W^E U^I0T,_J

language. They save time and money

and ensure understanding and accu- IC) PLUG AND SLOT WELD

racy. desirable that they should be

It is
a universal language; and for this rea-
son the symbols of the American
Welding Society, already well estab-
lished, have been adopted. See Figs.
11-2-2 and 11-2-3.
Fig. 11-2-2 Basic weld terminology.
The use of the words far side and section, all welds are equally distant
near side in the past has led to confu- from the reader, and the words near
sion because when joints are shown in and far are meaningless. In the present

SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS
MELT-THRU WELD ALL FIELD
FLUSH CONVEX CONCAVE AROUND WELD

V V J*-
STANDARD LOCATION OF ELEMENTS OF A WELDING SYMBOL
FINISH SYMBOL ROOT OPENING.
DEPTH OF FILLING
CONTOUR SYMBOL FOR PLUG AND SLOT WELDS
GROOVE ANGLE. INCLUDED ENGTH OF WELD
ANGLE OR COUNTERSINK
FOR PLUG WELDS PITCH (CENTER-TO-CENTER
SPACINGI OF WELDS
SIZE. SIZE OR STRENGTH
FOR CERTAIN WELDS FIELD WELD SYMBOL

WELD ALL-AROUND SYMBOL

REFERENCE LINE

SPECIFICATION. PROCESS
OR OTHER REFERENCE
BEVEL
TAIL GROOVE
(MAY BE OMITTED WHEN ARROW CONNECTING REFERENCE
REFERENCE IS NOT USED! LINE TO ARROW SIDE OR ARROW
SIDE MEMBER OF JOINT
BASIC WELDING SYMBOL ELEMENTS IN THIS AREA
-REMAIN SHOWN WHEN TAIL - NUMBER OF SPOTS OR
-ERENCE PROJECTION WELDS
AND ARROW ARE REVERSED
BASIC WELD SYMBOLS
-
SPOT GROOVE WELDS

t\ © \y v v \> -\r \r A K rr^

SIZE SYMBOL, LENGTH OF WELD AMD SPACING MuST READ IN THAT ORDER FROM LEFT TO RIGHT ALONG
'.'.'ELD

THE REFERENCE LINE NEITHER ORIENTATION OR REFEPENCE LINE NOR LOCATION ALTER THIS RULE.
THE PERPENDICULAR LEG OR [\ WELD SYMBOLS MUST BEAT LEFT ARROW AND OTHER SIDE
J,/ ^ \f~
RE OF THE SAME SIZE UNLESS OTHERWISE SHOWN. SYMBOLS APPLY BETWEEN ABRUPT CHANGES
IN DIRECTION OF WELDING UNLESS GOVERNED BY THE "ALL-AROUND SYMBOL
'
OR OTHERWISE DIMENSIONED.

Fig. 11-2-1 Welding symbols. Fig. 11-2-3 Basic types of welds.

228 FASTENERS, MATERIALS. AND FORMING PROCESSES

 OTHER SIDE OTHER SIDE/ ARROW SIDE
OF JO i

ARROW SIDE
ARROW SIDE OF JOINT
-^l
-OTHER SIDE
OF JOINT
DRAWING CALLOUT DESIRED WELD OTH ER SIDE /
(A)T-JOINT r- ARROW SIDE MEMBER
/ ARC IOINT
/ ARROW SIDE
A
.

/ \ OF JOINT
/ ARRC

L ^ OTHER
OF JOINT
SIDE MEMBER
/ OTHER SIDE/ DESIRED WELD
JOINT^ OF JOINT J DRAWING CALLOUT
DRAWING CALLOUT DESIRED WELD
(B) BUTT JOINT (D) LAP JOINTS

OTHER -ARROW SIDE

OF JOINT
/N SID !L/
J
ARROV < v OTHER SIDE
SIDE OTHER

OTHER SIDE
SIDE.
ARROW
\
SIDE OF JOINT

•ARROW
-Em
RROWSIDE
SIDE

-OTHER SIDE

JOINT-
1
DRAWING CALLOUT
OTHER
OF JOINT
SIDE,

DESIRED WELD
DRAWING CALLOUT

(E) EDGE JOINT

DESIRED WELD
OF JOINT

(C) CORNER JOINTS

Fig. 11-2-4 Identification of arrow side and other side of joint.

system the joint is the basis of refer-

ence. Any joint, the welding of which DESIGNATION WELDING PROCESS DESIGNATION CUTTING PROCESS
is indicated by a symbol, will always AAC Air-Carbon Arc Carbon
CAW Carbon-Arc Welding
have an arrow side and another side. CW Cold Welding AC . Arc Cutting
Accordingly, the words arrow side, DB Dip Brazing AOC . . .Oxygen Arc Cutting
other side, and both sides are used DFW Diffusion Welding CAC . . . Carbon Arc Cutting
EBW Electron Beam Welding FOC Chemical Flux Cutting
here to locate the weld with respect to EW Electrostag Welding
.

MAC .... Metal-Arc Cutting

the joint. See Fig. 11-2-4. EXW Explosion Welding
OC . Oxygen Cutting
FB Furnace Brazing
The tail of the symbol is used for PAC Plasma Arc Cutting
FCAW Flux Cord Arc Welding
. . .

designating the welding specifications, FOW Forge Welding POC . Metal Powder Cutting

procedures, or other supplementary FRW Friction Welding

FW Flash Welding Fig. 11-2-7 Designation of cutting processes
information to be used in the making of
GMAW Gas Metal-Arc Welding by letters.
the weld. See Fig. 11-2-5. The notation GTAW Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding
to be placed behind the tail of the sym- IB Induction Brazing
IRB Infrared Brazing
bol is to indicate the process, the type
IW Induction Welding
of metal to be used, and whether
filler
LBW Laser Beam Welding Location Significance
peening or root chipping is required. If OAW Oxyacetylene Welding
OHW Oxyhydrogen Welding
of Arrow
notations are not used, the tail of the
PAW Plasma-Arc Welding 1 In the case of fillet and groove weld-
symbol may be omitted. PEW Percussion Welding ing symbols, the arrow connects the
The use of letters can designate dif- PGW Pressure Gas Welding
welding symbol reference line to
ferent welding and cutting processes. RB Resistance Brazing
RPW Projection Welding one side of the joint, and this side is
See Figs. 11-2-6 and 11-2-7. RSEW Resistance Seam Welding considered the arrow side of the
KA-2 —< SAW RSW Resistance Spot Welding
joint. The side opposite the arrow
SAW Submerged Arc Welding
SMAW Shielded Metal Arc Welding
side of the joint is considered the
IA) REFERENCE (B) PROCESS SW Stud Welding other side of the joint.
TB Torch Brazing
2. When ajoint is depicted by a single
TW Thermit Welding
line on the drawing and the arrow of
USW Ultrasonic Welding
UW Upset Welding a welding symbol is directed to this
(CI NO SPECIFICATIONS REQUIRED line, the arrow side of the joint is

Fig. 11-2-6 Designation of welding considered the near side of the

Fig. 11-2-5 Location of reference and
processes on welding symbols. processes by letters. joint.

WELDING DRAWINGS 229

 WELD ALL-ABOUND SYMBOL The following finishing symbols indi-
3. In the case of plug. slot, arc-spot.
arc-seam, resistance-spot, resis- cate the method, not the degree, of
tance-seam, and projection welding finish:

symbols, the arrow connects the • C = Chipping

welding symbol reference line to • G = Grinding
the outer surface of one of the mem- • M = Machining
bers of the joint at the center line of -WELD ALL-AROUND JOINT • R = Rolling
BETWEEN BOTH PARTS
the desired weld. The member to • H = Hammering
which the arrow points is the arrow- Xiiinlk
side member. The remaining mem- For methods of indicating degree of
ber of the joint is considered the DESIRED WELD finish see Unit 5-7.
DRAWING CALLOUT
other member. (Al

4. When a joint is depicted as an area PIPE - THE DESIGN OF

parallel to the plane of projection in
the drawing and the arrow of a
welding symbol is directed to that
area, the arrow-side member of the
joint is considered the near member
of the joint.
Location of Weld Symbol with
Respect to Joint
1. Welds on the arrow side of the joint
are shown by placing the weld sym-
bol on the bottom side of the refer-
ence line.
2. Welds on the other side of the joint
are shown by placing the weld sym-
bol on the top side of the reference
line.
3. Welds on both sides of the joint are
shown by placing the weld symbol
on both sides of the reference line.
WELD ALL-AROUND
WELDED JOINTS
z7\
Since loads are transferred from one
member to another through the welds
VIEW A-A
on a fabricated assembly, the type of
DRAWING CALLOUT DESIRED WELD
joint and weld is specified by the
IB)
designer. Figure 11-2-4 shows basic
Fig. 11-2-8 Application of weld all-around joint and weld types. Specifying the
symbol.
joint does not by itself describe the
type of weld to be used. Several types
of welds may be used for making a
joint.
The weld, requiring no groove
fillet
.FIELDWELD SYMBOL
FLAG POINTS TOWARD TAIL penetration, is one of the most com-
monly used welds. Corner welds are
also widely used in machine design.
The corner-to-corner joint, shown in
Fig. 11-2-12A, is difficult to assemble
because neither plate can be supported

Use of Weld-AII-Around
Symbol Fig. 11-2-9 Application of field weld symbol.
A weld extending completely around a
joint is indicated by means of a weld-
all-around symbol placed at the inter-
section of the reference line and the
arrow. See Fig. 11-2-8.
-FINISHING SYMBOL

Use of Field Weld Symbol DRAWING CALLOUT DESIRED WELD

Field welds (welds not made in a shop
Fig. 11-2-11 Welding finishing symbols.
or at the place of initial construction)
are indicated by means of the field
weld symbol placed at the intersection
of the reference line and the arrow.
The flag always points toward the tail
of the arrow. See Fig. 11-2-9.

Combined Welding Symbols

For joints having more than one weld.
a symbol is shown for each weld. See

Fig. 11-2-10.

Finishing of Welds
Finishing of welds, other than clean-
ing, is indicated by suitable contour DRAWING CALLOUT DESIRED WELD
TJ
and finish symbols. See Fig. 11-2-11. Fig. 11-2-10 Combined welding symbols. Fig. 11-2-12 Corner joints.

230 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

by the other. The joint also requires a
larger amount of weld than the other
joints illustrated. The corner joint
shown in Fig. 11-2-12B is easy to
assemble and requires half the amount
of weld metal as the joint in Fig.
11-2-12A. However, by using half the
weld size, but placing two welds, one
outside, as in Fig. 1 1-2-12C,
ble to obtain the same total throat as
with the first weld. Only half the weld
metal is required.
With thick plates, a partial-penetra-
tion groove joint, as in Fig. 11-2-12D, is
used. This requires beveling. For a
deeper joint, a preparation, as in Fig.
J of weld metal as the fillet welds depos-
11-2-12E, may be used in preference to
a bevel. The fillet weld in Fig. 11-2-12F
is out of sight and makes a neat and
economical corner.
The size of the weld should always
be designed with reference to the size
of the thinner member. The joint can-
not be made any stronger by using the
thicker member for the weld size, and
much more weld metal may be
required, as illustrated in Fig. 11-2-13.
The designer is frequently faced
with the question of whether to use
fillet or groove welds. Here cost
becomes a major consideration. The
fillet welds in Fig. 11-2-14A are easy to
apply and require no special plate
preparation.
In comparison, the double-bevel weld would be less expensive than if
groove weld in Fig. 11-2-14B has about the fillet welds were specified. As can
one-half the weld area of the fillet be seen in Fig. 11-2-15, one of the fillets
welds. However, it requires extra would have to be made in the overhead
preparation and the use of smaller- position — a costly operation.
diameter electrodes with lower weld-
ing currents to place the initial pass References and Source Material
without burning through. As plate 1. American Welding Society.
it is possi- thickness increases, this initial low- 2. The Lincoln Electric Company.
deposition region becomes a less im-
portant factor, and the higher cost fac- ASSIGNMENTS
tor decreases in significance. See Assignments 2 and 3 for Unit 11-2
Refer to Fig. 11-2-14C. It will be on page 242.
noted that the single-bevel groove
weld requires about the same amount Review for Assignments
Unit 3-9 Enlarged Views
ited in Fig. 11-2-14A. Thus, there is no Unit 7-5 Direction of Section Lining
apparent economic advantage. There
are some disadvantages, though. The
single-bevel joint requires bevel prepa- UNIT 11-3
ration and initially a lower deposit rate
at the root of the joint. From a design Fillet Welds
standpoint, however, it offers a direct
transfer of force through the joint, FILLET WELD SYMBOLS
which means that it is probably better
Figure 11-3-1 shows theweld sym- fillet
under fatigue loading. Although the
bol and its on the ref-
relative position
illustrated full-strength fillet welds,
erence line. Figures 11-3-2 and 11-3-3
having leg sizes equal to 75 percent of
show applications of the fillet weld and
the plate thickness, would be suffi-
appropriate symbols.
cient,some codes have lower allow-
able limits for fillet welds and may
require a leg size equal to the plate LOCATION SYMBOL
thickness. In this case, the cost of the SIGNIFICANCE
fillet-welded joint may exceed the cost
of a single-bevel groove in thicker
ARROW
1}
plates. Also, if the joint is so posi-
tioned that the weld can be made in a
flat position, a single-bevel groove
SIDE

/ "

K
FLAT POSITION OTHER SIDE
/
fl BOTH SIDES

Fig. 11-3-1 Fillet

/^
weld symbol and its
Fig. 11-2-13 Size of weld determined by OVERHEAD POSITION location significance.
thinner member.
I. Dimensions of fillet welds are
FLAT POSITION shown on the same side of the ref-
1' T

r
erence line as the weld symbol.

^DOUBLE F
k
f
LLET
!

DOL BLE BEVEL

3R00VE
1 1

SIN< ;le b
.ROOV E
(

BACKUP STRIP
L
25^

e
C
JSfc^
t
Fig. 11-2-15 In the flat position, a single-
Fig. 11-2-14 Comparison between fillet and groove joint is less expensive than two fillet
I r
groove welds. welds.

U/ELDING DRAWINGS 231

 2. When both sides of a joint have
r'ftj'H
same-size fillet welds, one or both
may be dimensioned. i
j T I t

*- fl

WELD I

\L
*" L^ WELDING SYMBOLS WELD ALL-AROUND ON ONE PLANE

SIDE r
WELD 2t— '
I

/
/-OTHER
SIDE HjfiH n
..../J WELDH
—[_„ 1 \

When both sides of a joint have

fillet welds, both are
different-size
dimensioned.
LL.J J
ARROW
SIDE
WELD 6 L.BJ
NEAR SIDE
NOTE: WELOING SYM80L REFERS TO NEAR SIDE
L

WELDS 2 AND 5 WELD 3

WHEN THE FAR SIDE IS IDENTICAL TO THE APPLIES TO WELOS 3 AND 4

NEAR SIDE. THE WELDING SHOWN FOR THE WHICH ARE SYMMETRICAL
NEAR SIDE SHALL BE DUPLICATED ON THE FAR SIOE. ABOUT AXES Y-Y.
WELDS 2 AND 5 INVOLVE SYMMETRY ABOUT AXIS X-X
When there appears on a drawing a Fig. 11-3-2 Application of fillet welds for shaft support.
general note governing the dimen-
sion of fillet welds, such as ALL
FILLET WELDS .25 IN. UN- 7. When a fillet weld is required to go The length of a fillet weld, when
LESS OTHERWISE NOTED, completely around a part, a weld- indicated on the welding symbol,
and all the welds have dimensions all-around symbol is used. is shown to the right of the weld
governed by the note, the dimen- symbol.
sion need not be shown on the
weld symbols.
2 00

IC 1
.251/ 16.00 \

\
^7~
n -

/ •
A
5. When the dimensions of either
\

arrow side or other side or both

welds differ from the dimensions
The size of a fillet weld with
unequal legs is shown in paren-
given in the general note, either or 10. Specific lengths of fillet welds may
both welds are dimensioned.
theses to the of the weld sym-
left
be indicated by symbols in con-
The weld is shown to
bol. Weld orientation is not shown
6. size of a fillet junction with dimension lines.
by the symbol. It is shown on the
the left of the weld symbol.
drawing when necessary.

Bfcv.

V. 14 X 6)1/

r^
!
metric] METRIC
n.
232 FASTENERS. MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES
11. The pitch (center-to-center spac-
ing) of intermittent fillet welding is

shown as the distance between

centers of increments on one side
of the joint. It is shown to the right
of the length dimension.

iM

01.125

\U" ti m ur\

•ZZ3 CZJ EH
-•4 2 00 U- u
12. Staggered intermittent fillet welds
are shown with the weld symbols
staggered.

3.00

3ll/2C00-12 00
311/2

Fig. 11-3-3 Welded-steel shaft support.

r:

3 DIMENSIONS
Strength
IN INCHES DIMENSIONS
Strength
IN MILLIMETERS

Design Rigidity Design Design Rigidity Design

50% 33% of 50% of 33% of

Full- Full- Full- Full- Full- Full-
Plate strength strength strength Plate strength strength strength
13. welds that are to be welded
Fillet
Weld Weld Weld
Thickness Weld Weld Thickness Weld
approximately flat-faced without
Less than
recourse to any method of finish- .12 .12 6 3 3 3
.25 .12
ing are shown by adding the flush-
.25 .19 .19 19 6 5 5 5
contour symbol to the weld .25 19 19 8 6 5 5
.31
symbol. .38 .31 19 19 10 8 5 5
.44 .38 19 19 11 10 5 5
TT .50 .38 19 19 12 10 5 5
"IT, .56 .44 25 25 14 11 6 6
.62 .50 25 25 16 12 6 6
.75 .56 31 25 20 14 8 6
.88 .62 38 31 22 16 10 8
1.00 .62 38 31 25 16 10 8
1.12 .88 44 31 28 22 1 1 8

IT GRIND
1.25
1.38
1.00
1.00
50
50
31
38
32
35
25
25
12
12 10
8

5 FLAT 1.50

Fig. 11-3-4
the plate.
1.12 56 38 38 28 14

Rule-of-thumb fillet-weld sizes where the strength of the weld metal matches
10

WELDING DRAWINGS 233

SIZE OF FILLET WELDS References and Source Material 2. When both sides of a double-
1. American Welding Society. groove weld have the same dimen-
Figure 11-3-4 gives the sizing of fillet
2. The Lincoln Electric Company. sions, one or both may be dimen-
welds for rigidity designs at various
sioned.
strengths and plate thicknesses, where
the strength of the weld metal matches ASSIGNMENT
the plate.
See Assignment 4 for Unit 11-3 on
In machine design work, where the
primary design requirement is rigidity,
members are often made with extra-
heavy sections, so that improvement
page 243.

Review for Assignment

s
Unit 6-4 Bills of Material
under load would be w ithin very close
Unit 6-6 Detailed Assembly Draw- 3. When both sides of a double-
tolerances. The question arises of how
ing groove weld differ in dimensions,
to determine the weld size for these
Unit 11-2 Welding Symbols both are dimensioned.
types of rigidity designs.
A very practical method is to design
the weld for the thinner plate, making 75 r\
it sufficient to carry one-third to one-
UNIT 11-4
half the carrying capacity of the plate.
This means that if the plate were
stressed one-third to one-half its usual
Groove Welds •
—rj /

value, the weld would be of sufficient

size. Most rigidity designs are stressed USE OF BREAK IN ARROW OF 4. When there appears on the draw-

much below these values. However, BEVEL AND J-GROOVE ing a general note governing the
dimensions of groove welds, such
any reduction in weld size below one- WELDING SYMBOLS asALL V-GROOVE WELDS
third the full-strength value would give
a weld too small in appearance for gen-
When a bevel or J-groove weld symbol ARE TO HAVE A 60° ANGLE
eral acceptance.
is used, the arrow points with a defi- UNLESS OTHERWISE
nite break toward the member which is NOTED, groove welds need not
to be chamfered. In cases where the be dimensioned.
EXAMPLE 1 What size fillet weld is
required to match the strength of the
member to be chamfered is obvious,
the break in the arrow may be omitted.
fabricated design shown in Fig.
11-3-5 A?
See Figs. 11-4-1 through 11-4-3.
Solution With reference to Fig. 11-3-4,
a full-strengthweld is required. Thin- GROOVE WELD SYMBOLS
cz ZD "»•::-•'
ner plate = .31 in. Fillet weld required
= 1. Dimensions of groove welds are
.25 in.
shown on the same side of the ref-
ARROW
TO PART 8
POINTIN
j / N r-BE E

EXAMPLE 2 What size fillet

required to hold the rib to the plate
weld is
erence line as the weld symbol.
| ^ 1 PART B 1 \ PART A ^^^PART 8
j

shown in Fig. 1 1-3-5B? Weld design is DRAWING CALLOUT DESIRED WELD

for rigidity only, and only 33 percent of

full-strength weld is required.
Solution Thinner plate =With.31 in.
V
.

reference to Fig. 11-3-4. the weld size

under rigidity design. 33 percent \ PART A
>1 PART B
,

opposite .31 in., is .19 in.

DRAWING CALLOUT DESIREO WELD

— Fig. 11-4-2 Use of break in arrow.

location
SCl V BEVEL U j FLARE V FLARE-BEVEL

^
significance!

T.3,
N- N
N > — '
K >
-^
J^- X
r -~
^ \ \/
"^ ^X V r- ^^ ~,
X.
BOT> :
y
-^ **- / Y
A <
V
K ^^e- \r
^ \
Fig. 11-3-5 Calculating fillet-weld size. Fig. 11-4-1 Basic groove welding symbols and their location significance.

234 FASTENERS. MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 251 50'
•
r ^-60°», /

•H'
OPEN SQUARE BUTT
WELDED ONE SIDE
"t 7P *-|[» 06MIN
It
75 MAX
MIN-H
MINH SEE NOTE I

11. The size of flare-groove welds is

far considered as extending only to

JU
* TC
x^ the tangent points.
beyond the point of tangency is
The extension

treated as an edge or lap joint. See

-T = UNLIMITED Fig. 11-4-4.
SEE NOTE 2 450-H a 25 X 12 SPACER
>1 minN Nf

JlT^ 45<>J

NOTE ' -45° ALL POSITIONS. 30° FLAT AND OVERHEAD ONLY
NOTE 2 -45° ALL POSITIONS. 20° FLAT AND OVERHEAD ONLY

Fig. 11-4-3 Spacing and material thickness for common butt joints.

5. For bevel and groove welds, the When the single-groove and sym-
arrow points with a definite break metrical double-groove welds
toward the member being beveled. extend completely through the /
7Tr
/.38(.25>
member or members being joined,
7bK~ the size of the weld need not be
shown on the welding symbol. 00 ^e^
> J \"

9. When
60°

the groove welds extend

only partly through the member
beingjoined, the size of the weld is
shown on the welding symbol.
(B)
/
'501
(A)

251

JOINING
7Xr
JOINING ROUNDS

] c

^
ROUNDED CORNERS
—4 62

When the dimensions of one or

both welds differ from the dimen- Y?T
sions given in the general note, (C) JOINING ROUND AND FLAT-ONE SIDE

both welds are dimensioned.

-4--0
4€
10. The size of groove welds with

] c dfc ~30°^
specified root penetration, except
square-groove welds, is given by
showing both the depth of cham-
(D) JOINING
3
ROUND AND FLAT-BOTH
{

SIDES

fering and the root penetration to

7. The size of groove welds is shown the left of the weld symbol. The
to the left of the weld symbol. size of the square-groove welds is
indicated by showing only the root
50° 3 T EJ
penetration. The depth of cham- 25
.25^
fering and the root penetration, ~U~L
enclosed in brackets, are read in (E) COMBINED WELDS
that order from left to right along Fig. 11-4-4 Application of flare-V and flare-

W 5 0oV
the reference line. bevel welds.

WELDING DRAWINGS 235

12. Root opening of groove welds is 16. Groove welds that are welded Figure 1 1-4-6 indicates how the root
the user's standard unless other- approximately flush without opening must be increased as the
wise indicated. Root opening of recourse to any method of finish- included angle of the bevel is de-
groove welds, when not the user's ing are shown by adding the flush- creased. Backup strips are used on
standard, is shown inside the weld contour symbol to the weld sym- larger root openings. All three prepa-
symbol. bol, observing the usual locational rations are acceptable; all are con-
significance. ducive to good welding procedure and
good weld quality. Selection, there-
rv, fore, is usually based on cost.

s=d
SE MADE
FLUSH

13. Groove angle of groove welds is

the user's standard, unless other-

wise indicated. Groove angle of 1 7. Groove welds that are to be made
Fig. 11-4-6 Root opening increases as the
groove welds, when not the user's flush by mechanical means are angle decreases.
standard, is shown. shown by adding both the flush-
contour symbol and the user's
standard finish symbol to the weld
r~fc Root opening and joint preparation
symbol, observing the usual loca-
tional significance. C = chipping, will directly affect weld cost, and
G = grinding, M = machining, selection should be made with this in
R = rolling, H = hammering. mind. Joint preparation involves the
work required on plate edges prior to
welding and includes beveling and
THIS SURFACE MADE providing a root face.
14. Groove and root faces of U-
radii \FLUSH BY GRINDING
Using a double-groove joint in pref-
and J-groove welds are the user's \
erence to a single-groove, as in Fig.
standard, unless otherwise spec-
11-4-7, halves the amount of welding.
ified. When groove radii and root
5'JRFACE MADE This reduces distortion and makes
faces of U- and J-groove welds are FLUSH BY CHIPPING
possible alternating the weld passes on
not the user's standard, the weld is
each side of the joint, again reducing
shown by a cross section, detail,
distortion.
or other data, with a reference
thereto on the welding symbol, GROOVE JOINT DESIGN
observing the usual locational
Figure 11-4-5 indicates that the root
significance.
opening R is the separation between
the members to be formed. A root
^
opening is used for electrode accessi-
bility to the base or root of the joint. Fig. 11-4-7 Single-V weld uses twice as
The smaller the angle of bevel, the much weld material as double-V weld.
larger the root opening must be to get
good fusion at the root. If the root
opening is too small, root fusion is
more difficult to obtain and smaller References and Source Material
15. Bead-type back and backing welds electrodes must be used, thus slowing 1. American Welding Society.
of single-groove welds are shown down the welding process. 2. Lincoln Electric Company.
by means of the back or backing
weld symbol.
ASSIGNMENT
60°
v r
R
ir See Assignment 5 for Unit
244.
1 1-4 on page

V///////////A
Review for Assignment
-BACKi'.
75V Unit 6-4 Billof Material
Unit 6-6 Detailed Assembly Draw-

Fig. 11-4-5 Root openings.

X Unit 11-2
Unit 24-1
ings
Welding Symbols
Structural Steel Shapes
and Sizes

236 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 PLUG FLANGE
LOCATION OR SPOT OR BACK OR MELT THRU
SEAM SURFACING
SIGNIFICANCE SLOT PROJECTION BACKING EDGE CORNER
GROOVE
ARROW SIDE
/ ^ "D^ -^ WELD
/symbol
<^>^ V

/ »
-^ / ~
GROOVE
n/ NOT
OTHER SIDE
r*~ f^~ / WELD
SYMBOL
USED
^A 11

\ /
NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT
BOTH SIDES
USED USED USED USED USED USED USED USED

NO ARROW SIDE
OR OTHER SIDE
SIGNIFICANCE
NOT
USED
-*J -*J NOT
USED
NOT
USED
NOT
USED
NOT
USED
NOT
USED

Fig. 11-5-1 Other basic welding symbols and their location significance.

Holes in the other-side member of a

UNIT 11 -5
joint for plug welding are indicated

Other Basic Welds by placing the weld symbol above

the reference line.

In order for engineers to keep abreast

of national and international thinking
and to reduce the complexity inherent r
in providing symbols for a variety of
ways of making the same type of weld,
DRAWING CALLOUT DESIRED WELD
new symbols for spot and seam welds
have been established. See Fig. 11-5-1. DRAWING CALLOUT DESIRED WELD
As a result, the old symbols shown in 5. The depth of filling of plug welds is
Fig. 11-5-2 should no longer be used.
complete unless otherwise indi-
They have been included in this text in cated. Whenthe depth of filling is
The size of a plug weld is shown on less thancomplete, the depth of fill-
order to acquaint the drafter with the same side and to the left of the
ing, in inches or millimeters, is
welding symbols found on existing weld symbol.
drawings.
shown inside the weld symbol.

PLUG WELDS
-\ — 1 001 —
L-
I. Holes arrow-side member of
in the \r

a joint for plug welding are specified

by placing the weld symbol below
l—v— :
the reference line.
DRAWING CALLOUT DESIRED WELD
DRAWING CALLOUT DESIRED WELD

— s
r 4. The included angle of countersink
6. Pitch (center-to-center spacing) of
plug welds is shown to the right of
of plug welds is the user's stan- the weld symbol.
1
7
-J
—— \
DRAWING CALLOUT DESIRED WELD
dard, unless otherwise indicated.
Included angle, when not the user's
standard, is shown.

DRAWING
CALLOUT
ARC-SEAM FLASH
RESISTANCE RESISTANCE rt-X^
OR PROJECTION OR
SPOT SEAM
ARC-SPOT UPSET
_ -

H.
-*- J A DESIRED
WELD
USE PREFERRED SYMBOL WITH PROCESS
Fig. 11-5-2 Former welding symbols. REFERENCE IN THE TAIL

WELDING DRAWINGS 237

 Plug welds that are to be welded
approximately flush without re-
course to any method of finishing
are shown by adding the flush-con-
tour symbol to the weld symbol.
complete, the depth of filling, in Slot welds that are to be made flush
inches or millimeters, is shown by mechanical means are shown by
inside the welding symbol. adding both the flush-contour sym-
bol and the user's standard finish
symbol to the weld symbol.

/ I ISEE DeTailI
/ G

ZJ

8. Plug welds that are to be made flush Length, width, spacing, included
by mechanical means are shown by angle of countersink, orientation, -WELD SURFACE TO
BE GROUND FLUSH
adding both the flush-contour sym- and location of slot welds should be
bol and the user's standard finish shown on the drawing or by a detail
symbol to the weld symbol. with reference to it on the welding
symbol, observing the usual loca-
tional significance.
SPOT OR PROJECTION
WELD SURFACE TO
BE GROUND FLUSH-,
WELDS
/ 62 bd ^- /
The symbol for all spot or projection
welds is a circle, regardless of the
welding process used. There is no
DRAWING CALLOUT DESIRED WELD attempt to provide symbols for differ-
ent ways of making a spot weld, such
as resistance, arc. and electron beam
welding.
The symbol for a spot weld is a circle
SLOT WELDS I—• SEE DETAIL -
placed:
Slots in the arrow-side member of a 1. Below the reference line, indicating
joint for slot welding are indicated arrow side.
10 SLOTS EQ SPACED
by placing the weld symbol below :\ X) CEI TERS
:
2. Above the reference line, indicating
the reference line. Slot orientation +1 other side.
must be shown on the drawing. 3. On the reference line, indicating
that there is no arrow or other side. r

I 31 I
tjFF nFTAII R Spot- or Projection-Weld
Application
Dimensions of spot welds are
~\ ;- I I.

shown on the same side of the refer-

Slots in the other-side member of a >i
joint for slot welding are indicated
by placing the weld symbol above
the reference line. Slot welds that are to be welded
approximately flush without re-
course to any method of finishing
are shown by adding the flush-con-
tour symbol to the welding symbol.
ence line as the weld symbol, or on
either side when the symbol is
i
— located astride the reference line
DETAIL B and has no arrow-side or other-side
significance. They are dimensioned
by either the size or the strength.
The size is designated as the diame-
ter of the weld and is shown to the
left of the weld symbol. The
strength of the spot weld is desig-

= SEE DETAIL A SURFACE

^<
KT< <X
IAI SPECIFYING DIAVETER OF SPOT

3. Depth of filling of slot welds is com- 30~^ /:ooO < *e <

plete unless otherwise indicated.
When the depth of filling is less than J (Bl SPECIFYING STRENGTH OF SPOT

238 FASTENERS, MATERIALS. AND FORMING PROCESSES

 nated in pounds (or newtons) per below (not on) the reference line to 2. The length of a seam weld, when
spot and is shown to the left of the designate in which member the indicated on the welding symbol, is
weld symbol. embossment placed.
is shown weld sym-
to the right of the
2. The pitch (center-to-center spac- 5. When the exposed surface of one bol. When seam welding extends
ing) is shown to the right of the weld member of a spot-welded joint is to for the full distance between abrupt
symbol. be flush, that surface is indicated by changes in the direction of the weld-
adding the flush-contour symbol to ing, no length dimension needs to
I50(j6.00 < the weld symbol, observing the be shown on the welding symbol.
usual locational significance. When a seam weld extends less
than the full length of the joint, the
extent of the weld should be shown.
_Q_ ~^<
3. When spot welding extends less O < >
than the distance between abrupt
changes in the direction of the weld- METRIC
ing or less than the full length of the
joint, the extent is dimensioned.
6. When a definite number of spot
welds is desired in a certain joint,
the number is shown in parentheses
either above or below the weld
symbol.

(61

50-
200 Q

3. The pitch of intermittent seam

SEAM WELDS welds is shown as the distance
4. When projection welding is used, between centers of the weld incre-
The symbol for all seam welds is a
the projection-welding process ments. The pitch is shown to the
circle transversed by two horizontal
shall be referenced in the tail of the right of the length dimension.
parallel lines. This symbol is used for
welding symbol. The spot-weld Unless otherwise indicated, inter-
all seam welds regardless of the way
symbol is placed either above or mittent seam welds are interpreted
they are made. The seam-weld symbol
as having the length and pitch mea-
<GTAV1 is placed ( 1 ) below the reference line to
sured parallel to the axis of the
indicate arrow side, (2) above the ref-
-v weld.
erence line to indicate other side, and

4-
(3)
there
on the reference line to indicate that
is no arrow or other side.
&
19^=^2 00 4 00
-

f Seam-Weld Application
I. Dimensions of seam welds are
^RROW SIDE SPOT WELD SYMBOL IGAS TUNGSTEN-ARC SPOTI shown on the same side of the refer-
<EBW ence line as the weld symbol. They
are dimensioned by either size or
strength. The size of seam welds is
DRAWING CALLOUT
designated as the width of the weld
J~ and is shown to the left of the weld
symbol. The strength of seam welds
is designated in pounds per square

inch (psi) or newtons per millimeter

ARROW SIDE SPOT WELD SYMBOL (ELECTRON BEAM SPOT' (N/mm) and is shown to the left of
the weld symbols.

-— t 00-

^w INTERPRETATION

(A) SPECIFYING WIDTH OF THE WELD

4. When the exposed surface of one

-4oo^
7&-< ^^ member of a seam-welded joint
be flush, that surface is indicated by
is to

NO ARROW OR OTHER SIDE REFERENCE OR SIGNIFICANCE

(RESISTANCE SPOTI (Bl SPECIFYING STRENGTH OF WELD adding the flush-contour symbol to

WELDING DRAWINGS 239

 the weld symbol, observing the BACK OR BACKING WELDS SURFACING WELDS
usual Ideational significance. The surfacing-weld symbol used
The back or backing weld symbol is 1. is

used to indicate bead-type back or to indicate surfaces built up by

backing welds of single-groove welds.
-s-c
I. Back or backing welds of single-
groove welds are shown by placing
a back or backing weld symbol
above or below the reference line
When the pitch or length of seam is opposite the groove-weld symbol.
5.
not parallel to the axis of the weld, Dimensions of back or backing
then it must be shown on the draw- welds are not shown on the welding
ing. symbol. If it is desired to specify
these dimensions, they are shown
on the drawing.
l-\ ~^~1
welding. Surfaces built up by weld-
ing, whether by single- or multiple-
pass surfacing welds, are shown by
the surfacing-weld symbol. The
surfacing-weld symbol does not
indicate the welding of a joint,and
hence has no arrow- or other-side
significance. This symbol is drawn
below the reference line, and the
arrow must point clearly to the sur-
face on which the weld is to be
deposited.

U^z-
/
-Hr-J
1 C^Q Dimensions used in
with the surfacing-weld symbol are
conjunction

shown on the same side of the refer-

ence line as the weld symbol. The
size or height of the surface built up
by welding is indicated by showing
// /
the minimum height of the weld
deposit to the left of the weld sym-
bol. When no specific height of
weld deposit is desired, no size
dimension need be shown on the
welding symbol. When the entire
area of a plane or curved surface is
2. Back or backing welds that are to be to be built up by welding, no dimen-
welded approximately flush, with- sion other than size (height of
out recourse to any method of fin- deposit) need be shown on the
ishing, are shown by adding the welding symbol.
flush-contour symbol to the back or
backing weld symbol.
6. The seam-weld process is refer-
enced in the tail of the welding /IT
symbol.
/*
r^
^W <«
\~
METRIC
rxn —.—
DRAWING CALLOUT

—
-= ACE BUILDUP

»1II1MI1II>H»M»I.
i IM1I»»»»I1»)1)H
IIJIMIIIMDHIIIIU
WHUIIIWIMMIMN
/
L+- -v-J Back or backing welds that are SURFACE BUILDUP OF A FLAT SURFACE

made flush by mechanical means

GTAW >Ib^ are shown by adding both the flush-
DRAWINGCALLOUT contour symbol and the user's stan-
dard finish symbol to the back or
backing weld symbol.
£>a
A 2.00 H— 4.00—
DRAWING CALLOUT
:

\ V
ETATION INTERPRETATION

240 FASTENERS. MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

FLANGED WELDS
The following welding symbols are
19- 38 1 C

intended to be used for light-gage
metal joints involving the flaring or
flanging of the edges to be joined.
I. Edge-flange welds are shown by the
edge-flange-weld symbol. This
symbol has no both-sides signif-
icance.
/
-1
X
—
the groove- or flange-weld symbol.
No dimensions of melt-through,
except height of reinforcement, are
v / shown on the welding symbol. If it
i t\V XV\\\<
3_ is desired to specify height of rein-
forcement, it is shown to the left of
the melt-through symbol.
5. Root opening of flange welds is not Melt-through welds that are to be
shown on the welding symbol. If it made flush by mechanical means
is desired to specify this dimension, are shown by adding both the flush-
it is shown on the drawing. contour symbol and the user's stan-
dard finish symbol to the melt-
through weld symbol.
3- V

Corner-flange welds are shown by /-FINISHING

the corner-flange-weld symbol. OF WELD •
FINISHING
BY ROLLING OF WELD BY
This symbol has no both-sides sig- MACHINING
nificance.

DRAWING CALLOUT INTERPRETATION

3. Dimensions of flange welds shall be
shown on the same side of the refer-
ence line as the weld symbol. The
radius and the height above the
point of tangency are indicated by
showing both the radius and the
height, separated by a plus mark,
and placed to the left of the weld
For flange welds, when one or more
pieces are inserted between the two
outer pieces, the same welding
symbol as for the two outer pieces is
used regardless of the
pieces inserted.
Melt-through welds that are to be
mechanically finished to a convex
contour are shown by adding the
convex-contour symbol to the melt-
number of through weld symbol.
FINISHING OF WELD
f BY CHIPPING

symbol. The radius and the height MELT-THROUGH WELDS ^T

read in that order from left to right
along the reference line.
1. The melt-through symbol is used
where at least 100 percent joint pen-
etration of the weld through the
material is required in welds made
from one side only. Melt-through
X
welds are shown by placing the / FINISHING OF WELD
melt-through weld symbol on the BY GRINDING
side of the reference line opposite
'
-

MELT-THRU WELD SYMBOL

ANY APPLICABLE WELD Reference and Source Material

4. The welds is shown by
size of flange
a dimension placed outward of the
flanged dimensions. DRAWING CALLOUT
} ^P^DESIRED WELD
1. American Welding Society.

ASSIGNMENT
06,
See Assignment 6 for Unit 11-5 on
page 244.

DRAWING CALLOUT
] E DESIRED WELD nfi-J
06
Review
Unit 7-5
for Assignment
Assemblies in Section

WELDING DRAWINGS 241

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 1
Assignment for Unit 11-1, OAW •

Designing for Welding

1 On a B- or A3-size sheet, redesign one of
the cast parts shown in Fig. 1 1
- ! -A or
1 1 - 1 by welding, using
-B for fabrication
standard sheet sizes and shapes. Make a
detail assembly drawing. Welding sym-
bols or sizes are not reguired. Include on
the drawing a bill of material and identify
each part on the assembly. Scale is full or
1:1.
.25

Assignments for Unit 1 1-2,

Welding Symbols
2. On a B- or A3-size sheet, complete the
enlarged views of the welded joints for <CAW
the drawing callouts shown in Fig. 1-2-A. 1

Use notes to explain any additional weld-

ing requirements.
3. On a B- or A3-size sheet, add the informa-
tion shown above Fig. -2-B to the 1 1 Fig. 1 1-2-A Showing weld type and proportion on drawings.
seven welding symbols shown in this
assignment.
Welding Process Type of Additional
Weld Required Weld Requirements
1 Carbon-Arc Welding Bevel
2 Oxyacetylene Welding Double Fillet Both Sides
Field Weld
3 Oxyacetylene Welding Fillet Both Sides
4 No Specifications J Groove
Required
5 Carbon-Arc Welding Fillet All Around
6 Carbon-Arc Welding Fillet All Around
Field Weld

7 Gas Metal-Arc Welding Double V-Groove

.38-16 UNC-2B
3 HOLES

1.50

0.760
Fig. 11-1-A Pivot arm

FILLET WELD ALL AROUND

-GROOVE WELD
-RI2 DOUBLE V-GROOVE
Fig. 1MB Link Fig. 11-2-B Indicating welding symbols on drawings.

242 FASTENERS. MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

Assignment for Unit 1-3, 1 L2.50 X 2.50 X .25

Fillet Welds
4. On a B- or A3 -size sheet, select one of the
problems shown in Figs. 1 1 -3-Ato 1 1 -3-D
and make two-view working drawing
a
complete with dimensions and welding
symbols. Include on the drawing a bill of
material, and identify each part on the
assembly. Use full-strength welds. Scale is
full or 1:1.

Fig. 11-3-C Slide bracket.

MATL - AISI C-1040

Fig. 11-3-A Swing bracket.

Fig. 11 -3-D Caster frame.

MATL- AISI C-1040

FRONT
Fig. 11-3-B Step bracket

WELDING DRAWINGS 243

Assignment for Unit 1-4, 1

Groove Welds
5. On a B- or A3-size sheet, select one of the
problems shown in Figs. -4-A through 1 1

11-4-D and make a working drawing

complete with dimensions and welding
symbols. Include on the drawing a bill of t
material and identify each part on the
assembly. Use full-strength welds. Scale is
full, I or as shown.
1 , A
comparison of a
cast and welded steel part is shown
above Fig. 1 1 -4-C.

Assignment for Unit 1-5, 1

Other Basic Welds

6. On a B- or A3-size sheet, draw the parts
and welds shown in Fig. -5-A or 1 1 1 1 -5-B
and add the weld-size dimensions.

MATERIAL NO. 30 ASTM GREY IRON MATERIAL-SAE 1032

COMPARISON OF A CAST SHAFT SUPPORT WITH A WELDEDSTEEL SHAFT SUPPORT

~^~ «

TYPE SLF SPRING MOUNTING

Fig. 11-4-A Swing bracket.

12 x 38x64^.

Fig. 11-4-B Connecting bracket. Fig. 11-4-C Fan and motor base.

244 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 2.18

01.50

.62 s/

MATL - ASTM CLASS 50 GREY IRON

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R.I2
Fig. 11-4-D Drill press base.

SCALE 1:1

SCALE 1:1

PLUG WELDS
SPOT OR PROJECTION WELDS

SCALE 1:2
NOTE - WORN SHAFT TO BE BUILT
UP AND TURNED TO ORIGINAL SCALE 1:1
SIZE SHOWN.
SEAM WELD
SURFACE WELD
Fig. 11-5-A Plug and seam welds. Fig. 11-5-B Spot and surface welds.

WELDING DRAWINGS 245

CHAPTER 12
Manufacturing
Materials

UNIT 12-1
Cast Irons
This chapter is an up-to-date reference
on manufacturing materials. It pro-
vides the drafter and designer with
basic information on materials and
their properties to ensure the proper
selection of the product material.
FERROUS METALS
Iron and the large family of iron alloys
called steel are the most frequently
specified metals. Iron is abundant
(iron ore constitutes about 5 percent of
the earth's crust), easy to convert from
ore to a useful form, and iron and steel
are sufficiently strong and stable for
most engineering applications.
All commercial forms of iron and
steel contain carbon, which is an inte-
gral part of the metallurgy of iron and
steel.
trolling these variables, the foundry
can produce a variety of irons for heat-
or wear-resistant uses, or for high-
strength components. See Fig. 12-1-1.
Types of Cast Iron
Ductile, or Nodular, Iron Ductile, or
nodular, iron is not as available as gray
iron, and it is more difficult to control
in production. However, ductile iron
can be used where higher ductility or
strength is required than is available in
gray iron. See Fig. 12-1-2.
Ductile iron, sometimes called nod-
ular iron, is used in applications such
as crankshafts because of its good
machinability. fatigue strength, and
high modulus of elasticity; heavy-duty
gears because of its high yield strength
ONE OF THREE
OR FOUR STOVES
FOR HEATING AIR
and wear resistance; and automobile
door hinges because of its ductility.
Gray Iron Gray iron is a supersatu-
rated solution of carbon in an iron
matrix. The excess carbon precipitates
out in the form of graphite flakes. Typ-
ical applications of gray iron include
automotive blocks, flywheels, brake
disks and drums, machine bases, and
gears. Generally, gray iron serves well
in any machinery applications because
of its fatigue resistance.
White Iron White iron is produced by a
process called chilling which prevents
graphitic carbon from precipitating
out. Either gray or ductile iron can be
chilled to produce a surface of white
iron. In castings that are white iron
throughout, however, the composition

CAST IRON
ORE
AND
Because of its low cost, cast iron is LIMESTONE
BINS -^
often considered a simple metal to pro-
duce and to specify. Actually, the met-
AIR IS HEATED
allurgy of cast iron is more complex AS IT RISES
than that of steel and other familiar
THROUGH
HOT BRICKWORK \COKE BINS
I

[ j
design materials. Whereas most other
metals are usually specified by a stand- /
ard chemical anal} sis. the same analy-
sis of cast iron can produce several I
' TURBO
BLOWER
A
entirely different types of iron,
depending upon rate of cooling, thick- ^ SKIP
HOT IRON CAR SLAG Cac
ness of the casting, and how long the Fig. 12-1-1 Schematic diagram of a blast furnace, hot blast stone, and skiploader. (American
casting remains in the mold. By con- Iron and Steel Institute.)

246 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 MECHANICAL DUCTILE WHITE GRAY MALLEABLE
PROPERTY 50-55- 60-40- 100- 120-
06 18 70-03 90-02 20 25 30 40 50 60 32510 35018 40010 45006 50005 70003 90001
Yield 10 3 lb/in. 2 60-75 45-60 75-90 90-125 32 35 40 45 50 70 90
strength MPa 410- 3 0-1 520- 620- * * *

520 410 620 860 220 240 275 310 345 485 620
90- 60- 1 00- 125- 20- 20- 25- 30- 40- 50- 60-
Tensile 10 3 lb/in. 2 110 80 120 150 50 25 30 35 48 57 66 50 53 60 65 70 85 105
strength MPa 620- 410- 690- 860- 140 140- 170-205-275-345- 415-
760 550 825 1035 345 170 205 240 330 390 455 345 365 415 450 480 585 725
Elongation in 2.00 in.

(50 mm) % 3-10 10-25 6-10 2-7 1 1 1 0.8 0.5 0.5 10 18 10 6 5 3 1

Modulus of 1
3 lb/in. 2 22-25 22-25 22-25 22-25 — 12 13 15 17 19 20 25 25 26 26 26 26-28 26-28
3 MPa 150-
elasticity 1
1 50- 1 50- 150- 8 180- 180-
170 170 170 170 83 90 103 117 131 138 172 172 180 180 180 193 193

•Yield strength usually about 65-80% of tensile strength.

Fig. 12-1-2 Mechanical properties of cast iron.

of iron is selected according to part References and Source Material CARBON AND LOW-ALLOY
1. Machine Design, Materials refer-
size to ensure that the volume of metal CAST STEELS
involved can chill rapidly enough to ence issue, Mar. 1981.
Carbon and low-alloy cast steels lend
produce white iron.
themselves to the formation of stream-
Because of their extreme hardness, ASSIGNMENT lined, intricate parts with high strength
white irons are used primarily for
See Assignment for Unit 12-1 on page and rigidity.
wear and abra-
applications requiring 1

and
sion resistance such as mill liners 264. A number of advantages favor steel
casting as a method of construction
shot-blasting nozzles. Other uses
include railroad brake shoes, rolling- Review for Assignments 1. The metallographic structure of
mill rolls,clay-mixing and brick-mak- Unit 4-2 Arcs Tangent to Two Lines steel castings is uniform in all direc-
ing equipment, and crushers and pul- Unit 5-1 Basic Dimensioning tions. It is free from the directional
Unit 6-1 Detail Drawings variations in properties of wrought-
verizers. Generally, plain (unalloyed)
white iron costs less than other cast Unit 7-8 Revolved Sections steel products.
Unit 7- 1 8 Intersection of Unfinished Cast steels are available in a wide
irons. 2.

The principal disadvantage of white

Surfaces range of mechanical properties
iron is that it is very brittle. depending on the compositions and
heat treatments.
High-Alloy Irons High-alloy irons are
3. Steel castings can be annealed, nor-
ductile, gray, or white irons that con- UNIT 12-2 malized, tempered, hardened, or
tain over 3 percent alloy content.
carburized.
These irons have properties that are Carbon Steel
4. Steel castings are as easy to ma-
significantly different from the un-
chine as wrought steels.
alloyed irons and are usually produced
Carbon steel is essentially an iron- 5. Most compositions of carbon and
by specialized foundries.
carbon alloy with small amounts of low-alloy cast steels are easily
Malleable Iron Malleable iron white is other elements (either intentionally welded because their carbon con-
iron that has been converted to a mal- added or unavoidably present) such as tent is under 0.45 percent.
leable condition by a two-stage heat- silicon, magnesium, copper, and sul-
The making of steel is illustrated in
treating process. fur. Steels can be either cast to shape
Fig. 12-2-1.
It is a commercial cast material or wrought into various mill forms
which similar to steel in many
is from which finished parts can be
respects. strong and ductile, has
It is machined, forged, formed, stamped, HIGH-ALLOY CAST STEELS
good impact and fatigue properties, or otherwise generated.
and has excellent machining char- Wrought steel is either poured into The term high alloy is applied
ingots or is sand-cast. After solidifica- arbitrarily to steel castings containing
acteristics.
tion the metal is reheated and hot aminimum of 8 percent nickel and or
The two basic types of malleable
rolled— often in several steps— into chromium. Such castings are used
iron are ferritic and pearlitic. Ferritic
mostly to resist corrosion or provide
grades are more machinable and duct- the finished wrought form. Hot-rolled
steel is characterized by a scaled sur-
strength at temperatures above I2i)n I

ile, whereas the pearlitic grades are

(650 C).
stronger and harder. face and a decarburized skin.

MANUFACTURING MATERIALS 247

 BENEFICIATION
CARBON STEELS
Carbon steels are the workhorse of
f> it ^^frrPSmr OXYGEN PLANT

product design. They account for over BESSEMER

CONVERTER
90 percent of total steel production.
£7
More carbon steels are used in product BASIC
.OXYGEN
:
manufacturing than all other metals FURNACE
combined.
A thorough understanding of the
selection and specification criteria for - ®
all types of steel requires know ledge of

what is implied by carbon-steel mill

OPEN
forms, qualities, grades, tempers, HEARTH
finishes, edges, and heat treatments: FURNACE
also how and w here these terms relate
SLAG BLAST
to dimensions, tolerances, physical FURNACE
and mechanical properties, and man- LIMESTONE CRUSHING & ELECTRIC
ufacturing requirements. QUARRIES SCREENING FURNACE
The designer's specification job Fig. 12-2-1 Flow chart of steelmaking.
really begins the instant that molten
steel hits the mold. The conditions
under which steel solidifies have a sig-
nificant effect on production and on
larly in the higher-carbon grades. Sulfur Increased sulfur content re-
performance of subsequent mill prod- Phosphorus low-carbon, free-
in duces transverse ductility, notch-im-
ucts. machining steels improves machin- pact toughness, and weldability. Sul-
ability. fur is added to improve machinability
of steels.
Silicon A principal deoxidizer in the
steel industry. Silicon increases Copper Improves atmospheric corro-
STEEL SPECIFICATION strength and hardness but to a lesser sion resistance when present in excess
Several ways are used to identify a extent than manganese. of 0.15 percent.
specific steel: by chemical or mechan-
ical properties, by its ability to meet a
standard specification or industry-
CLASSIFICATION BODY INDICATES CLASS OF STEEL APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE CARBON CONTENT
accepted practice, or by its ability to SOCIETY OF AUTOMOTIVE (MAIN ALLOYING ELEMENT) OF MAIN ALLOYING (HUNDREDTHS OF ONE
be fabricated into an identified part. ENGINEERS NICKEL ALLOY STEEL ELEMENT 5% NICKEL PERCENTI 0.4% CARBON

Chemical Composition
The steel producer can be instructed to
produce a desired composition in one SAE 2540
Fig. 12-2-2 Steel designating system.
of three ways
1. By a maximum limit
2. By a minimum limit
3. By an acceptable range TYPEOF NUMBER PRINCIPAL
CARBON STEEL SYMBOL PROPERTIES COMMON USES
The following are some commonly
Plain carbon 10XX
specified elements.
Low carbon steel 1006 to 1020 Toughness and Chains, rivets, shafts, and
Carbon The principal hardening ele- |0 06 to 0.20% carbon) less strength pressed steel products
ment in steel. As carbon content is Medium carbon steel 1020 to 1050 Toughness and Gears, axles, machine parts.
increased to about 0.85 percent, hard- (0.20 to 0.50% carbon) strength forgings, bolts, and nuts
ness and tensile strength increase, but High carbon steel 1 050 and over Less toughness and Saws, drills, knives.
ductility and weldability decrease. (over 0.50% carbon) greater hardness razors, finishing tools, and
music wire
Manganese A lesser contributor to
Sulfurized 1IXX Improves Threads, splines, and
hardness and strength. Properties
(free-cutting) machinability machined parts
depend on carbon content. Increasing
Phosphorized 12XX Increases strength
manganese increases the rate of car-
and hardness but
bon penetration during carburizing. reduces ductility

Phosphorus Large amounts increase Manganese steels 13XX Improves surface

strength and hardness but reduce duc- finish

tility and impact toughness, particu- Fig. 12-2-3 Carbon steel designations, properties, and uses.

248 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 this class up into normal low-sulfur
steels, the high-sulfur
free-machining
STRUCTURAL SHAPES grades, and another grade having
higher than normal manganese.
COLD DRAWN Originally the second figure repre-
BARS
sented the percentage of the major
& alloying element present, and this is
true of many of the alloy steels. How-
ever, this had to be varied in order to
account for all the steels that are
available.
rjJi
"™~
P«e--«o>
COLD ROLLED
HOT ROLLED
R TIN The third and fourth figures repre-
y~7 SHEET & STRIP SHEET STRIPS PLATE
BLACK PLATE
sent carbon content in hundredths of 1
3>
PL/
percent, thus the figure xxl5 means
0.15 of 1 percent carbon.

Class 1

Carbon steels lxxx

Lead Improves the machinability of The ASTM has several specifica- Basic open hearth and acid
steel. tions covering structural steel. Both Bessemer carbon steels
the AISI and AISC (American Insti- nonsulfurized and non-
Classification Bodies tute of Steel Construction) refer to phosphorized 10xx
The specifications covering the com- ASTM specifications. Basic open hearth and acid
position of iron and steel have been Bessemer carbon steels,

issued by various classification

ASME — American Society of Mechanical sulfurized but not
Engineers This group is interested in phosphorized llxx
bodies. They serve as a selection guide
the steel used in boilers and other Basic open hearth carbon
and provide a means for the buyer to
mechanical equipment. steels phosphorized 12xx
conveniently specify certain known
and recognized requirements. The
main classification bodies are SAE AMD AISI— SYSTEMS OF
EXAMPLE SAE 2335 is a nickel steel
SAE — Society of Automotive Engineers
STEEL IDENTIFICATION containing 3.5 percent nickel and 0.35
The of 1 percent carbon.
AISI — American Iron and Steel
specifications for steel bar are
Typical properties of rolled carbon
based on a code that specifies the com-
Institute This is an association of steel
position of each type of steel covered. steels are shown in Fig. 12-2-4.
producers which issues steel specifica-
tions for the steel-making industry and
They include both plain carbon and
alloy steels. The code is a four-number
cooperates with the SAE in using the Carbon-Steel Sheet
system. See Figs. 12-2-2 and 12-2-3.
same numbers for the same steel. Flat-rolled carbon-steel sheets are
Each figure in the number has the fol-
ASTM — American Society for Testing and lowing specific function; the
made from heated slabs that are pro-
first or
gressively reduced in size as they
Materials This group interested in
is left-side figure represents the major
materials of kinds and writes speci-
move through a series of rolls.
all second figure repre-
class of steel, the
fications. The ASTM steel specifica- sents a subdivision of the major class: Hot-Rolled Sheets Hot-rolled sheets
tions for steel plate and structural for example, the series having one (1) are produced into three principal
shapes are used by all steel makers in as the left-hand figure covers the car- qualities, commercial, drawing, and
North America. bon steels. The second figure breaks physical.

AISI STEEL
1015/1020/1022 1035,1040 1045/1050 1095
MECHANICAL Cold-
PROPERTY Quenched Quenched Drawn Quenched
Hot- Cold- Hot- Cold- and Hot- Cold- and Hot- and and
Rolled Drawn Annealed Rolled Drawn Tempered Rolled Drawn Tempered Rolled Annealed Tempered
Yield 10 3 lb/in. 2 40 51 42 42 7! 63-96 49 84 68-117 66 76 80-152
strength MPa 270 350 295 290 440 435-660 335 580 470-800 455 525 580-1050
Tensile 10 3 lb/m. 2 65 61 60 76 85 96-130 90 100 105-137 130 99 130-216
strength MPa 450 420 415 525 585 660-895 620 690 725-945 895 680 895-1490
% Elongation
in 2.00 in. (50 mm) 25 15 38 18 12 17-24 15 10 25-15 9 13 10-84
Fig. 12-2-4 Typical mechanical properties of rolled carbon steel.

MANUFACTURING MATERIALS 249

Cold-Rolled Sheets Cold-rolled sheets also be specified by weight (lb/ft 2 ) or AISI
are made from hot-rolled coils which mass (kg/m 2 ). No. RATING*
are pickled, then cold reduced to the I2L14 195
desired thickness. The commercial 1213 137
quality of cold-rolled sheets is nor- Carbon-Steel Bars 1215 137
mally produced with a matte finish 1212 100
Hot-Rolled Bars Hot-rolled carbon- 1211 91
Mutable for painting or enameling but
steel bars are produced from blooms or 1 117 89
not suitable for electroplating.
billets in a variety of cross sections and 1114 85
sizes. See Figs. 12-2-5 and 12-2-6. 1137 72
Carbon-Steel Plates 1 141 69
Carbon-steel plates are produced (in Cold-Finished Bars Cold-finished car- 1018 66
rectangular plates or in coils) by hot bon-steel bars are produced from hot- 1045 55
rolling directly from the ingot or slab. rolled steel by a cold-finishing process •Based on 1212 = 100%
Plate thickness ranges from .19 in. (4 which improves surface finish, dimen- Fig. 12-2-7 Machinability rating of cold-
mm) and thicker for plates up to 48 in. sional accuracy, and alignment. Cold drawn carbon steel.
(1200 mm) wide, and from .25 in. (6 drawing and cold rolling also increase
mm) and thicker for plates wider than the yield and tensile strength. For
48 in. (1200 mm). Thickness is spec- machinability ratings of cold drawn
ified in millimeters or inches. It can carbon steel see Fig. 12-2-7.
Steel Wire
Steel wire is made from hot-rolled rods
produced in continuous-length coils.
Most wire is drawn, but some special
shapes are rolled.

Pipe and Tubing

Pipe and tubing range from the familiar
plumber"s black pipe to high-precision
mechanical tubing for bearing races.
Pipe and tubing may contain fluids,
support structures, or be a primary
shape from which products are fab-
ricated.

Welded Tubular Products Welded tubu-

lar products are made from hot-rolled
or cold-rolled flat steel coils.

Fig. 12-2-5 Standard stock. (American Iron and Steel Institute.) Pipe Pipe is produced from carbon or
alloy steel to nominal dimensions.
Nominal pipe sizes are expressed in
ROUND SECTIONS SHAPED BY THREE SYSTEMS OF ROLL SHAPING AND FINISHING PASSES
PASSINGSHOW COMPARATIVE REDUCING ABILITIES FOR VARIOUS SECTIONS inch sizes, but in the metric system the
OVAL DIAMOND FLAT
outside diameter and the wall thick-
SQUARE HEXAGON
AND SQUARE AND SQUARE AND EDGE
ness are expressed in millimeters. The
m outside diameter is often much larger

t z than the nominal size. For example, a

.75-in. standard-weight pipe has an
• outside diameter of 1.050 in. (26.7
mm). The outside diameter of nominal
size pipe always remains the same and
• the mass or wall thickness changes.
CHANNEL
^
ANGLE
ANSI B36 has developed 10 different
^
^^
12 S TAND
BAR MILL
^^
^r
ROLl PASSES
12 wall thicknesses (schedules) of pipe
(see Table 56. Appendix).
Nominal pipe size designation stops
• at 12 in. Pipe 14 in. and over is listed on
* •
**">' ^ the basis of outside diameter and wall
.- l-J y\ thickness.
MOST FREQUENTLY MODERATELY
USED SYSTEM. SEVERE REDUCTION GENERALLY USED SMALL STRUCTURAL SHAPES MAY BE
L'SEO MOSTLY FOR T0 R°LL LARGE FORMED BY A WIDE VARIETY OF Tubing Tubing is usually specified by a
GOOC REDUCTION MEDIUM BARS DIAMETER BARS PASSING PROCEDURES.
combination of either outside diame-
Fig. 12-2-6 Bar-mill roll passes. (American Iron and Steel Institute.) ter, inside diameter, or wall thickness.

250 FASTENERS, MATERIALS. AND FORMING PROCESSES

Sizes range from approximately .25 to ASTM A 94 Used primarily for riveted LOW- AND
5.00 in. (6 to 125 mm), in increments of and bolted structures and for special MEDIUM-ALLOY STEELS
.12 in. (3 mm). Wall thickness is usu- structural purposes.
ally specified in inches, millimeters, or There are two basic types of alloy
steel: through hardenable and surface
by gage numbers. ASTM A 242 Used primarily for struc-
hardenable Each type contains a
.

tural members where light weight or

broad family of steels whose chemical,
Structural-Steel Shapes low mass and durability are important.
physical, and mechanical properties
A large tonnage of structural-steel make them suitable for specific prod-
shapes goes into manufactured prod- ASTM A 374 Used where high strength uct applications. See Fig. 12-2-8.
ucts rather than buildings. The frame is required and where resistance to
of a truck, railroad car, or earth-mov- atmospheric corrosion must be at least
ing equipment is a structural design equal to that of plain copper-bearing STAINLESS STEELS
problem, just as is a high-rise building. steel.
Stainless steels have many industrial
Size Designations Several ways are uses because of their desirable corro-
ASTM A 375 This specification differs sion resistance and strength proper-
used to describe a structural section in
slightly from ASTM A 374 in that ma- ties.
a specification, depending primarily
terial can be specified in the annealed
on its shape.
or normalized condition. Free-Machining Steels
1. Beams and channels are measured A whole family of free-machining
by the depth of the section in inches ASTM A 440 This covers high-strength steels has been developed for fast and
(millimeters) and by weight (lbs/ft) intermediate-manganese steels for economical machining. See Fig.
or mass (kg/m). nonwelded applications. 12-2-9. These steels are available in bar
2. Angles are described by length of stock in various compositions, some
legs and thickness in inches (milli- ASTM A 441 This covers the interme- standard and some proprietary. When
meters), or more commonly, by diatemanganese HSLA steels which utilized properly, they lower the cost
lengths of legs and weight (lbs/ft) or are readily weldable when proper of machining by reducing metal
mass (kg/m). The longest leg is welding procedures are used. removal time.
always stated first.
3. Tees are specified by width of
flange, overall depth of stem, and
pounds per foot (kilograms per
meter) in that order. TYPE OF ALLOY APPROXIMATE ALLOY PRINCIPAL COMMON
STEEL SERIES CONTENT |%) PROPERTIES USES
4. Zees are specified by width of
Improve
flange and thickness in inches (mil-
Manganese 13xx Mn 1.6-1.9 surface
limeters), or by depth, width across
steel finish
flange, and pounds per foot (kilo-
Molybdenum
grams per meter).
steels 40xx Mo 0.1 5-0.3
5. Wide-flange sections are described 41xx Cr 0.4-1.1; Mo 0.08-0.35 Axles,
by depth, width across flange, and 43xx Ni 1 .65-2; Cr 0.4-0.9; forgings.
pounds per foot (kilograms per Mo 0.2-0.3 High gears.
meter). 44xx Mo 0.45-0.6 strength cams.
46xx Ni 0.7-2; Mo 0.1 5-0.3 mechanical
47xx Ni 0.9-1.2; Cr 0.35-0.55; parts
Mo 0. 1 5-0.4
48xx Ni 3.25-3.75; Mo 0.2-0.3
HIGH-STRENGTH Chromium 50xx Cr 0.3-0.5 Hardness. Gears,
LOW-ALLOY STEELS steels 5lxx Cr 0.7-1.15 great strength shafts.

E5M00 C 1.0; Cr 0.9-1.15 and toughness bearings, springs.

The properties of high-strength low- E52100 C 1.0; Cr 0.9-1.15 connecting rods
alloy (HSLA) steels generally exceed Chromium 61xx Cr 0.5-1. 1; V 0.1-0.15 Hardness and Punches and dies,
those of conventional carbon struc- vanadium steel strength piston rods,
tural steels. These low-alloy steels are gears, axles
usually chosen for their high ratios of Nickel- 86xx Ni 0.4-0.7; Cr 0.4-0.6; Rust resistance Food containers.
yield to tensile strength, resistance to chromium- Mo 0.15-0.25 hardness, and surgical
puncturing, abrasion resistance, cor- molybdenum 87xx Ni 0.4-0.7; Cr 0.4-0.6, stength equipment
rosion resistance, and toughness. steels Mo 0.2-0.3
88xx Ni 0.4-0.7; Cr 0.4-0.6;
Mo 0.3-0.4
ASTM Specifications
Silicon- 92xx Si 1.8-2.2 Springiness and Springs
ASTM has six specifications covering
manganese steel elasticity
high-strength low-alloy steels. These
are Fig. 12-2-8 AISI designation system for alloy steel.

MANUFACTURING MATERIALS 251

 12LI3I2LI4 1211/1212/
I2L15 1213 1117/1118/1119 1137 1141/1144
MECHANICAL
PROPERTY Quenched Quenched Quenched
Hot- Cold- Hot- Cold- Hot- Cold- and Hot- Cold- and Hot- Cold- and
Rolled Drawn Rolled Drawn Rolled Drawn Tempered Rolled Drawn Tempered Rolled Drawn Tempered
Yield I0 3 lb/in.* 34 60-80 33 58 34-46 51-68 50-76 48 82 136 51 90 163
strength MPa 235 416-550 225 400 235-315 350-470 345-525 330 565 335 350 620 1120
2 70-90 62-76 69-78 89-113 98
Tensile 10 J Ib'm 57 55 75 88 157 94 100 190
strength MPa 390 480-620 380 517 425-525 475-535 615-780 605 675 1080 650 690 1310

Elongation
in 2 00 in (50 mm| % 22 10-18 25 10 23-33 1 5-20 1 7-22 15 10 5 15 10 9

Machmability |BI2I2 = 100%) 195-296 91- 137 89-100 71 69

Fig. 12-2-9 Typical mechanical properties of free-machining carbon steels.

References and Source Material of these are used as structural engi- MANUFACTURING
I. Machine Design, Materials refer- neering materials. Of the balance, WITH METALS
ence issue. Mar. 1981. however, many are used not struc- (Refer to Fig. 12-3-1)
turally but as coatings, in electronic
devices, as nuclear materials, and as Machining Most metals can be
ASSIGNMENT minor constituents in other systems. machined. Machinability is best for
See Assignment 2 for Unit 12-2 on page One of the most important aspects in metals that allow easy chip removal
264. selecting a material for a mechanical or with minimum tool wear.
structural application is how easily the
Powder Metallurgy (PM) Compact-
Review for Assignments material can be shaped into the
can be made from most met-
Unit 5-3 Dimensioning Common finished part —
and how its properties
ing Parts
als and alloys by PM compacting,
Features can be either intentionally or inadver-
although only a few are economically
Unit 6-1 Detail Drawings tently altered in the process. See Fig.
and iron-copper alloys
justified. Iron
Unit 8-1 Pictorial Representation 12-3-1. Frequently, metals are simply
are most commonly used.
and Thread Forms cast into the finished part. In other
Unit 9-1 Keys cases, metals are cast into an inter- Casting Theoretically,any metal that
mediate form (such as an ingot) then can be melted and poured can be cast.
worked or "wrought" by rolling, forg- However, economic limitations usu-
ing, extruding, or other deformation narrow down the number of ways
ally
processes. metals are cast commercially.

UNIT 12-3 Q) C
D. tn
O O)
Nonferrous Metals Metal B^-
U-
<=
3
E
D E H
£
E
Although ferrous alloys are specified Forming method
c
CD
m
§|c § | D
E Q.
a c i- C
Q. c o
for more engineering applications than O o o - ™ O c c
V
CO
8 ro
< o s CO Q. 2 H to N
all nonferrous metals combined, the
large family of nonferrous metals Casting

offers a wider variety of characteris- Centrifugal ^ 1^

tics and mechanical properties. For

Continuous ^ J^
Ceramic mold *" ^
example, the lightest metal is lithium, Investment J^ ^ ^
3
.02 lb/in. (0.53 g/cm3 ); the heaviest is Permanent mold V ^ ^
osmium with a weight of .81 lb in. 3 Sand ^ ^ ^
(mass of 22.5 g/cm 3 nearly twice the
) — Shell mold
Die casting
*"
^ i^ V
weight of lead. Mercury melts at
around -38°F (-39°C). while tung-
sten, the highest-melting metal, lique-
Cold heading ^
Deep drawing
fies at 6170°F (3410°C). Extruding ^ V
Availability, abundance, and the Forging
cost to convert the metal into useful Machining

forms PM compacting
all play an important part in
Stamping and
selecting a nonferrous metal. Although
forming
nearly 80 percent of all elements are
called "metals," only about two dozen Fig. 12-3-1 Common methods of forming metals.

252 FASTENERS, MATERIALS. AND FORMING PROCESSES

Extruding and Forging Metals to be 1

MAGNESIUM
forged or extruded must be ductile and '111
FREE-CUTTING BRASS (THE " IARD

not work-harden at working tempera-

HIGH-LEADED BRASS
III :'-.=>PER
|
Magnesium, with density of only
lb/in. 3 (1.74 g/cm-), is
.06
the world's
ture. Some metals show these charac- 1 1 1 1

room temperature and can

teristics at
ARCHITECTURAL BRONZE 1
lightest structural metal. The combina-
!

tion of low density and good mechan-

1 1

FREE CUTTING PHOSPHOR BRONZE

be cold worked: others must be
LEADED
|
| 1

ical strength makes possible alloys

heated.
LEADED
1

with a high strength-to-weight ratio.

E

Stamping and Forming Most metals, '

1 1

except brittle alloys, can be press

worked.
MEDIUM-LEADED
ill!
HIGH-LEADED NAVAL BRASS
BR

ZINC
1
1 1 1

Cold Heading Metals must be ductile 1

1
I I Zinc is a relatively inexpensive metal
LOW-LEADED BRASS
and should not work-harden rapidly. 1
I I
1
which has moderate strength and
LEADED BERVLL!.
Annealing should restore ductility and toughness and outstanding corrosion
[ ] |

softness in cold heading alloys. •ETAL |

resistance in many types of service.
The principal characteristics which
;
I

NAVAL BRASS
Deep Drawing Deep drawing involves [

:- " influence the selection of zinc alloys

severe deformation and the metal is
-

'
-- -- -

\
for die castings include the dimen-
usually stretched over the die.
|

PHOSPHOR BPO'JZE
I
;
sional accuracy obtainable, castability
_

of thin sections, smooth surface,

: .

ALUMINUM COPPER
|

1
dimensional stability, and adaptability
10 20 3 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 to a wide variety of finishes.
The density of aluminum is about one-
RELATIVE MACHINABILITY
third that of steel, brass, nickel, or F ree-machining
Fig. 12-3-3 copper alloys.
copper. Yet. some alloys of aluminum
are stronger than structural steel. TITANIUM
Under most service conditions, alumi- Titanium is a light metal at .16 lb/in. 3
num has high resistance to corrosion (4.43g/cm3); 60 percent heavier than
and forms no colored salts which might aluminum but 45 percent lighter than
Copper alloys are used where one or
stain or discolor adjacent components. It is the fourth most abun-
alloy steel.
more of the following properties is
See Fig. 12-3-2. dant metallic element in the earth's
needed: thermal or electrical conduc-
crust and the ninth most common
tivity, corrosion resistance, strength,
COPPER element.
ease of forming, ease of joining, and
color.
Titanium-based alloys are much
Copper alloys, approximately 250 of stronger than aluminum alloys and
The major alloy usages are
them, are fabricated in rod. sheet, superior in many respects to most
tube, and wire form. Each of these 1. Copper in pure form as a conductor alloy steels.
alloys has some property or combina- in the electrical industry
tion of properties which makes it 2. Copper or alloy tubing for water,
unique. They can be grouped into sev- drainage, air conditioning, and BERYLLIUM
eral general headings, such as coppers, refrigeration lines
brasses, leaded brasses, phosphor 3. Brasses, phosphor bronzes, and Beryllium has a strength-to-weight
bronzes, aluminum bronzes, silicon nickel silvers as springs or in con- ratio comparable to high-strength

bronzes, beryllium coppers, cupro- struction of equipment if corrosive steel, yet it is lighter than aluminum.
nickels. and nickel silvers. See Fig. conditions are too severe for iron or Its melting point is 2345°F (1285 C) and
12-3-3. steel it has excellent thermal conductivity
It is nonmagnetic and a good conduc-
An advantage
of copper and its tor of electricity.
alloys, offered by no other metals, is
the wide range of colors available.
(MAJOR
ALLOYING ELEMENT DESIGNATION REFRACTORY METALS
Aluminum (99% or more) Ixxx NICKEL Refractory metals are those metals
Copper 2xxx with melting points above 3600°F
Commercially pure wrought nickel is a
Manganese 3xxx
grayish-white metal capable of taking a (2000°C). Among these, the best
Silicon 4xxx
high polish. Because of its combina- known and most extensively used are
Magnesium 5xxx
tion of attractive mechanical proper- tungsten, tantalum, molybdenum, and
Magnesium and silicon 6xxx
Zinc 7xxx ties, corrosion resistance, and form- niobium.
Other elements 8xxx ability, nickel or its alloys is used in a Refractor] metals are characterized
Unused series 9xxx variety of structural applications usu- by high-temperature strength, corro-
ally requiring specific corrosion resis- sion resistance, and high melting
Fig. 12-3-2 Wrought aluminum alloy
tance. points.
designations.

MANUFACTURING MATERIALS 253

Tantalum and Niobium
Tantalum and niobium are usually dis-
cussed together, since most of their
working operations are identical.
Unlike molybdenum and tungsten,
tantalum and niobium can be worked
at room temperatures. The major dif-
ferences between tantalum and
niobium are in density, nuclear cross
section, and corrosion resistance. The
density of tantalum is almost twice that
of niobium.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum is widely used in mis-
furnaces, and
siles, aircraft, industrial
nuclear projects. Its melting point is
lower than that of tantalum and tung-
sten. Molybdenum has a high strength-
to-weight ratio and a low vapor pres-
sure, is a good conductor of heat and
electricity, has a high modulus of elas-
ticity, and a low coefficient of ex-
pansion.
Tungsten
Tungsten the only refractory metal
is
that has the combination of excellent
corrosion resistance, good electrical
and thermal conductivity, a low coeffi-
cient of expansion, and high strength
at elevated temperatures.
ASSIGNMENTS in machine and equipment design.
Metals, it is true, are hard and rigid.
See Assignments 3 and 4 for Unit 12-3
This means that they can be machined,
on page 264.
to very close tolerances, into cams,
bearings, bushings, and gears, which
Review for Assignments
will work smoothly under heavy loads
Unit 4-2 Arcs Tangent to Two for long periods. Although some come
Lines
close, no plastic has the hardness and
Unit 12-1 Cast Irons
creep resistance of, say, steel. How-
Unit 12-2 Steels
ever, metals have many weaknesses
Unit 15-2 Arrowless Dimensioning
which engineering plastics do not.
Metals corrode or rust, they must be
lubricated, their working surfaces
wear readily, they cannot be used as
electrical or thermal insulators, they
UNIT 12-4 are opaque and noisy, and where they
must flex, metals fatigue rapidly.
Plastics
Plastics can resolve these weak-
nesses, though not necessarily all with
This unit will acquaint drafters with one material. The engineering plastics
the general characteristics of commer- are resistant to most chemicals; fluoro-
cially available plastics so that they carbon is one of the most chemically
may make proper use of plastics in inert substances known. None of the
products. engineering plastics corrode or rust;
Plastics may be defined as non- acetal resin and fluorocarbon are
metallic materials capable of being unaffected even when continuously
formed or molded with the aid of heat, immersed in water. Engineering plas-
pressure, chemical reactions, or a tics can be run at low speeds and loads,
combination of these. See Fig. 12-4-1. and, without lubrication, are among
Plastics are strong, tough, durable the world's slipperiest solids, being
materials which solve many problems comparable to ice. Engineering plas-

PRECIOUS METALS
Gold costs over 8000 times more than
an equal amount of iron rhodium costs
;

nearly 32 000 times more than copper.

With prices such as these, why are
precious metals ever specified?
In some cases, precious metals are
used for their unique surface charac-
teristics. They reflect light better than
other metals. Gold, for example, is
specified as a surface for heat reflec-
tors, insulators, and collectors be-
cause of its outstanding ability to re-
flect ultraviolet radiation.
The family of metals called precious
metals can be divided into three sub-
groups: silver and silver alloys: gold
and gold alloys: and the so-called plati-
num metals, which are platinum, pal-
ladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium.
and osmium.

References and Source Material

1. Machine Design, Materials refer-
ence issue. Mar. 1981. Fig. 12-4-1 A variety of plastic parts. (Automatic Plastics

254 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

tics are resilient: therefore, they run properties, adaptability to mass-pro- used to bind such materials as fibers of
more quietly and smoothly than equiv- duction methods, and. often, lower glass and sheets of paper or wood to
and they are able to
alent metal ones, cost. form boat hulls, airplane wing tips, and
stand periodic overloads without Aside from the range of uses attrib- tabletops.
harmful effects. utable to the special qualities of differ- Plastics are usually classified as
Plastics are a family of materials ent plastics, these materials achieve either thermoplastic or thermosetting.
not a single material —
each member of still greater variety through the many

which has its special advantages. forms in which they can be produced.
Being manufactured, plastics raw They may be made into definite
materials are capable of being vari- shapes like dinnerware and electric
THERMOPLASTICS
ously combined to give almost any suitchboxes. They may be made into These materials soften, or liquefy, and
property desired in an end product. flexible film and sheeting such as flow when heat is applied. Removal of
But these are controlled variations shower curtains and upholstery. Plas- the heat causes these materials to set
unlike those of nature's products. tics may be made into sheets, rods, or solidify. They may be reheated and
Some thermoplastics can be sterilized. and tubes that are later shaped or reformed or reused. In this group fall
The widespread and growing use of machined into internally lighted signs the acrylics, the cellulosics. nylons
plastics in almost every phase of mod- or airplane blisters. They may be made (poiyamides). polyethylene, poly-
ern living can be credited in large part into filaments for use in household styrene or styrene. polyfluorocarbons.
to their unique combinations of advan- screening, industrial strainers, and the vinyls, polyvinylidene. ABS. ace-
tages. These advantages are light sieves. Plastics may be used as a coat- polypropylene, and polycar-
tal resin,
weight, range of color, good physical ing on textiles and paper. They may be bonates. See Fig. 12-4-2.

THERMOPLASTICS
Name of Plastic Properties Forms and Methods of Forming Uses

ABS Strong, tough, good electrical Available in powder or granules for injec- Pipe, wheels, football helmets,
lAcrvlonitrile properties. tion molding, extrusion, and calendering battery cases, radio cases, chil-
Butadiene-Styrenei and as sheet for vacuum forming. dren's skates, tote boxes.

ACETAL RESIN Rigid without being brittle, Produced in powder form for molding and Automobile instrument clusters,

tough, resistant to extreme extrusion. Available in rod, bar, tube, gears, bearings, bushings, door
temperatures, good electrical strip, slab. handles, plumbing fixtures,
properties. threaded fasteners, cams.

ACRYLICS Exceptional clarity and good Available in sheet, rod, tube, and molding Airplane canopies and windows,
light transmission. powders. Plastic products can be produced televisionand camera viewing
Strong, rigid, and resistant to by fabricating of sheets, rods, and tubes, lenses,combs, costume jewelry-,
sharp blows. Excellent insula- hot forming of sheets, injection and com- salad bowls, trays, lamp bases,
tor, colorless or full range of pression molding of powder, extrusion, scale models, automobile tail
transparent, translucent, or casting. lights, outdoor signs.

opaque colors.

CELLULOSICS Available in pellets, sheets, film, rods, Spectacle frames, toys, lamp
(A) Cellulose Can be made in-
tubes, strips, coated cord. shades, combs, shoe heels.
Acetate to products by injection, compression
molding, extrusion, blow molding, and
vacuum forming, or sheets and coating.

(B) Cellulose Available in pellets, sheets, rods, tubes, Steering wheels, radio cases,
Acetate Among the toughest of plastics. strips,and as a coating. Can be made into pipe and tubing, tool handles,

Butyrate Retains a lustrous finish under products by injection, compression mold- playing cards.
normal wear. ing, extrusion, blowing and drawing of

Transparent, translucent, or sheet, laminating, coating.

opaque in wide variety of colors Available in pellets for injection extrusion Appliance housing, telephone
(C) Cellulose
and in clear transparent. hand sets, pens and pencils.
Propionate or compression molding.
Good insulators.
(D) Ethyl Available in granules, flake, sheet, rod, Edge moldings, flashlights, elec-

Cellulose tube, film, or Can be made into

foil. fin- trical parts.

ished products by injection, come;

molding, extrusion, drawing.

(E) Cellulose Available in rods, tubes, sheets for ma- Shoe heel covers, Fabric coating

Nitrate chining and as a coating.

Fig. 12-4-2 Thermoplastics. |Cont d on page 256). (The Society of Plastics Industry, Inc.

MANUFACTURING MATERIALS 25S

 THERMOPLASTICS (Continued)

Name of Plastic Properties Forms and Methods of Forming Uses

FLUOROCARBONS Low coefficient of friction, re- Available as powder and granules in resin Valve seats, gaskets, coatings,
sistant to extreme heat and form. Sheet, rod, tube, film, tape, and dis- linings, tubings.

cold. persions. Molded, extruded, and ma-

Strong, hard, and good insula- chined.
tors.

NYLON Resistant to extreme temper- Available as a molding powder, in sheets, Tumblers, faucet washers,
(Polyamides' atures. Strong and long-wear- rods, tubes, and filaments. Injection, com- As a filament,
gears. it is used as
ing range of soft colors. pression, blow molding, and extrusion. brush bristles, fishing line.

POLYCARBONATE High impact strength, resist- Primarily a molding material, may take Parts for aircraft, automobiles,
ant to weather, transparent. form of film, extrusion, coatings, fibers, or business machines, gages, safety-
elastomers. glass lenses.

POLYETHYLENE Excellent insulating proper- Available in pellet, powder, sheet, film, Ice cube trays, tumblers, dishes,

ties, moisture proof. Clear, and foamed. Injection,

filament, rod, tube, bottles, bags, balloons, toys,
transparent, translucent. compression, blow molding, extrusion, moisture barriers.
coating, and casting.

POLYSTYRENE Clear, transparent, translu- Available molding powders or granules,

in Kitchen items, food containers,
cent, or opaque. All colors. sheets, rods, foamed blocks, liquid solu- wall tile, toys, instrument pan-
Water and weather resistant. tion, coatings, and adhesives. Injection, els.

Resistance to heat or cold. compression molding, extrusion, laminat-

ing, machining.

POLYPROPYLENES Good heat resistance. High re- Processed by injection molding, blow Thermal dishware. washing ma-
sistance to cracking. Light molding, and extrusion. chine agitators, pipe and pipe
range of color. fittings, wire and cable insula-
tion, battery boxes, packaging
film and sheets.

URETHANES Tough and shock resistant for Solid type — starting two reactants, final Mattresses, cushioning, pad-
solid materials. Flexible for article can be extruded, molded, calen- ding, toys, rug underlays, crash-
foamed material, can be dered, or cast. pads, sponges, mats, adhesion,
foamed in place. Foamed type —can be made by either a pre- thermal insulation, industrial
polymer or one-shot process, in either slab tires.

stock or molded form.

VINYLS Strong and abrasion-resisting. Available in molding powder, sheet, rod, Raincoats, garment bags, inflat-

Resistant to heat and cold. tube, granules, powder. It can be formed able toys, hose, records, floor
Wide color range. by extrusion, casting, calendering, com- and wall tile, shower curtains,
pression, and injection molding. draperies, pipe, paneling.

Fig. 12-4-2 (cont'd.)

THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
These materials undergo an irrevers-
ible chemical change when heat is
applied or when a catalyst or reactant
is added. They become hard, insolu-
ble, and infusible, and they do not
soften upon reapplication of
Thermosetting plastics include phe-
nolics. amino plastics (melamine and
urea), cold-molded polyesters, epox-
ies. silicones, alkyds, ally lies, and
casein.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
The properties of various materials
influence the shape of the part. The
essential properties data
static strength com-
values in tension,
pression, shear, and flexure and
mechanical constants, such as moduli
of elasticity and shear. Most ther-
moplastics have flow properties which
cause degradation of fastening torque
heat. retention. Composition and fabrica-
tion methods influence the mechanical
properties of plastics and. therefore,
the working stresses.
MACHINING
Practicallyall thermoplastics and ther-
mosets can be satisfactorily machined
on standard equipment with adequate
tooling. The nature of the plastic will
needed are determine whether heat should be
applied, as in some laminates, or
avoided, as in buffing some ther-
moplastics. Standard machining oper-
ations can be used, such as turning,
drilling, tapping, milling, blanking, and
punching.
MATERIAL SELECTION
One of the first decisions a designer
makes the choice of materials. The
is
choice is influenced by many factors,
such as the end use of the product and
the properties of the selected material.
No attempt is made at this point to
discuss the engineering approach to

256 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

selection of materials. This is covered molding, extrusion, blow and vacuum closed mold. The fluid plastic is forced
in Chap. 32. forming, and embossing. Other meth- at high pressure through the nozzle
However, a basic examination and ods include laminating or layup and into the cold mold. As soon as the
selection of a plastic material at this cold forming and embossing. See Fig. plastic cools to a solid state, the mold
time will help acquaint the drafter with 12-5-1. The method of forming is gov- opens and the tlnished plastic piece is
the wide range of plastics available. erned by the material, part, part ejected from the press. See Fig. 12-5-2.
design, and cost.
References and Source Material
1. The Society of the Plastics Indus-
EXTRUDING
try. Inc.
INJECTION MOLDING
Extruding is a process generally used
2. Crystaplex Plastics. Injection is method of
the principal with the thermoplastic materials,
3. General Motors Corporation. forming thermoplastic materials. Mod- although it is applicable to the ther-
ifications of the injection process are mosetting plastics. It lends itself to
ASSIGNMENT sometimes used for thermosetting forming of shapes having uniform sec-
plastics. tions such as sheets, rods, tubes, and
See Assignment 5 for Unit 12-4 on In injection molding, plastic mate- filaments. Extrusion is accomplished
page 266. rial is put into a hopper which feeds by forcing material, which has been
into a heating chamber. A plunger softened in a heating chamber, through
Review for Assignment pushes the plastic through the long dies of the desired shape, using the
Unit 6-4 Bill of Material heating chamber where the material is pressure created from a screw or
softened to a fluid state. At the end of hydraulic ram. Extrusions may be con-
the chamber is a nozzle which abuts ducted continuously and rapidly with a
firmly against an opening into a cool. screw-type machine, as shown in Fig.
'

12-5-3.

UNIT 12-5 BLOW MOLDING

Plastic Forming Blow molding is a method of forming
Methods FEED
used with thermoplastic materials.
Basically, blow molding consists of
HOPPER
stretching and then hardening a plastic
The most common methods of form- against a mold. See Fig. 12-5-4.
ing plastic parts are by the application
of heat and pressure, casting, and
machining. Heat and pressure may be
applied by different methods, the most PLUNGER - -MOLDING COMPOUND
common of which are compression NJECTION CHAMBER
-HEATING ELEMENTS
-HEATER
molding, injection molding, transfer
-DIE
PLUNGER TYPE
-CORE

INJECTION
PISTON"

-SCREW CYLINDER-
EXTRUDED TUBE
Fig. 12-5-3 Extruding machine. (General
Motors Corp.)
-NOZZLE SPREADER SHAFT-

ROTARY SPREADER TYPE

ROTATING AND RECIPROCATING SCREW PLASTIC

A
SCREW-PISTON SHAFT-^
FINISHED
RECIPROCATING SCREW TYPE BOTTLE
MOLD OPEN BOTTLE BLOWN
Fig. 12-5-1 Plastic parts being removed from Fig. 12-5-2 Injection molding machines.
an injection mold. (Union Carbide Corp.) (General Motors Corp.) Fig. 12-5-4 Blow molding.

MANUFACTURING MATERIALS 257

COMPRESSION MOLDING molding in that the plastic is heated to SOLVENT MOLDING
a point of plasticity before it reaches
The molding material placed in the is Solvent molding is based on the fact
the mold and is forced into a closed
lower portion of a heated mold cavity that when a mold
is immersed in a
mold by means of a hydraulically oper-
having no top and with sides high solution and withdrawn, or when it is
ated plunger. See Fig. 12-5-6.
enough to retain the material. See Fig. filled with a liquid plastic and then
12-5-5. The upper portion of the mold emptied, a layer of plastic film adheres
is forced down over the material, usu- PULP MOLDING to the sides of the mold. Thermoplastic
ally with high pressure. The combina- materials are used in this process of
Thermosetting plastics are used in
tion of heat and pressure causes the forming.
pulp molding. In this process a porous
molding material to liquefy and flow, Some articles thus formed, like a
form, approximating the shape of a
filling the mold. bathing cap or vial, are removed from
finished article, is lowered into a tank
the molds. Other solvent moldings
containing a mixture of pulp, plastic
remain permanently on the form as, for
resins, and water. The water is drawn
TRANSFER MOLDING off through the porousform by a vac-
example, a plastic coating on a metal
tube.
Transfer molding is most generally uum. This causes the pulp and resin
used for thermosetting plastics. This mixture to be drawn to the form and
method is like compression molding in adhere to it. When a sufficient thick- CASTING
that the plastic is cured into an infusi- ness of pulp has been drawn onto the
form, it is removed and then molded
Casting may be employed for both
ble state in a mold under heat and pres-
thermoplastic and thermosetting mate-
sure. It differs from compression into final shape.
rials in making special shapes, rigid
sheets, film and sheeting, rods, and
tubes.
The essential difference between
casting and molding is that no pressure
is used in casting as it is in molding.
In casting, the plastic material is
Tq PLUNGER heated to a fluid mass, poured into
either open or closed molds, cured at
varying temperatures depending on
the plastic used, and removed from the
molds.
LOADING OF MOLD

CALENDERING
MOLD CLOSED
Calendering can be used to process
(A) COMPRESSION MOLDING PRINCIPLE
MULTIPLE CAVITY MOLD thermoplastics into film and sheeting
and to apply a plastic coating to tex-
tiles or other supporting materials. See
Fig. 12-5-7. Film refers to thicknesses
up to and including .01 in. (0.2 mm)
while sheeting includes thicknesses
MOLD CLOSED over .01 in. (0.2 mm).

COATING
Thermosetting and thermoplastic
(B) STRIPPER PLATE MOLD materials may both be used as a coat-

PLUNGER -PLASTIC

MOLDED PART
CALENDERED PLASTIC
SHEETING OR FILM
FOLDED PART

KNOCKOUT
IEJECTOR' PtNS^
(C) SPLIT CAVITY MOLD MOLD OPEN
Fig. 12-5-5 Compression molding. (General -SHEETING ROLLER
Fig. 12-5-6 Transfer molding. (General
Motors Corp.) Motors Corp. | Fig. 12-5-7 Calendering.

258 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

ing. The materials to be coated may be Reinforced plastics differ from high- Shrinkage Shrinkage is defined as the
metal, wood, paper, fabric, leather, pressure laminates in that very low or difference between dimensions of the
glass, concrete, ceramics, or other no pressure is used in the processing. mold and the corresponding dimen-
plastics. The two methods are alike in that the sions of the molded part. Normally the
Methods of coating are varied and plastic is used to bind together the mold designer is more concerned with
include knife or spread coating, spray- cloth, paper, or glass-fiber reinforcing shrinkage than the molded part
ing, roller coating, dipping, and brush- material used for the body of the prod- designer. Shrinkage does, however,
ing. See Fig. 12-5-8. uct. The reinforcing materials may be affect dimensions, warpage, residual
in sheet or mat form, and their selec- stress, and moldability.
tion depends on the qualities desired in
HIGH-PRESSURE Section Thickness Solidification is a
the end product. See Fig. 12-5-10.
LAMINATING function of heat transfer from or to the

Thermosetting plastics are most gener-
ally used in high-pressure laminating
which is distinguished by the use of
high heat and pressure. See Fig. 12-5-9.
These plastics are used to hold
FABRICATING
Fabricating covers operations on
sheet, rod, tube, sheeting, film, and
special shapes to make them into
mold for both thermoplastics and ther-
mosets. Each material has a fixed rate
of heat transfer. Therefore, where sec-
tion thickness varies, areas within a
molded part will solidify at different

together the reinforcing materials that finished products. The materials may rates. The varying rates will cause
irregular shrinkage, sink marks, addi-
comprise the body of the finished be thermosetting or thermoplastic.
and warpage. For these
tional strain,
product. The reinforcing materials Fabricating divides into three broad
reasons, uniform section thickness is
may be cloth, paper, wood, or fibers of categories: machining; cutting, sew-
important and may be maintained by
glass. ing, and sealing of film and sheeting;
and forming. adding holes or depressions, as shown
in Figs. 12-6-1 and 12-6-2.
REINFORCING
FINISHING
Reinforced plastics mostly employ
thermoset plastics, though some ther- The finishing of plastics includes the
moplastics are used. different methods of adding either dec- -0 -0- 0- -0
orative or functional surface effects to vrz
a plastic product.

COATING COMPOUND- References and Source Material

COATING KNIFE
SHEET TO 1. The Society of the Plastics Indus-
BE COATED- -COATED SHEET
try, Inc. UNIFORM THICKNESS VARYING THICKNESS
General Motors Corporation. PREFERRED NOT RECOMMENDED
2.
Fig. 12-6-1 Section thickness.

SUPPORTING
ROLLER ASSIGNMENT
Fig. 12-5-8 ABSOLUTE RECOM-
Coating. MENDED
See Assignment 6 for Unit 12-5 on MATERIAL MINIMUM MINIMUM
page 266. (m.) Imml Im.) fmml
THERMOPLASTICS
Assignment ABS 024 0.6 .064
--PRESSURE HEAD Review for 1.6
ACRYLIC 024 0.6 .100 2.4
Unit 12-4 Plastics CELLULOSIC .024 0.6 .076 1.9

--HEATED PLATENS FLUOROCARBON .010 0.2 .010 0.3

POLYAMIDE .016 0.4 060 1.5
POLYCARBONATE .024
— PLIES OF POLYETHYLENE 036
0.6
0.9
100
.064
2.4
1.6
LAMINATES PLOYSTYRENE 032 0.8 064 1.6

— BED POLYVINYL CHLORIDE 100 2.4 100 2.4

UNIT 12-6 THERMOSETS

EPOXY .064 1.6 .130 3.2

Fig. 12-5-9 High-pressure laminating.

Plastic Design POLYESTER
GLASS FILLED 040 1.0 4.7
.190

Considerations MINERAL FILLED 040 10 130 3.2

PHENOLICS
for Single Parts GENERAL PURPOSE 050 1.3 130 3.2
-HEATING CHANNELS FABRIC FILLED 064 1.6 190 4.7
r j

tijtiriiij'L-j I
MINERAL FILLED 130 3.2 .190 4.7

The design of molded parts involves UREA AND MELAMINES

MOLDING SURFACES several factors not normally encoun- GENERAL PURPOSE 036 0.9 100 2.5
FABRIC FILLED 050 13
tered with machine-fabricated and 130 3.2
REINFORCED MINERAL FILLED 040 10 :90 4.7
PLASTIC MATERIAL assembled parts. It is important that
designers take these factors into Fig. 12-6-2 Section thickness for various
Fig. 12-5-10 consideration. plastics. (General Motors Corp.)
Reinforcing.

MANUFACTURING MATERIALS 259

Molded Holes A through hole is more
advantageous than a blind hole since it
is more accurate and economical.
Blind holes should not be more than
twice as deep as their diameter, as
shown Fig. 12-6-3. Avoid placing
in
holes angles other than perpendicu-
at
lar to the flash line. If such holes are
necessary, consider using a drilled
hole to maintain simple molding. See
Fig. 12-6-4.
Threads External and internal threads
can be easily molded by means of
loose-piece inserts and rotating core
pins. External threads may be formed
by placing the cavity so that the
threads are formed in the mold pattern.
Gates Gate location should be antici-
pated during the design stage. Avoid
gating into areas subjected to high
stress levels, fatigue, or impact. To
optimize molding, locate gates in the
heaviest section of the part. See Fig.
12-6-5.
Internal and External Draft Draft is nec- tic to flow smoothly and easily through
essary on all rigid molded articles to the mold. For recommended radii, see
facilitate removal of the part from the Fig. 12-6-7.
mold. Draft may vary from 0.25 to 4°
Undercuts Parts with undercuts should
per side, depending upon the length of
be avoided. Normally, parts with
the vertical wall, surface area, finish,
external undercuts cannot be with-
kind of material, and the mold or
drawn from a one-piece mold. Internal
method of ejection used.
undercuts are considered impractical
Parting or Flash Line Flash is that por- and should be avoided. If an internal
tion of the molding material which undercut is essential, it may be
flows or exudes from the mold parting achieved by machining or by use of a
line during molding. Any mold which flexible mold core material. See Fig.
is made of two or more parts may pro- 12-6-9.
duce flash at the line of junction of the
Ribs and Bosses Ribs increase rigidity
mold parts. The thickness of flash usu-
of a molded part without increasing
ally varies between .002 and .016 in.
(0.05 and 0.40 mm), depending upon
the accuracy of the mold, type of mate-
rial, and the process used. See Fig.
12-6-6. R = 0.25T LESS DRAFT
Filletsand Radii The principal func-
tions of fillets and radii (rounds) are to
ease the flow of plastic within the
mold, to facilitate ejection of the part,
and to distribute stress in the part in
service. During molding, the material

-SLENDER HOLES WHERE NECESSARY

is liquefied, but it is a heavy, viscous -0.5TMAX
,
MOLD AND THEN DRILL PREFERRED liquid which does not easily flow
-SLENDER MOLDED HOLES (A) RIB AND BOSS PROPORTION
NOT RECOMMENDED
around sharp corners. The liquid tends
to bend around corners; therefore,
-RECOMMENDED PROPORTION
.FOR MOLDED HOLES rounded corners permit the liquid plas-

Fig. 12-6-3 Blind holes.

V 2T

-FLASH OR (B) RIB SPACING

-FLASH OR PARTING LINE PARTING LINE

Fig. 12-6-6 Parting or flash line. (General

Motors Corp.)

MOLDED SIDE HOLES

NOT RECOMMENDED-

Fig. 12-6-4 Avoiding molded holes which

are perpendicular to parting line. ZZ
(CI BOSSES

EJECTOR PIN BOSS

FLASH OR PARTING LINE-

-SHARP CORNERS

(D) EJECTOR PIN BOSSES

Fig. 12-6-7 Fillets and radii. (General Fig. 12-6-8 Ribs and bosses. (General
Fig. 12-6-5 Gating. (Union Carbide Corp. Motors Corp. Motors Corp.
j

260 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES


Fig. 12-6-9 Undercuts. (General Motors
Corp.)
wall thickness and sometimes
tate flow during molding. Bosses rein-
force small, stressed areas, providing
sufficient strength for assembly with
inserts or screws. Recommended pro-
portions for ribs and bosses are shown
in Fig. 12-6-8A.
References and Source Material
1. General Motors Corporation.
2. General Electric Company.
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 7 for Unit 12-6 on
page 266.
UNIT 12-7
Plastic Design
Considerations
for Assemblies
The design of molded parts which are
to be assembled with typical fastening
methods involves factors different
from those normally encountered with
metal.
HOLES AND THREADS
Mechanical fasteners, in general,
depend upon a hole of some type.
Holes should be designed and located
to provide maximum strength and min-
imum molding problems. Any straight
hole, molded or machined, should
have between it and an adjacent hole,
or side wall, an amount of
material
equal to or greater than the diameter or
width of the hole. Any threaded hole,
molded or tapped, should have
between it and an adjacent hole, or
side wall, an amount of material at designed. The molded part should be
least 3 times the outside diameter of designed around the insert.
the thread. Spacing may be reduced, Inserts of round rod stock, coarse
however, by proper use of bosses. diamond knurled and grooved, pro-
Drilled holes are often more accu- vide the strongest anchorage under
rate and easier to produce than molded torque and tension. A large single
holes, even though they require a sec- groove with knurling on each end, as in
ond operation. Fig. 12-7-1 , is superior to two or more
Tapped holes provide an eco- grooves with smaller knurled surface
nomical means ofjoining a molded part areas. See also examples of inserts in
to its assembly. The designer should Fig. 12-7-2.
avoid threads with a pitch of less than
facili- .03 in. (0.8 mm). Holes which are to be 03 MIN CHAMFER—
tapped should be countersunk to pre-
vent chipping when the tap is inserted.
External and internal threads can be
molded integrally with the part.
Molded threads are generally more
expensive to form than other threads
because either a method of unscrewing
the part from the mold must be pro- DIMENSIONS IN INCHES
vided or a split mold must be used.
KNURLING DEPTH SHOULD BE ABOUT .01 in.
ANGULAR GROOVES GIVE INCREASED AXIAL
ANCHORAGE. PLASTIC SHRINKAGE ALONE
INSERTS SHOULD NOT BE RELIED ON TO PROVIDE
FIRM SUPPORT FOR INSERTS.
After the molding material has been Fig. 12-7-1 Supporting inserts. (General
determined, the insert should be Motors Corp.)
STANDARD NUT <— LANCED HOLE
,-BE LOW BOSS
LEVEL
LET INTERNALLY THREADED
{
PROVIDE CIRCULAR INSERTS ENTER THE MACHINE
BOSSES AROUND MOLD TO PREVENT FLASH NOT RECOMMENDED PREFERRED
NONCIRCULAR INSERTS FROM GETTING INTO THREAD EXTEND INSERT BELOW BOSS
AND REINFORCE WITH RIBS
Fig. 12-7-2 Insert application. (General Motors Corp.
MANUFACTURING MATERIALS 261
PRESS AND SHRINK FITS the stresses that will be encountered BOSS CAPS
with fasteners. A strengthening of the
Inserts may be secured by a press fit,
area which will receive the brunt of
A boss cap is a cup-shaped metal ring
or the plastic molding material may be which is pressed onto the boss by
these applied stresses is usually
assembled to a larger part b> a shrink hand, with an air cylinder, or with a
required. See Fig. 12-7-5.
fit, as shown
in Fig. 12-7-3. Both meth- light-duty press. It is designed to rein-
ods on shrinkage of the material,
rely force the boss against the expansion
which is greatest immediately after RIVETS force exerted by tapping screws. See
removal from the mold. Conventional riveting equipment and
Fig. 12-7-7.

procedures can be used with plastics.

HEAT FORMING AND
HEAT SEALING
Most thermoplastics can be reformed
by the application of heat and pres-
sure, as shown in Fig. 12-7-4. This
reforming often eliminates the need for
other assembly methods, such as
adhesive bonding and mechanical fas-
teners. This method cannot be used
with thermosetting materials.
MECHANICAL FASTENING
Various designs of mechanical fas-
teners are commercially available.
Spring-type metal hinges and clips,
speed clips or nuts, and expanding
rivets are a few of these designs.
Design of the parts for assembly re-
quires that molded parts have suffi-
Care must be exercised to minimize
stresses induced during the fastening
operation. To do this, the rivet head
should be 2.5 to 3 times the shank
diameter. Also, rivets should be
backed with either plates or washers to
avoid high localized stresses. See Fig.
12-7-6.
Drilled holes rather than
holes are preferred for fasteners. If
possible, fastener clearance in the hole
should be at least .01 in. (0.3 mm) to
maintain a plane stress condition at the
fastener.
ADHESIVE BONDING
When two or more parts are to be
joined into an assembly, adhesives
permit a strong, durable fastening
between similar materials and often
are the only fastening method avail-
able for joining dissimilar materials.
Structural adhesives are made from
punched
the same basic resins as many plastics
and thus react to their operating
environment in a similar manner. In
order to provide maximum strength,
adhesives must be applied as a liquid
to thoroughly wet the surface of the
part. The bonding surface must be
chemically clean to permit complete
wetting. Basic plastics vary in physical
properties, so adhesives made from
these materials also vary. See Fig.
12-7-8.

cient sectional strength to withstand

PRESS FIT

Fig. 12-7-5 Mechanical fasteners.

PLASTIC OR METAL
SHRINK FIT

Fig. 12-7-3 Press and shrink fits. (General

Motors Corp.)

m
Fig.
BEFORE
FORMING
12-7-4 Heat forming.
AFTER FORMING
IN ASSEMBLY
Fig. 12-7-6
procedure.
-REINFORCING WASHER

'<JOTE:
ET
BREAK ALL SHARP EDGES ON
WASHER AND HOLES.
Recommended riveting
THREAD

=
SIZE

81 i64l

101 190'

Fig. 12-7-7
A
"

IE
B

25

29
DIMENSIONS

Boss cap de< ign.

c

13

17
1
D

34

.40
02

02
»

262 FASTENERS. MATERIALS. AND FORMING PROCESSES

V/////////////7777^

(A) LAP JOINT

(B) SCARF JOINT

PLASTIC
Fig. 12-7-9 Design joints for ultrasonic (A) BEFORE STAKING
bonding.

Z^Z^/////////////////////////
A .

(C) T JOINT ticpart protrudes through a hole in the

metal part. The surface of the stud is
vibrated with a horn having high ampli-
tude and a relatively small contact
(B) AFTER STAKING
area. The vibration causes the stud to
Fig. 12-7-10 Typical ultrasonic staking
melt and re-form in the configuration
izzzzi operation.
of the horn tip. See Fig. 12-7-10.

(D) CORNER JOINT

FRICTION OR SPIN WELDING
This welding technique is limited to
parts with circular joints. It is espe-
cially useful for large parts where ul-

P-1 trasonic welding or chemical bonding

is impractical.
In friction or spin welding, the faces
to be joined are pressed together while BUTT
(E) BUTT JOINTS PLAIN SHALLOW FLAT TONGUE
one part spun and the other is held
is WITH BUTT"* V AND AND
Fig. 12-7-8 Adhesive bonding. LOCATING CONVEX GROOVE
fixed. Frictional heat produces a mol- RIM
ten zone that becomes a weld when
Fig. 12-7-11 Joint shapes for spin welding.
spinning stops. See Fig. 12-7-11.

ULTRASONIC BONDING Drawings

In addition to the usual considerations,
Ultrasonic bonding often is used
the following points should be taken References and Source Material
instead of solvent cementing to bond
into account when a detail drawing of a 1. General Motors Corporation.
plastic parts. By
using this technique,
plastic part is made 2. General Electric Company.
irregularly shaped parts can be bonded
in 2 seconds or less. The bonded parts 1. Can the part be removed from the
may be handled and used at reasonable mold'.' ASSIGNMENTS
temperatures within minutes after 2. Is location of flash line consistent
joining. with design requirements? See Assignments 8 and 9 for Unit 12-7
Is section thickness consistent? Are
on page 266.
Only one of the mating parts comes 3.

in contact with the horn. The part there thick sections? Thin sections'?
transmits the ultrasonic vibration to Could greater uniformity of section Review for Assignments
small, hidden bonding areas, resulting thickness be maintained? Unit 6-1 Working Drawings
Unit 7-1 Full Sections
in fast, perfect welds. Both mating 4. Has the material been correctly
halves remain cool except at the seam. specified?
where the energy is quickly dissipated. 5. Is each feature in accordance with

This technique is not recommended the thinking of competent materials

where high impact strength is required engineers and molders?
in the bond area. See Fig. 12-7-9. 6. Have close tolerance requirements
been reviewed with responsible
engineers'.'
ULTRASONIC STAKING 7. Have marking requirements been
Ultrasonic staking frequently involves specified to inform field service
the assembly of metal parts. In this people of the material from which
technique, a stud molded into the plas- the part is fabricated?

MANUFACTURING MATERIALS 263

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 1

2.90
Assignment for Unit 12-1, <2

Cast Irons
1 On a B- or A3-size sheet make a two-view
working drawing of one of the parts
shown in Fig. 2-1 -A or 12-1-B. Use a
1 R.70
revolved section to show the center sec-
tion of the arm. Select a suitable cast iron
for the part. Scale is full or 1:1.

ROUNDS & FILLETS R .06

Assignment for Unit 12-2,
Carbon Steel
2. On a B- or A3-size sheet make a working .X 2.40
:
ACROSS FLATS
drawing of one of the parts shown in Fig.
HEX 2.10 ACROSS FLATS
12-2-A or 12-2-B. Show the worm
threads in pictorial form. Scale is 2 x size Fig. 12-1 -A Plug wrench.
or 2:1 . Select a suitable steel for the part.
26
Conventional breaks may be used to
shorten the length of the view.

Assignments for Unit 12-3,

Nonferrous Metals
3. On a B- or A3-size sheet make a two-view
working drawing of the outboard motor
clamp shown in Fig. 12-3-A or 12-3-B.
Use lines or surfaces marked A, B, and Cas
the zero lines and use arrowless dimen-
sioning. Scale is half size or 1 :2. Select a
suitable material noting that the part
must be water resistant, have a painted
finish, have moderate strength, and have
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R 3
a light weight or mass.
4. On an A-size sheet recommend the mate-
rial for each of the parts shown in Figs.

12-3-C and 2-3-D. State your reasons for

1 8 THRU HOLE
each of the materials selected. Fig. 12-1-B Door closer arm.

.375 - 24 UNF - 2A
-375
.75 .374

ACME THREAD OD = .625

PITCH = .25 DOUBLE THREADS ACME THREAD
OD=30 PITCH=8
TRIPLE THREADS-RIGHT HAND
018 BOTH ENDS
-0 16 P7/h6 FIT FOR BEARING
.06 X 45° -24 UNF -2B BOTH ENDS
.312
TO .375 HOLE -1.5 X 45° CHAMFER-BOTH ENDS
Fig. 12-2-A Raising bar. Fig. 12-2-B Worm for gear jack.

264 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 I 24

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .12 ROUNDS AND FILLETS R 3

Fig. 12-3-A Outboard motor clamp. Fig. 12-3-B Outboard motor clamp.

.250-20UNC-2B^ '

LINK
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R3
019X3 HIGH BOSS^
^-0 .6250 64 C ^K
Fig. 12-3-C Coupling.

-048 /-0 48 H7/s6 FIT IN LINK

R40 387

8
4HOLES EQUALLY
| 9
SPACED ON 58
27 H7/s6 FIT IN LINK
32

6J BUSHING

Fig. 12-3-D Connecting link.

MANUFACTURING MATERIALS 265

Assignment for Unit 12-4, Assignment for Unit 12-6, 9. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make an assem-
Plastics Plastic Design Considerations bly drawing of the parts shown in Fig.
5. On a B- or A3-size sheet, prepare a pro- for Single Parts 12-7-C. The retaining ring is to be posi-
duction report for the selection of mate- 7. On a B- or A3-size sheet, prepare a cast-
tioned in the center of the part and
rials for the partsshown in Fig. 2-4-A or
1 ing drawing for one of the parts shown in molded into position. Modification to the
Convert as many parts as possible retaining ring may be reguired to prevent
1 2-4-B. Figs. 2-6-A to 2-6-C. Refer to the cast-
1 1

to plastic. The crane hook assembly is to ing recommendations shown in this unit the ring from turning in the wheel. Scale is
be used water dip-tank operation.
in a and indicate the parting line on the draw- 5 x size or 5:1 Show a top view and a full-
.

Assume is such
that the production run ing. Use your judgment for dimensions
section view. Dimension the finished
that all forming processes can be consid- assembly.
not given. Scale is full or 1:1.
ered. Include with your report a bill of
material. Assignments for Unit 12-7,
Plastic Design Considerations 2.0 X 45° CHAMFER
Assignment for Unit 12-5, for Assemblies
PT 2 - POST
Plastic Forming Methods 8. On a B- or A3-size sheet, add a threaded II MATL - MS
Prepare a report to your supervisor rec- REQD
6. insert to one of the parts shown in Fig.
I

ommending the method of manufacture 12-7-A or 12-7-B. Use your judgment for
for one of the parts shown in Figs. 12-5-A dimensions not shown and the type and
and 12-5-B. The report must be concise number of views reguired. Scale is 2 x
and brief. The manner of presentation and size or 2:1.
the analysis arriving at your conclusion
could well be a deciding factor for future
promotion within a company.

LES/ [ PT 4 -BRACKET
MATL - 2.29 (NO. I3GS GAI
58 IREQD

500-13 UNC
EX-SLOTTED NUT

0.12 SPRING PIN

Fig. 1 2-4-B

Fig. 1 2-4-A Crane hook assembly.

I 00 MATL - NYLON

Fig. 12-5-A Coupling. Fig. 12-5-B Swing bracket.

266 FASTENERS, MATERIALS, AND FORMING PROCESSES

 NOTE: BASE EXTENDED BEYOND WALLS FOR WELDING PURPOSES ONLY MATL- CELLULOSE
Fig. 12-6-A Shaft base.
Fig. 12-7-A Connector.

s
S_ h\ -0 38

-M6 X 10 DEEP

MATL- CELLULOSE

Fig. 12-6-B Caster frame. Fig. 12-7-B Lamp adjusting knob.

-NO 5105 X 3i TRUARC RETAINING RING

TO BE RETAINEO INTHi

Fig. 12-6-C Slide bracket. Fig. 12-7-C Cassette-tape drive wheel.

MANUFACTURING MATERIALS 267

PART 3 Intermediate
Drawing
Design
CHAPTER 13
Auxiliary Views

UNIT 13-1 inclined surfaces. In the regular iary view will replace one of the regu-
orthographic views, such surfaces lar views on the drawing, as illustrated
Primary Auxiliary appear to be foreshortened, and their in Fig. 13-1-1.
true shape is not shown. When an One of the regular orthographic
Views inclined surface has important charac- views will have a line representing the
teristics that should be shown clearly edge of the inclined surface. The auxil-
Many machine parts have surfaces and without distortion, an auxiliary iary view is projected from this edge
that are not perpendicular, or at right view is used so that the drawing com- line, at right angles, and is drawn par-
angles, to the plane of projection. pletely and clearly explains the shape allel to the edge line.
These are referred to as sloping or of the object. In many cases, the auxil-

TOP PLANE
-NOT TRUE SHAPE
k
OF SURFACE

SIDE PLANE
hN
-FRONT PLANE
PLANES REMOVED SHOWING
THREE PRINCIPLE PLANES PLANES UNFOLDED THREE REGULAR ITOP
OF PROJECTION HINGED FRONT. SIDE) VIEWS
TOGETHER
NOTE - IN NONE OF THESE VIEWS DOES THE SLANTED (COLOREDI SURFACE APPEAR IN ITS TRUE SHAPE
(Al WEDGED BLOCK SHOWN IN THREE REGULAR VIEWS

AUXILIARY PLANE TRUE SHAPE OF

COLORED SURFACE

AUXILIARY
VIEW

90°

TWO PRINCIPLE PLUS AN -90°

PLANES REMOVED SHOWING
AUXILIARY PLANE HINGED FRONT. SIDE. AND
TOGETHER PLANES UNFOLDED
AUXILIARY VIEW
NOTE IN THIS EXAMPLE THE AUXILIARY PLANE REPLACED THE TOP PLANE IN
:

ORDER THAT THE SLANTED (COLOREDI SURFACE MAY BE SHOWN IN ITS TRUE SHAPE
REPLACING THE TOP PLANE WITH AN AUXILIARY PLANE
(Bl

Fig. 13-f-l Relationship of the auxiliary plane to the three principle planes.

AUXILIARY VIEWS 269

 NEITHER TOP NOR SIDE VIEWS SHOWS PARTIAL TOP VIEW SHOWS Only the true shape features on the
TRUE SHAPE OF SURFACC TRUE SHAPE OF RECESS views need be drawn, as shown in Fig.
PARTIAL AUXILIARY VIEW
t
u ^-DISTORTED VIEWS SHOWS TRUE SHAPE OF
13-1-2. Since the auxiliary view shows
SURFACE "A" only the true shape and detail of the
V'.'
<^^\OF SURFACE "A"
te> inclined surface or features, a partial
ir auxiliary view is all that is necessary.
AUXILIARY VIEW PARALLEI
/
r- S JRFACE \ TO INCLINED SURFACE Likewise, the distorted features on the
regular views may be omitted. Hidden
i

i lines are usually omitted unless

i // H | I i

required for clarity. This procedure is

- —W— •" SURFACES PARALLEL
recommended for functional and pro-
AUXILIARY VIEW REPLACES SIDE VIEW
duction drafting where drafting costs
PARTIAL VIEWS SHOWING ONLY THE are an important consideration. How-
NECESSARY DETAILS ARE RECOMMENDED ever, the drafter may be called upon to

& draw the complete views of the part.

This type of drawing is often used for
catalog and standard parts drawings.
Additional examples of auxiliary
view drawings are shown in Fig. 13-1-3.
<$> Figure 13-1-4 shows how to make an
t auxiliary view of a symmetrical object.
Figure I3-1-4A shows the object in a
AUXILIARY VIEW REPLACES TOP VIEW pictorial view. In this illustration a
center plane is used as a reference
Fig. 13-1-2 Auxiliary views replacing regular views. plane. In Fig. 13-1-4B the center plane
is drawn parallel to the inclined surface
shown in the front view. The edge

NOTE: CONVENTIONAL BREAK OR PROJECTED SURFACE

ONLY NEED BE SHOWN ON PARTIAL ViEWS

Fig. 13-1-3 Examples of auxiliary view drawings.

ENTER PLANE
]7^l?2
X[

1
£J"??
X' . 3

PARALLEL

\y-

FRONT VIEW

(A) IB) |C) (D)

Fig. 13-1-4 To draw an auxiliary view using the center plane reference.

270 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

view of this plane appears as a center prepare and read, but it is readily
line, line AT. on the top view Number . adaptable to mechanical lettering. See
the points on the top view Then trans- . Fig. 13-1-5.
fer these numbers to the edge view of
the inclined surface on the front view,
as shown. Parallel to this edge view
ASSIGNMENTS
and at a convenient distance from it. See Assignments 1 through 4 for Unit
draw the line X'Y'. as in Fig. 13-1-4C. 13-1 on page 274.
Now, in the top view, find the dis-
tances D, and D 2 from the numbered Review for Assignments
These are the
points to the center line. Unit 7-18 Rounds and Fillets
depth measurements. Transfer them
onto the corresponding construction
lines that you have just drawn, mea-
suring them off on either side of line
X'Y'. as shown in Fig. 13-1-4D. The
UNIT 13-2
result will be a set of points on the Circular Features in
Fig. 13-2-1 Truncated cylinder and auxiliary
construction lines. Connect and num-
ber these points, as shown in Fig.
Auxiliary Projection view.

13-1-4E. and the front auxiliary view of

the inclined surface results. The As mentioned in Unit 13-1. at times it is
remaining portions of the object may necessary to show the complete views
also be projected from the center refer- of an object. If circular features are give a number of equally spaced
ence plane. involved in auxiliary projection, then points — in this case. 12 points. A to M,
the surfaces appear elliptical, not cir- spaced 30° apart (360°/ 12 = 30°). These
cular, in one of the views. down
DIMENSIONING points are projected to the edge
The method most commonly used to line on the front view, then at right
AUXILIARY VIEWS draw the true-shape projection of the angles to the edge line to the area
One of the basic rules of dimensioning curved surface is the plotting of a where the auxiliary view will be
is to dimension the feature w here it can series of points on the line, the number drawn. A center line for the auxiliary
be seen in its true shape and size. Thus of points being governed by the accu- view is drawn parallel to the edge line,
the auxiliary view will show only the racy of the curved line required. and width settings taken from the top
dimensions pertaining to those fea- Figure 13-2-1 illustrates an auxiliary view are transferred to the auxiliary
tures for which the auxiliary view was view of a truncated cylinder. The view. Note width setting/? for point L.
drawn. The recommended dimension- shape seen in the auxiliary view is an Because the illustration shows a true
ing method for engineering drawings is ellipse. This shape is drawn by plotting cylinder and the point divisions in the
the unidirectional system. Not onh is lines of intersection. The perimeter of top view are all equal, the width setting
this method of dimensioning easier to the circle in the top view is divided to R taken at L is also the correct width

.90 /

1
As,
.60
/ / /

75
1

1
-+ 3.50 — -H. 30 f-»-l.40-«»J Constructing the true shape of a curved surface by the
Fig. 13-2-2
Fig. 13-1-5 Dimensioning auxiliary view drawings. plotting method.

AUXILIARY VIEWS 271

 PARTIAL TOP VIEW
setting for C, E, and J. Width setting 5
for B is also the correct width setting
for /-. //. and \1. When all the width
settings have been transferred to the AUXILIARY
VIEW AUXILIARY
auxiliary view, the resulting points o\'
VIEW
intersection are connected by means
of an irregular curve to give the desired
elliptical shape.
It is often necessary to construct the

auxiliary view first in order to com-

plete the regular views. This is shown
in Fig. 13-2-2.

ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 6 for Unit 13-2 on page
274.
PARTIAL END VIEW FRONT VIEW PARTIAL END VIEW

Review for Assignment Fig. 13-3-1 Auxiliary views added to regular views to show true shape of features.
Unit 13-1 Dimensioning Auxiliary
Views
Unit 7-18 Intersection of Unfinished
Surfaces

UNIT 13-3
Multi-Auxiliary-
View Drawings
Some objects have more than one sur-
face not perpendicular to the plane of
projection. In preparing working
drawings of these objects, an auxiliary
view may be required for each surface. — 0.50 SLOT
Naturally, this would depend upon the
Fig. 13-3-2 Dimensioning a multi-auxiliary-view drawing.
amount and type of detail King on
these surfaces. This type of drawing is
often referred to as a multi-auxiliary-
view drawing. See Fig. 13-3-1.
the inclined surface and to one of the
One can readily see the advantage of UNIT 13-4
principal planes. The secondary auxil-
using the unidirectional system of
dimensioning for dimensioning an Secondary iary view is then projected from the
primary auxiliary view, perpendicular
object such as shown in Fig. 13-3-2.
Auxiliary Views to it. Figure 13-4-2 shows the pro-
cedure for drawing a secondary auxil-
ASSIGNMENT Some objects, because of their shape,
iary view.

See Assignment 7 for Unit 13-3 on pasze require a secondary auxiliary view to
276. show the true shape of the surface or
ASSIGNMENT
feature. See Fig. 13-4-1. The surface or See Assignment 8 for Unit 13-4 on page
Review for Assignment feature usually oblique to the princi-
is 276.
Unit 7-18 Intersection of Unfinished pal planes of projection. In order to
Surfaces draw a secondary auxiliary view, the Review for Assignment
Unit 13-1 Dimensioning Auxiliary primary auxiliary view is first con- Unit 13-1 Dimensioning Auxiliary
View structed so that it is perpendicular to Views

272 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 PRIMARY AUXILIARY

Fig. 13-4-1 Secondary auxiliary-view drawing.

HEXAGON \/
I 50 ACROSS V^ I
/

FLATS
SECONDARY
AUXILIARY
VIEW

NOTE: MANY UNNECESSARY HIDDEN LINES

75 ARE OMITTED FOR CLARITY
i

i>yf |/^s
nw

I. DRAW PARTIAL TOP AND FRONT VIEWS

SECONDARY
AUXILIARY VIEW

PRIMARY
AUXILIARY VIEW

3. DRAW SECONDARY AUXILIARY VIEW AND COMPLETE

2. DRAW PRIMARY AUXILIARY VIEW OUTLINE PRIMARY AUXILIARY VIEW

4 COMPLETE TOP VIEW BY PROJECTING LINES AND POINTS 5 COMPLETE FRONT VIEW 8Y PROJECTING LINES AND POINTS
FROM PRIMARY AUXILIARY VIEW AND TRANSFERRING FROM TOP VIEW AND TRANSFERRING DISTANCES FROM
PRIMARY AUXILIARY VIEW
DISTANCES FROM SECONDARY AUXILIARY VIEW

Fig. 13-4-2 Steps in drawing a secondary auxiliary view.

AUXILIARY VIEWS 273

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 13
Assignments for Unit 13-1,
Primary Auxiliary Views
1 On a B-size sheet, make a working draw-
ing of the angle bracket shown in Fig.

1
3-1 -A. Replace the top view with an
auxiliary view. Draw complete views with
hidden lines. Scale is full
ALL SURFACES
2. On an A3-size sheet, make a working
drawing of the cross-slide bracket shown
in Fig. 3- -B. Replace the side view with
1 1

an auxiliary view. Only partial views need

be drawn, and hidden lines may be added
to improve clarity. Scale is 1:1.
Fig. 13-1-A Angle bracket
3. On a B- or A3-size sheet, draw the top,
front, and auxiliary views of the angle
plate shown in Fig. I3-1-C. Only partial
views are required for the auxiliary and ROUNDS* FILLETS R .12

MATL-MALLEABLE IRON
front views. Hidden lines may be added to
improve the clarity. Scale is full or 1:1.
4. On an A3- or B-size sheet draw the top,
front, and partial auxiliary view of each of
the two statue bases shown in Fig. 1 3- -D.
1

Scale is 1:1.

5. On a B-orA3-size sheet select any two of

the truncated prisms shown in Fig. 1 3- -E,1

and draw the top, front, and auxiliary

views for each. All views are to be com-
plete with hidden lines shown. Scale is full
ALL SURFACES
or 1:1.

Assignment for Unit 13-2,

Circular Features in Auxiliary
Projection ROUNDS & FILLETS R 3
MATL-MALLEABLE IRON
6. On a make a working
B- or A3-size sheet,
drawing of one of the parts shown in Fig.
Fig. 13-1-B Cross-slide bracket.
1 3-2-A or 1 3-2-B. Add hidden lines when
required for clarity. Locational dimensions
are to the center of auxiliary views. Scale is

full or 1:1.

HEXAGON-50 ACROSS FLATS OCTAGON-50 ACROSS FLATS

-CENTERLINE CENTERLINE-
VERTEX

€Bt
Fig. 13-1-C Angle plate. Fig. 13-1-D Statue bases.

274 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 ^v
3.00

Fig. 13-1-E Truncated prisms.

.375-16 UNC

0.875 THRU

— 2.00—-
r
4.00
^
4 .00

1.50
6.00- J
1

DRAWING SETUP

DOVETAIL BOTH ENDS

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R.I2
MATL - CI
Fig. 13-2-A Control block

190

/ '

^ J$f
I

1
I
70
90

DRAWING SET-UP
"A3" SIZE PAPER

MATL-CI

Fig. 13-2-B Link.

AUXILIARY VIEWS 275

Fig. 13-3-A Inclined stop.

Assignment for Unit 13-3,

Multi-Auxiliary-View Drawings
7. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a working
drawing of one of the parts shown in Figs.
13-3-A to 13-3-C. The selection and
placement of views are shown. Only par-
tial views need be drawn except where

noted, and hidden lines may be added to

improve clarity. Scale is full or 1:1.

Assignment for Unit 13-4,

Secondary Auxiliary Views
8. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a working
drawing of one of the parts shown in Fig.
13-4-A or 13-4-B. The selection and
placement of views are shown beside the
drawing. Only partial auxiliary views
need be drawn, and hidden lines may be
added to improve clarity. Scale is full
or 1:1.

ROUNDS & FILLETS R2

MATL-CI

R 12

Fig. 13-3-B Connecting bar.

276 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 ALL ROUNDS AND FILLETS Ft 12

MATL - CI

^
88»f«-
^
.68 » * 88 I .
g
IS 68 -^|

Fig. 13-4-B Pivot arm

AUXILIARY VIEWS 277

CHAPTER 14
Pictorial
I
a Drawings

UNIT 14-1 AXONOMETRIC principal axes may make any angle

Pictorial Drawings
Pictorialdrawing is the oldest written
method of communication known, but
the character of pictorial drawing has
continually changed with the advance
of civilization. In this text only those
kinds of pictorial drawings commonly
used by the engineer and drafter are
considered. Pictorial drawings are use-
ful in design, construction or produc-
tion, erection or assembly, service or
repairs, and sales. They are used to
explain complicated engineering draw-
PROJECTION 1 with one another except 90°.
A projected view in which the lines of
Axonometric drawings, as shown in
Figs. 14-1-3 and 14-1-4. are classified
sight are perpendicular to the plane of into three forms: isometric drawings.
projection, but inw hich the three faces where the three principal faces and
of a rectangular object are all inclined axes of the object are equally inclined
to the plane of projection, is called an to the plane of projection; dimetric
axonometric projection. See Fig. drawings, where two of the three prin-
14-1-2. The projections of the three cipal faces and axes of the object are
equally inclined to the plane of projec-
tion: and trimetric drawings, where all
PLANE OF PROJECTION-^ j- LINES OF SIGHT
MDICULAR TO
ISOMETRIC DlMETRlC
Tl

IA) AXONOMETRIC PROJECTION

ings to people who do not have the
training or ability to read the conven-
tional multiview drawings: to help the
designer work out problems in space, (A) AXONOMETRIC
including clearances and interfer-
LINES OF SIGHT
ences: to train new employees in the CAVALIER CABINET
OBLIQUE TO PLANE
(Bl OBLIQUE PROJECTION
shop: to speed up and clarify the
assembly of a machine or the ordering
of new parts: to transmit ideas from
one person to another, from shop to
shop, or from salesperson to pur-
chaser: and as an aid in developing the (B) OBLIQUE
power of visualization. The type of
POINT OR ANGULAR
pictorial draw ing used depends on the 2
CONVERGE TO
purpose for which it is drawn. POINT OF SIGHT

There are three general types into

which pictorial drawings may be
divided: axonometric. oblique, and
perspective. These three differ from
one another in the fundamental 3 POINT OR OBLIQUE (CI PERSPECTIVE
scheme of projection, as shown in Fig. ICI PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION FRONT VIEW
14-1-1. Fig. 14-1-1 Types of pictorial drawings. Fig. 14-1-2 Kinds of projection.

278 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 APPROXir
FULL SCALE ON ALE ON .1 SCALE three faces and axes of the object make
0.8
THESE AXES AXIS
ALL THREE AXES
different angles with the plane of pro-
The most popular form of
jection.
VARIABLE. BUT NOT EQUAL axonometric projection is the iso-
SUM OF THESE TWO ANGLES
VARIA8LE. BUT EQUAL LESS THAN 90°. BUT NEITHER metric.
0° TO 45° EXCEPT 30° ANGLE IS0°
(A) ISOMETRIC PROJECTION (B , D |METRIC PROJECTION (CI TRIMETRIC PROJECTION
Fig. 14-1-3 Types of axonometric projection. (Graphic Standard Instruments Co.) ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS 2
This method is based on a procedure of
ISOMETRIC USE OF THIS SET ENABLES YOU TO SHOW THE OBJECT FROM THESE 48 VIEWPOINTS revolving the object at an angle of 45°
to the horizontal, so that the front
corner is toward the viewer, then tip-
350 ping the object up or down at an angle
of 35° 16'. See Fig. 14-1-5. When this is
DIMETRIC
done to a cube, the three faces visible
USE OF THIS SET ENABLES YOU TO SHOW THE OBJECT FROM 144 VIEWPOINTS:
to the viewer appear equal in shape
OBJECT DRAWN UPRIGHT -
< - > -

and size, and the side faces are at an

angle of 30° to the horizontal. If the
-
isometric view were actually projected
'
3 .,--- * ' A--
from a view of the object in the tipped
position, the lines in the isometric view
42? -^00 would be foreshortened and would,
40°I20° J .

therefore, not be seen in their true

length. To simplify the drawing of an
isometric view, the actual measure-
TRIMETRIC USE OF THIS SET ENABLES YOU TO SHOW THE OBJECT FROM 288 VIEWPOINTS
ments of the object are used. Although
OBJECT DRAWN UPRIGHT
I
- the object appears slightly larger with-
50-oT$5O out the allowance for foreshortening,
the proportions are not affected. All
isometric drawings are started by con-
structing the isometric axes, which are
50°j20°
a vertical line for height and isometric
lines to left and right, at an angle of 30°
OBJECT ROTATED
90° CW OR CCW from the horizontal, for length and
Fig. 14-1-4 Axonometric projection. (Graphic Standard Instruments Co.) width. The three faces seen in the iso-
metric view are the same faces that
would be seen in the normal ortho-
DRAWING OBJECT TO ACTUAL MEASUREMENTS graphic views: top, front, and side.
7 Figure 14-1-5B illustrates the selection
NOT TRUE LENGTH 20 "\~ 20
APPROX. 0.8 ACTUAL SIZE of the front corner (A), the construc-
tion of the isometric axes, and the com-
pleted isometric view. Note that all
drawn to their true length,
lines are
measured along the isometric axes.
and that hidden lines are usually omit-
ted. Vertical edges are represented by
(II REVOLVING (21 TIPPING (3) ISOMETRIC 14) ISOMETRIC vertical lines, and horizontal edges b\
THE OBJECT THE OBJECT PROJECTION DRAWING
lines at 30° to the horizontal . Two tech-
(A) ISOMETRIC PROJECTION niques can be used for making an iso-
metric drawing of an irregularl)
120°
shaped object, as illustrated in Fig.
14-1-6. In one method, the object is
divided mentally into a number of sec-
tions and the sections are draw n one at

LtfoTlJ. a time in their proper relationship to

one another. In the second method, a
box is drawn with the maximum
height, width, and depth of the object:
FRONT SIDE ISOMETRIC AXES then the parts of the box that are not
(B) ISOMETRIC AXES part of the object are remo\ ed, lea\ ing
Fig. 14-1-5 Isometric axes and projections. the pieces that form the total object.

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 279

 \ /

t
1
75
—-2 00—«
I-H.50*-

| |
/^ 1

1 1 !

2 25 .75

75
1 1

1
[-• 2.50 —

(B) BOX CONSTRUCTION

Fig. 14-1-6 Developing an isometric drawing.

-"•j .38
|-»50«^ .38 [••-
f»5CH

(C) COMPLETE NONISOMETRIC LINES

Fig. 14-1-8 Sequence in drawing an object
having nonisometric lines.

with a straight Figures 14-1-7 and

line.
14-1-8 illustrate examples
in the con-
struction of nonisometric lines.

Dimensioning Isometric
Drawings
At times, an isometric drawing of a
simple object may serve as a working
drawing. In such cases, the necessary
(A) (B)
dimensions and specifications are
Fig. 14-1-7 Examples in the construction of nonisometric lines.
placed on the drawing.
Dimension lines, extension lines,
and the line being dimensioned should
Nonisometric Lines drawing, sloping surfaces appear as be in the same plane. Arrowheads,
Many objects have sloping surfaces nonisometric lines. To draw them, which should be long and narrow,
that are represented by sloping lines in locate their endpoints, found on the should be in the plane of the dimension
the orthographic views. In isometric ends of isometric lines, and join them and extension lines. See Fig. 14-1-9.

280 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 ENDS OF ARROW PARALLEL 01.00
WITH EXTENSION LINES- UNIT 14-2
0.625
2 HOLES Curved Surfaces
in Isometric

CIRCLES AND ARCS

IN ISOMETRIC
A circle on any of the three faces of an
object drawn in isometric has the
shape of an ellipse. See Fig. 14-2-1.
Figure 14-2-2 illustrates the steps in
drawing circular features on isometric
14-1-10 Isometric dimensioning.
drawings.
Fig. 14-1-9Orienting the dimension line,
I, Draw the center lines and a square.
arrowhead, and extension line.
v\ ith sides equal to the circle diame-
ter, in isometric.
Using the obtuse-angled (120°)
corners as centers, draw arcs tan-
Unidirectional dimensioning is the
preferred method of dimensioning iso-
metric drawings. The letters and num-
bers should be vertical and read from
the bottom of the sheet. An example of
this type of dimensioning is shown in
Fig. 14-1-10.
Since the isometric is a one-view (A) A SQUARE DRAWN IN THE
drawing, it is not usually possible to THREE ISOMETRIC POSITIONS
avoid placing dimensions on the view CIRCLE TOUCHES
SQUARE AT MIDPO
or across dimension lines. However, OF EACH SIDE
this practice should be avoided when-
ever possible.

Fig. 14-1-11 Isometric grid paper.

Isometric Grid Paper
Isometric grid sheets are another time-
saving device. Designers and engi- (B) A CIRCLE PLACED INSIDE A
neers frequently use isometric grid SQUARE AND DRAWN IN THE
THREE ISOMETRIC POSITIONS
paper on which they sketch their ideas
and designs. See Fig. 14-1-11. Many Fig. 14-2-1 Circles in isometric.

companies, such as those which pre-

pare pipe drawings, have large draw-
ing sheets made with nonreproducible
isometric grid lines.

References and Source Material

1. Extracted from American Drafting
Standards Manna!, Pictorial Draw-
ing (ANSI Y14.4). with the permis-
sion of the publisher. The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers,
345 East 47th Street, New York,
N.Y. 10017.
2. General Motors Corporation.

ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 1 through 3 for Unit
14-1 on page 298. Fig. 14-2-2 Sequence in drawing isometric circles.

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 281

 gent to the sides forming the
obtuse-angled corners, stopping at
the points where the center lines
cross the sides o( the square.
3. Draw construction lines from these
same points to the opposite obtuse-
SKETCHING CIRCLES
AND ARCS
In sketching circles and arcs on iso-
metric grid paper, locate the center
lines first, then lightly sketch in con-

angled corners. The points at w hich struction boxes (isometric squares)

these construction lines intersect
are the centers for arcs drawn tan-
gent to the sides forming the acute-
angled corners, meeting the first
where the circles and arcs should be.
See Fig. 14-2-7. Sketch the ellipse (iso-
metric circle) just touching the center
Fig. 14-2-3 Drawing concentric isometric
of each of the four sides of the square. circles.

arcs.

In drawing concentric circles, each

circle must have its own set of centers DRAWING IRREGULAR
for the arcs, as shown in Fig. 14-2-3.
The same technique is used for
CURVES IN ISOMETRIC
drawing part-circles (arcs). See Fig. To draw curves other than circles or
14-2-4. Construct an isometric square arcs, the plotting method shown in Fig.
with sides equal to twice the radius, 14-2-8 is used
and draw that portion of the ellipse
necessary to join the two faces. When 1. Draw an orthographic view, and
divide the area enclosing the curved
these faces are parallel, draw half of an
line into equal squares.
ellipse (one long radius and one short
2. Produce an equivalent area on the Fig. 14-2-5 Isometric ellipse template.
radius): when they are at an obtuse
isometric drawing, showing the off-
angle ( 120°). draw one long radius; and
set squares.
when they are at an acute angle (60°),
draw one short radius. 3. Take positions relative to the
squares from the orthographic view,
and plot them on the corresponding
ISOMETRIC TEMPLATES squares on the isometric view. TEMPLATE

4. Draw a smooth curve through the /

For convenience and time saving, iso-
established points with the aid of an
metric ellipse templates should be
irregular curve.
used whenever possible. A wide vari-
ety of elliptical templates are avail-
able. The template shown in Fig.
14-2-5 combines ellipses, scales, and
angles. Markings on the ellipses coin-
ASSIGNMENTS
cide with the center lines of the holes See Assignments 4 through 6 for Unit
which speeds up drawing circles and 14-2 on page 299.
arcs. Figure 14-2-6 shows the same Fig. 14-2-6 Circles and arcs drawn with
isometric ellipse templates.
part as shown in Fig. 14-2-4 but with Review for Assignments
the arcs and circles being constructed Unit 14-1 Dimensioning Isometric
with a template. Drawings

Fig. 14-2-4 Drawing isometric arcs. Fig. 14-2-7 Isometric sketching paper.

282 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 i UNIT 14-3
/ Common Features
J4- in Isometric
CONSTRUCTION
LINES ISOMETRIC SECTIONING
Isometric drawings are generally made
as outside views, but sometimes a sec-
tional view is needed. The section is
taken on an isometric plane, that is. on
a plane parallel to one of the faces of
the cube. Figure 14-3-1 shows iso-
metric full sections taken on a different
plane for each of three objects. Note
the construction lines indicating the
part that has been cut away. Isometric
half sections are illustrated in Fig.
14-3-2. Notice the outlines of the cut
surfaces in A and B. The cut method is
to draw the complete outside view and
the isometric cutting plane.
When an isometric drawing is sec-
tioned, the section lines are drawn at
c
CONSTRUCTION an angle of 60 with the horizontal or in
LINES
a horizontal position, depending on
where the cutting-plane line is located.
In half sections, the section lines are
sloped in opposite directions, as
shown in Fig. 14-3-2.

(Bl Fig. 14-3-1 Examples of isometric full

sections. FILLETS AND ROUNDS

For most isometric drawings of parts
having small fillets and rounds, the

CONSTRUCTION
LINES

Id

INITIAL CONSTRUCTION FINISHED DRAWING

(A) PART I

CONSTRUCTION
LINES

(D)
INITIAL CONSTRUCTION FINISHED DRAWING
(B) PART 2
Fig. 14-2-8 Curves drawn in isometric by
means of offset measurements. Fig. 14-3-2 Examples of isometric half sections.

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 283

 (A) CURVED LINE (Bl STRAIGHT LINE
ACCEPTABLE ACCEPTABLE
Fig. 14-3-3 Representation of fillets and
rounds. PREFERRED
PREFERRED
ACCEPTABLE

Fig. 14-3-5 Conventional breaks.

Representation of threads in

-736 PACKING NUT ASSEMBLY

draw the corners Fig. 14-3-6 Isometric assembly drawings 921 ARM SCREW
adopted practice is to
as sharp features. However, when it is '938 FILLING PLUG
desirable to represent the part, nor-
mally a casting, as having a more real-
istic appearance, either of the methods
shown in Fig. 14-3-3 may be used.
927 REGULATING SCREW ASSEMBLY (2 REQD)

THREADS 929 REGULATING SCREW PACKING (2 REQDI

The conventional method for showing

701-N SHELL INCLUDING BEARIN
threads in isometric is shown in Fig.
14-3-4. The threads are represented by
a series of ellipses uniformly spaced
along the center line of the thread. The
spacing of the ellipses need not be the
spacing of the actual pitch. 730 SPRING

913-1 PISTON

BREAK LINES 903 END PLUG

For long parts, break lines should be Fig. 14-3-7 Exploded isometric assembly drawing. (Yale and Towne Inc.)

used to shorten the length of the draw-

ing. Freehand breaks are preferred, as
shown in Fig. 14-3-5.

ASSIGNMENTS UNIT 14-4

ISOMETRIC ASSEMBLY
See Assignments 7 through 12 for Unit
DRAWINGS naop 300.
14-3 on page 100
OblJQUC PrOICCtiOD
> -i

Regular or exploded assembly draw-

ings are frequently used in catalogs Review for Assignments This method of pictorial drawing is
and sales literature, as illustrated by Unit 6-4 Bill of Materials based on the procedure of placing the
Figs. 14-3-6 and 14-3-7. Unit 6-4 Assembly Drawings object with one face parallel to the

284 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 distortion and to approximate more

/ / S7\ closely what the human eye would see.

For this reason, and because of the
H i >M V V simplicity of projection, cabinet
oblique is a commonly used form of
pictorial representation, especially

L_J r^LJ \ \ when circles and arcs are to be drawn.

Figure 14-4-3 shows a comparison of
cavalier and cabinet oblique. Note that

\ \ \\ hidden lines are omitted unless re-

quired for clarity. Many of the drawing
Fig. 14-4-1 Typical positions of receding axes for oblique projections. techniques for isometric projection
apply to oblique projection. Figure
14-4-4 illustrates the construction of an
frontal plane and placing the other two
irregularly shaped object by the box
faces on oblique (or receding) planes,
method.
to left or right, top or bottom, at a
convenient angle. The three axes of
projection are vertical, horizontal, and INCLINED SURFACES
receding. Figure 14-4-1 illustrates a
Angles which are parallel to the picture
cube drawn in typical positions with
plane are drawn as their true size.
the receding axis at 60°, 45° and 30°.
Other angles can be laid off by locating
This form of projection has the advan-
the ends of the inclined line.
tage of showing one face of the object
without distortion. The face with the
greatest irregularity of outline or con-
tour, or the face with the greatest num-
ber of circular features, or the face
with the longest dimension, faces the
front. See Fig. 14-4-2.
Two
types of oblique projection are
Fig. 14-4-2 Two general rules for oblique
used extensively. In cavalier oblique.
drawings.
alllines are drawn to their true length,
measured on the axes of the projec-
tion. In cabinet oblique, the lines on
the receding axis are shortened by one-
half their true length to compensate for

1 L

k2
CAVALIER PROJECTION CABINET PROJECTION

Fig. 14-4-3 Types of oblique projection.

|C]

/ /
/////
/ z 1

/
b
/ /V c
Fig. 14-4-5 Drawing inclined surfaces.
Fig. 14-4-4 Oblique construction by the box method.

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 285

 A part with notched corners is the axes of projection. Extension lines
shown in Fig. 14-4-5A. An oblique are projected from the horizontal and
drawing with the angles parallel to the vertical object lines whenever pos-
picture plane is shown at Fig. 14-4-5B. sible.
In Fig. 14-4-5C the angles are parallel The dimensioning of an oblique
to the profile plane. In each case the drawing is similar to that of an iso-
angle is laid off by measurement paral- metric drawing. The recommended
lel to the oblique axes, as show n by the method is unidirectional dimension-
construction lines. Since the part, in ing, which is shown in Fig. 14-4-7. As
each case, is drawn in cabinet oblique, in isometric dimensioning, usually it is
the receding lines are shortened by necessary to place some dimensions
one-half their true length. directly on the view.

OBLIQUE SKETCHING ASSIGNMENTS Fig. 14-5-2 Drawing oblique circles by

means of offset measurements.
Specially designed oblique sketching See Assignments 13 through 15 for Unit
paper with 45° lines is available and. 14-4 on pages 301 and 302.
like isometric sketching paper, is used
extensively by engineers and drafters. Review for Assignments
See Fig. 14-4-6. Unit 14-1 Dimensioning Isometric the oblique faces, the offset measure-
Drawings ment method illustrated in Fig. 14-5-2
may be used.
DIMENSIONING AW
Draw an oblique square about the
OBLIQUE DRAWING 1.

center lines, with sides equal to the

Dimension lines are drawn parallel to UNIT 14-5 diameter.

Common Features 2. Draw a true circle within the

oblique square, and establish
in Oblique equally spaced points about its cir-

cumference.
Project these point positions to the
CIRCLES AND ARCS 3.

edge of the oblique square, and

Whenever possible, the face of the
object having circles or arcs should be
selected as the front face, so that such
circles or arcs can be easily drawn in
their true shape. See Fig. 14-5-1. When
circles or arcs must be drawn on one of
draw lines on the oblique axis from
these positions. Similarly spaced
lines are drawn on the other axis,
forming offset squares and giving
intersection points for the oval
shape.

SCHEMATIC OF A COMPLETELY AUTOMATIC REGISTRATION CONTROL SYSTEM

MAINTAINING THE LOCATION OF CUTOFF ON A CONTINUOUS PRINTED WEB.

CONTROLLER

REFERENCE SWITCHES
Fig. 14-4-6 Oblique sketching paper.

-5.50-
7

DIFFERENTIAL
Fig. 14-4-7 Dimensioning an oblique drawing. Fig. 14-5-1 Application of oblique drawing.

286 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 hV^0
r
(A) CURVED LINE (B) STRAIGHT LINE
Fig. 14-5-3 Circles parallel to the picture plane are true circles; on other planes, ellipses.
Fig. 14-5-6 Representing rounds and fillets.

A) FULL SECTION Bl HALF SECTION

Fig. 14-5-5 Oblique full section and an
oblique half section.

Fig. 14-5-7 Representation of threads in

oblique.

the proper size and shape of the

ellipse. The construction and dimen-
sioning of an oblique part are shown in
Fig. 14-5-4.

-01.006
L.250 X .125 KEYSEAT
Fig. 14-5-4 Construction and dimensioning OBLIQUE SECTIONING
of an oblique object.
Oblique drawings are generally made
as outside views, but sometimes a sec-
tional view is necessary. The section is
taken on a plane parallel to one of the
Another method used when circles
faces of an oblique cube. Figure 14-5-5
or arcs must be drawn on one of the
oblique surfaces is the four-center
shows an oblique full section and an
oblique half section. Note the con-
method. In Fig. 14-5-3A a circle is
struction lines which show the part PREFERRED
shown as it would be drawn on a front
that has been cut away.
plane, a side plane, and a top plane.
In Fig. 14-5-3B, the oblique drawing Fig. 14-5-8 Conventional breaks.
has some arcs in a horizontal plane. In
Fig. 14-5-3C. the oblique drawing TREATMENT OF
shown has some arcs in a profile plane. CONVENTIONAL FEATURES
Circles not parallel to the picture The spacing of the
and Rounds Small fillets and
Fillets circles need not be
plane when drawn by the approximate
rounds normally are drawn as sharp the spacing of the pitch.
method are not pleasing but are satis- When desirable to show
corners. it is
factory for some purposes. Ellipse shows the con-
Breaks Figure 14-5-8
the corners rounded, then either of the
templates, when available, should be ventional method for representing
methods shown in Fig. 14-5-6 is recom-
used because they reduce drawing breaks.
mended.
time and give much better results. If a
template is used, the oblique circle Threads The conventional method of
showing threads in oblique is shown in
should first be blocked in as an oblique ASSIGNMENTS
square in order to locate the proper Fig. 14-5-7. The threads are repre-
position of the circle. Blocking in the sented by a series of circles uniformly See Assignments 16 and 17 for I nit
spaced along the center of the thread. 14-5 on page 302.
circle first also helps the drafter select

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 287

 PICTURE PLANE (PP)
WIDTH OF HOUSE RECORDED
ON PICTURE PLANE

PLAN VIEW
iA) PARALLEL PERSPECTIVE
HEIGHT OF HOUSE RECORDED
PICTURE PLANE (PP)
ON PICTURE PLANE

VISUAL RAYS
STATION
POINT
(SP)

ELEVATION

•-) — WIDTH FROM PLAN VIEW

PICTURE PLANE

(B) ANGULAR PERSPECTIVE HEIGHT FROM

Fig. 14-6-1 Perspective drawings. ELEVATION

UNIT 14-6
PICTURE RECORDED ON PICTURE PLANE AS SEEN BY OBSERVER
Perspective Fig. 14-6-2 Perspective drawings.

Projection PICTURE
PLANE
Perspective is a method of draw ins
:e_e:~
that depicts a three-dimensional object
on a flat plane as it appears to the e> e.
See Fig. 14-6-1. A pictorial drawing
made by the intersection of the picture
plane with lines of sight converging
from points on the object to the point
of sight, which is located at a finite
distance from the picture plane, is
called a perspective. See Fig. 14-6-2.
Perspective drawings are more real-
istic than axonometric or oblique
drawings because the object is shown
Fig. 14-6-3 Location of the picture plane.
as the eye would see it. Since the\ are
far more difficult to draw than the projection), the station point (the posi- picture plane and object).
other types of pictorial draw ing>. their tion of the observer's eye when he or To avoid undue distortion in per-
use in drafting is limited mainly-to pro- she is viewing the object), the horizon spective, the point of sight (station
duction or presentation illustrations (an imaginary horizontal line taken at point) should be located so that the
and illustrations of proposed struc- eye le\ el the vanishing point or
) . cone of rays from the observer's e\e
tures by architects. points (a point or points on the horizon has an angle at the apex not greater
The main elements of a perspective where all the receding lines converge), than 30\ This would place the station
draw ing are the picture plane (plane of and the ^ro/rf/.u; int 'the base line of the point a distance away from the outside

288 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

portion of the object of approximately
two to two and one-half times the
width of the object being viewed. See
Figs. 14-6-2 and 14-6-3.

TYPESOF PERSPECTIVE
DRAWINGS
There are three types of perspective
drawings

1. Parallel: One vanishing point

2. Angular: Two vanishing points
3. Oblique: Three vanishing points

In industry they are normally re-

ferred to as one-point, two-point, and
three-point perspectives, respec-
tively.See Fig. 14-6-4. Only parallel
and angular perspectives are covered
in this text.

Parallel, or One-Point,
Perspective
Parallel-perspective drawings are sim-
ilar to oblique drawings, except the

: (31

(B) PLACING THE HORIZON BELOW THE TOP OF THE OBJECT

Fig. 14-6-5 Parallel or one-point perspective.

receding lines all converge at one point

on the horizon. In drawing a parallel-
perspective drawing, one face of the
(Al PARALLEL-ONE VANISHING POINT object is placed on the picture-plane
line so that it will be drawn in its true
size and shape, as shown in Fig.
14-6-5. The PP line shown in the top
view represents the picture plane line,
and point SP( station point) is the posi-
tion of the observer. The lines of the
object, which are not on the picture
plane, are found by projecting lines
down from the top view from the point
of intersection of the visual ray and the
IBI ANGULAR-TWO VANISHING POINTS picture plane, as shown by point .V in
Fig. 14-6-5AU).
Where the true height of a line or a
point does not lie on the picture plane,

such as point P in Fig. 14-6-5A<2>. the

e
T~L_ r^~

U u
(C) OBLIQUE-THREE VANISHING POINTS FRON
Fig. 14-6-4 Perspective drawings. Fig. 14-6-6 Construction of a one-point perspective.

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 289

 true height may be found by extending
line PR S on the picture plane.
to point
Since point S lies on the picture plane
and is the same height as point P. it
may readily be found on the perspec-
tive drawing. Point P will lie on the
receding line joining point S to the line
VP.
In drawing a one-point perspective,
a side or front view and a top view are
normally drawn first —
the top view to
locate the part with respect to the pic-
ture plane and the side or front view to
obtain the height of the various fea-
tures. Figure 14-6-6 shows a simple,
one-point perspective drawing with
construction lines.
One of the most common uses of a
parallel-perspective drawing is for rep-
resenting the interior of a building.
With this type of drawing, the vanish-
ing point is located inside the room and
WINDOW HEIGHT FIREPLACE HEIGHT is normally at eye level. See Figs.
Fig. 14-6-7 Parallel-perspective drawing of an interior of a house. 14-6-7 and 14-6-10.

li
(A| EXTERIOR GRID

(B) INTERIOR GRID SCALE: I GRID = .50 in.

Fig. 14-6-8 Parallel-perspective grid types. Fig. 14-6-9 Part drawn on parallel-perspective paper — exterior grid.

290 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 1 500 1 200 900 600 3fl0 300 600 900 1 200 1 500 1 800 ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 18 through 20for Unit
14-6 on page 303.

UNIT 14-7
Angular, or
Two-Point
Perspective

Two-point perspective is used quite

extensively for architectural and prod-
FLOOR DEPTH
uct illustration, as shown in Fig.
14-7-1. Angular-perspective drawings

1 800 1 500 1 200 900 600 300 300 600 900 1 200 1 500 1 800
are similar to axonometric drawings
ROOM WIDTH except that the receding lines converge
Fig. 14-6-10 Interior of a room drawn on parallel-perspective paper — interior grid. attwo vanishing points located on the

Parallel-Perspective Grid
A variety of perspective grid sheets is

available, which enables the drafter to

produce perspective drawings in less
time than the conventional manner.
Using a grid eliminates the tedious
effort of establishing and projecting
from the vanishing points for each indi-
vidual feature. It also eliminates the
problem of having the vanishing points
located, in many instances, beyond the
drawing area.
The cube grid, which is most widely
used, has two basic variations: an
Fig. 14-7-1 Perspective drawing.
exterior grid and an interior grid. See
Fig. 14-6-8. The grid sizes are depen-
dent upon the desired scale of the parts
to be drawn. The height and width
planes are subdivided into identical
increments, each increment represent- PROJECT POINTS A
AND B DOWN FROM
ing any convenient size, such as ll/:in., PICTURE PLANE TO
LOCATE POSITIONS
54" = I', or 10, 100, or 1000 mm. The OF LEFT AND RIGHT
VANISHING POINTS
plane or surface representing the depth
is subdivided into increments which

are proportionately foreshortened as it

recedes from the picture plane and MINIMUM
DESIRABLE
thus creates the perspective illusion. DISTANCE
See Figs. 14-6-9 and 14-6-10.

References and Source Material

1. Extracted from American Drafting

Standards Manual, Pictorial Draw-

ing (ANSI Y14.4), with the permis-
sion of the publisher. The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers,
GROUND LINE
345 East 47th Street, New York,
N.Y. 10017. Fig. 14-7-2 Angular-perspective drawing of a prism.

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 291

 TOP OR PLAN

-TRUE HEIGHT LINE

Fig. 14-7-4 Constructing a circle in angular perspective.
Fig. 14-7-3 Angular-perspective view of an object which
does not touch the picture plane.

horizon. Normally the height or verti-

cal lines are parallel to the picture
plane, and the length and width lines (Al HORIZON IN LOW POSITION

recede.
The construction for a simple prism
is shown in Fig. 14-7-2. Since line 1-2
restson the picture plane, it will appear
as true height on the perspective
its (B) HORIZON IN HIGH POSITION
drawing and will be located directly
below line 1-2 on the top view. The next
step is to join points and 2 with light1

receding lines to both vanishing points.

These receding lines represent the
width and length lines of the prism; the
width lines recede to VPL and the
length lines recede to VPR. Since line
3-4 on the top view does not rest on the
picture plane, it will not appear in its
true height nor as its true distance from
line 1-2 in the perspective. To find its
position on the perspective drawing,
joint line 3-4, which appears as a point
in the top view, to SP with a visual ray
(D) OBJECT BELOW HORIZON
line. Where this visual ray line inter-
Fig. 14-7-5 Horizon lines.
sects the picture plane at C, project a
vertical line down to the perspective
view until it intersects the receding
lines 1- VPR and 2- VPR at points 3 and 4 none of the object lines touch the pic- located atC in the top view, it would
ture plane. have appeared at its true height and at
respectively. Line 5-6 may be found in
the same manner. Next join point 3 to
All these lines can be constructed by D-E on the perspective. Join points D
using the following procedure, which to VPR and E to VPR with light reced-
VPL and point 5 to VPR with light
receding lines. The intersection of
locates the position and size of lines 1-2 ing lines.Somewhere along these lines
and 3-4. Extend line 1-3 in the top view are points 1.2,3. and 4. Next join lines
these lines is point 7.
to intersect the picture plane at point 1-2 and 3-4 in the top view to SP with
Lines Not Touching on the Picture Plane C. Project a line down from C to inter- visual ray lines. Where these visual ray
Figure 14-7-3 illustrates the construc- sect horizontal lines \-D and 2-£ at D lines intersect the picture plane at F
tion of a perspective drawing where and £, respectively. Had line 1-2 been and G, respectively, project vertical

292 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

lines down to the perspective view
intersecting line D-YPR at 1 and 3and
E-VPR at 2 and 4.
Construction of Circles and Curves in Per-
spective Circles and curves may be
constructed perspective, as illus-
in
trated in Fig. 14-7-4. Using ortho-
graphic projections, oriented with
respect to the subject in the plan and
side views, plot and label the desired
points (using numbers) on the curved
surfaces. From the plan view project (A) EXTERIOR GRID (B) INTERIOR GRID
these points to the picture plane, Fig. 14-7-7 Angular-perspective grids.
then vertically down to the perspective
view. Project horizontally from the
side view to the true-height line in the
perspective view, the height of the
plotting numbers. The position of
the plotting numbers may now be lo-
HORIZON
cated on the perspective view. Locate
the points of intersection of the lines
projected down from the picture
plane with the visual ray lines reced-
ing to the right vanishing point from
the appropriate numbers on the true- HORIZON
height line.

Horizon Line Figure 14-7-5 illustrates

different effects produced by reposi-
tioning the object with respect to the
horizon. (A) BIRDS-EYE VIEW (B) WORMS-EYE VIEW
Fig. 14-7-8 Grid variations.

ANGULAR-PERSPECTIVE
GRIDS
Exterior Grid When the three adjacent
exterior planes of the cube are devel-
oped, the resultant image is referred to
as an exterior grid. In using this grid,
the points are projected from the top
plane downward and from the picture
planes away from the observer. See
Figs. 14-7-6 and 14-7-7.

Interior Grid When the three adjacent

cube are exposed
interior planes of the
and developed, the resultant image is

Fig. 14-7-6 Angular-perspective grid. Fig. 14-7-9 Angular-perspective grid application.

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 293

referred to as an interior grid. In using tive. as shown in Fig. 14-8-1. The understood drawing. See Fig. 14-8-2.
this grid, the points are projected from project being illustrated may be an In many cases the drafting depart-
the base plane upward and from the assembly, a single part, or just a por- ment may do the simple illustrations.
picture planes toward the observer. tion of a part. It may take the form of However, most purposes the spe-
for
The choice of usage of either variation an exterior view, a sectional view, or a cial requirements of such drawings call
is a matter of individual preference. phantom view. The purpose in all for work by a professional technical
Each produces the same results. cases is to provide a clear and easily illustrator.
Two further variations of both the
exterior and interior grids are known
as the bird's-eye and worm''s- eye
grids. These effects are achieved by
rotating the vertical plane of the grid
about the horizon line.
Objects drawn in the bird's-eye grid
appear as if they were being viewed
from above the horizon line, as seen in
Fig. 14-7-8. Objects drawn in the
worm' s-eye grid appear as if they were £'''

being viewed from below the horizon

line.

Grid Increments
The three surfaces or planes of the grid
are subdivided into multiple vertical
and horizontal increments. Each
increment is proportionately fore-
shortened as it recedes from the pic-
ture plane and thus creates the per-
spective illusion. The grid increments
can be any size desired. See Fig.
14-7-9.

Fig. 14-8-1 A variety of pictorial methods used in technical illustrating. (Graphic Standard
Reference and Source Material Instruments Co.|
1. General Motors Corporation.

ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 21 and 22 for Unit
14-7 on page 304.

UNIT 14-8
Technical Illustration

Technical illustrations have an impor-

tant place in all phases of engineering
drawing. They form an essential part
of technical manuals and catalogs, as
well as illustrations appearing in tech-
nical magazines. However, this unit
will not cover technical illustration
techniques beyond the scope of the
general drafting office.
Technical illustration drawings vary
from simple sketches to rather exten-
sive shaded drawings. They may be
based upon any of the pictorial meth-
ods: isometric, oblique, or perspec- Fig. 14-8-2 Technical illustrations.

294 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 Thick Lines Thick or heavy lines are
used to emphasize a part in a pictorial
drawing. Also, an illusion of depth is
created when certain lines are thicker
than others. Similarly, a tapered line is
used to illustrate depth on a curved
surface.

Medium Lines Medium-thickness lines

are used as secondary emphasizing
lines in the main object of a pictorial.
They are also used as depth lines in an
unemphasized or background object,
as shown in Fig. 14-8-4B.

08LIQUE CABINET SINGLE-POINT

OBLIQUE CAVALIER
Fig. 14-8-3 V-block in various types of pictorial drawings.
PICTORIAL LINE DRAWINGS
Since nearly all technical illustrations
are basically pictorial line drawings,
a complete understanding of the vari-
ous types and their applications
necessary.
While any type of pictorial drawing
can be used as the basis for a technical
illustration, some types are more suit-
able than others. This is especially true
if the illustration is to be rendered. Fig-
ure 14-8-3 shows a V-block drawn in
various types of pictorial form. Notice
the differences in appearance of each.
Isometric is the least natural in
appearance: perspective is the most
natural. This might suggest, then, that
all technical illustrations should be
(PARALLEL) PERSPECTIVE
TWO-POINT (ANGULAR)
PERSPECTIVE
The shape of the object and how the
drawing is to be used also influence the
type of pictorial drawing chosen. If the
object is circular, it will be easier to
draw in oblique rather than isometric if
is
ellipticaltemplates are not available. If
the illustration is to be used in a pub-
lication such as a journal, operator's
manual, technical publication, etc..
dimetric. trimetric. or perspective may
be the best choice.
LINE APPLICATION
Line thickness in a pictorial drawing
has an illusionary meaning. A pictorial
drawing created with lines only, that
is. without shading, must rely on con-
Thin Lines Thin or Fine lines are used as
front-edge lines on the surface of the
object nearest to the light source. This
gives a feeling of light on this edge
which further enhances the illusion of
perspective. A second use of thin lines
is in subduing or deemphasizing an
object because it is of secondary
importance in the pictorial. Phantom
and broken lines are also used to illus-
trate background or secondary parts.
Figure 14-8-5 illustrates technical
illustrations featuring line application.
Notice that only the necessary detail is
shown and that just enough shading is
added to emphasize and give form to
the parts.
-WIRE OR -
ACTUATC-
OR DISCC

drawn in perspective. This is not nec- verging lines and subtle line thick-
essarily true. While perspective is the nesses to appear three-dimensional. DRIVE LINI
most natural in appearance, it takes See Fig. 14-8-4A. Basically, there are IDLE-
more time to draw if perspective grid three types of lines required to create a
sheets are not used. Thus, it could be good linear pictorial drawing. They are
more costlv. thick, medium, and thin.

THICK LINE GIVES OBJECT DRAWN WITH

ILLUSION OF DEPTH CONSTANT THICKNESS
OF LINE (MEDIUM)
MEDIUM
LINE
UNEMPHASIZED
DEPTH LINE

THICK OUTLINE
EMPHASIZES PART
-TAPERED THICK LINE FOR
SHADOW ILLUSION ON CURVES
OR CIRCULAR FORMS
-PHANTOM LINE (THIN)

(A) (B)

Fig. 14-8-4 Line usage. Fig. 14-8-5 Line application.

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 295

 PART NO. PART NAME QTY
IDENTIFICATION
ILLUSTRATIONS 403
404
OUICK CHANGE BOX
COVER TOP
405 GASKET COVER
SCREW SOCKET HEAD CAP
Pictorial drawings are very useful in 406
407 SCREW
8
2

SHAFT SHIFTER
identifying parts. They help save time we 1

409 L INK SHIFTER

when the parts are manufactured or 410 PIN

SHOE SHIFTER
GASKET (MAKE IN PATTERN
assembled in place and are useful for 412
SHOP-BOX TO BED) !

illustrating operating instruction man- 413 O RING

SHAFT SHIFTER
2

PIN TAPER
uals and parts catalogs. 415
416 LINK.SHIFTER
2
1

Identification illustrations often 417

418
SHOE. SHIFTER
COVER. SLIP GEAR
1

SCREW
take the form of exploded views. If
.
419
420 PLUG 2

parts are few, they can be identified by 421

422
SCREW
SCREW
3
i

PLUG (NOT USED WITH

names and leaders. The identification 423
SCREW REVERSE) 1

SCREW
illustration in Fig. 14-8-6 is an example
424 3

425 PIN 2

showing numbers for the parts and a 426

427
SCREW
COLLAR
6
2

tabulated parts list. This method is 428 PLUNGER

SPRING
2
2
«2S

especially recommended where identi- 430

431
KNOB
LEVER
2
2

PLATE. FEED-THO
fication of parts is desirable and the
1
432
433 PLATE. COMPOUND 1

PLATE ENGLISH INDEX

viewer is not trained to read technical
1
434
435 COVER 1

436 SCREW
drawings. Fig. 14-8-6 Exploded view.

RENDERING
For certain purposes or where shapes
are difficult to read, surface shading or
rendering of some kind may be desir-
able. For most industrial illustrations,
RULED-SURFACE FREEHAND
(A) UNSHADED (B) (C)
accurate descriptions of shapes and
positions are more important than fine
artistic effects. Desired results can
often be obtained without any shading.
In general, surface shading should be
limited to the least amount necessary
to define the shapes illustrated. Differ-
ent ways of rendering technical illus- DARK SCREEN
(D)APPLIQU£ (E) LIGHT SCREEN F)
trations include line shading, screen
Fig. 14-8-7 Examples of various kinds of rendering.
tints, and special appliques and pencil
shading (smudge).
Some shaded surfaces are indicated
in Fig. 14-8-7. An unshaded view is
shown at A for comparison. Ruled-sur-
face shading is shown at B, freehand
shading at C. and applique shading
at D.
STRAIGHT LINE CURVED LINE
Line Shading Line shading is a simple,
fast, and effective method of defining Fig. 14-8-8 Line shading.

form. The technique may use straight

or curved lines, as shown in Figs.
14-8-8 and 14-8-9.
With the light rays coming in the
usual conventional direction, as in Fig.
14-8-10A. the top and front surfaces
would be lighted and the right-hand
surface woud be shaded, as in Fig.
14-8-10B. The front surface can have
light shading with heavy shading on
the right-hand side, as in Fig. 14-8-10C.

Applique Shading Commercial prod-

ucts of varied patterns are used to ren- Fig. 14-8-9 Application of line shading.

296 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 SPECIAL FEATURES
Screw Threads Both internal and exter-
nal threads are conveniently shown by
a series of ellipses uniformly spaced
along the axis of the thread. The spac-
IAi IB) ing of these lines may be greater than
Fig. 14-8-10 Line rendering the faces of a cube. the actual thread pitch to allow room
for the effective line shading. See Fig.
14-8-15.

^ - " --/I
Reference and Source Material
-
1. General Motors Corporation.

ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 23 and 24 for Unit
14-8 on page 305.

LINES

Fig. 14-8-11 Appliques.

Fig. 14-8-13 Combination of line and

applique rendering. (Holman Bros.)

(A) CIRCULAR FEATURES

IC) MATERIALS Fig. 14-8-14 Tonal pencil rendering.

(General Motors Corp.)
Fig. 14-8-12 Examples of applique rendering.

der areas which require distinction. Screens (measured in the number of

See Fig. 14-8-11. These products are
self-adhering and are easily cut out to
match the areas to be covered.
Shadow effects are achieved by the
addition of another layer of the same
material or of a contrast pattern. Both
methods are illustrated in Fig. 14-8-12.
Stippling consists of dots, short
crooked lines, or similar treatment to
produce a shaded effect. It is a good
method when it is well done.
dots per area) are available in a great
variety of patterns and are very effec-
tive. A combination of line and appli-
que rendering is shown in Fig. 14-8-13.
Tonal Pencil Rendering Tonal pencil
rendering, while in limited use. pro-
duces a finished drawing of more pro-
fessional quality. This method is usu-
ally used with diazo reproduction of
limited distribution. See Fig. 14-8-14. Fig. 14-8-15 Shaded screw threads.

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 297

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 1
Assignments for Unit
Pictorial Drawings
1 On isometric grid paper
parts shown in Fig. 1

hidden lines. Each square

4- -A.
1
14-1,

sketch the four

Do not show
shown on the
drawing represents one isometric square
on the
iH
D
e n
-- L.._j

-----

grid.

feto
2.

3.
On
parts
isometric grid paper sketch the four
shown in Fig. 4- -B. Do not show
1 1

hidden lines. Each square shown on the

drawing represents one isometric square
on the grid.
On a B- or A3-size sheet, make an iso-
metric drawing, complete with dimen-
one of the parts shown in Figs.
sions, of
14-l-Cto 4- 1-F Scale is full or 1.1.
1
J

ii — i

Fig. 14-1-A
L„i

r --j±t
E21
Sketching problems. Fig. 14-1-B
^
Sketching problems.

Fig. 14-1-C Base plate.

Fig. 14-1-E Base block.

—30—
MATL-SAE 1050

120- -90 H
-60-
-25^ *\ 20 U- 20^ -|
n T
-y 60
30

A
1
Fig. 14-1 -D Support bracket Fig. 14-1-F Step block.

298 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

Assignments for Unit 14-2, 6. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make an iso-
Curved Surfaces in Isometric
4. On isometric grid paper sketch the four
metric drawing complete with dimen-
sions of one of the parts shown in Figs. e
shown in Fig. 14-2-A Each square
parts 14-2-C to 14-2-G. Use half scale for Fig.
shown on the figure represents one
square on the isometric grid. Hidden
lines may be omitted for clarity.
14-2-G. For
or 1:1.
all others the scale is full

SSI
5. On isometric grid paper sketch the four
parts shown in Fig. 14-2-B. Each square
shown on the figure represents one
square on the isometric grid. Hidden
o
S3
lines may be omitted for clarity.

Fig. 14-2-A
m
Sketching problems.
Fig. 14-2-B Sketching problems.

Fig. 14-2-F T-guide.

Fig. 14-2-C Cradle bracket.

030

ROUNDS AND
FILLETS R2
I—
MATL-CI

-01.50 X .50 DEEP

Fig. 14-2-G Base.

Fig. 14-2-D Link.

Fig. 14-2-E Link.

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 299

 -R.50
Assignments for Unit 14-3,
Common Features in Isometric ( *l
7. On a B- or A3 -size sheet draw an iso-
metric half-section view of one of the
parts shown in Fig. 14-3-A or 14-3-B.
Scale or 1:1.
is full

8. On a B- or A3-size sheet draw an iso-

metric full section drawing of one of the
f
B —
T™
^
j.__ —
i

i
""

J
parts shown in Fig. 14-3-C or 14-3-D.
Scale is full or 1:1.
j
9. On a B- or A3-size sheet draw an iso-
metric drawing of the shaft shown in
Fig. 14-3-E. Use a conventional break to
shorten the length. Scale is full or 1:1. ^R.25
l
.50
10. On a B- or A3-size sheet, draw an iso- I

metric assembly drawing of the two-

i

post die sec model 302, shown in Fig.

14-3-F Allow 2 in. between the top and
base. Use half scale. Do not dimension.
Include on the drawing a bill of material. Fig. 14-3-B Base.
Using part numbers, identify the parts
on the assembly.
11. On an A3- or B-size sheet, draw an iso- I.OO-t-I.OO-j-I.OO-j

metric exploded assembly drawing of

the book rack shown in Fig. 14-3-G.
=^l — —
i

Choose either size A or B. Scale is .2. Do 1

not dimension. Include on the drawing a

bill of material. Using part numbers,
on the assembly.
identify the parts
12. On draw an iso-
a B- or A3-size sheet
metric exploded assembly drawing of
the universal joint shown in Fig. 14-3-H.
Scale is full or 1:1. Do not dimension. Fig. 14-3-C Pencil holder.

Include on the drawing a bill of material.

Using part numbers, identify the parts
on the assembly.

-M64 x 6

8UNC
1.000 - - 2A X I.25LG
•C 80- BOTH ENDS
01.625 .18 X .25 S£
i r KEYSEAT
XJ
J_

D 50- 70 — 2.25— -2.25-

L h 14.00-

U M_± Fig. 14-3-E Shaft.

M
— 10

Fig. 14-3-A Guide block. Fig. 14-3-D Adapter.

300 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 1-

w
ul
1-
UJ
eo
LU
£ SIZE NO. 1 NO. 2 NO. 3

O a
A 200 250 300
o s
UJ 370 420
d 3 320
O 2
z
A 11.12 14.00

B 6.00 7.50
C 6.50 8.00
1.62 1.75

E 1.50 1.62

F 1.25 1.25

G 1.00 1.12

H 1.25 1.38

J 2.00 2.25

K 2.00! 2.25

- 2.00! 2.00

Fig. 14-3-F Two-post die set.

Fig. 14-3-G Book rack.

Assignments for Unit 14-4,

Oblique Projection
13. On coordinate grid paper make oblique 14. On coordinate grid paper make oblique
sketches of the three parts shown in Fig. sketches of the three parts shown in Fig.
14-4-A. Each square shown on the fig- 14-4-B. Each square shown on the fig-
ure represents one square on the grid ure represents one square on the grid
.516
paper.Hidden lines may be omitted to paper. Hidden lines may be omitted to
improve clarity. improve clarity.
.28
.50 CSK X 82°
2 HOLES
-- 1—
— J—1-1
1

-- *
--+--
1 1

1.00 !
r
——
•

i
i

_ J

-0 .25 THRU — 1

1
1

1-
1
1

PTI -FORK -2 REQD ----.

1 1

1
1

'

.250 - 20 UNC - 2B X .31 DEEP - 4 HOLES- |

I I I

^- 1

I I

I I
I > I

1
I I

J__ i_ -L

rrfp
rri-n
l| i ii

1
1 1 : 1
I

-•-.62-^
t 1_
1

hH
. _(
1

—
i
1

}-*-*
1
1 1
1

L
l
l

—
1

1
. 1
— 1

I- — 1
1

L_ 1

—
:

PT2-RING REQD
-I (-
-f-r-r-r
-I
- +-1- —— l

i
i

i
1- -t-
PT 3 - .25 SPRING PIN - 2 REQD

PT 4 - .250 - 20 FHMS - .62 LG - 4 REQD

Fig. 14-4-A Sketching problems. Fig. 14-4-B Sketching problems.
Fig. 14-3-H Universal joint.

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 301

 — 22 — —19— #*
/
\
/ r
92 / T\ 40

I
\ 1

46 1"

± \
t
26

V
13
-J. \

- 16
'
j-— 28—«-|J 16 -45— - 20 16

150 50-
Fig. 14-4-D Dovetail guide.

1
1-1 15. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make an
T oblique drawing, complete with dimen-
Fig. 14-4-C V-block rest. sions, of one of the parts shown in Fig.
1 4-4-C or 1 4-4-D. Scale is full or 1 : 1

Assignments for Unit 14-5,

ROUNDS AND FILLETSR.IO Common in Oblique
Features
16. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make an
oblique drawing, complete with dimen-
sions, of one of the parts shown in Fig.
4-5-A or 4-5-B. Scale is half or .2.
1 1 1

17. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make an

oblique drawing, complete with dimen-
sions, of one of the parts shown in Fig.
14-5-C or 14-5-D. Use the straight-line
method of showing the rounds and fil-
lets. Scale is half or 1:2 for Fig. 14-5-C
and full or 1:1 for Fig. 14-5-D.

-M24 X 3 X 30 LG
BOTH ENDS *o

HP3
Fig. 14-5-A End bracket. Fig. 14-5-B Shaft.

1.875

Fig. 14-5-D Bushing holder.

Fig. 14-5-C Bearing support.

302 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 MATL-CAST IRON

Fig. 14-6-A Vise base.

PARALLEL PERSPECTIVE
OF A DRILL VISE BASE

Fig. 14-6-C Shaft support.

Fig. 14-6-B Spacer block.

Assignments for Unit 14-6,

Perspective Projection
18. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a parallel-
perspective drawing of the vise base
shown in Fig. 1 4-6-A. Scale is full or 1:1.

19. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a parallel-

perspective drawing of one of the parts
shown in Fig. 14-6-B or 14-6-C. Scale is
full or 1:1.
20. With the aid of a parallel-perspective
grid, make a perspective drawing of the
triple bookcase shown in Fig. 14-6-D.
Scale is to suit. Each unit is 36 x 12 in. x
6 ft or 900mm W
x 300mm D x
1 800mm H. Use your judgment for sizes
not shown. Fig. 14-6-D Bookcase.

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 303

Assignments for Unit 14-7,
Angular, or Two-Point,
Perspective 30°
make an 1_
21. On a B- or A3-size sheet,
PLACE HORIZON
angular-perspective drawing of the 400 ABOVE
675
planter box or monument shown in Fig. GROUND LINE
14-7-A or 14-7-B. Scale is :5 or .4. 1 1 Isp
22. On angular-perspective grid paper make 100
a bird's-eye perspective view of the tool -H50H" 250
holder or cross slide shown in Fig. 4-7-C 1
50hH50-«-j 25
or 14-7-D. Scale is to suit.

275

ioo h- -*\ ioo

Fig. 14-7-A Planter box. -» « 350

20.25

t 2 75'

60°
A
i

29.00
-36.00-
—-12.00- H ORIZON t

56.00 20.00
U-12.00 » |« 12.00-— -*4 6.00 -*— GROUND
"

SP

DWG SET-UP

4.00-

28.00

2.00^ 8.00
u i, _j
_L_
-J\ Fig. 14-7-B Monument.
-«-| 8.00 [~-

1
1
1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

-3.20- 1

375-I6UNC
.40
— 30—.
15
r
2.00
*— 20 [—40 —
-|

.40 T-5Q 10
| _l i_
r ——-I i
o — — io K-

Fig. 1 4-7-C Tool holder. Fig. 14-7-D Cross slide.

304 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

Assignments for Unit 14-8,
Technical Illustration
23. On a B- or A3-size sheet, prepare two
drawings of one of the
identical pictorial
parts shown in Fig. 14-8-A or I4-8-B.
On the first drawing use line shading; on
the second, use appliques. Do not
dimension. Select any pictorial method
you wish. Scale is full or 1:1.
24. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make an
exploded isometric assembly drawing of
one of the assemblies shown in Fig.
14-8-C or 4-8-D. Scale is full or
1 Do 1 : 1 .

not dimension. Use a rendering tech-

nique of your choice to improve the
appearance of the drawing.
RI.OO
UNLESS OTHERWISE SHOWN
ROUNDS AND FILLETS R .10

Fig. 14-8-A Swing bracket.

10 - 24 UNC
SOCKET HD CAP SCREW
4X4SLOT^ r2X45°
1.00
M 24

Fig. 14-8-B Stop button.

.06 X 45°
Fig. 14-8-C Gear clamp.

0.75 FHMS

0.75SQ HD BOLT
HEX NUT 3 REQ'D

R2.75

Fig. 14-8-D Bearing bracket.

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS 305

CHAPTER 15
Functional
Drafting

UNIT 15-1
carefully evaluated to make certain PROCEDURAL SHORTCUTS
that the benefits outweigh the potential
There are a number of procedural
Functional Drafting disadvantages. This evaluation should
shortcuts which, if properly applied
answer the following questions:
and carefully managed, can shorten
Since the basic function of the drafting • What is its purpose? the drawing preparation cycle and
department provide sufficient
is to • Is a personal preference disguised
it result in savings.
information to produce or assemble as a project requirement?
Streamlined Approval Requirements It is
parts, functional drafting must em- • Does it meet contractual require-
obvious that the more signatures
brace every possible means to commu- ments?
• Will the shortcut increase costs in
required on a drawing, the greater the
nicate this information in the least
delays in releasing data. The decision
expensive manner. Functional draft- other areas such as manufacturing,
as to who will approve drawings and
ing also applies toany method which purchasing, or inspection?
drawing changes must be carefully
would lower the cost of producing the • Is it an effective communication
considered to make certain that all
part. New technological developments link?
necessary functions have been taken
have provided many new ways of pro- • How much training or education is
into account (checkers, responsible
ducing drawings at lower costs and/or required to make effective use of it?
engineers, important technical special-
in less time.This means that the draft- • Are facilities available to implement
ists, etc.) without imposing undue
ing office must be prepared to discard it?
restrictions. Project ground rules and
some of the old, traditional methods in • Does the shortcut bypass a real bot-
contractual requirements also play an
favor of these newer means of commu- tleneck?
nication.
important part in this decision.

There are many ways in which to As each of these categories is exam- Eliminating the Drawing Check from the
reduce the drafting time in preparing a ined, the advantages of the shortcuts Preparation Cycle One of the most com-
drawing. These drawing shortcuts, will become apparent. mon suggested shortcuts, proposed
when collectively used, are of prime
importance in an effective drafting
system.
These newer techniques cannot be SAWCUT-, r-0C ^0.25
blindly applied, however, but
must be .09 MAX ^0.31
—1.25— / 2 HOLES

/
r
r

QTY PART MATL DESCRIPTION

PT
1.20

i_ k |
t
1.60 „
4 5.75 2.40 .80

NO.
•>
1" 10
3 4.00 1.60 .80
-c
2 CABLE SUPPORT MAPLE A-5374 PT 1 1
.40 ,

I
1
2 4.00 1.60 1.00
t
2 CABLE SUPPORT MAPLE ^—
A-5374 PT 2 2 1 5.00 1.60 1.00

l» 11
3 CABLE SUPPORT MAPLE A-5374 PT 4 3 X 1.50 THK PT A B 0C
MATL-HA ID MAPLE

(A) DRAWING CALLOUT CABLE SUPPORT A-5374

Fig. 15-1-1 Standard tabulated drawings. IB) STANDARD PART

306 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN


SCIIQailDHIIS
sQiin=iiacin
BIIIBIIHIIIII
Fig. 15-1-2 Standard parts drawings stored on microfilm. (Eastman Kodak Co.
usually when a project is behind sched-
ule or exceeding its budget or when
experienced personnel are involved, is
to eliminate checking from the drawing
preparation cycle.
Using Standard and Existing Drawings
Every year numerous drawings of
parts are prepared which are repeti-
tions of existing drawings. If the
drafter were to incorporate in the new
design parts that were already drawn,
many drawing hours would be saved.
Good drawing application records and
an efficient multiple-use drawing sys-
tem can eliminate a great deal of
duplication. Standard tabulated draw-
ings may be used to eliminate hun-
Fig. 15-1-3 General Motors drawing
standards manual.
dreds of drawings. See Figs. 15-1-1 and
15-1-2. For additional information on
using existing drawings refer to Unit
15-3 on scissors and paste-up drafting.
Standard Drafting Practices Standard
drafting practices are obviously the
backbone of efficient drafting room
operations. The best way to establish
and implement these practices is
through a good drafting room manual,
whose requirements must be strictly
observed by all personnel. See Fig.
15-1-3.
The drafting room manual should
contain data on the use and prepara-
tion of specific types of drawings,
drawing and part number require-
ments, standard and special drafting
practices, rules for dimensioning and
tolerancing, specifications for associ-
ated lists, and company procedures for
the preparation, handling, release, and
control of drawings.
Team Drafting Many engineering de-
partments have turned out drawings
by the method of one drafter to one
drawing. Team drafting involves a
number of people producing one draw-
ing. While this may seem uneconomi-
cal, it is an expeditious means with
visible cost savings over the traditional
method.
Some firms are using team drafting
because it is a better utilization of skill
levels. It is a training program through
which drafting skills are taught and
semiskilled people are given an oppor-
tunity to gain experience.
Data Retrieval The use of microform
reader-printers in the drafting room
provides quick and ready access to
standard drawings and parts. The use
of microfiche cards is becoming popu-
lar, because they can hold up to 70
pages of information. However, for
this method to be effective, a full-time
librarian is needed.
Standard Parts and Design Standard Infor-
mation Encouraging the use of stan-
dard parts and standard approaches to
design will not only result in drafting
time saved, but will also cut costs in
areas such as purchasing, material
control, manufacturing, etc. The odd-
size cutout that requires special tool-
ing, the design that calls for nonstan-
dard hardware, and the equipment that
uses a wide variety of fasteners when
only one or two would suffice are typi-
cal cases where properly applied stan-
dards would reduce both time and
cost.
Copying Machines One of the most
important time-saving devices, which
should be available in every drafting
area, is a copying machine for refer-
ence copies, checking prints of work in
preparation, and similar uses. See Fig.
15-1-4. When a drafter needs a copy,
work is delayed until the copy is made
available. Therefore a good copying
machine will soon pay for itself in
drawing hours saved.
Training Programs To provide drafters
with standard procedures and techni-
cal information is not enough; they
must be trained in their use. New
drafters are frequently overwhelmed
by a strange environment, while old
Fig. 15-1-4 Copying machine.
FUNCTIONAL DRAFTING 307
employees fail to keep up with new
requirements or proper!) use the ser-
vices available. Training programs fov
the indoctrination of new personnel
and the updating of long-service
employees are rewarded by more effi-
cient and versatile operation.
DRAFTING EQUIPMENT
AND MATERIALS
ing or reducing some of the more the number of drawings required can
tedious aspects of drafting. result in significant savings. Some
ways to reduce the number of draw-
Templates Templates, such as shown
ings are explained below.
in Fig. 15-1-5, play an important part in
functional drafting, for they save a Detail Assembly Drawings Detail assem-
great deal of time in drawing common bly drawings, in which parts are
shapes of details such as rounds, detailed in place on the assembly (see
squares, hexagons, and ellipses. In Fig. 15-1-6), and multidetail assembly
addition to common shapes, templates drawings, in which there are separate
have been made for standard parts detail views for the assembly and each

The quality of the material and sup-
plies used in the preparation of draw-
ings as important as the quality of
is
the instruments used in fabrication.
Leads which break easily, vellum
which ghosts or smudges, and inks that
crack and chip are some of the many
material factors which contribute to
increased drawing preparation time
and decreased drawing life. Drafting
materials must be carefully evaluated
before orders are placed.
Numerous timesaving devices
available: templates for every applica-
tion, "pens" for easier linework, and
more application of tape to artwork,
transfer-type lettering, etc. Since
drafting applications vary so widely,
only the drafting supervisor can deter-
such as nuts, and bolt heads, for elec-
trical symbols, outlines of tools and
equipment, and many other outlines
which are often repeated.
Mechanical Lettering The results of a
recent survey disclosed that mechan-
ical lettering is generally replacing
hand lettering. When mechanical let-
tering is required, it should be
performed, whenever possible, by a
subordinate. Mechanical lettering is
particularly effective when it is used
are for general notes, particularly when
preprinted standard notes on adhesive
material are used.
REDUCING THE NUMBER OF
DRAWINGS REQUIRED
of its parts, will reduce the number of
drawings required. However, they
must be used with extreme care. They
can easily become too complicated
and confusing to be an effective means
of communication.
Most Suitable Type of Projec-
Selecting the
The selection of
tion to Describe the Part
the type of projection (orthographic,
isometric, or oblique) can greatly
increase the ease with which some
drawings can be read and, in many
cases, reduce drafting time. For exam-
ple, a single-line piping drawing drawn
in isometric projection simplifies an
otherwise difficult drawing problem in
orthographic projection. See Fig.
15-1-7.

mine which devices will increase the The cost of a project is, to some
drafting production. extent, directly related to the number
Drafting aids are designed to facili- of drawings which must be prepared.
tate the making of drawings by remov- Therefore, careful planning to reduce
References and Source Material
1. George R. Beck. "Reorganization
in the Drafting Room." Graphic
Science. October 1966.
2. Xerox Corp.

ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 1 through 3 for Unit
15-1 on page 314.

Review for Assignments

Unit 14-2 Isometric Circles

NOTE: WOOD SIZES ARE NOMINAL

Fig. 15-1-5 Templates are made for many different uses and save
a lot of time. Fig. 15-1-6 Detail assembly drawing of a sawhorse.

308 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 SIMPLIFICATION OF
DIMENSIONING
HlXlh
Simplification of dimensioning not
only reduces drafting time but also
avoids cluttering a drawing with
unnecessary lines, thereby making it
-1X1— Qy
~k easier to read.
No other single factor has more
influence on the use of drawings than
dimensioning. It is not sufficient to
have dimensions numerically correct;
i : l_j it is equally important to dimension a

(A) ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION (Bl ISOMETRIC PROJECTION drawing properly so that computation
of sizes is unnecessary.
Fig. 15-1-7 Selecting the most suitable type of projection.
• Use arrowless dimensioning
• Use tabular dimensioning
Although simplified drafting was
UNIT 15-2 pursued largely to reduce drafting
• Use abbreviations and symbols

Simplified Drafting
The challenge of modern industry is to
produce more and better goods at com-
petitive prices. Drafting, like other
branches of industry, must share in
the responsibility for making this
increased productivity possible. The
old concept of drafting that of pro-
ducing an elaborate and beautiful
drawing, complete with all the lines,
projected views, and sections must
give way to a simplified method. The
new. simplified method of drafting
must embrace many modern eco-
nomical drafting practices but sur-
render nothing in either clarity of
presentation or accuracy of dimen-
sioning. Drafting stripped of
the new standard. See Fig. 15-2-1.
-0 44
2 HOLES ^. 0I 50
1.50 DEEP
costs and to improve the drafting prod-
uct, had a beneficial side effect when
it
the drawing had to be microformed.
Even more important, the worker on
the shop floor has an "easier to under-
all
stand" print. Much of the fine, diffi-
cult-to-produce detail, such as unnec-
essary frills and curlicues, has been
eliminated and replaced by simplified
— or symbolic presentation. Drawings
cluttered by repetitive detail are
shown simplified and are more suitable
— for making quality microform repro-
duction and reduced-size drawings.
Three most effective practices used
in simplified drafting are
• Simplification ofdimensioning
drawing
• Simplification of detail
its frills is
• Extensive use of freehand sketching
0150
1.50 DEEP ON C_
Arrowless Dimensioning To avoid hav-
ing a large number of dimensions
extending away from the part, arrow-
less or ordinate dimensioning may be
used. See Fig. 15-2-2. In this system,
the "zero" lines represent the vertical
and horizontal datum lines, and each
of the dimensions without an arrow-
head gives the distance from the zero
line. There is never more than one zero
line in each direction.
now
Tabular Dimensioning When there is a
very large number of holes or repeti-
tive features, such as in a chassis or a
printed circuit board, and where the
multitude of center lines would make
a drawing difficult to read, tabular
dimensioning is recommended. See
system each hole or
Fig. 15-2-3. In this
feature is assigned a letter, or a letter
with a numeral subscript. The feature
dimensions and the feature location
along the X and Y axes are given in a
table.
Abbreviations and Symbols Abbrevia-
tions and symbols are shortened forms
of words or expressions used to con-
serve drafting time and drawing space.
Refer to the Appendix for commonly
used abbreviations and symbols.

1.20
4-2.00
SIMPLIFICATION OF
DETAIL DRAWING
1. Complicated parts are best
described by means of a drawing.
However, explanatory notes can
44
2 50 complement the drawing, thereby
2 HOLES ON Q_
eliminating views that are time-
CONVENTIONAL DRAWING SIMPLIFIED DRAWING consuming to draw. See Figs.
Fig. 15-2-1 A comparison between conventional and simplified drafting. 15-2-4 and 15-2-5.

FUNCTIONAL DRAFTING 309

 HOLE
SYMBOL
HOLE
OIA
6 16 30 48 60 76 82 90 HOLE
DIA
2 50
HOLE
SYMBOL
A|
LOCATION
X-» Y 4

230 150
Z

70
0V 1

#e- o Ai B2

A
B
6

5
^ 1
94
B|

B2
B3
25
3.00
2 34
1

1.50
50

50
THRU
^3 ^4 ^c 5

C 4 84 320 50
D 3
"? C|
C2
62
1.90
.50
1.50
-0-D|

o ~0 1 54 C3
C4
C5
25
1.20

300
80
.80
80
C6 62 50
£ 0| 190 .25 .50

Fig. 15-2-2 Arrowless dimensioning. Fig. 15-2-3 Tabular dimensioning.

0.238
L
r 06
2 HOLES Hh° —
k.62
01.000
CONVENTIONAL DRAWING
ooo-sunc
ELABORATE
» mo *p — 2o °
400
0.238

y- I.000-8UNC
^ —T
0.70
/ 1.50 4.50 600

CONVENTIONAL
^ 5

6
2.00-
|— .62 •»-

EXAMPLE I

100
CONVENTIONAL
-65
238
01 000 STUD 6 00 LG
t1
THREAD ENDS I.000-8UNC X I.50LG

5^uu
;V200 ANGLE 75 X 100 X 10
— .62-
SIMPLIFIED SIMPLIFIED PT2 0.70X2.00

EXAMPLE 2

(A) SIMPLE DETAIL (B) ANGLE IRON DETAIL

NOTE PT 2 0.70 X 2.00LG
0.238 HOLE - .62 FROM END
PART DESCRIBED BY A NOTE
EXAMPLE 3

Fig. 15-2-5 Simplified drafting practices for

detailed parts.

2. Use simplified drawing practices,

as described throughout this text,
CONVENTIONAL especially on threads and common

«^ 1 PT A B C
3.

4.
features.
Avoid unnecessary views. In
many cases one or two views are
sufficient to explain the part fully.
When a large
similar size are to be
number of holes of
made in a
4.00 3.00 .188
part, there is a chance that the per-
1

2 5.00 4.00 .238 son producing the part may misin-

3 6.00 5.00 386 terpret a conventional drawing. To
SIMPLIFIED
SIMPLIFIED ^0C simplify the drawing and reduce
(C) ASSEMBLY DRAWING (D) SIMILAR PARTS the chance of error, hole symbols
such as shown in Figs. 15-2-6 and
Fig. 15-2-4 Comparison between conventional and simplified drawings. 15-2-7 are recommended.

310 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN


Fig. 15-2-6 Recommended hole symbols
order of preference.
The use of the symmetry symbol
means that all dimensions are sym-
metrical about that line.
A simplified assembly drawing
should be used for assembly pur-
poses only. Some means of sim-
plification are:
• Standard parts such as nuts,
bolts, and washers need not be
drawn.
• Reference part circles and ar-
rowheads on leaders can be
omitted.
• Small fillets and rounds on cast
parts need not be shown.
• Phantom outlines of compli-
cated details can often be used.
Use templates where possible.
Within limits, a small drawing
made more quickly than a large
drawing.
approximate. They want the necessary
information clearly shown. Freehand
in
sketches and drawings made with
7~r ^—h
fe£ instruments can be shown on one
sheet. However, it must be clearly
QUARTER VIEW
understood that the use of freehand
sketching does not give the drafter a
license to turn out sloppy work.
Savings as high as 30 percent in the
J ss
preparation of working drawings have
been attributed to the use of freehand
sketches as opposed to instrument-
tp^j produced drawings. However, free-
hand sketching has its limitations. It is
highly effective on simple detailed
parts, for small radii, such as rounds
and and for small holes. In
fillets,
HALF VIEW
many cases the term freehand is not
Fig. 15-2-8 Partial views. entirely correct. For instance, tem-
plates may be used to draw circles,
resistor^, or other common features,
12. Eliminate repetitive data by use of or a straightedge may be used to pro-
general notes or phantom lines. duce iong lines since it is faster and
13. Eliminate views where the shape more accurate than freehand sketch-
or dimension can be given by ing. But short lines are drawn more
is description, for example, hex. sq. quickly freehand.
0. thk. etc. Drawing paper with nonreproduci-
ble grid lines is ideal for freehand

Eliminate hidden lines which do sketching. See Fig. 15-2-9. For this rea-
not add clarification.
FREEHAND SKETCHING son many companies have their draw-
10. Show only partial views of sym- Many shops care little whether the ing paper made with nonreproducible
metrical objects. See Fig. 15-2-8. drawing is freehand, whether one view grid lines over the entiredraw ing area.
11 Avoid the use of elaborate pic- is shown, or whether the drawing is to Other advantages of having the grid
torial and repetitive detail. scale, as long as the proportions are lines on the paper are that they may
( 1 1

562 562
4 HOLES 4 HOLES

01.062
02.00 CBORE
X30 DEEP
2 HOLES

4
.625
HOLES "^ J0-
.

fO 150 THK

(A) CONVENTIONAL DRAFTING (B) SIMPLIFIED DRAFTING

Fig. 15-2-7 Application hole symbols and arrowless dimensioning.

FUNCTIONAL DRAFTING 311

 2.34-

.50
-I

r~
1.000
.994
rw .556
.554 01-56

1 H
•^0.159 THRU MADE FROM M 20 X 120 LG HEX BOLT

(A) FREEHAND SKETCH (B) COMBINED FREEHAND AND INSTRUMENT DRAWING

Fig. 15-2-9 Sketching of parts on coordinate paper.

serve as guidelines in lettering notes changes, reproducibles will save a
and dimensions and (2) they may be great deal of preparation time. This
used for measuring distances, thereby procedure involves making a translu-
reducing the number of times the scale cent or transparent print from the orig-
is used for measuring. inal drawing, removing unwanted
material from this print, and adding the
References and Source Material new information to the drawing.
1. ANSI Y14.5M. Dimensioning and main drawback to this method is that
Tolerancing. the existing drawing may not conform
to the latest standard drawing practice.
ASSIGNMENTS
SCISSORS AND
See Assignments 4 through 7 for Unit
15-2 on pages 314 and 316.
PASTE-UP DRAFTING
No matter how original a design
Review for Assignments be, a greatnumber of part features are
Unit 2-6 Sketching repetitive. With the aid of modern
Unit 6-1 Detail Drawings reproduction methods, drawings can
Appendix Keys and Keyseats be created by using unchanged por-
tions of existing drawings. Transfer-
ring them from one drawing to the next
isaccomplished by scissors and paste-
up drafting. It provides a way of using
all or parts of existing drawings, notes,
charts, and drawing forms to revise
existing drawings and to create new
drawings. Through the utilization of
The existing drawings much valuable draft-
ing time is freed for creative design
drafting rather than hand copying.
Finished prints can be made on
paper, acetate, or vellum. They can be
the same size or reduced to different
sizes, depending on the reproduction
equipment being used.
may Another important advantage of cut-
and-paste drafting is that materials
copied from existing drawings do not
have to be rechecked minutely, as
must be done with new drawings.
Recheckine time is reduced. See Fig.
15-3-1.

UNIT 15-3
Reproduction *\
Shortcuts
In the past few years, a number of
reproduction techniques have been
developed which, if properly used, can
greatly reduce drawing preparation
time. An understanding of available
techniques and their limitations, sup-
ported by the close cooperation of a
reproduction group familiar with draft-
ing operations can help the drafting
supervisor to make significant cost
savings.

REPRODUCIBLES FROM
EXISTING DRAWINGS
When a new drawing is to be made
from an existing drawing with few Fig. 15-3-1 Cut and paste drafting. (Xerox Corp.

312 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 fl s t tr B i ? i ® ej3
--'

<s>
- 10
4i3 HI-
n
—v£/V
(A) TYPICAL APPLIQUES

O C3

24

(B) APPLICATION

Fig. 15-3-4 Electronics appliques. (Bishop

Industries Corp.)

Appliques are available in two basic

types: cutout and transfer. Cutout
appliques are applied by positioning
6=3
© <©>
36
<Z3>
the desired image in the correct posi-
tion on the drawing, burnishing (rub-
bing) the image area, and cutting
Fig. 15-3-2 A variety of shapes and sizes of appliques. (Graphic Standard Instruments Co.) around it to remove the portion not
wanted. The transfer-type pressure-
sensitive applique works on a some-
WORM'S EYE VIEW what different principle. The carrier is
APPLIQUES (A)

removed from the translucent image

One of the most successful methods of sheet, and the area to be transferred is
reducing drawing time is the use of placed in position on the drawing. The
appliques. When parts, shapes, sym- image to be transferred is then rubbed
bols, or notes are used repeatedly, over the top surface of the transfer
appliques should be considered. These sheet with a burnishing stick.
pressure-sensitive overlays may be The combined use of cut-and-paste
printed on opaque, transparent, or drafting and appliques for new draw-
translucent sheets with an adhesive ings is found extensively in industry,
backing. especially in the electronics and piping
Appliques are available in a great fields. See Fig. 15-3-4.
variety of standard symbols or pat-
terns (Fig. 15-3-2) and in blank References and Source Material
(unprinted) sheets. A matte surface on 1. George R. Beck. "Reorganization
the blank sheet will accept typewriter in the Drafting Room," Graphic

copy as well as pencil or ink lines. This Science October 1966.

.

material is often used for making cor- 2. Eastman Kodak Company

rections on drawings and for adding 3. Xerox.
materials lists or detailed notes which
can be typed faster than they can be ASSIGNMENTS
lettered. Figure 15-3-3 shows a draw-
Fig. 15-3-3 Application of appliques shown
ing which used many of the appliques Sec Assignments s and l
> for Unit 15-3
in Fig. 15-3-2. (Graphic Standard Instruments
shown in Fig. 15-3-2. Co.) on page 317.

FUNCTIONAL DRAFTING 313

UNIT 15-4 /
/-V 305
6BX7
Photodrawings "x" Amplifier — —7 V 3OI—5 /^-R 323
fc Component Board
/ I2AX7 /y / I00K 5%

Photodrawings, that is. engineering

drawings into which one photograph.
or more, is incorporated, have in-
1.2
R 346—^
M 1%

R 329
1.2 M 1%
^\^^
-^^
^^^^
^^
I

E^ ^ --V 304
12
//
AXZ^/ /
/- R 305
I.2M 1%

-— CF 302
Connector

creased in popularity because they can R 351 27K -_^^ —R 322 1 .2M 1%
sometimes present a subject even more R 350 —__ •[
clearly than conventional drawings. 39K
Photodraw ings supplement rather than
R 349
" — CM 301
replace conventional engineering I20K Connector
drawings by eliminating much of the
tedious and time-consuming effort IS9I
involved when the subject is difficult
V 306 — — T 301
Chicago F6I0
to draw. They
are particularly useful 6BX7 / <

for assembly drawings, piping dia- ^ -CF 303

"Y" Amplifier^/ Yoke Connector
grams, large machine installations, Component Board
switchboards, etc.. provided, of
Fig. 15-4-1 Photodrawing. |Eastman Kodak Co.
course, that the subject of the draw-
ings exists so that it may be photo-
Background Any photodrawing must certain that
all the parts important to
graphed.
begin with a photograph of an object, a the photodrawing are in view of the
Photodrawings are also a compre-
part or assembly, a building, a model, camera.
hensive means of clearly transmitting
or whatever else may be the subject of
technical information; they free the
the drawing. Reference and Source Material
drafter from having to draw things
which already exist. See Fig. 15-4-1. Photography The best photographic 1. Eastman Kodak Company.
Photodrawings have other advan- angle usually is one which shows the
tages. They are easy to make and usu- subject in a flat view w ith as little per-
ally take much less time to prepare spective as possible. (If the situation
ASSIGNMENT
than an equivalent amount of conven- calls for a perspective, select the angle See Assignment 10 for Unit 15-4 on
tional drafting. that best describes the object.) Make page 318.

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 15

Assignments for Unit 15-1,
Functional Drafting ing, only this time use isometric grid Scale to suit. On a second sheet, make an
After the number of drawings made isometric detailed assembly drawing of
1. paper and a template for drawing the
over the last 6 months was reviewed, it circles and arcs. From the drawing times
the book rack showing the dimensions
was discovered that a great number of recorded, state in percentage the time
and instructions necessary to com-
cable straps, shown in Fig. 5- -A, were pletely make and assemble the parts.
1 1 saved by the use of grid paper and tem-
made which were Scale to suit. From the drawing times
being similar in plates. Scale is :1. Do not dimension.
1

On On a recorded, state a percentage of time

design. a B-size sheet, prepare a 3. book rack shown
B-size sheet, the
standard tabulated drawing similar to in Fig. 1 drawn twice and
5- 1 -C is to be
saved by the use of detailed assembly
Fig. 15-1-1, reducing the number of the drawing time for each drawing drawings.
standard parts to 4. Scale is full. recorded. Using one half of the sheet,
2. On an A3 sheet, the rod guide shown in make a three-view orthographic projec- Assignments for Unit 15-2,
Fig.15- -B is to be drawn twice and the
1 tiondrawing of the book rack assembly Simplified Drafting
drawing time for each recorded. First, on showing only those dimensions and 4. On a B- or A3-size sheet, use simplified
plain paper make an isometric drawing instructions pertinent to the assembly. drawing practices to make freehand
of the part, using a compass to draw the On the other half of the sheet, prepare detail sketches of either of the parts
circles and arcs. Next repeat the draw- detail drawings for the parts required. shown in Fig. 1 5-2-A. Scale to suit.

314 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 - 50
-0 277 f 0.562 r
-0 277 ^0 277 R50 . -0.277
T J I

4 .00

«) -
#
1.70
.50
1
1.00

T
4
— 1.70
.50
00

—
1

H— I.OO^J 125 - 55 L 1.25 —

— T
+) .50 • .50 -
—ft .50
• — '
80
1
I

.56
I
I T t
T.2 R.I2
R.I2^ 12 J R.I2^ '
2

- - 277 R- -0.277 R 50- -0 386 -0.277

2 HOLES " D0Z
562
i

4"
_
40
f _
.50
l 1.00

|
6 <5 #~
- —
i
1

— 2.50 - .50
I
3.00
— 2.50- - 2.50
2.00
—1.00 — '

%
1 i

-a /°h 1 50
1 !

R.I2-^
^~ !

I
I

T.,2 12

Fig. 15-1-A Cable straps.

0.812
3 HOLES
'

£
r

2.00 t-« 8.00-

+ -\i

1.40
Rod guide.
Fig. 15-1-B
k T >~l k
-0325
2 HOLES

TUBE SUPPORT

END DETAIL OF PT I

2 2mm THICK
NOTE: LUMBER SIZES
^^)
(
ARE NOMINAL GASKET
Fig. 15-2-A Tube support and gasket.
Fig. 15-1-C Book rack.

FUNCTIONAL DRAFTING 315

 5. On a B-size sheet, redraw the two parts
shown in Fig. 15-2-B; use arrowless
dimensioning and simplified drawing
practices. Use half scale. For the cover
plate use the bottom and left-hand edge
for the datum surfaces. For the back
plate use the bottom and the center of
the part for the datum surfaces.
6. On an A3-size sheet, make simplified
drawings of the parts shown in Fig.
1 5-2-C. Scale to suit.

7. On a B-size sheet, redraw the terminal

board shown in Fig. 1 5-2-D using tabu-
lar dimensioning. Scale is full.

110

FLANGED COUPLING
Fig. 1 5-2-C Simplification of detail assignment.

.375-16 UNC-2B
2 HOLES

-1.00
.312-18 UNC-2B

BACK PLATE
2 HOLES
.312-18 UNC-2B
0.1015
9 HOLES- — LES K— ,.00-
3 HOLES TERMINAL BOARD MATL-. 12 THK FIBER
Fig. 15-2-B Arrowless dimensioning assignment Fig. 1 5-2-D Tabular dimensioning and hole symbol assignment.

316 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

Assignments for Unit 15-3,
Reproduction Shortcuts
8. An exploded isometric assembly draw- X 45o CHAMFER
ing of the wheel puller shown in Fig.
15-3-A is urgently required. Time does
not permit one drafter to do the entire
drawing; thus three drafters will be
required to draw the parts. Scale is half
or 2. On plain paper draw all the parts
1

in isometric. When all the parts have

been drawn, cut them from the paper
and assemble them in the exploded posi-
tion on a B- or A3-size sheet. Use glue or
rubber cement. Make a suitable print of
the exploded assembly on a copying
machine.

PARTIAL SIDE VIEW

Fig. 15-3-A Wheel puller. (Cut and paste)

On a B- or A3-size sheet, make the elec-

tronic layout drawing shown in Fig.
15-3-B. Appliques and templates are to
be used. appliques of the electronic
If

components are not available, make

your own by photostating Fig. 5-3-4 1

then cut them out and glue them to your

drawing. There is no scale.

Fig. 15-3-B Electronic diagram. (Applique)

FUNCTIONAL DRAFTING 317

Assignment for Unit 15-4,
Photodrawing HARDENED
10. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a photo-
STEEL BUSHING-
SHEAR PIN HUB
stat of the sprocket shown in Fig. 1 5-4-A
The photostat, which is to serve as a
photodrawing, is to replace the two-
view drawing. Make a new chart listing
metric sizes to replace the existing chart
directed to do
if so. Leaders, dimensions,
and dimension which are to be
lines,

inked, are to be added to the photo-

drawing.

Shear Pi n Diameters Length Th ru Hub Adapt Bolts

Hub Shear Shear Adapt Shear Flange Flange Sprocket

Bore Pin Radius Pin
Flange Pin Hub & Sprocket Pin Adapt Collar Thick- Thick- Seat
Number Bolt

Range Assembly 1 )ia.

Hub Collar Seat Hub ness ness Width & Size Circle
Number
R B C O E F G H M ) K L N P
1.00 & under SP-17 1.80 25 5 25 1.75 2.50 2.62 2 44 1.38 .38 .56 56 .44 4-38 4.00
1.06-1.25 SP-18 2.18 25 6 00 2.25 3.25 3.38 2.94 1.75 .50 .56 .56 .56 4-38 4.75
1.30-1.50 SP-19 2.56 30 6 75 2.75 4.00 4.12 3.56 2.12 .62 .68 .68 .68 4-. 50 5.50
1.56-1.75 SP-20 3.00 38 75 3.25 4 75 4.88 4 18 2.50 .75 .80 .80 .68 4-. 50 6.25
1.80-2.00 SP-21 3.30 45 8 . 3 3.75 5.25 5.38 4.80 2.88 .88 .94 .94 .94 4-.62 7.00
2.06-2.25 SP-22 3.80 50 9 75 4.25 6.25 6.38 5.18 3.00 1.00 1.06 1.06 1.18 4-.62 8.00
2.30-2.50 SP-23 - 10 00 4.50 6.50 6.62 5.68 3.50 1.00 1.06 1.06 1.38 4-62 8.25
2.56-2.75 SP-24 4.40 55 11 50 5.00 7.00 7.12 6.30 3.88 1.12 1.18 1.18 1.38 4-. 62 9.25
_ : SP-25 4.90 62 12 50 5.50 8.00 8.12 6.94 4.25 1.25 1.30 1.30 1.38 6-. 62 10.25

Cm flaBi ts

Fig. 1 5-4-A Bolt-on shear pin sprocket.

318 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

CHAPTER 16
Drawing for
Numerical
Control

fact is especially important when spare COORDINATE SYSTEM

UNIT 16-1
parts are required.
Drawing for Acceptance of numerical control The numerical control concept is

processes being accelerated by the

is
based on the system of rectangular or
Numerical Control development of computer-aided de- cartesian coordinates in which any
sign (CAD) and computer-aided manu- position can be described in terms of
facturing (CAM) techniques. distance from an origin point along
Numerical control a means of auto-
is
either two or three mutually perpen-
matically directing some or all of the dicular axes. Two dimensional coordi-
functions of a machine from instruc-
DIMENSIONING FOR
nates (A", Y) define points in a plane.
tions. The instructions are generally NUMERICAL CONTROL See Fig. 16-1-1.
stored on tape and are fed to the con- Common guidelines have been estab- The X axis is horizontal and is con-
troller through a tape reader. The con- lished that enable dimensioning and sidered the first and basic reference
troller interprets the coded instruc- tolerancing practices to be used effec- axis. Distances to the right of the zero
tions and directs the machine through tively in delineating parts for both Taxis are considered positive X values
the required operations. numerical control and conventional and to the left of the zero Y axis as
It has been established that because
fabrication. negative X values.
of the consistent high accuracy of
numerically controlled machines, and
because human errors have been
almost entirely eliminated, scrap has
been considerably reduced. iu/> DP \N1 2 ( 1UA 1>P VN1 1

Because both setup and tape prepa- -

1»
ration times are short, numerically con-
trolled machines produce a part faster
R
«I
than manually controlled machines.
When changes become necessary on
Ib -:
a part, they can easily be implemented
/
.

by changing the original tapes. The

process takes very little time and
expense in comparison to the altera- «1

tion of a jig or fixture.

C
Another area where numerically 1i

controlled machines are better is in the

quality or accuracy of the work. In
1UA DR \N" 3 JU/ DR A\ 5
many cases a numerically controlled
machine can produce parts more accu-
-8 -6 4 2 -2 -4 •£
rately at no additional cost, resuting in -10

reduced assembly time and better X AXIS

interchangeability of parts. This latter Fig. 16-1-1 TWo dimensional coordinates. |X and Y)

DRAWING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL 319

 The > axis is vertical and perpen- Designing for numerical control tioning point B below the drill. This is

dicular to the X axis in the plane of a would be greatly simplified if all work the most frequently used method.
drawing showing AT relationships. were done the first quadrant
in With the fixed table and movable spin-
Distances above the zero X axis are because all would be posi-
the values dle as shown in Fig. 16-1-2C. hole A is
considered positive } values and tive and the plus and minus signs drilled: then the spindle moves to the

below the zero A axis as negative ) would not be required. However, any right, positioning the drill above point

values. The position w here the A' and Y of the four quadrants may be used, B. This changes the direction of the
axes cross is called the origin, or zero and, as such, programming in any of motion, but the movement of the cut-
point. the quadrants should be understood. ter as related to the work remains the

lor example, our points lie in a Some numerically controlled same.

plane, as shown in Fig. 16-1-1. The machines are designed for locating
plane is divided into four quadrants. points in only the X and Y directions. Zero Point
Point A lies in quadrant and is located 1
These are called two-axis machines. As previously mentioned, the zero
at position (6. 5).with the A' coordinate The function of these machines is to point is the point X and Y
where the
first, followed by the Y coordinate. move the machine table or tool to a axes intersect. It is the point from
Point B lies in quadrant 2 and is located specified position in order to perform which all coordinate dimensions are
at position (-4. 3). Point C lies in work, as shown in Fig. 16-1-2. With the measured. Many machines have a
quadrant 3 and is located at position fixed spindle and movable table as fixed zero point built in.
(-5. -4). Point D lies in quadrant 4 shown in Fig. 16-1-2B. hole A is drilled: Two examples of fixed zero points
and is located at position (3. -2). then the table moves to the left, posi- on machine tables are shown in Fig.

sss? \/ /

FINISHED PART
MACHINE TA8LE
(A)

-/
FRONT' FRONT
*
(B) FIXED SPINDLE, TABLE MOVES (C) FIXED TABLE, SPINDLE MOVES

Fig. 16-1-2 Positioning the work.

MACHINE TABLE

^ZERO POINT
-Y (B) LOCATION OF PART AND ZERO POINT RESULTS IN 3rd
(A) LOCATION OF PART AND ZERO POINT RESULTS IN 1st QUADRANT DIMENSIONING.
QUADRANT NC DIMENSIONING.
Fig. 16-1-3 Zero point location.

320 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 75 H— 2.25-

50
Q
t 2 0-
T
J
<?-
_L
7 5

u .75 Y^ PART ^
~w
^
V V SETUP POINT
-SETUP POINT

MACHINE TABLE
LOCATING
PINS
u
ZERO POINT

ZERO POINT-
(B) BASE LINE DIMENSIONING
(A) POINT-TO-POINT DIMENSIONING
Fig. 16-1-4 Dimensioning for N/C.

16-1-3. In Fig. 16-1-3A all points are 2.75)from the zero point. After hole 1 after hole 1 is drilled, the drill spindle
located in the first quadrant, resulting has been drilled, the drill spindle is has to be positioned above the center
in positive X and Y values. In Fig. positioned above the center of hole 2. of hole 2. The coordinates for hole 2
16-1-3B points are located in the
all Hole 2 has the same ^-coordinate are (2.75. 4.25). Figure 16-1-6 shows
third quadrant, resulting in negative X dimension as hole 1, making the X the coordinate dimensions of the holes
and Y values. increment zero. Since the vertical dis- shown in Fig. 16-1-4B.

tance between holes and 2 is 1.50 in.,

1

Setup Point the Y increment becomes +1.50.

The setup point is located on the part After hole 2 is drilled, the drill spin-
or the Fixture holding the part. It may dle is positioned above the center of
HOLE X Y
be the intersection of two finished sur- hole 3. Since the horizontal distance 1 + 2.75 -2.75
faces, the center of a previously between holes 2 and 3 is 4.50 in. the , X 2 + 1.50
3 + 4.50
machined hole in the part, or a feature increment is +4.50. Hole 3 has the
4 - 1.50
of the fixture. It must be accurately same F-coordinate dimension as hole
located in relation to the zero point, as 2, making the Y increment zero. Fig. 16-1-5 Point-to-point dimensioning of
shown in Fig. 16-1-4. From hole 3 the drill spindle is posi- holes shown in Fig. 16-1-4.

tioned above the center of hole 4. Hole

4 has the same .^-coordinate dimen-
POINT-TO-POINT sion as hole 3, making the X
increment
PROGRAMMING zero. Since the vertical distance
HOLE X Y

between hole 3 and hole 4 is 1.50 in., 1

-2 75 + 2.75
Point-to-point programming is the + 2.75 + 4.25
2
most common type of positioning sys- the Y increment is -1.50.
3 + 7.25 + 4.25
tem. With this system each new posi- Figure 16-1-5 lists the distance
4 + 7.25 + 2.75
tion is given from the last position. To between holes and indicates the direc-
compute the next position wanted, it is tion of motion by plus and minus signs. Fig. 16-1-6 Coordinate dimensioning of
can be seen that each pair of coordi- holes shown in Fig. 16-1-4.
necessary to establish the sequence in It

which the work is to be done. nates shows the distance between each
location in sequence.
An example of this type of dimen-
sioning is shown in Fig. 16-1-4A. The
distance between the left edge of the COORDINATE
part and hole 1 is given as .75 in. From PROGRAMMING
hole 1 to hole 4 the dimension shown is

4.50 in. (X axis), and from hole to 1 Many machines use coordinate pro- ASSIGNMENTS
hole 2 the dimension shown is 1.50 in. gramming instead of the point-to-point
method of dimensioning. With this Sec Assignments through 3 for I'mt
I

(Y axis). These dimensions give the

16-1 on pages 323 through 325.
distance from the last drilled hole to type of dimensioning all dimensions
the next drilled hole. Assume the holes are taken from the zero point: as such,
base-line dimensioning, as shovui in Review for Assignments
are to be drilled in the sequence shown
Fig. 16-1-4B, is used. For example.-
Appendix Trigonometric Functions
in the Figure. Hole 1 is located (2.75,

DRAWING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL 321

 The height of the gage blocks deter- machine axes if these
UNIT 16-2 mined by the distance the drill passes
is parallel the
axes can be predetermined.
Three-Axis through the uorkpiece plus clearance, 4. Dimension the part precisely so
or .06 in. - 0.3Z) - .12 in. See Fig. that the physical shape can be
Control Systems 16-2-4. If a .75 in. drill were used, the readily determined. Dimension to
gage block height would be .06 + .23 points on the part surfaces.
- .12 = .41 in.
Many numerically controlled ma- If the distance from the top of the
chines operate in three directions, the uorkpiece to the Z zero reference
table and carriage moving in the and X plane is set at .75 in., the Z coordinates
K directions, as explained in Unit 16-1. for the three holes shown are -(.75 +
and the tool spindle, such as a turret .4). -(.75 - B). and -(.75 - C).
drill, traveling in an up-and-down
direction. A vertical line taken through
the center of the machine spindle is DIMENSIONING AND
referred to as the Z axis
and is perpen- TOLERANCING
dicular to the plane formed by the X
Recommended guidelines for dimen-
and Faxes. See Fig. 16-2-1.
sioning and tolerancing practices for
Thus, a point in space can be
use in defining parts for numerical-
described by its X. Y. and Z coordi-
control fabrication are:
nates. For example. />, in Fig. 16-2-2
can be described by its (X. Y. Z) coor- 1. When the basic coordinate system LEARANCE
dinates as (4. 3. 5) and P 2 as (11. 2. 8). is established, the setup point Fig. 16-2-3 Calculating Z distance.
A popular system used on many should be placed at an appropriate
numerically controlled machines, such on the part itself.
location
as the turret drill, is to establish the Z 2. Any number of subcoordinate sys- -DRILL DIA = D

zero reference plane above the work- tems may be used to define fea-
piece. Each tool is then adjusted and tures of a part as long as these
calibrated to the Z zero reference systems can be related to the basic
plane. coordinate system of the given
For example. Fig. 16-2-3 shows a part.
part requiring three drilled holes. As 3. Define part surfaces in relation to
the center hole is drilled through, the three mutually perpendicular ref-
part israised by gage blocks so that the erence planes. Establish these
drill does not touch the machine table. planes along part surfaces which Fig. 16-2-4 Determining gage block height.

Fig. 16-2-1 X, Y, and Z axes. 16-2-2 Points in space

322 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 Regular geometric contours such
as ellipses, parabolas, hyperbolas,
etc.. may be defined on the draw-
ingby mathematical formulas. The
numerically controlled machinery
can easily be programmed to
approximate these curves by lin-
ear interpolation, that is, as a
series of short, straight lines
whose endpoints are close enough
together to ensure meeting the
required tolerances for contour. In
the case of arbitrary curves, the
drawing should specify appropri-
on the curve by coordi-
ate points
nate dimensions or a table of
coordinates. Consideration should
be given to the number of points
needed to define the curve; how-
ever, one should keep in mind the
fact that the tighter the tolerance
or the smaller the radius of curva-
ture, the closer together the points
should be. Such terms as blend
ASSIGNMENTS
Assignments for Unit 16-1,
Drawing for Numerical Control
1. On a B- or A3-size sheet, prepare two
drawings of the cover plate shown in Fig.
16-1 -A. One drawing is to use point-to-
point dimensioning for the 10 holes; the
other drawing is to use coordinate dimen-
sioning. Only the dimensions locating the
holes need be shown. The radial and an-
gular dimensions are to be replaced with
coordinate dimensions and taken to two
decimal places. Below each drawing pre-
pare a chart listing each hole and their X
and Y coordinates. The letters shown on
the holes show the sequence in which
they are to be drilled. The center of the
part is the zero point. Scale is full or
I
smoothly and faired curve are not
used. Curves may also be defined
by other coordinates, such as
polar, spherical, or cylindrical, as
applicable.
Changes in contour should be
unambiguously defined with
prime consideration for design
intent.
Holes in a circular pattern should
preferably be located with coordi-
nate dimensions.
Where possible, express angular
dimensions relative to the X axis in
degrees and decimal parts of a
degree.
Use plus and minus tolerances,
not limit dimensions. Preferably,
the tolerance should be equally
divided bilaterally.
10. Positional tolerancing, form toler-
ancing, and datum referencing
should be used where applicable.
Datum features specified on the
for Chapter
1:1.
NOTE GRID
Fig. 16-1-A Cover plate.
drawing in proper sequence will
clearly indicate their usage for
setup.
11. Where profile tolerances are spec-
ified, the geometric boundary
should be equally disposed bilat-
erally along the true profile. Avoid
profile tolerances applied uni-
laterally along the true profile.
Include no less than four defined
points along the profile.
12. Tolerances are specified only on
the basis of actual design require-
ment. The accuracy capability of
numerically controlled equipment
is not a basis for specifying more
restrictive tolerances than are
functionally required.
ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 4 through 6 for Unit
16-2 on pages 325 through 327.
1
D_
«€
8 X 8 TO THE INCH
DRAWING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL 323
2. On an A3- or B-size sheet, prepare a chart
POINT X AXIS Y AXIS QUADRANT
the X and Y (coordinate) locations
listing
and the quadrant for the points A to V
A
shown on Fig. 6- -B. The grid is
1 1 1x 10
to the centimeter. B

+Y

• K
•L 80

60

• A

40
•J

• M 20 •
• R
D
•
• M
!\J

80 60 40 20 20 40 60 80
-X +X

• C
20
•H

•E
40

tS

60
•Q

• P
80
•F

Fig. 16-1-B Chart.

324 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

 ifc

ffrr

NOTE: GRID 10 X 10 TO THE INCH

3. On a B- or A3-size sheet, prepare two

drawings of the cover plate shown in Fig.
16-1-C. One drawing is to use point-to-
point dimensioning for the holes; the
other drawing is to use datum or coordi-
nate dimensioning. Work with customary
or metric dimensions as directed by your
instructor. Only the dimensions locating
the holes need be shown. Below each
drawing prepare a chart listing each hole
250-20UNC-2B X .50 DEEP
and their X and Y coordinates. The letters 4 HOLES EQ SPACED ON 01.500
shown at the holes indicate the seguence
in which they are to be drilled. Note the

location of the zero point. Scale is full

or 1:1.
04.00
Assignments for Unit 16-2, NOTE: HOLE D NOT SHOWN
Three-Axis Control Systems
4. On a B- or A3-size sheet make a two-
view drawing of the end plate shown in
Fig. 6-2-A. Only the dimensions locating
1

the holes need be shown. Below the

drawing prepare a chart listing each hole
and itsX ^and Zcoordinates using point-
to-point dimensioning. The letters on the
holes show the seguence in which they
are to be drilled. Calculating the Zcoordi-
nate is to be done in the same manner as
for the part shown in Fig. 1 6-2-3. Scale is

full or 1:1.

Note: Programming will be for the tap-

ROUNDS AND MLLb 50 ° CBORE X .12 DEEP
drill holes and the six through holes FILLETS
lb H
R .U
12
Q HQL£S £Q spACE[) QN 03QOQ
shown. Zero point for the X and Y
the center of the end plate. Fig. 1 6-2-A End plate.
coordinates is

DRAWING FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL 325

 LOCATE POINTS PI TO PIO ON CHART

NOTE: ALL COORDINATES ARE +

POINT X AXIS Y AXIS Z AXIS

PI 10 20 60

P2 20 70 70
P3 20 30
P4 100 60 75

P5 40 30 20
P6 40 60 10

P7 70 20
P8 50 50 50
P9 85 65 30
PIO 60 65 15

CHART 2

LOCATE COORDINATES AND RECORD IN TABLE

NOTE ALL COORDINATES ARE +

POINT X AXIS Y AXIS Z AXIS

PI 20
P2 55
P3 60
P4 30
P5 30
P6
P7 40
P8 65
P9 30
PIO 55

|
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

-Y
Fig. 16-2-B Chart.

326 INTERMEDIATE DRAWING DESIGN

On a B- or A3-size sheet, locate points
I0-32UNC-2B
PI to PI on the coordinate chart shown 1
2 HOLES
in Fig. 16-2-B. On chart 2 points P\ to P10
are located, but only one of their coordi-
nates is known. Accurately lay out the
missing coordinates on the chart and
record their values in the table. Scale as —
shown.
On a B- or A3-size sheet make a one-
view drawing of the terminal board
shown in Fig. 16-2-C. Point-to-point pro- 1.25
gramming is to be used to locate each
hole. Below the drawing prepare a chart
each hole and its X and /coordi-
listing
3.00 H
nates.The letters on the holes show the
sequence in which they are to be drilled.
Zero point for the X and Y coordinates is
the center of the .438 hole. .25

.25

-0.25
3 HOLES

MATL-.I2THK FIBER
Fig. 16-2-C Terminal board

DRAWNG FOR NUMERICAL CONTROL 327

PART 4 Power
Transmissions
CHAPTER 17
Belts, Chains,
and Gears

UNIT 17-1 (A) OPEN DRIVE

Belt Drives
TIGHT SIDE
SHOULD BE
FLAT BELTS ON BOTTOM

Flat-belt drives offer flexibility, shock

absorption, efficient power transmis- PARALLEL SHAFTS C) CROSS BELT DRIVE
sion at high speeds, resistance to abra-
sive atmospheres, and comparatively
low cost. The belts can operate on rel- (B) OPEN DRIVE WITH IDLER
atively small pulleys and can be
spliced or connected for endless oper-
ation. However, because they require
high tension, they also impose high
bearing loads. They are sometimes
noisier than other belt drives, will slip,
and have comparatively low efficiency
at moderate speeds. See Fig. 17-1-1.
Flat belts for power transmission PERPENDICULAR SHAFTS
can be divided into three classes:

1. Conventional: plain flat belt with-

out teeth, grooves, or serrations.
2. Grooved or serrated: basic flat belt
modified to provide the advantages
of another type of transmission
product, e.g., V-belts.
3. Positive drive: basic flat belt modi-
fied to eliminate the need for fac-
tional force for power transmission.
Conventional belts are available
two types: reinforced, which utilize
tensile member to obtain strength, and
nonreinforced, which depend upon the
tensile strength of the basic material
for its strength.
Longitudinally grooved or serrated
belts use a flat belt as the tensile sec-
tion and a series of adjacent V-shaped
(Dl QUARTER TWIST DRIVE IE) QUARTER TWIST DRIVE
WITH IDLERS
Flat-belt drives.
Fig. 17-1-1
grooves for compression and tracking.
These are generally known as poly-V
belts. See Fig. 17-1-2.
Positive-drive belts use a flat belt as
in the tensile section and a series of
a evenly spaced teeth on the bottom sur-
face. These teeth engage a similarly
grooved pulley to achieve positive
mesh. Positive-drive belts are also
known as timing belts. See Fig. 17-1-3.
Fig. 17-1-2 Grooved or poly-V belt.
(Raybestos-Manhattan [Canada])

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 329


Fig. 17-1-3 Timing belt. (Morse Chain Co.
Conventional Flat Belts
Conventional flat belts are available
either as endless belts or as belting
which can be spliced to make a needed
length. An endless belt is best since
has no weak points caused by splices
or connectors, and will usually operate
much more smoothly. Either a vul-
canized splice or mechanical fastener
may be used.
Conventional belts are normally
available in five basic materials
1. Leather
2. Rubberized fabric or cord
3. Nonreinforced rubber or plastic
4. Reinforced leather
5. Fabric
Leather Most leather belts are made
plies of belting bonded together. They
provide excellent coefficient of fric-
tion, flexibility, and long life and are
easily repaired. On the other hand,
their initial cost is high, they must be
cleaned, and they require belt dress-
ing. They also stretch and shrink,
depending on atmospheric conditions.
This type of belt is used primarily for
slow to moderate speeds, with a max-
imum of 6000 feet per minute (ft/min)
[30 meters per second (m/s)] for
medium to heavy loads, up to 500
horsepower (hp) [375 kilowatts (kW)],
ratios of 16:1 are normally possible. It
has good shock-absorbing qualities.
Rubberized Fabric or Cord Many types
and grains of rubberized belting are
presently available. Almost all are
moisture-, acid- and alkali-resistant.
Rubberized Fabric This is the least
expensive type of flat belting. See Fig.
17-1-4. It is made up of plies of cotton
or synthetic duck, impregnated with
330 POWER TRANSMISSIONS
Fig. 17-1-4 Flat belt— rubberized-fabric
type. (American Beltrite Rubber Co.)
rubber. Rubberized-fabric belts trans-
mit less power per width for the same
thickness and have a shorter life
leather belts.
Rubberized Cord These belts consist of
a series of plies of rubber-impregnated
cords. They offer high tensile strength
for a modest size and mass.
Nonreinforced Rubber or Plastic For
light-duty applications, flat belts are
it
available in a number of unreinforced
materials.
Rubber Basically a simple strip of rub-
ber, these belts are available in various
compounds. They are designed specif-
ically for low-horsepower (kW), low-
speed drives. They are especially
useful for fixed-center drives since
they can be simply stretched into place
over their pulleys.
Plastic Unreinforced plastic belts
transmit higher power loads than rub-
ber belts. They are available in a num-
ber of plastic compounds.
of
Reinforced Leather These belts consist
of a plastic tensile member, generally
reorientated nylon, and leather top and
bottom layers.
Fabric All-fabric belts may consist of a
single piece of cotton or duck folded
and sewn with rows of longitudinal
stitches. Others are woven into end-
less forms.
Fabric belts are either made plain or
treated with a chemical or rubber solu-
tion to improve their coefficient of
friction.
The major advantage of all-fabric
belts is their ability to track uniformly
and to operate at high speeds. Capac-
ity depends on the number of plies of
fabric, size of thread, and belt width.
They are used typically in check-sort-
ing machines.
Grooved Belts
These are basically flat belts with a
longitudinally ribbed underside.
flat belt section serves as the load-
carrying component, and the ribs pro-
vide traction in the sheave grooves.
This type of belt, although it bears a
resemblance to the conventional V-
belt, operates on a different principle.
Rather than depending on wedging
action to transmit power, it depends
solely on friction between sheave and
belt. Power capacity depends on belt
width; only a single belt, with a vary-
ing number of ribs, is used for each
drive.
than
Positive-Drive Belts
Another variation of the flat belt is the
positive-drive belt, commonly known
as the timing belt. Basically a flat belt
with a series of evenly spaced teeth on
the inside circumference, it combines
the advantages of the with the
flat belt
positive-grip features of chain and
gears. The belt has high-strength steel
or glass tensile members, with nylon-
jacketed neoprene teeth. The belts are
available in five stock pitches and in
various widths. Special widths and
pitches are available.
Positive-drive belts have many
advantages. There is no slippage or
speed variation, and a wide range of
speed ratios is possible. Required belt
tension is minimal, so that bearing
loads are low.
These belts are not recommended
where pulleys are misaligned. Also,
high-speed operation may cause some
noise, but this is not generally a prob-
lem at normal operating speeds.
Pulleys for Flat Belts
Different types of pulleys are used for
flat, ribbed, and positive-drive belts.
Flat-Belt PulleysThese are generally
made of However, they are
cast iron.
also available in steel and in various
rim and hub combinations. They may
have solid, spoked, or split hubs as
well as other modifications of the basic
pulley.
Crowning All power-transmission pul-
leys should becrowned or flanged. See
Fig. 17-1-5.
Other Types Pulleys for ribbed and
positive-drive belts are available in a
variety of stock sizes and widths.
At least one pulley in a timing-belt
drive must be flanged in order to keep
The the belt on the drive. For long-center
drives, flanging both pulleys is recom-
 * i Standard Dimensions
* 5?^X Cross Sections Industrial and agri-
.50
CROWN CROWN
HEIGHT TAPER cultural V-belts are always made to
standard cross sections. See Fig.
17-1-7.
\Z7*

^ ^$
INCH
-
MILLIMETER

.
1.25

Fig. 17-1-5 Crown on pulley.

mended but not required. Idler pulleys

should not be crowned.
INCH
CLEARANCE
V-BELTS MILLIMETER

V-belts are presently available in a 1.50

wide variety of standardized sizes and h 38

types, for transmitting almost any Fig. 17-1-7 V-belt and pulley.
amount of load power.
Normally, V-belt drives operate
best at belt speeds between 1500 to
6000 ft/min (8 and 30 m/s). For stan-
Industrial These are made in two
types: heavy-duty (conventional, nar-
dard belts, ideal (peak capacity) speed Fig. 17-1-8 Industrial V-belts.
row) and light-duty. Conventional
is approximately 4500 ft/min (23 m/s).
belts are available in A, B, C, D, and E
Narrow V-belts, however, will operate HC, HD, and HE; in double-V sec-
sections. See Fig. 17-1-8. Narrow belts
up to 10 000 ft/min (50 m/s). A sum- tions HAA, HBB, HCC, and HDD are
are made in 3V, 5V, and 8V sections.
mary of belt characteristics is given in available. Agricultural belts differ
Fig. 17-1-6. For most drive applica-
Light-duty belts come in 2L, 3L, 4L,
from industrial belts mainly in con-
and 5L sections.
tions, the maximum satisfactory speed struction.
Open-end belting is available in A,
ratio is approximately 7:1.
B, C, and D sections. Link-V belting, Automotive Belts for automotive
Advantages V-belt drives permit large which is not covered by a standard, is applications are made in six SAE-des-
speed ratios and provide long life (3 to made in A, B, C, D, and E sections, ignated cross sections identified by the
5 years). They are easily installed and and in some sizes for low-horsepower nominal top widths .38, .50, .69, .75,
removed, quiet, and low in mainte- (kilowatt) applications. .88, and 1.00 in. (10, 12, 17, 19, 22, and
nance; and they provide shock absorp- Wide-range V-belts, used for vari- 25 mm).
tion between driver and driven shafts. able-speed drives, are available in Q,
Length Although endless V-belts can
Limitations Because they are subject to
P, R, T, and W
sections.
be manufactured in any length within a
a certain amount of creep and slip, V- AgriculturalThese belts are made in fairly wide range, manufacturers have
belts should not be used where syn- the same sections as conventional standardized on certain lengths which
chronous speeds are required. belts. They are designated HA, HB, are produced for stock.

Belt Speed
Maximum for Max. Maximum Max.
Type of Power Power Speed Speed Shock
Belt (hp) |kW) (ft/mln) [m/s) (ft/mln) [m/s) Ratio Absorption
Constant-Speed
Light duty 7.5 5.6 3500 18 5000 25 8 Poor
Standard 350 260 4500 23 6000 30 7 Good
Super 500 375 5000 25 6000 30 7 Very good
Cogged 500 375 5000 25 6000 30 8 Very good
Steel cable 500 375 5000 25 8000 40 7 Poor
Narrow 270 200 7500 38 10000 50 7 Very good

Variable-Speed
Conventional 300 225 - - 6000 30 — Good
Wide-range 75 55 6000 30 Good
•Stock Items Drives available to 1500 hp (1100 kW).

Fig. 17-1-6 V-belt characteristics.

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 331

Belt-Size Designation iron, or plastic. Formed-steel sheaves
For the different types of V-belts. the are used primarily in automotive and
same basic method is used to designate agricultural applications. For special
belt size. Belt sizes are specified b\ a applications they may be made of steel
STh. aluminum
code designation consisting of sym- or alloy. Typical V-belt
bols representing belt cross section i
A) SLIDING (B) CRADLE applications are shown in Figs. 17-1-10
followed by a designation of length. and 17-1-11.

For conventional and light-duty belts. Cast-iron sheaves are generally lim-
the length designation is in inches; for ited to 6500-ft/min (33-m/s) rim
narrow belts the number represents speeds. For speeds up to 10 000 ft/min
tenths of an inch. (50 m/s). aluminum, steel, and ductile
For example, a conventional V-belt iron are used.
designated B23 has a B cross section Sheaves are made with either regu-
and a 23 in. standard length designa- IC> SPRING TENSION (D) PIVOTED lar or deep grooves. A deep-groove
tion: a narrow belt designated 5V350 sheave is generally used when the V-
has a 5V cross section and a belt with a belt enters the sheave at an angle, for
35 in. effective outside length: and a example, in a quarter-turn drive, on
light-duty V-belt designated 2L080 has vertical shaft drives, or wherever belt
a 2L cross section and an effective out- vibration may be a problem.
side length of 80 in. Formed-steel sheaves usually have
There are no standard methods for an integral hub. but are sometimes
designating automotive belts. Vari- available with removable bushings for
able-speed belts are designated by a various bore sizes.
code where the first two numbers
denote the nominal belt width in six- The Use of Idler Pulleys
teenths of an inch, the next two num- (E) APPLICATION OF A SLIDING Idler pulleys aregrooved sheaves or
bers denote the angle of the pulley MOTOR BASE flat pulleys which do not serve to
groove, followed by the letter V, with Fig. 17-1-10 Common types of motor bases. transmit power. Usually they are used
numbers after that letter indicating (T. B.Woods Sons Co.) as belt tighteners when it is not possi-
length in tenths of an inch.
Basically, a V-belt consists of five
component sections (Fig. 17-1-9)

1. Tensile members or load-carrying

section
2. Low-durometer cushion section
surrounding tensile members
3. Flexible top section
4. Bottom compression section
5. Cover or jacket

(A) SINGLE PULLEY

COMPRESSION
SECTION

Fig. 17-1-9 Basic V-belt construction.

(American Beltrite Rubber Co.)

Sheaves and Hubs

Most sheaves grooved wheels of
(the
pulleys) are made of cast
iron, which is
economical and stable and which pro-
vides long groove life. For light duty, (C) SINGLE DRIVE (D) MULTIPLE DRIVE
sheaves may be of formed steel, cast Fig. 17-1-11 Single- and multiple-belt drives.

332 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

ble to move either shaft for belt
installation and take-up, as between
two line shafts, for example. It is bet-
ter, and more economical in the long
run. to provide movement for one of
the shafts where it is at all possible to
do so, rather than use idlers as belt
tighteners. However, if idlers must be
used, they are perfectly acceptable for
multiple V-belt drives. Idler pulleys
may also be used when the belt must
be passed around some obstruction.
Such a pulley may be run inside the
drive or on the outside. An inside idler
may be either a grooved sheave or a
flat, uncrowned pulley, but an outside
idler must be flat and without any
crown.
An inside idler pulley invariably
decreases the arc of contact of the
belts on each loaded sheave of the
drive. It should be at least as large as
the small loaded sheave and located,
preferably, on the slack side of the
drive. See Fig. 17-1-12A.
DECREASED
ARC
(A)INSIDE IDLER PULLEY, AT LEAST AS
LARGE AS THE SMALL SHEAVE, ON THE
SLACK SIDE OF THE DRIVE
INCREASED-^
ARC '
IBI OUTSIDE IDLER PULLEY, AT LEAST
1.3 LARGER THAN THE SMALLSHEAVE
(C) OUTSIDE IDLER PULLEY ON THE
TIGHTSIDE OF THE DRIVE
An outside idler pulley invariably
increases the arc of contact of the belts
on each loaded sheave of the drive, but
the amount of take-up that can be
obtained is definitely limited by the
belts as they run on the opposite side.
If you are designing a V-belt drive and
cannot provide movement for one of
the shafts for belt installations and
take-up, an outside idler pulley should
be used. It should be at least one-third
larger than the small loaded sheave
and located, preferably, on the slack
side of the drive. See Fig. 17-1-12B.
A flat idler pulley, whether used
inside or outside the drive, should be
located as close as possible to the
place where the belts leave the sheave.
On the slack side of the drive, which is
the preferred location, this means as
close as possible to the driver sheave.
See Figs. 17-1-12A and B. On the tight
side of the drive, this means as close as
possible to the driven sheave. See
Figs. 17-1-12C and D.
HOW TO SELECT A
LIGHT-DUTY V-BELT DRIVE
The proper selection of V-belt drives
machinery has been simplified
for light
and condensed into three steps. Com-
plete selection involves the proper
choice of
1. V-pulley size for driver shaft and
belt cross section
2. V-pulley size for driven shaft
Belt length for required center
3.
distance
Proper duty classification helps to
ensure maximum drive life. The fol-
lowing are typical duty classifications
• Light Duty
Household washers
Household ironers
Dishwashers
Fans and blowers
Centrifugal pumps
• Normal Duty
Oil burners
Buffers
Heating and ventilating fans
Meat slicers
• Heavy Duty
Gasoline engine drives
Metalworking machines
Sanding machines
Stokers
Spray equipment
Woodworking machines
Lathes
Industrial machines
Refrigerators
Compressors
Piston or plunger pumps
Grinders
The horsepower (kilowatt) ratings
17-1-13 are suitable for
listed in Fig.
normal-duty applications. For light
duty, multiply the normal-duty rating
by 1.2. For heavy duty, multiply the
normal rating by 0.85.
Follow These Three
Easy Steps
Step 1: Selecting Driver \ -Pulley Diameter
and Belt Cross Section First, classify the
application and apply the proper ser-
vice factor, as explained above. Refer
to Fig. 17-1-13 for driver V-pulley
diameter and belt cross section.
Step 2: Choosing Driven V -Pulley Diame-
ter Refer to Fig. 17-1-14 for the speed
of the motor. Locate desired drhen
speed in driver V-pulley column: read
driven V-pulley diameter in the first
column.
Step 3: Finding Belt Length and Center Dis-
tance Add
the diameter of driver and
driven V-pulley and refer to Fig.
17-1-15. Locate the sum of V-pulley
diameters at the top of the chart, read
down to the required centers, and read
the belt length in the belt length
column.
Although the amount of stretch in V-
beltsis relatively small, some adjust-
ment between centers of pulleys i>
necessary to compensate for stretch
and side wear on the belts and
sheaves.
To design a belt drive, the following
information should be known
1. The speed [revolutions per minute
(r mini] and horsepower (kilowatts)

Speed-up drives of the motor or driver unit

presses 2. The speed (r min) at which the
(D) INSIDE IDLER PULLEY ON THE
Drill
TIGHTSIDE OF THE DRIVE Generator driven shaft is to turn

Power lawn mowers 3. The space available for the drive

Fig. 17-1-12 Location of idler pulleys.

BELTS. CHAINS. AMD GEARS 333

 HORSEPOWER RATINGS (U.S. CUSTOMARY) EXAMPLE 1 A .5-hp (0.38-kW), 1750-
r/min motor is to operate a drill press
RPMof
Small
Outside Diameter of Small V-Pulley- -Inches having a spindle speed of approx-
Pulley 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 5.00 imately 1200 r/min. The center dis-
200 0.18 0.22 0.24 0.28 0.29 tance between the motor shaft and
400 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.22 0.25 0.31 0.35 0.42 0.46 0.52 0.56 spindle is approximately 19.5 in. (500
600 0.04 0.07 0.08 0.12 0.18 0.22 0.27 0.32 0.36 0.44 0.51 0.58 0.66 0.73 0.81 mm). The type of drive required is V-
800 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.15 0.22 0.28 0.34 0.41 0.45 0.55 0.64 0.74 0.81 0.93 1.00
belt.
1000 0.06 0.10 0.12 0.18 0.26 0.33 0.42 0.48 0.55 0.64 0.75 0.86 0.99 1.10 1.21
Solution Since drill press operations
1160 0.07 0.11 0.15 0.21 0.29 0.38 0.46 0.54 0.62 0.69 0.84 0.98 1.07 1.23 1.35
1400 0.08 0.12 0.17 0.23 0.33 0.43 0.53 0.64 0.74 0.84 0.96 1.10 1.25 1.42 1.55
come under the classification of nor-
1600 0.08 0.14 0.19 0.25 0.36 0.48 0.58 0.69 0.80 0.90 1.02 1.20 1.36 1.53 1.68 mal duty, no adjustment needs to be
1750 0.08 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.38 0.51 0.63 0.74 0.85 0.96 1.08 1.25 1.43 1.61 1.78 made to the horsepower (kilowatt)
2000 0.09 0.16 0.22 0.28 0.41 0.55 0.68 0.81 0.92 1.05 1.17 1.35 1.54 1.73 1.90 rating.
2200 0.09 0.17 0.24 0.31 0.44 0.58 0.72 0.86 0.99 1.12 1.25 1.41 1.61 1.80 1.99
2400 0.10 0.18 0.25 0.32 0.45 0.61 0.76 0.91 1.05 1.19 1.32 1.45 1.65 1.86 2.02 Step 1: Selecting Driver V-Pulley Diam-
2600 0.10 0.19 0.26 0.35 0.47 0.64 0.79 0.96 1.09 1.24 1.38 1.48 1.69 1.89 2.09 eter and Belt Cross Section (Fig.
2800 0.1 019 0.28 0.36 0.48 0.66 0.83 0.99 1.14 1.28 1.42 1.48 1.71 1.91 2.11 17-1-13) Read down the extreme left
3000 0.11 0.21 0.29 0.39 0.49 0.68 0.85 1.02 1.18 1.32 1.46 1.48 1.69 1.89 2.08
column to the r/min figure nearest that
3200 0.11 0.21 0.30 0.39 0.51 0.70 0.88 1.05 1.20 1.36 1.50 1.50 1.67 1.86 2.03
of the speed of the motor, which is
3450 0.12 0.22 0.32 0.41 0.51 0.71 0.90 1.07 1.23 1.38 1.52 1.52 1.61 1.78 1.94
1750 r/min. Read across this line to the
3600 0.12 0.22 0.33 0.42 0.52 0.72 0.91 1.09 1.25 1.40 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.71 1.85
3800 0.12 0.22 0.33 0.42 0.52 0.72 0.92 1.09 1.25 1.41 1.54 1.54 1.54 1.59 1.72 figure closest to the design horsepower
4000 0.12 0.22 0.34 0.44 0.53 0.72 0.92 1.10 1.26 1.40 1.52 1.52 1.52 1.52 1.55 or kilowatts of the drive. The closest
horsepower (kilowatt) rating is found
to be .51 (0.38). Read up from the .51 hp
FOR BACKC GROUND F0R L J BACKGROUND FOR BACKGROUND (0.38-kW) figure. The figure at the top
USE A USE A USE A i

of the column is the outside diameter

m l0 l2
u l6 of the motor pulley in inches (milli-

W
m 1- -.1 *
* .38 *
_i 1 -I | J
.66
T
meters).
in
The
the white area.
.51 hp (0.38-kW)
The reference
figure is

at the

VJ .22

\
6

\ MILLIMETERS
10
.41

1
bottom of the chart indicates the
of the belt required.

Pulley size for motor = 2.75 in. (70

size

mm)
INCHES
NOTE: THIS TABLE INCORPORATES A SERVICE FACTOR OF 1.3. Belt section = .50 in. (12 mm) wide x .31

FOR HEAVY DUTY, MULTIPLY NORMAL DUTY RA TING 3Y .85. 1

in. (8 mm) thick
FOR LIGHT DUTY, MULTIPLY NORMAL DUTY RA1 "ING B Y 1.20.
Step 2: Choosing Driven V-Pulley Diame-
NOTE: SIZES SHOWN ARE INCH SIZES SOFT CONVERTED TO MILLIMETERS. ter (Fig. 17-1-14) Refer to the table for
driven speeds for 1750-r/min motors.
KILOWATT RATINGS (METRIC) Read across the top of the table to the
R/min
of Small Outside Diameter of Small V-Pulley — Millimeters figure nearest the small pulley size.
Column 2.75 (70) corresponds exactly
Pulley 38 44 51 57 64 70 76 83 89 95 102 108 114 121 127
with the small pulley diameter. Read
200 0.13 0.16 0.18 0.21 0.22
400 0.04 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.16 0.19 0.23 0.26 0.31 0.34 0.39 0.42
down this column to the figure nearest

600 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.13 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.27 0.33 0.38 0.43 0.49 0.54 0.60 the desired speed (1200-r/min) of the
800 0.04 006 0.08 0.11 0.16 0.21 0.25 0.31 0.34 0.41 0.48 0.55 0.60 0.69 0.75 driven shaft. The nearest figure is 1168.
1000 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.13 0.19 0.25 0.31 0.36 0.41 0.48 0.56 0.64 0.74 0.82 0.90 By reading to the left of this figure, the
1160 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.16 0.22 0.28 0.34 0.40 0.46 0.51 0.63 0.73 0.80 0.92 1.01 driven-pulley diameter is found to be
1400 0.06 0.09 0.13 0.17 0.25 0.32 0.40 0.48 0.55 0.63 0.72 0.82 0.93 1.06 1.16 4.00 in. (102 mm).
1600 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.19 0.27 0.36 0.43 0.51 0.60 0.67 0.76 0.90 1.01 1.14 1.25
1750 0.06 0.11 0.15 0.19 0.28 0.38 0.47 0.55 0.63 0.72 0.81 0.93 1.07 1.20 1.33 Step 3: Finding Belt Length and Center Dis-
2000 0.07 0.12 0.16 0.21 0.31 0.41 0.51 0.60 0.69 0.78 0.87 1.01 1.15 1.29 1.42
tance (Fig. 17-1-15) Add the diameter of
2200 0.07 0.13 0.18 0.23 0.33 0.43 0.54 0.64 0.74 0.84 0.94 1.05 1.20 1.34 1.48 number
the pulleys and select the in
2400 0.07 0.13 0.19 0.24 0.34 0.46 0.57 0.68 0.78 0.89 0.98 1.08 1.23 1.39 1.51
2600 0.07 0.14 0.19 0.26 0.35 0.48
the top row that is nearest to this sum.
0.59 0.72 0.81 0.93 1.03 1.10 1.26 1.41 1.56
2800 0.08 0.14 0.21 0.27 0.36 0.49 0.62 0.74 0.85 0.95 1.06 1.10 1.28 1.42 1.57 Motor pulley diameter = 2.75 in.
3000 0.08 0.16 0.22 0.29 0.37 0.51 0.63 0.76 0.88 0.98 1.09 1.10 1.26 1.41 1.55
(70 mm)
3200 0.08 0.16 0.22 0.29 0.38 0.52 0.66 0.78 0.90 1.01 1.12 1.12 1.25 1.39 1.51
3450 0.09 0.16 0.24 0.31 0.38 0.53 0.67 0.80 0.92 1.03 1.13 1.13 1.20 1.33 1.45 Spindle pulley diameter = 4.00 in.

3600 0.09 0.16 0.25 0.31 0.39 0.54 0.68 0.81 0.93 1.04 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.28 1.38 (102 mm)
3800 0.09 0.16 0.25 0.31 0.39 0.54 0.69 0.81 0.93 1.05 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.1-9 1.28
4000 0.09 0.16 0.25 0.33 0.40 0.54 0.69 0.82 0.94 1.05 1.15 1.15 1.13 1.13 1.16
Sum of diameter = 6.75 in. (172 mm)
Fig. 17-1-13 Calculating Pulley Diameter of Driven Shaft and Belt Cross Section. The exact sum of the diameters is
|T. B.Wood's Sons Co.) not shown on the top row; use 7.00 in.

334 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 DRIVEN SPEEDS FOR 1160 R/MIN MOTORS (180 mm). Read down this column to
DriveR V-Pulley OD— in./mm the figure indicated below the shaded
DriveN
area. The 19.5 in. (500 mm) distance is
V-Pulley 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50
OD In./mm 38 44 51 57 64 70 76 83 89 95 102 108 114 the ideal center distance. Other figures
15 38 1160 1392 1625 1855 2085 2325 2550 2785 3015 3250 3480 3715
in this column indicate alternative cen-
2.0/ 51 829 995 1160 1325 1490 1658 1825 1988 2150 2315 2485 2650 ter distances. Use 19.4 in. (493 mm)
2.5/ 64 645 774 903 1031 1160 1290 1418 1546 1675 1805 1933 2032 2190 since the approximate center distance
76 528 634 739 845 950 1057 1160 1266 1370 1475 1580 1685 1793 is 19.5 in. (500 mm). Follow
3.0/
required
3.5/ 89 447 536 625 715 804 894 982 1071 1160 1248 1340 1428 1518
along this line to the left to column
4.0/102 387 465 542 620 696 775 851 929 1008 1082 1160 1238 1315 Market Belt Length to obtain a belt
4.5/114 341 409 477 545 614 682 750 819 886 955 1022 1091 1160 length of 50 in. (1270 mm).
5.0/127 305 366 427 488 549 610 671 732 794 854 915 976 1039
5.5/140 277 332 381 442 497 553 608 663 718 774 829 884 939
6.0/152 253 302 353 404 454 505 555 605 655 706 756 806 857 References and Source Material
1. Machine Design. Mechanical
7.0/ 1 78 215 258 301 344 388 430 474 516 560 602 648 688 732
drives reference issue, 1979.
8.0/203 187 224 262 297 337 374 41 1 449 486 524 561 599 636
10.0/254 149 179 208 238 268 298 328 357 387 417 446 477 506 2. The Gates Rubber Company. Den-
12.0/305 123 148 173 197 222 247 272 296 321 346 370 395 420 ver, Colorado.
3. IB. Wood's Sons Company.
DRIVEN SPEEDS FOI ? 1750 R/MIN MOTORS
DriveN
DriveR V-Pulley OD— in./ mm ASSIGNMENTS
V-Pulley 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50
See Assignments 1 and 2 for Unit 17-1
OD in./mm 38 44 51 57 64 70 76 83 89 95 102 108 114
on page 361.
1.5/ 38 1750 2100 2450 2800 3150 3500 3850
2.0/ 51 1250 1500 1750 2000 2250 2500 2750 3000 3250 3500 3750 4000
2.5/ 64 974 1167 1360 1555 1750 1945 2140 2330 2530 2725 2915 3110 3305 Review for Assignments
3.0/ 76 797 955 1113 1272 1431 1590 1750 1910 2070 2225 2385 2545 2700 Unit 6-4 Bill of Material
3.5/ 89 674 808 942 1077 1210 1346 1480 1615 1750 1885 2020 2155 2290

4.0/102 584 700 817 935 1050 1168 1283 1400 1518 1634 1750 1865 1985
4.5/114 516 618 720 824 926 1030 1131 1235 1339 1440 1543 1650 1750
5.0/127 462 554 646 737 830 922 1013 1105 1198 1290 1382 1473 1568
5.5/140 417 500 584 667 750 834 917 1000 1082 1167 1250 1333 1417
6.0/152 381 456 533 610 685 760 837 913 990 1065 1 140 1217 1290

6.5/165 350 420 490 560 630 700 771 840 910 980 1050 1120 1190
7.0/178 324 389 454 518 584 648 713 778 843 907 973 1039 1102
8.0/203 282 339 394 451 507 564 620 676 734 789 845 902 959
9.0/229 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850
10.0/254 224 270 315 360 405 450 495 540 585 630 675 720 765

11.0/279 203 244 285 326 366 407 448 488 530 570 610 652 692
12.0/305 186 224 261 298 336 373 410 446 485 522 560 596 634

DRIVEN SPEEDS FOR 3500 R/MIN MOTORS

DriveN
DriveR V-Pulley OD — in./mm
V-Pulley 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50

OD in./mm 38 44 51 57 64 70 76 83 89 95 102 108 114

1.5/ 38 3500 4200 4900 5600 6300 7000 7700

2.0/ 51 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000
2.5/ 64 1948 2324 2720 3110 3500 3890 4280 4660 5060 5450 5830 6220 6610
3.0/ 76 1594 1910 2236 2544 2862 3180 3500 3820 4140 4450 4770 5090 5400
3.5/ 89 1348 1616 1884 2154 2420 2692 2960 3230 3500 3770 4040 4310 4580

4.0/102 1168 1400 1634 1870 2030 2336 2566 2800 3036 3268 3500 3730 3970
4.5/1 14 1032 1236 1440 1648 1852 2060 2262 2470 2678 2880 3086 3300 3500
5.0/127 924 1108 1292 1474 1660 1844 2026 2210 2396 2580 2764 2946 3136
5.5/140 834 1000 1168 1334 1500 1668 1834 2000 2164 2334 2500 2666 2834
6.0/152 762 912 1066 1220 1370 1520 1774 1826 1980 2130 2280 2434 2580

6.5/165 700 840 980 1120 1260 1400 1542 1680 1820 I960 2100 2240 2380
7.0/178 648 778 908 1036 1168 1296 1426 1556 1686 1814 1946 2078 2204
788 902 1014 1128 1240 1352 1468 1578 1690 1804 1918
8.0/203 564 678
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1750
9.0/229 500 600 700
630 720 810 900 990 1080 1170 1260 1350 1440 1530
10.0/254 448 540

570 652 732 314 896 976 1060 1140 1220 1304 1384
11.0/279 406 488
596 672 746 820 892 970 1044 1120 1192 1268
12.0/305 372 448 522

Fig. 17-1-14 Calculating revolutions per minute and diameter of driven pulley.
|T. B. Wood's Sons Co.)

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 335

 it S
3 C
TO TO
a.
D c SUM OF BOTH V-BELT PULLEY DIAMETERS— DIMENSIONS IN INCHES
35 0,'

j5
i 4 4.S 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16

50 50 16 49 4.5 4.1

62 50 18 5.9 5.5 5 1 46
or 50 20 69 65 6 1 56 5.2

62 .50 22 7.9 7.5 7.1 66 62 5.8

62 .50 24 8.9 8.5 8.1 7.6 72 68 6.3 5.8

62 50 26 9.9 9.5 9.1 8.6 8.2 78 73 6.9 6.5

62 50 28 10 9 10.5 10.1 9.6 92 8.8 84 79 7.6 7.1 66
62 50 30 11.9 11.5 III 10.6 10.2 9.8 9.4 8.9 86 8.1 7.7 7.3

62 50 32 12.9 12 5 12.1 11.6 11.2 10.8 10.4 10.0 9.6 9.1 8.7 8.4 8.0
62 .50 34 13.9 135 13.1 127 12 2 11.8 11.4 11.0 10.6 10 2 97 9.4 9.0 8.6

62 .50 36 14.9 145 14.1 13.7 13.2 12.8 12 4 12.0 11.6 11.2 107 10.4 10.0 9.6 9.0
62 50 38 15.9 15.5 15.1 14.7 14.2 13.8 13 4 13.0 12 6 12.2 11.8 11.4 11.0 10.6 10.0 9.7 9.1

75 .50 40 16 9 16.5 16.1 15.7 15.3 14.8 14.4 14.0 13.6 13.2 12.8 12.4 12.0 11.6 II. 10.7 10.1 9.8
75 50 42 17.9 17 5 17.1 16.7 16.3 15.8 15.4 15.0 14.6 14 2 13 8 13.4 13.1 12.6 12.1 II 7 11.2 10.8 10.2
75 .50 44 18.9 18 5 18.1 17.7 17 3 16.8 16.4 16.0 156 15.2 148 14.4 14.1 13.6 13.1 12.8 12.2 11.9 11.2 10.9

75 50 46 19 9 19.5 19.1 187 18.3 17.9 17 4 17.0 16.6 16.2 15.8 15 4 15.1 14 6 14.1 13 8 13.2 12 9 123 12.0 10.9 10.5
75 .50 48 20.9 20.5 20.1 19.7 19 3 18.9 18.4 18.0 17.7 17.2 16.8 16.4 16.1 15.6 15.1 14.8 14.3 13.9 13.3 13 12.0 11.6 11.3

75 .50 50 21.9 21 5 21.1 20.7 20.3 19 9 19 4 19.0 18.7 18.2 17.8 17.4 17.1 16.7 16.2 15.8 15.3 14 9 14.4 14.0 13.1 12.7 12.4 12.1 11.7
75 50 52 22.9 225 22 1 217 21.3 20.9 20.4 20.0 19.7 19 2 18.8 18.4 18.1 17.7 17.2 16 8 16 3 15 9 15.4 15.0 14.1 13.8 13.5 13.1 128
75 .50 54 23.9 23 5 23 1 22.7 223 21.9 21 4 21.0 20.7 20.2 19.8 19.4 19.1 18.7 18 2 178 17.3 17.0 16.4 16.1 15 2 14.8 14.5 14.2 13.8

75 .50 56 24.9 245 24.1 23.7 23.3 22.9 224 22.0 21.7 21.2 20.8 20.4 20.1 19.7 19 2 18.8 18.3 18.0 17 4 17.1 16.2 15.9 156 15.2 14.9
75 .50 58 259 255 25 1 24.7 24.3 23.9 23.4 23.0 22.7 222 21.8 21.4 21.1 20.7 202 19.8 19.3 19.0 18.5 18.1 17.3 16.9 16.6 16.3 15.9
33 75 60 26.9 26.5 26.1 25.7 25.3 24.9 245 24.0 23.7 232 22.8 224 22.1 21.7 21 2 20.8 204 20.0 19 5 19.1 18.3 18.0 176 17.3 17.0
S3 75 62 27.9 27.5 27.1 26 7 26.3 25.9 25.5 25.0 247 24.3 23.8 234 23.1 22.7 22.2 21.8 214 21.0 20.5 20 1 19.4 19.0 18.7 18.3 18.0
S3 75 64 28.9 28.5 28.1 27.7 27.3 26.9 26.5 26.0 25.7 25.3 24.8 24.4 24.1 237 23.2 229 22.4 22.0 21.5 21.1 204 20.0 19 7 19.4 19

S3 75 66 29.9 295 29 1 28.7 28.3 27.9 27.5 27.0 26 7 26.3 259 25.4 25.1 24.7 242 239 23.4 23.0 22.5 222 21.4 21.1 20 7 20.4 20.0
38 75 68 30.9 305 30.1 29.7 29.3 28.9 28.5 28.1 27.7 273 26.9 26.4 26.1 257 25.2 249 244 24.0 23.5 23.2 224 22.1 217 21.4 21.0
S3 .75 70 31.9 31.5 31.1 30.7 30.3 29.9 295 29.1 28.7 28.3 27.9 27.4 27.1 26.7 262 25.9 25.4 25.0 245 24.2 23.5 23.1 22.8 22.4 22.1
S3 75 72 32.9 32.5 32.1 31 7 31.3 30.9 30.5 30.1 297 29.3 28.9 284 28 1 27.7 272 26.9 26.4 26.0 255 252 24.5 24 1 238 23.4 23.1
88 .75 74 33.9 33.5 33.1 32.7 32.3 31.9 31.5 31.1 30.7 303 299 294 29.1 28 7 28.2 27.9 27.4 27.0 26.5 26.2 255 25.1 24.8 24.4 24.1

S3 .75 76 34.9 34.5 34 1 33.7 33.3 32.9 32.5 32 1 31.7 31.3 30.9 304 30.1 29.7 292 289 284 28.0 276 27.2 26.5 26.2 25.8 25.5 25.1
S3 .75 78 359 35.5 35.1 34.7 342 33.9 33.5 33.1 32.7 323 31.9 31.4 31.1 30.7 30.2 299 29.4 29.0 28.6 28.2 275 27.2 26.8 26.5 26.1
8S .75 80 36.9 36.5 36.1 357 35.3 349 34 5 34.1 33.7 333 32.9 324 32 1 31 7 31.3 309 304 30.0 296 29.2 28.6 28.2 279 27.5 27.1
86 .75 82 376 37 1 36.7 36.3 35.9 35.5 35 1 34.7 34.3 33.9 33.5 33.0 32.7 32.3 31.9 31.5 31.0 30.7 30.2 29.8 292 28.8 28.5 28.1 27.8
83 .75 84 389 385 38.1 37.7 37.3 36.9 365 36.1 357 353 349 34.4 34.1 33.7 333 329 32.4 32.1 31.6 31.2 306 302 299 295 29 2

£at
O
TO
C
TO
a
p
c SUM OF BOTH V-BELT PULLEY DIAMETERS— DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS METRIC) (

25
£< (2 a>
125 140 150 165 180 190 200 215 230 240 255 265 280 290 305 320 330 345 355 370
12 10 410 105
15 10 460 130 117
15 10 510 155 142 132
15 10 560 180 168 157 147
15 10 610 205 193 183 173 160 147
15 10 660 231 218 208 198 185 175 165
15 10 710 257 269 234 224 213 201 193 180 168
15 10 760 282 295 259 249 239 226 218 205 196 185
15 10 810 308 295 284 274 264 254 244 231 221 213 203
15 10 860 333 323 310 230 290 280 269 259 246 239 228 218
15 10 910 358 348 335 325 315 305 295 284 272 264 254 244 229
15 10 960 384 373 361 351 340 330 320 310 300 290 279 269 254 246 231
20 10 1010 409 399 389 376 366 356 345 335 325 315 305 295 282 272 257 249
20 10 1070 434 424 414 401 391 381 371 361 351 340 333 320 307 297 284 274 259
20 10 1120 460 450 439 427 417 406 396 386 376 366 358 345 333 325 310 302 284 277
20 10 1170 485 475 465 455 442 432 422 411 401 391 384 371 358 351 335 328 312 304 277 266
20 10 1220 511 500 490 480 467 457 450 437 427 417 409 396 384 376 363 353 338 330 304 295
20 10 1270 536 526 516 505 493 483 475 462 452 442 434 424 411 401 389 378 366 358 333 323
20 10 1320 513 551 541 531 518 508 500 488 478 467 460 450 437 427 414 404 391 381 358 351
20 10 1370 587 577 566 556 544 534 526 513 503 493 485 475 462 452 439 431 417 410 386 376
20 10 1420 612 602 592 582 569 559 551 538 528 518 511 500 488 478 465 457 442 434 411 404
20 10 1470 638 627 617 607 594 584 577 564 554 544 536 526 513 503 490 482 470 460 439 429
22 15 1520 663 653 643 632 622 610 602 589 579 569 561 551 538 528 518 508 495 485 465 457
22 15 1570 688 678 668 658 648 635 627 617 605 594 587 577 564 554 544 533 520 511 493 483
22 15 1630 714 704 693 683 673 660 653 643 630 620 612 602 589 582 569 559 546 536 518 508
22 15 1680 790 729 719 709 699 686 678 668 658 645 638 627 615 607 594 584 571 564 544 536
22 15 1730 765 754 744 734 724 714 704 693 683 671 663 653 640 632 620 610 597 589 569 561
22 15 1780 790 780 770 759 749 739 729 719 709 696 688 678 665 658 645 635 622 615 597 587
22 15 1830 815 805 798 785 765 765 754 744 734 721 714 704 691 683 671 660 647 640 622 612
22 15 1880 841 831 820 810 800 790 780 770 759 747 739 729 716 709 696 685 673 665 648 638
22 15 1930 866 886 846 836 826 815 805 795 785 772 765 754 742 734 721 711 701 691 673 665
22 15 1980 892 881 869 861 851 841 831 820 810 798 790 780 767 759 747 736 726 716 698 691
22 15 2030 917 907 897 886 876 866 856 846 836 823 815 805 795 785 772 762 752 742 726 716
22 15 2080 932 922 912 902 892 881 871 861 851 838 831 820 810 800 787 780 767 757 742 732
22 15 2130 968 958 947 937 927 917 907 897 886 874 866 856 846 836 823 815 803 792 777 767

Fig. 17-1-15 Determining V-belt length from pulley diameters and center distances. (T. B. Wood's Sons Co.)

336 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 mate strength from 700 to
UNIT 17-2 lb/in. 2 [5 to 110
17 000
megapascals (MPa)].
Chain Drives Of the same type is the steel detach-
able chain, covered by ANSI B29.6.
This chain is made in sizes from .904
Nearly all types of power-transmission in. (23 mm) to just under 3.00 in. (76

chains have two basic components: mm) in pitch, with ultimate strength
side bars or link plates, and pin and from 760 to 5000 lb/in. 2 (35 to 240
bushingjoints. The chain articulates at MPa). (A) PINTLE
each joint to operate around a toothed The ends of the detachable link are
sprocket. The pitch of the chain is the referred to as the bar end and the hook
distance between centers of the artic- end.
ulating joints.
Power-transmission chains have Pintle
several advantages: relatively unre- For slightly higher speeds [to about
stricted shaft center distances, com- 450 ft/min (2.2 m/s)] and heavier loads,
pactness, ease of assembly, elasticity pintle chains are used. Pintle chains
in tension with no slip or creep, and are made up of individual cast links (B) OFFSET
ability to operate in relatively high- having a round barrel end with
full,

temperature atmospheres. A typical offset sidebars. These links are inter-

application can be seen in Fig. 17-2-1. coupled with steel pins. The ends of
pintle chain links are referred to as the
barrelend and the open end.
BASIC TYPES Many
of these chains have been
designed to operate over sprockets
There are six major types of power- intended for detachable chain. There-
transmission chains, with numerous fore, chains range from just over 1.00
modifications and special shapes for in. (25 mm) up to 6.00 in. (150 mm) in
specific applications. A seventh type, pitch with ultimate strengths from 3600
the bead chain, is often used for light- (C) ROLLER
to 30 000 lb/in. 2 (25 to 200 MPa).
duty applications. Figure 17-2-2 shows
basic characteristics of four of the Offset-Sidebar
major types. Steel offset-sidebar chains are used
extensively as drive chains on con-
Detachable struction machinery. They operate at
The malleable detachable chain is speeds to 1000 ft/min (5 m/s) and trans-
made in a range of sizes from .902 to mit loads to approximately 250 hp (185
4.063 in. (23 to 103 mm) pitch and ulti- kW).

(E) BEAD OR SLIDER

Fig. 17-2-2 Basic chain types. |A and D
Link Belt Ltd.; B and C— Dodge Mfg. Corp.;
Fig. 17-2-1 Chain drives. E Machine Design)

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 337

 Each link has
one bushing, one
two
roller,
offset sidebars,
one pin, and.
d o Used for mounting on flanges, hubs,
or other devices, the plate sprocket is a
if the chain is detachable, a cotter pin. flat, hubless sprocket.

Some offset-sidebar chains are made Small- and medium-size hub

without rollers.
Roller LS
Transmission roller chain (Fig. 17-2-3)
is available in pitches from .25 to 3.00
THIS TYPE USES OIL-IMPREGNATED SINTERED
in. (6 to 75 mm). In the single-width METAL BUSHING IN PLACE OF ROLLERS.
roller, theultimate strength ranges
Fig. 17-2-4 Self-lubricating chain.
from 925 to 130 000 lb/in.- (6 to 900
MPa). It is also available in multiple
widths. Small-pitch sprockets can
operate at speeds as high as 10 000
Another approach to self-lubrica-
r/min. and 1000- to 1200-hp (750- to
tion has been the use of special
900-kW) drives are not unusual.
chains with plastic sleeves between
These chains are assembled from
roller links and pin links. If the chain is the chain rivets and bushings. The
detachable, cotter pins are used in the plastic reduces joint friction.
chain pin holes.
Double-Pitch
ANSI B29. also covers a number of
1
special types of roller chains. One is These are basically the same as
chains, except that the pitch
equipped with oil-impregnated, sin- is
tered, powdered metal bushings, for long. Rollerand double-pitch chains
self-lubrication. This chain handles have the same diameter pins and roll-
lighter loads at reduced speeds and is ers, the same width rollers, and the
limited in application because it does same thickness of link plates.
not use rollers. Instead, it uses bush-
ings of the same outside diameter as Inverted-Tooth Silent
normal rollers. See Fis. 17-2-4. These are high-speed chains, used pre-
dominantly for prime-mover, power
takeoff drives, such as on power
cranes or shovels, machine tools, and
pumps. Drives transmitting up to 1200
ROLLER hp (900 kW) are in use.
C ftMETEF
These chains are made up of a series
of tooth links, alternately assembled
with either pins or a combination of
joint components in such a way that
the joint articulates between adjoining
pitches. Center-guide chain has guide
links which engage a groove or
grooves in the sprocket, while the side-
guide chain has guides which engage
the sides of the sprocket.
(A) CHAIN TERMINOLOGY
Bead or Slider
Bead chains are used as manually con-
trolled or slow-speed drives in numer-
ous products such as television tuners,
radio tuners, computing devices, time
recorders, air conditioners, toys, dis-
play drives, ventilator controls, and
Venetian blinds.
SINGLE DOUBLE DOUBLE
STEEL STEEL CAST IRON SPROCKETS
(B) SPROCKETS Basic sprocket types used with preci-
Fig. 17-2-3 Chain terminology and sion steel roller chains conform to
sprockets. ANSI standards.
sprockets are turned from bar stock or
forgings or are made by welding a bar-
stock hub to a hot-rolled plate. For
small, low-load applications, only one
hub extension may be needed. Large-
diameter sprockets normally have two
hub projections equidistant from the
center plane of the sprocket.
Materials Although normally ma-
chined from gray-iron castings,
sprockets are also available in cast
steel or welded hub construction.
roller
Sprockets made of sintered pow-
dered metal, and from nylon and other
plastics, have become economical in
large quantities. These sprockets offer
many advantages. For example, plas-
ticsprockets require minimum lubrica-
roller
tionand are widely used where cleanli-
twice as
ness is essential.
DESIGN OF ROLLER
CHAIN DRIVES
The design of a roller chain drive con-
sists, primarily, of the selection of the
chain and sprocket sizes. It also
includes the determination of chain
length, center distance, method of
lubrication, and. in some cases, the
arrangement of chain casings and
idlers.
Unlike belt drives, which are based
on lineal speeds in fpm or m/s. the
limiting factor of chain drives is based
on the rotative speed, or revolutions
per minute, of the smaller sprocket,
which in most installations is the
driven member.
Design of chain drives is based not
only on horsepower (kilowatts) and
speeds but also on the following
factors relative to broad service
conditions
1. Average horsepower (kilowatts) to
be transmitted. See Fig. 17-2-5.
2. The revolutions per minute of the
driving and driven members.
3. Shaft diameter.
4. Permissible diameters of sprockets.
5. Load characteristics, whether
smooth and steady, pulsating,
heavy-starting, or subject to peaks.
6. Lubrication, whether periodic, oc-
casional, or copious. Where chains
are exposed to dust. dirt, or inju-

338 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 Chain Speed Power Type of
teeth in order to obtain smooth opera- Chain Tension Chains should never run
fpm m/s hp kW Chain tion at high speeds. Nineteen- or 21- with both sides tight. Adjustable cen-
tooth sprockets should be considered ters should be provided when possible
350 1.0 20 15 Detachable
450 2.2 40 30 Pintle
from a standpoint of greater life expec- to permit proper initial slack and to

1000 5 250 190 Offset-sidebar

tancy, and smoother operation, allow for periodic adjustment necessi-
2500 12.5 1500 1100 Roller because of the lessening of tooth tated by natural chain wear. The chain
4000 20 2500 1850 Silent impact. On slow-speed and special- sag should be equivalent to approx-
purpose installations or where space imately 2 percent of the center dis-
Fig. 17-2-5 Tentative selection factors for
chain drives. limitations are involved, sprockets tance. See Fig. 17-2-7.
smaller than 17-tooth can be used. The Idler sprockets should be used as a
normal maximum number of teeth is means of taking up chain slack where it

120. is not possible to provide adjustable

rious foreign matter, chain cases
should be used.
7. Life expectancy: the
vice required, or total life. It is
much better to overchain than to
skimp on the size of the chain used.
In designing chain drives,
utmost importance to
study the pitch or size of the chain
used. The number of revolutions per
minute and the size of the smaller or
Ordinary practice indicates that the centers.
ratio of driver to driven sprockets
amount of ser- Chain Length Chain length is a function
should be no more than 6:1. The rec-
of the number of teeth in both
ommended chain wrap on driver is
sprockets and of the center distance.
120°.
In addition, the chain must consist of
an integral number of pitches, with an
it is of the Center Distances Center distances must
even number preferable, in order to
consider and be more than one-half the diameter of
avoid the use of an offset link.
the smaller sprocket, plus one-half of
the diameter of the larger sprocket: Chain length Formula For simplicity it
otherwise the sprocket teeth will is customary to compute the chain

faster-moving sprocket determine the touch. (When necessary, drives may length in terms of chain pitches and
pitch of chain that should be used. be operated with a small amount of then to multiply the result by the chain
Smaller-pitch chains in single or clearance between sprockets.) How- pitch to obtain the length in inches
multiple width are adaptable for ele- ever, best results are obtained by using (millimeters). The following formula is
vated-speed drives, and also for any a center distance of 30 to 50 times the a quick and convenient method of find-
speed drives where smoother and pitch of the chain used. Eighty times ing the chain length in pitches. See Fig.
quieter performance is essential. the pitch is considered maximum. 17-2-8.
Large-pitch chains are adaptable for
slow- and medium-speed drives.
Multiple-width roller chains are
becoming increasingly popular. They — — ADJUSTMENT
not only solve the problem of transmit-
ting greater power at higher speeds,
but because of their smoother action
they also substantially reduce the
noise factor. See Fig. 17-2-6. ADJUSTABLE SPROCKET CENTER

Size of Sprockets It is general practice

to use a minimum size sprocket of 17

R\ / ^-ADJUSTMENT

IDLERl
-
- i ADJUS

IDLER SPROCKET MULTIPLE DRIVE

(A) METHOD OF CHAIN ADJUSTMENT

COUNTERSHAFT ADDED ONE OR MORE DEPENDING ON DISTANCE

(B) CHAIN DRIVE WITH LONG CENTER DISTANCE

Fig. 17-2-6 Multiple-roller chain drive. Fig. 17-2-7 Chain drives.

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 339

 F F F F 5. Multiply number of pitches by
F 5 F S S S S S
chain pitch used in order to get
1 0.03 32 25.94 63 100 54 94 223.82 125 395.79 156 616.44
chain length in inches (millimeters).
2 0.10 33 27.58 64 103.75 95 228.61 126 402.14 157 624.37
3 0.23 34 29.28 65 107.02 96 233.44 127 408.55 158 632.35
4 0.41 35 31.03 66 110.34 97 238.33 128 415.01 159 640.38 Drive Selection
5 0.63 36 32.83 67 113.71 98 243.27 129 421.52 160 648.46 The horsepower (kilowatt) ratings
6 0.91 37 34.68 68 117.13 99 248.26 130 428.08 161 656.59 relate to the speed of the smaller
7 1.24 38 36.58 69 120.60 100 253.30 131 434.69 162 664.77 sprocket, and drive selections are
8 1.62 39 38.53 70 124.12 101 258.39 132 441.36 163 673.00 made on this basis, whether the drive
9 2.05 40 40.53 71 127.69 102 263.54 133 448.07 164 681.28
is speed-reducing or speed-increasing.
10 2.53 41 42.58 72 131.31 103 268.73 134 454.83 165 689.62
In making driveselections, considera-
11 3.06 42 44.68 73 134.99 104 273.97 135 461.64 166 698.00
tion given to the loads imposed on
is
12 3.65 43 46.84 74 138.71 105 279.27 136 468.51 167 706.44
475.42 168 714.92
the chain by the type of input power
13 4.28 44 49.04 75 142.48 106 284.67 137
14 4.96 45 51.29 76 146.31 107 290.01 138 482.39 169 723.46 and the type of equipment to be
15 5.70 46 53.60 77 150.18 108 295.45 139 489.41 170 732.05 driven. Service factors are used to
16 6.48 47 55.95 78 154.11 109 300.95 140 496.47 171 740.60 compensate for these loads, and the
17 7.32 48 5836 79 158.09 110 306.50 141 503.59 172 749.37 required horsepower (kilowatt) rating
18 8.21 49 60.82 80 162.1 1 1 1 1 312.09 142 510.76 173 758.1 1
of the chain is determined by the fol-
19 9.14 50 63.33 81 66. 112 317.74 143 517.98 174 766.90
1 1
lowing equation:
20 10.13 51 65.88 82 1 70.32 113 323.44 144 525.25 175 775.74
21 11.17 52 68.49 83 174.50 1 14 329.19 145 532.57 176 784.63 Required horsepower (kilowatt) rating
22 12.26 53 71.15 84 178.73 115 334.99 146 539.94 177 793.57 (Fig. 17-2-9)

23 13.40 54 73.86 85 183.01 1 16 340.84 147 547.36 178 802.57 _ hp (kW) to be transmitted x service factor
24 14.59 55 76.62 86 187.34 117 346.75 148 554.83 179 81 1.61
multiple-strand factor
25 15.83 56 79.44 87 191.73 118 352.70 149 562.36 180 820.70
26 17.12 57 82.30 88 196.16 119 358.70 150 569.93 181 829.85 Figures 17-2-10 to 17-2-13 show the
27 18.47 58 85.21 89 200.64 120 364.76 151 577.56 182 839.04 horsepower (kilowatt) ratings for just a
28 19.86 59 88.17 90 205.18 121 370.86 152 585.23 183 848.29 few of the many roller chains avail-
29 21.30 60 91.19 91 209.76 122 377.02 153 592.96 184 857.58
able. For additional information refer
30 22.80 61 94.25 92 214.40 123 383.22 154 600.73 185 866.93
to manufacturers' catalogs.
31 24.34 62 97.37 93 219.08 124 389.48 155 608.56 — —
The horsepower (kilowatt) rating
STEP Divld< : center d istana : which is < jiven in inches or nillimet ?rs i by pitcr l of chain used
charts (Figs. 17-2-14 and 17-2-15) pro-
1 obtair ling C.
vide a quickmeans of determining the
STEP Addr umber of teeth in smaller s procket to numbe r of teet h in larger sprocket
probable chain requirements.
2 obtair ling M.
STEP Subtr act numbi ;r ofte eth in sma Her sprc cket from lumber of teeth in larger sprocket
3 whicr gives F\ n table above. Us e Corre sponding C lonstan tS.
l

STEP Chain length in pitche s = 2C +

M
— + -
S Chain Drive Design
4 2 (

EXAMPLE 1 Select an electric motor-

STEP Mulit 3ly numbe ?r of p tches by c nain pit< :h used in Drder tc get chain length n i

5
driven roller chain drive to transmit 5
inche i or millirr eters.
hp (3.7 kW) from a countershaft to the
Fig. 17-2-8 Determining chain length. main shaft of a wire drawing machine.
The countershaft is 1.5 in. (38 mm) in
diameter and operates at 1200 r/min.
Divide center distance in inches the next higher whole number, pref- The main shaft is also 1.5 in. (38 mm)
(millimeters) by pitch of chain, erably an even number. The center and must operate between 378 and 382
obtaining C. distance must then be corrected. r/min. Shaft centers, once established.
Add number of teeth in small
sprocket to number of teeth in large
sprocket, obtaining M. SERVICE FACTOR FOR SINGLE CHAINS MULTIPLE-
Subtract number of teeth in small Horsepower or Kilowatt Ratings for Multiple-Strand Chains STRAND
sprocket from number of teeth in Equal Single-Strand Ratings Multiplied by Multiple-Strand Factor FACTOR
large sprocket, obtaining value F to Type of Input Power
obtain the corresponding value of
Internal Internal
S. Combustion Electric Combustion
Chain length in pitches equals Type of Engine with Motor Engine with Number Multiple-
Driven Hydraulic or Mechanical of Strand
2C + *. + 1 Load Drive Turbine Drive Strands Factor
2 C Smooth l .0 1.0 1.2 2 1.7

A Moderate shock 1.2 1.3 1.4 3 2.5

chain cannot contain the frac-
Heavy shock 1.4 1.5 1.7 4 3.3
tional part of a pitch. It is therefore
necessary to increase the pitch to Fig. 1 7-2-9 Service- and multiple-strand factors for chain drives.

340 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 No. of .25 PITCH NO. 25 ASA STANDARD ROLLER CHAIN
Teeth Revolutions Per Minute- -Small Sprocket
Small
Spkt. 100 500 900 1200 1800 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000

17 086 .37 .62 .81 1.16 1.56 1.84 2.11 2.38 2.28 1.95 1.69 1.48 1.31 1.18 1.06 0.96
18 092 .39 .66 .86 1.23 1.66 1.95 2.25 2.53 2.49 2.12 1.84 1.62 1.43 1.28 1.16 1.05
19 097 .41 .70 .91 1.31 1.76 2.07 2.38 2.69 2.70 2.30 2.00 1.75 1.55 1.39 1.25 1.14
20 103 .44 .74 .96 1.38 1.86 2.19 2.52 2.84 2.91 2.49 2.16 1.89 1.68 1.50 1.35 1.23
21 108 .46 .78 1.01 1.46 1.96 2.31 2.65 2.99 3.13 2.68 2.32 2.04 1.80 1.61 1.46 1.32
22 114 .48 .82 1.06 1.53 2.06 2.43 2.79 3.15 3.36 2.87 2.49 2.18 1.93 1.73 1.56 1.42
23 119 .51 .86 1.12 1.61 2.16 2.55 2.93 3.30 3.59 3.07 2.66 2.33 2.07 1.85 1.67 1.51

24 125 .53 .90 1.17 1.69 2.26 2.67 3.07 3.46 3.83 3.27 2.83 2.48 2.20 1.97 1.78 1.61

25 131 .56 .94 1.22 1.76 2.37 2.79 3.20 3.61 4.02 3.48 3.01 2.64 2.34 2.10 1.89 1.72
28 148 .63 1.07 1.38 1.99 2.67 3.15 3.62 4.08 4.54 4.12 3.57 3.13 2.78 2.49 2.24 2.04
30 159 .68 1.15 1.49 2.14 2.88 3.39 3.90 4.40 4.89 4.57 3.96 3.47 3.08 2.76 2.49 2.26
32 170 .73 1.23 1.60 2.30 3.09 3.64 4.18 4.71 5.24 5.03 4.36 3.83 3.39 3.04 2.74 2.49
35 188 .80 1.36 1.76 2.53 3.40 4.01 4.61 5.19 5.78 5.76 4.99 4.38 3.88 3.48 3.13 2.85
40 217 .92 1.57 2.03 2.93 3.93 4.63 5.32 6.00 6.67 7.04 6.10 535 4.75 4.25 3.83 3.48
45 246 .05 1.78 2.31 3.32 4.46 5.26 6.04 6.81 7.58 8.33 7.28 639 5.66 5.07 4.57 4.15

No. of .38 PITCH NO. 35 ASA STANDARD ROLLER CHAIN

Teeth Revolutions Per Minute- -Small Sprocket
Small
Spkt. 100 500 900 1200 1800 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000

17 .29 1.25 2.12 2.75 3.95 5.31 5.63 4.47 3.66 306 2.62 2.27 1.99 1.77 1.58 1.42 1.29

18 .31 1.33 2.25 2.92 4.20 5.65 6.13 4.87 3.98 3.34 2.85 2.47 2.17 1.92 1.72 1.55 1.41

19 .33 1.41 2.39 3.10 4.46 5.99 6.65 5.28 4.42 362 3.09 2.68 2.35 2.09 1.87 1.68 1.53

20 .35 1.49 2.53 3.27 4.71 6.33 7.18 5.70 4.67 3.91 3.34 2.90 2.54 225 202 1.82 1.65

21 .37 1.57 2.66 3.45 4.97 6.68 7.73 6.13 5.02 4.21 3.59 3.11 2.73 2.42 2.17 1.96 1.77

22 39 1.65 2.80 3.63 5.22 7.02 8.27 6.58 5.38 4.51 3.85 3.34 2.93 2.60 2.33 2.10 1.90

23 .41 1.73 2.94 3.81 5.48 7.37 8.68 7.03 5.75 4.82 4.12 3.57 3.13 2.78 2.49 2.24 2.03

24 .43 1.8 1 3.08 3.98 5.74 7.71 9.09 7.49 6.13 5.14 4.39 3.80 3.34 2.96 2.65 2.39 2.17

25 .44 1.89 3.21 4.16 6.00 8.06 9.50 7.97 6.52 5.47 4.67 4.05 3.55 3.15 2.82 2.54 2.31

28 .50 2.14 3.63 4.71 6.78 9.11 10.7 9.44 7.73 6.48 5.53 4.80 4.21 3.73 3.34 3.01 2.73

30 .54 2.31 3.91 5.07 7.30 9.81 11.6 10.5 8.57 7.18 6.14 5.32 4.67 4.14 3.70 3.34 3.03

32 .58 2.47 4.20 5.44 7.83 10.5 12.4 11.5 9.44 7.91 6.76 5.86 5.14 4.56 4.08 3.68 3.34

35 .64 2.72 4.62 5.99 8.63 11.6 13.7 13.2 10.8 9.06 7.73 6.70 5.88 5.22 4.67 4.21 3.82

40 .74 3.15 5.34 6.92 9.96 13.4 15.8 16.1 13.2 11.1 9.45 8.19 7.19 6.37 5.70 5.14 4.67

45 .84 3.57 6.06 7.85 11.3 15.2 17.9 19.2 15.8 13.2 11.3 9.77 8.57 7.60 6.80 6.14

No. of .50 PITCH NO. 40 ASA STANDARD ROLLER CHAIN

Teeth Revolutions Per Minute- -Small Sprocket
Small
Spkt. 50 200 400 600 900 1200 1800 2400 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000

17 .37 1.29 2.40 3.45 4.98 6.45 8.96 5.82 4.17 3.31 2.71 2.27 1.94 1.68 1.47 1.31 1.17

18 .39 1.37 2.55 3.68 5.30 6.86 9.76 6.34 4.54 3.60 2.95 2.47 2.11 1.83 1.60 1.42 1.27

19 .42 1.45 2.71 3.90 5.62 7.27 10.5 6.88 4.92 3.91 3.20 2.68 2.29 1.98 1.74 1.54 1.38

20 .44 1.53 2.86 4.12 5.94 7.69 11.1 7.43 5.31 4.22 3.45 2.89 2.47 2.14 1.88 1.67 1.49

21 .46 1.62 3.02 4.34 6.26 8.11 11.7 7.99 5.72 4.54 3.71 3.11 266 2.30 2.02 1.79 1.60

4.57 6.58 8.52 12.3 8.57 6.13 4.87 3.98 3.34 2.85 2.47 2.17 1.92 1.72
22 .49 1.70 3.17
3.33 4.79 6.90 8.94 12.9 9.16 6.55 5.20 4.26 3.57 3.05 2.64 2.32 2.06 1.84
23 .51 1.78
24 .54 1.87 3.48 5.02 7.23 9.36 13.5 9.76 6 99 5.54 4.54 380 3.25 2.81 2.47 2.19 1.96

25 .56 1.95 3.64 5.24 7.55 9.78 14.1 10.4 7.43 5.89 4.82 4.04 345 2.99 263 2.33

5.93 8.54 11.1 15.9 12.3 8.80 6.99 5.72 4.79 4.09 3.55 3 11 2.76
28 .63 2.20 4.11

30 .68 2.38 4.43 6.38 9.20 119 17.2 13.6 9.76 7.75 6.34 5.31 454 3.93 3.45

32 .73 2.55 4.75 6.85 9.86 12.8 18.4 15.0 10 8 854 6.99 5.86 5.00 4.33 3.80

7.54 10.9 14.1 20.3 17.2 12.3 9.76 7.99 6.70 5.72 4.96
35 .81 2.80 5.24
40 .93 3.24 6.05 8.71 12.5 16.3 23.4 21.0 15.0 11.9 9.76 8.18 699
6.87 9.89 14.2 18.5 26.6 25.1 17.9 14.2 11.7 9.76
45 1.06 3.68

.50 inch pitch single-strand roller chain. (American Sprocket Chain Manufacturers
Association)
Fig. 17-2-10 HP ratings for .25, .38, and

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 341

 No. of .62 PITCH NO. 50 ASA STANDARD ROLLER CHAIN
Teeth Revolutions Per Minute — Small Sprocket
Small
Spkt. 50 100 300 500 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3500 4000 4500

17 .72 1.34 3.60 5.69 970 12.6 14.3 10.7 8.48 6.95 5.83 4.98 4.32 3.96 3.23 2.71

18 .77 1.43 3.83 6.05 10.3 13.4 15.6 11.7 9.24 7.58 6.35 5.42 4.70 4.31 3.52 2.95

19 .81 1.51 4.06 6.42 10.9 14.2 16.9 12.7 10.0 8.22 6 89 5.88 5.10 4.68 3.82 3.20

20 .86 1.60 4.30 6.78 1 1.6 15.0 18.2 13.7 10.8 8.87 7.44 6.35 5.51 5.05 4.12 3.45

21 .90 1.69 4.53 7.15 12.2 15.8 19.3 14.7 11.6 9.55 8.01 6.83 5.93 5.44 4.44 3.71

22 95 1.77 4.76 7.52 12.8 16.6 20.3 15.8 12.5 10.2 8.59 7.33 6.36 5.83 4.76 3.98

23 1.00 1.86 5.00 7.89 13.4 17.4 21.3 16.9 13.3 10.9 9.18 7.83 6.79 6.23 5.08 4.26

24 1.04 1.95 5.23 8.26 14.1 18.3 22.3 18.0 14.2 11.7 9.78 8.34 7.24 6.64 5.42 4.54

25 1.09 2.04 5.47 8.63 14.7 19.1 23.3 19.1 15.1 12.4 10.4 8.88 7.70 7.06 5.76 4.83

28 1.20 2.30 6.18 9.76 16.6 21.6 26.3 22.7 17.9 14.7 12.3 10.5 9.13 8.37 6.83

30 1.33 2.42 6.66 10.5 17.9 23.2 28.4 25.1 19.9 16.3 13.7 11.7 10.1 9.28 7.57

32 1.42 2.66 7.14 11.3 19.2 24.9 30.4 27.7 21.9 18.0 15.0 12.9 11.1 10.2 8.34

35 1.57 2.93 7.86 12.4 21.2 27.4 33.5 31.7 25.1 20.5 17.2 14.7 12.8 11.7 9.55

40 1.81 3.38 9.08 14.3 24.4 31.1 38.7 38.7 30.6 25.1 21.0 18.0 15.6 14.3

45 2.06 3.84 10.3 16.3 27.8 36.0 43.9 46.2 36.5 29.9 25.1 21.4 18.6

No. of .75 PITCH NO. 60 ASA STANDARD ROLLER CHAIN

Teeth Revolutions Per Minute — Small Sprocket
Small
Spkt. 50 100 200 500 700 900 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3500

17 1.24 2.30 4.31 9.81 13.3 16.7 21.7 18.2 14.8 12.5 10.6 9 18 8.06 7.15 6.40 5.75 4.57

18 1.32 2.45 4.58 10.4 14.1 17.8 23.0 19.8 16.1 13.6 11.5 10.0 8.78 7.79 6.97 6.27 4.98
19 1.40 2.60 4.86 11.1 15.0 18.8 24.4 21.5 17.5 14.7 12.5 10.9 9.52 8.45 7.56 6.80 5.40

20 1.48 2.75 5.13 1 1.7 15.9 199 25.8 23.2 18.9 15.9 13.5 11.7 10.3 9.12 8.17 7.34 5.83

21 1.56 2.89 5.41 12.3 16.7 21.0 27.2 24.9 20.3 17.1 14.5 12.6 1 1.1 9.82 8.79 7.90 6.27

22 1.64 3.04 5.69 13.0 17.6 22.1 28.6 26.7 21.8 18.4 15.6 13.5 11.9 10.5 9.42 8.47 6.73

23 1.72 3.19 5.97 13.6 18.4 23.2 30.0 28.6 23.3 19.6 16.7 14.4 12.7 11.3 10.1 9.06 7.19

24 1.80 3.34 6.25 14.2 19.3 24.3 31.4 30.4 24.8 20.9 17.7 15.4 13.5 12.0 10.7 9.65 7.66

25 1.88 3.49 6.53 14.9 20.2 25 4 32.9 32.4 26.4 22.3 18.9 16.4 14.4 12.8 1 1.4 10.3 8.15

28 2.12 3.95 7.38 16.8 22.8 28.7 37.1 38.4 31.3 26.4 22.4 19.4 17.0 15.1 13.5 12.2 9.66
30 2.29 4.25 7.95 18.1 24.6 30 9 40.0 42.6 34.7 29.2 24.8 21.5 18.9 16.8 15.0 13.5

32 2.45 4.56 8.53 19.4 26.3 33.1 42.9 46.9 38.2 32.2 27.3 23.7 20.8 18.5 16.5 14.9

No. of 1.00 PITCH NO. 80 ASA STANDARD ROLLER CHAIN

Teeth Revolutions Per Minute — Small Sprocket
Small
Spkt. 25 50 100 200 300 400 500 700 900 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400

17 1.55 2.88 5.38 10.0 14.5 18.7 22.9 31.0 38.9 37.6 28.6 22.7 18.6 15.6 13.3 11.5 10.1

18 1.64 3.07 5.72 10.7 15.4 19.9 24.4 33.0 41.3 41.0 31.2 24.8 20.3 17.0 14.5 12.6 11.0

19 1.74 3.25 6.07 11.3 16.3 21.1 25.8 35.0 43.8 44.5 33.9 26.9 22.0 18.4 15.7 13.6 12.0

20 1.84 3.44 6.42 12.0 17.2 22.3 27.3 37.0 46.4 48.1 36.6 29.0 23.8 19.9 17.0 14.7 12.9

21 1.94 3.62 6.76 12.6 18.2 23.6 28.8 39.0 48.9 51.7 39.4 31.2 25.6 21.4 18.3 15.9 13.9

22 2.04 3.81 7.1 1 13.3 19.1 24.8 30 3 41.0 51.4 55.5 42.2 33.5 27.4 23.0 19.6 17.0 14.9

23 2.14 4.00 7.46 13.9 20.0 26.0 317 43.0 53.9 59.2 45.1 35.8 29.3 24.6 21.0 18.2 15.9

24 2.24 4.19 7.81 14.6 21.0 27.2 33 3 45.0 56.4 62.0 48.1 38.1 31.2 26.2 223 19.4 17.0

25 2.34 4.38 8.17 15.2 21.9 28.4 34.8 47.0 59.0 64.9 51.1 40.6 33.2 27.8 23.8 20.6 8.34
28 2.65 4.94 9.23 17.2 24.8 32.1 39.3 53.2 66.6 73.3 60 6 48.1 394 33.0 28.2 24.4
30 2.85 5.33 9.94 18.5 26.7 34.6 42.3 57.3 71.8 78.9 67.2 53.3 43.6 36.6 31 2 24.5
32 3.06 5.71 10.7 19.9 28.6 37.1 45.3 61.4 77.0 84.7 74.0 58.7 48.1 40.3 34.4

Fig. 17-2-11 HP ratings for .62, .75, and 1.00 inch pitch single-strand roller chain. [American Sprocket Chain Manufacturers Association)

342 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

No. of
Teeth 6.0 PITCH NO. 25 ASA STANDARD ROLLER CHAIN
on
Small Revolutions Per Minute of Small Sprocket
Spkt. 100 500 900 1200 1800 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000

17 .064 0.3 0.5 0.6- 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7
18 .069 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 1.9 1.6 '1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8
19 .072 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.3 15 1.8 2.0 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9
20 .077 0.3 0.6 0.7 1.0 1.4 1.6 1.9 2.1 2.2 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.9
21 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0
22 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.1 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1

23 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.7 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.1

24 0.1 0.4 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.0 2.3 2.6 2.9 2.4 2.1 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.2
25 0.1 0.4 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0 2.6 2.2 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.4 1.3
28 0.1 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.1 2.7 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.5
30 0.1 0.5 0.9 1.1 1.6 2.1 2.5 2.9 3.3 3.6 3.4 3.0 2.6 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.7
32 0.1 0.5 0.9 1.2 1.7 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.5 3.9 3.8 3.3 2.9 2.5 2.3 2.0 1.9
35 0.1 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.9 2.5 3.0 3.4 3.9 4.3 4.3 3.7 3.3 2.9 2.6 2.3 2.1

40 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.5 2.2 2.9 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.3 4.6 4.0 3.5 3.2 2.9 2.6
45 0.2 0.8 1.3 1.7 2.5 3.3 3.9 4.5 5.1 5.7 6.2 5.4 4.8 4.2 3.8 3.4 3.1

No. of
Teeth 10 PITCH NO. 35 ASA STANDARD ROLLER CHAIN
on
Small Revolutions Per Minute of Small Sprocket
Spkt. 100 500 900 1200 1800 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000

17 0.2 0.9 1.6 2.1 2.9 4.0 4.2 3.3 2.7 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0
18 0.2 1.0 1.7 2.2 3.1 4.2 4.6 3.6 3.0 2.5 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1

19 0.2 1.1 1.8 2.3 3.3 4.5 5.0 3.9 3.1 2.7 2.3 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3 1.1

20 0.3 1.1 1.9 2.4 3.5 4.7 5.4 4.3 3.5 2.9 2.5 2.2 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.2

21 0.3 1.2 2.0 2.6 3.7 5.0 5.8 4.6 3.7 3.1 2.7 2.3 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.3

22 0.3 1.2 2.1 2.7 3.9 5.2 6.2 4.9 4.0 3.4 2.9 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.4

23 0.3 1.3 2.2 2.8 4.1 5.5 6.5 5.2 4.3 3.6 3.1 2.7 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.5

24 0.3 1.4 2.3 3.0 4.i 5.8 6.8 5.6 4.6 3.8 3.3 2.8 2.5 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.6

25 0.3 1.4 2.4 3.1 4.5 6.0 7.1 5.9 4.9 4.1 3.5 3.0 2.6 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.7

28 0.4 1.6 2.7 3.5 5.1 6.8 8.0 7.0 5.8 4.8 4.1 3.6 3.1 2.8 2.5 2.2 2.0
30 0.4 1.7 2.9 3.8 5.4 7.3 8.7 7.8 6.4 5.4 4.6 4.0 3.5 3.1 2.8 2.5 2.3

32 0.4 1.8 3.1 4.1 5.8 7.8 9.3 8.6 7.0 5.9 5.0 4.4 3.8 3.4 3.0 2.7 2.5

35 0.5 2.0 3.4 4.5 6.4 8.7 10.2 9.8 8.1 6.8 5.8 5.0 4.4 4.0 3.5 3.1 2.8

40 0.6 2.3 4.0 5.2 7.4 10.0 11.8 12.0 9.8 8.3 7.0 6.1 5.4 4.8 4.3 3.8 3.5

45 0.7 J 7 4.5 5.9 8.4 1 1.3 13.4 14.3 11.8 9.8 8.4 7.3 6.4 5.7 5.1 4.6

No. of
Teeth 13 PITCH NO. 40 ASA STANDARD ROLLER CHAIN
on
Small Revolutions Per Minute of Small Sprocket

Spkt. 50 200 400 600 900 1200 1800 2400 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000

2.6 1.7 4.8 6.7 4.3 3.1 2.5 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.9
17 0.3 0.9 1.8
18 0.3 1.0 1.9 4.0 5.1 7.3 4.7 3.4 2.7 2.2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 0.9

2.9 4.1 5.4 7.8 5.1 3.8 2.9 2.4 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.1 1.0
19 0.3 1.1 2.0
4.4 5.7 8.3 5.5 4.0 3.1 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1
20 0.3 1.1 2.1 3.0
21 0.3 1.2 2.3 3.2 4.7 6.1 8.7 6.0 4.3 3.4 2.8 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.2

22 0.4 1.3 2.4 3.4 4.9 6.4 9.2 64 4.6 3.6 3.0 2.5 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.3

6.7 9.6 6.8 4.9 3.9 3.2 2.7 2.3 2.0 1.7 1.5 1.4
23 0.4 1.3 2.5 3.6 5.1
7.0 10.1 7.3 5.2 4.1 ).4 2.8 2.4 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.5
24 0.4 1.4 2.6 J. 5.4
3.9 5.6 7.3 10.5 7.8 5.5 4.4 3.6 3.0 2.6 2.2 2.0 1 7
25 0.4 1.5 2.7
4.4 6.4 8.5 11.9 9.2 6.6 5.2 4 3 3.6 3.1 2.6 2.1
28 0.5 1.6 3.0
4.8 6.9 8.9 12.8 10.1 7.3 5.8 4.8 1.1 1.4 2.9 2 6
30 0.5 1.8 3.3
7.4 9.5 13.7 11.2 8.1 6.4 5.2 4 4 1.2 2.8
32 0.5 1.9 3.5 5.1

35 3.9 8.1 10 5 15.1 12 8 9.2 7.3 6.0 5.0 4.3 i 7

0.6 2.1

40 0.7 2.4 4.5 6.5 9.0 12.2 15 7 11.2 8.9 7.3 6.1

45 0.7 :.
_
5.1 7.4 10.6 13.8 19.8 187 1 1.4 106 8.8 7 5

Fig. 17-2-12 Kilowatt ratings for 6-, 10-, and 13-pitch single-strand roller chain.

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 343

No. of
Teeth 16 PITCH NO. 50 ASA STANDARD ROLLER CHAIN
on
Small Revolutions Per Minute of Small Sprocket
Spkl. 50 100 300 500 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3500 4000 4500

- -
17 0.54 I 00 j 7 4.2
i
9.3 In 8.0 6.3 5.2 4.3 4.0 i.2 3.0 2.4 2.0
18 l l)~ 2.9 4.5 77 10.0 11.6 8.7 6.9 5.7 4.7 4.0 5 b 3.2 2.7 2.2

19 0.60 1.1 5 5.0 4.8 8.1 10.5 12.6 9.4 7.5 6.1 5.1 4.4 5.9 3.4 2.9 2.4

20 0.64 1.2 5.2 5.1 8.7 1 1.2 13 6 10.2 8.1 6.6 5.6 4.8 4.1 3.8 3.1 2.6
21 1.3 5.4 5.3 9.1 1 1.8 14.4 11.0 8.7 7.1 6.0 5.1 4.4 4.1 3.3 3.0

22 7 1 1.3 J.6 5.6 9.5 12.4 15.1 11.7 9.3 7.6 6.4 5.5 4.8 4.3 3.6 3.0
1.4 3.7 5.9 10.0 13.0 15.9 12.6 10.0 8.1 7.0 5.9 5.1 4.7 3.8 3.2

_!4 0.78 1.5 3.9 6.1 10.5 13.6 16.6 13.4 10.6 8.7 7.2 6.2 5.- 1 5.0 4.0 3.4

25 0.81 1.5 4.1 6.4 11.0 14.2 17.4 14.2 11.3 9.3 7.8 6.7 5.8 5.2 4.3 3.6
28 0.90 1.7 4.6 7.3 12.4 16.1 19.6 17.0 13.4 11.0 9.1 7.9 6.9 6.2 5.1

30 0.99 1.8 5.0 7.8 13.4 17.3 21.2 18.7 14.8 12.2 10.2 8.8 7.6 7.0 5.7
32 1.06 2.0 5.3 8.4 14.3 18.6 22.7 20.7 16.3 13.4 12.0 10.0 8.2 8.0 6.2
35 1.17 2.2 5.9 9.2 15.8 20.4 25.0 23.7 18.7 15.3 13.0 11.0 10.0 9.0 7.1

40 1.35 2.5 6.8 10.6 18.2 23.2 28.9 28.9 22.8 18.7 15.7 13.4 11.7 11.0
45 1.54 2.9 77 12.2 20.7 26.9 32.7 34.4 27.2 22.3 19.0 16.0 14.0

No. of
Teeth 20 PITCH NO. 60 ASA STANDARD ROLLER CHAIN
on
Small Revolutions Per Minute of Small Sprocket
Spkt. 50 100 200 500 700 900 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000

17 0.9 1.7 i.2 7.3 10.0 12.5 16.2 13.6 11.0 9.3 7.9 6.9 6.0 5.3 4.8 4.3
18 1.0 1.8 3.4 7.8 10.5 13.3 17.2 14.8 12.0 10.1 8.6 7.5 6.5 5.8 5.2 4.7
19 1.0 1.9 3.6 8.3 11.2 14.0 18.2 16.0 13.1 11.0 9.3 8.1 7.1 6.3 5.7 5.1

20 1.1 2.1 3.8 8.8 11.9 14.9 19.2 1 7.3 14.1 11.9 10.1 8.7 7.7 6.8 6.1 5.5
21 1.2 2.2 4.0 9.2 12.5 15.7 20.3 18.6 15.1 12.8 10.8 9.4 8.3 7.3 6.6 5.9
22 1.2 2.3 4.2 9.7 13.1 16.5 21.3 20.0 16.3 13.8 11.6 10.1 8.9 7.8 7.0 6.3
23 1.3 2.4 4.5 10.1 13.7 17.3 22.4 21.3 17.4 14.7 12.5 10.7 9.5 8.4 7.5 6.8
24 1.3 2.5 4.7 10.6 14.4 18.1 23.4 22.7 18.5 15.6 13.2 11.5 10.1 9.0 8.0 7.2
25 1.4 2.6 4.9 1 1.1 15.1 19.0 24.6 24.2 19.7 16.7 14.1 12.2 10.8 9.5 8.5 7.7
28 1.6 3.0 5.5 12.6. 17.0 21.4 27.7 28.7 23.3 19.7 16.8 14.5 12.7 11.3 10.1 9.1

30 1.7 3.2 6.0 13.6 18.4 23.1 30.0 31.8 25.9 21.8 18.6 16.0 14.1 12.5 11.2 10.1
32 1.8 3.4 6.4 14.5 19.7 24.7 32.0 35.0 28.5 24.0 20.4 17.0 15.6 13.8 12.3 11.1

No. of
Teeth 25 PITCH NO. 80 ASA STANDARD ROLLER CHAIN
on
Small Revolutions Per Minute of Small Sprocket
Spkt. 25 50 100 200 300 400 500 700 900 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200

17 1.2 2.1 4.0 7.5 10.8 14.0 17.1 23.1 29.0 28.0 21.3 16.9 13.9 11.6 9.9 8.6
18 1.2 2.3 4.3 8.0 11.5 14.8 18.2 24.6 30.8 30.6 23.3 18.5 15.1 12.7 10.8 9.4
19 1.3 2.4 4.5 8.4 12.2 15.7 19.2 26.1 32.7 33.2 25.3 20.1 16.4 13.7 11.7 10.1
20 1 4 2.6 4.8 9.0 12.8 16.6 20.4 27.6 34.6 35.9 27.3 21.6 17.8 14.8 12.7 11.0
21 1.4 2.7 5.0 9.4 13.6 17.6 21.5 29.1 36.5 38.6 29.4 23.3 19.1 16.0 13.7 11.9
22 1.5 2.8 5.3 9.9 14.2 18.5 22.6 30.6 38.3 41.4 31.5 25.0 20.4 17.2 14.6 12.7
23 1.6 3.0 5.6 10.4 14.9 19.4 23.6 32.1 40.2 44.2 33.6 26.7 21.9 18.4 15.7 13.6
24 1.7 3.1 5.8 10.9 15.7 20.3 24.8 33.6 42.1 46.3 35.9 28.4 23.3 19.5 16.6 14.5
25 1.7 3.3 6.1 11.3 16.3 21.2 26.0 35.1 44.0 48.4 38.1 30.3 24.8 20.7 17.8 15.4
28 2.0 3.7 6.9 12.8 18.5 23.9 29.3 39.7 49.7 54.7 45.2 35.9 29.4 24.6 21.0 18.2
30 2.1 4.0 7.4 13.8 19.9 25.8 31.6 42.7 53.6 58.9 50.1 39.8 32.5 27.3 23.3 18.3
32 2.3 4.3 8.0 14.8 21.3 27.7 33.8 45.8 57.4 63.2 55.2 43.8 35.9 30.1 25.7

Fig. 17-2-13 Kilowatt ratings for 16-, 20-, and 25-pitch single-strand roller chain.

344 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

are fixed and by initial calculations Step Design Horsepower (Kilo-
2: 5.6 kW and a 1200-r/min sprocket is a
must be approximately 22.5 in. (570 watts) Design horsepower is 5 x 1.5 = no. 40 (13 mm pitch) chain.
mm). The load on the main shaft is 7.5 hp. (Design kilowatts is 3.7 x 1.5 If a multiple-strand chain has been
uneven and presents peaks which = 5.6 kW). selected, determine the required
place it in the heavy shock load horsepower (kilowatt) rating per
category. strand from the following equation:
Step 3: Tentative Chain Selection On the
horsepower rating chart (Fig. 17-2-14) Required horsepower (kilowatt) rating =
Solution
the suggested selection using a design
design hp (kW)
Step 1: Service Factor The correspond- of 7.5 hp and a 1200-r/min sprocket is a
multiple-strand factor
from Fig. 17-2-9 for
ing service factor no. 40 (.50 in. pitch) chain. On the
heavy shock load and electric motor is kilowatt rating chart (Fig. 17-2-15) the Refer to the RH columns shown in Fig.
1.5. suggested selection using a design of 17-2-9.

NOTE: The Maximum Horsepower Rating specified in each of the Strand Columns is not limiting for Chain Drives.
Consult chain manufacturers on those applications which are above the
horsepower range of the chart.

Fig. 17-2-14 HP rating chart.

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 345

Step 4: Final Selection of Chain and Small
Sprocket On
the horsepower rating
table for a no. 40 chain. Fig. 17-2-10 at
12(H) r/min, the computed design of 7.5
hp is realized with a 20-tooth sprocket.
Use the same process on the kilowatt
rating table (Fig. 17-2-11) for a no. 40
chain at 1200 r/min with a design of 5.
kW to also find a 20-tooth sprocket.
Follow down the column headed by
the speed of the small sprocket (1200
r/min) and find the nearest value to the
design horsepower. Follow this line
horizontally to the left to find the
number of teeth for the small sprocket.
NOTE: THE MAXIMUM KILOWATT RATING SPECIFIED IN EACH OF THE STRAND COLUMNS IS NOT LIMITING FOR CHAIN DRIVES.
CONSULT CHAIN MANUFACTURERS ON THOSE APPLICATIONS WHICH ARE ABOVE THE KILOWATT RANGE OF THE CHART.
Fig. 17-2-15 Kilowatt rating chart.
346 POWER TRANSMISSIONS
For intermediate speeds or sprocket
sizes not tabulated, interpolate
between the appropriate columns or
lines. Check the maximum bore for the
selected sprocket. See Fig. 17-2-16. If
the selected sprocket will not accom-
modate the shaft, use a larger sprocket
or make a new sprocket and chain
selection from the rating table for the
next larger chain number. In this prob-
lem, the 20-tooth sprocket will accom-
modate the 1.5-in. (38-mm) shaft.
Step 5: Selection of the Large Sprocket
Since the driver is to operate at 1200
r/min and the driven at a minimum of
378 r/min, the speed ratio = 1200/378
= 3.17:1 minimum. Therefore, the
large sprocket should have 20 x 3.17
teeth = 63.4 teeth. Since the standard
sprocket sizes near this number of
teeth is either 60 or 70 teeth (Fig.
17-2-17), it may be more economical
and time-saving to try to use a com-
bination of standard sprockets. In
rechecking the smaller sprocket, the
19-tooth sprocket would also be
acceptable. This would require a large
sprocket of 19 x 3.17 teeth = 60.2
teeth (use 60 teeth). Since the 19- and
60-tooth sprockets are acceptable and M = totalnumber of teeth on Step 7: Chain Length in Inches
standard, it would be more economical both sprockets (Millimeters)
to use this combination. = 19 + 60 = 79
Length of chain = number of pitches x
5 = value obtained from table
pitch
(Fig. 17-2-8)
= 130 x .5 = 65 in.
Step 6:Chain Length in Pitches Since 19- F = 60 - 19 = 41 (= 128 x 13 = 1664 mm)
and 60-tooth sprockets are to be placed 5 = 42.58
on 22.5 in. (570 mm) centers, calcula-
Substituting values for C. M, and 5, References and Source Material
tions are as follows to determine chain
we get 1. Machine Design, Mechanical
length:
Chain length = drives reference issue. 1979.
in pitches
Chain length in pitches = American Chain Association.
2 x 45 + — + ^§= 130.44
2.

11
M 2 45
2 C Since the chain is to couple to an even ASSIGNMENTS
where C = center distance + pitch number of pitches, we will use 130 See Assignments 3 to 8 for Unit 17-2 on
= 22.5 + .5 = 45 pitches since the leeway on the 22.5 in.
page 362.
(= 570 -r 13 = 43.8 = 44) (570 mm) centers is not critical.

U.S. CUSTOMARY (INCH)

.38 in Pitch .50 in Pitch .62 in. Pitch .75 in Pitch 1.00 in Pitch
No. .

of Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum
Teeth Bore Hub Dia. Bore Hub Dia. Bore Hub Dia. Bore Hub Dia. Bore Hub Dia.
11 .59 .86 .78 1.17 .97 1.47 1.25 1.77 1.62 2.38
12 .62 .98 .88 1.33 1.16 1.67 1.28 2.02 1.78 2.70
13 .75 1.11 1.00 1.50 1.28 1.88 1.50 2.25 2.00 3.02
14 .84 1.23 1.16 1.66 1.31 2.08 1.75 2.50 2.28 3.34
15 .88 1.36 1.25 1.81 1.53 2.28 1.78 2.75 2.41 3.67
16 .97 1.47 1.28 1.98 1.69 2.48 1.97 2.98 2.72 3.98
17 1.09 1.59 1.38 2.14 1.78 2.69 2.22 3.22 2.81 4.31

18 1.22 1.72 1.53 2.30 1.88 2.89 2.28 3.47 3.12 4.64
19 1.25 1.84 1.69 2.45 2.06 3.08 2.44 3.70 3.31 4.95
20 1.28 1.95 1.78 2.62 2.25 3.28 2.69 3.95 3.50 5.28
21 1.31 2.08 1.78 2.78 2.28 3.48 2.81 4.19 375 5.59
22 1.44 2.20 1.94 2.94 2.44 3.69 2.94 4.44 3.88 592
23 1.56 2.31 2.09 3.09 2.62 3.89 3.12 4.67 4.19 6.23
24 1.69 2.44 2.25 3.27 2.81 4.08 3.25 4.91 4.56 656
25 1.75 2.56 2.28 3.42 2.84 4.28 3.38 5.16 4.69 6.88

METRIC (MILLIMETER)
10 Pitch No. 25 13 Pitch No. 40 16 Pitch No. 50 20 Pitch No. 60 25 Pitch No. 80
No.
of Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum
Teeth Bore Hub Dia. Bore Hub Dia. Bore Hub Dia. Bore Hub Dia. Bore Hub Dia.
11 15 22 20 30 25 37 32 45 41 50
12 16 25 22 34 29 42 33 51 45 69
13 20 28 25 38 33 47 38 57 51 76
14 22 32 30 42 33 53 45 64 58 85
15 22 35 32 46 39 58 45 70 61 93
16 25 38 32 50 43 63 50 76 69 101

17 28 40 35 54 45 68 56 82 71 109

18 31 44 39 58 48 73 58 88 79 118

19 32 47 43 62 52 78 62 94 84 126

20 33 50 45 67 57 83 68 100 89 134

21 34 53 45 71 58 88 71 106 95 142

36 56 49 75 62 94 75 111 98 150
22
59 53 79 67 99 79 119 106 158
23 40
62 57 83 71 104 83 124 116 167
24 43
65 58 87 72 109 86 131 119 175
25 45

Fig. 17-2-16 Maximum bore and hub diameters. (American Sprocket Chain Manufacturers Association)

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 347

 strength, wear, and material selection.
NUMBER OF TEETH ON SPROCKET Normally a drafter selects a gearfrom
No. 25 No. 35 No. 40 No. 50 No. 60 No. 80 a catalog. Most gears are made of cast
iron or steel, but brass, bronze, and
9 9 48 8 34 59 9 34 59 9 34 9 34 plastic are used when factors such as
10 10 54 9 35 60 10 35 60 10 35 10 35
wear or noise must be considered.
11 11 60 10 36 70 11 36 70 11 36 11 36
12 12 70 11 37 72 12 37 72 12 37 12 37
13 13 72 12 38 80 13 38 80 13 38 13 38 SPUR GEARS
14 14 80 13 39 84 14 39 84 14 39 14 39 Spur gear proportions and the shape of
15 15 84 14 40 96 15 40 96 15 40 15 40 gear teeth are standardized, and the
16 16 96 15 41 112 16 41 112 16 41 16 41 definitions, symbols, and formulas are
17 17 112 16 42 17 42 17 42 17 42
given in Figs. 17-3-3 to 17-3-6.
18 18 17 43 18 43 18 43 18 43
Gears are used to transmit motion
19 19 18 44 19 44 19 44 19 44 and power at constant angular
20 20 19 45 20 45 20 45 20 45 velocity. The specific form of the gear
21 21 20 46 21 46 21 46 21 46 which best produces this constant
22 22 21 47 22 47 22 47 22 47 angular velocity is the involute.
24 23 22 48 23 48 23 48 23 48 Classically, the involute is described
49 24 49 24 54 as the curve traced by a point on a taut
25 24 23 49 24
26 25 24 50 25 50 25 50 25 60 string unwinding from a circle. This
28 26 25 51 26 51 26 51 26 circleis called the base circle.

30 28 26 52 27 52 27 52 27 Every involute gear has only one

32 30 27 53 28 53 28 53 28 base circle from which all the involute
surfaces of the gear teeth are gener-
36 32 28 54 29 54 29 54 29
ated. This base circle
is not a physical
40 35 30 55 30 55 30 60 30
56 part of the gear and cannot be mea-
45 36 31 56 31 31 70 31
48 40 32 57 32 57 32 72 32 sured directly. The contact between
52 45 33 58 33 58 33 80 33 mating involutes takes place along a
line which is always tangent to and
60 84
crosses between the two base circles.
Fig. 17-2-17 Stock sprockets. This is the line of action.

UNIT 17-3
s?^!
Gear Drives
The function of a gear is to transmit

motion, rotating or reciprocating, from

one machine part to another and w here
necessary reduce or increase the revo-
lutions of a shaft. Gears are rolling
cylinders or cones having teeth on
their contact surfaces to ensure
positive motion. See Figs. 17-3-1 and
17-3-2.
There are many kinds of gears, and
they may be grouped according to the
position of the shafts that they con-
nect. Spur gears connect parallel
shafts, bevel "ears connect shafts
whk.se axes intersect, and worm gears
connect shafts whose axes do not
intersect. A spur gear with a rack con-
verts rotary motion to reciprocating or
linear motion. The smaller of two gears
is known as the pinion.
Gear design is very complicated,
dealing with such problems as Fig. 17-3-1 Gears. (Boston Gear Works.)

348 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 -FACE WIDTH
MODULE DIAMETRAL
PITCH IRCULAR PITCH IARC)

14.5° 20° CIRCULAR THICKNESS

FOR METRIC FOR INCH CHORDAL THICKNESS
SIZE GEARS SIZE GEARS

AA
./. -OEDENDUM
ADDENDUM

6.35 4

5.08 5

A A Fig. 17-3-3 Gear-teeth terms.

4.23 6

A A
3.18 8

M AA PRESSURE
ANGLE
14.5°OR 20°

2.54 10

U AA Fig. 17-3-4 Meshing of gear teeth.

2.17 12
u M The
used for
ful
l4.5°-pressure angle has been
many years and remains use-
for duplicate or replacement gear-
ing or in situations where the control of
AA.
1.59 16
M4 backlash is of primary importance.
The 20 G -pressure angle has become
the standard for new gearing because
of the smoother and quieter running

1.27 20 MU JWl characteristics, greater load-carrying

ability, and the fewer number of teeth
affected by undercutting.
Standard spur gears having a 14.5 -
pressure angle should have a minimum

1.06 24 Ul AAa o\' IfS teeth with at least 40 teeth in a

mating pair. Gears with 20°-pressure

angle should have a minimum o\' 13
teeth with at least 26 teeth in a mating
J\JWl/l pair.
0.79 32 *M* The formulas for the 14.5 - and the
20 -full-depth teeth are identical.
The 20 -stub tooth differs from the
NOTE: MODULE SIZES SHOWN ARE CONVERTED INCH SIZES. 20 -standard tooth depth. The stub
tooth is shorter and stronger and there-
fore is preferred where maximum
Fig. 17-3-2 Gear-teeth sizes. power transmission is required.

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 349

Drawing Gear Teeth
The teeth on a gear are not normally
shown on the working drawings. In-
stead, they are represented by solid,
broken, and hidden lines which will be
discussed under working drawings.
However, presentation or display
drawings normally require the teeth to
be shown.
Since the exact form of an involute ness. Through the pitch point on the
tooth would require too much time to pitch circle draw the pressure line at an
draw, approximate methods are used. angle of 14.5° with the line tangent to
The two most common methods are the pitch circle for the 14.5°-involute
shown in Fig. 17-3-6. To draw the teeth tooth (use 15° for convenience) or 20°
using the approximate representation for the 20°-involute tooth. Draw the
of involute spur-gear teeth, lay out the base circle tangent to this pressure
root, pitch, and outside circles. On the line. With the compass set to a radius
pitch circle mark off the circular thick- equal to one-eighth the pitch diameter

FORMULA
TERM AND SYMBOL DEFINITION METRIC GEARS INCH GEARS
Pitch diameter — PD The diameter of an imaginary circle on which the gear PD = MDL x N PD = N - DP
tooth is designed

Number of teeth — The number of teeth on a gear N = PD - MDL N = PD x DP

Module— MDL The length of pitch diameter per tooth MDL = PD h- N

Diametral pitch — DP A ratio equal to the number of teeth on a gear for DP = N - PD
every inch of pitch diameter

Addendum —ADD The radial distance from the pitch circle to the top of 1 ADD = MDL
4.5° or 20° 14.5° or 20° ADD = 1 DP
h-

the tooth 20° stub ADD = 0.8 x MDL 20° stub ADD = 0.8 h- DP
Dedendum— DED The radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom 14.5° or 20° DED = 1.157 x MDL 14.5° or 20° DED = 1.157 4 DP
of the tooth 20° stub DED = MDL 20° stub DED = 4 DP 1

Whole depth— WD The overall height of the tooth 14.5° or 20° 14.5° or 20° WD = 2.157 4 P
WD= 2.157 x MDL
20° stub WD = .8 x MDL 1 20° stub WD = 1.8 - DP
Clearance — CL The radial distance between the bottom of one tooth 1 CL = 0. 57 x
4.5° or 20° 1 MDL 14.5° or 20°CL = 0.157 - DP
and the top of the mating tooth 20° stub CL = 0.2 x MDL 20° stub CL = 0.2 DP -=-

Outside diameter — OD The overall diameter of the gear 14.5° or 20° 14.5° or 20°

OD = PD + 2ADD OD = PD + 2ADD = (N + 2) 4- PD
= PD + 2 MDL
20° stub 20° stub
OD = PD + 2ADD OD = PD + 2ADD
= PD + 1.6 MDL = (N + 1.6) - PD
Root diameter — RD The diameter at the bottom of the tooth 14.5° or 20° 14.5° or 20°

RD = PD - 2DED RD = PD - 2DED
= PD + 2.314 MDL = (N - 2.314) 4- PD
20° stub 20° stub
RD = PD - 2DED RD = PD - 2DED
= PD + 2MDL = (N - 2) - PD
Base circle — BC The circle from which the involute curve of the tooth BC = PD Cos PA BC = PD Cos PA
is formed

Pressure angle — PA The angle between the direction of pressure between 14.5° or 20° 14.5° or 20°
contacting teeth and a line tangent to the pitch circle

Backlash The clearance between the teeth of two meshing gears

Circular pitch — CP The distance measured from the point of one tooth to CP = 3.1416 PD + N CP = 3.1416 PD 4- N
the corresponding point on the adjacent tooth on the = 3.1416 MDL = 3.1416 4 DP
circumference of the pitch diameter

Circular thickness — The thickness of a tooth or space measured on the T = 3.1416 PD - 2N T = 3.1416 PD 4- 2N
circumference of the pitch diameter = 1.57 PD -5- N = 1.57 4- DP
= 1.57 MDL
Chordal thickness — Tc The thickness of a tooth or space measured along a Tc = PD sin (90° *• N) Tc = PD sin (90° -4- N)
chord on the circumference of the pitch diameter
Chordal addendum —Ac Chordal addendum, also known as Corrected ADDc = ADD + T2 4- 4PD ADDc = ADD + T2 4 4PD
addendum, is the perpendicular distance from chord to
outside circumference of gear

Working depth The depth of engagement of two gears. WKG DP = 2ADD WKG DP = 2ADD
—WKG DEPTH The sum of two addendums

Fig. 17-3-5 Spur gear definitions and formulas.

350 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 and the compass point on the base cir-
INVOLUTE CURVE
cle, draw arcs passing through the cir-
cular thickness points established on
the pitch diameter, starting at the base
circle and ending at the top of the
teeth. The part of the tooth profile
GEAR TOOTH below the base circle drawn as a
is

radial line ending in a small fillet at the

root circle.
(A) EXACT FORM OF AN INVOLUTE SPUR GEAR TOOTH For a closer approximation of the
involute tooth profile, the Grant's
-PRESSURE ANGLE
odontograph method is used. Lay out
-TANGENT TO PITCH POINT the outside, pitch, root, and base cir-
\ PITCH CIRCLE CIRCULAR PITCH
cles and circular thickness in the same
OUTSIDE CIRCLE manner as used in the approximation
PITCH CIRCLE method. The top portion of the tooth
20° OR 14.5° BASE CIRCLE profilefrom point A to point B is drawn
PRESSURE
with the radius R. and the portion of
LINE ROOT CIRCLE
CIRCULAR the tooth profile from point B to point
THICKNESS C is drawn with the radius r.
The values of the radii R and r are
(B) APPROXIMATE REPRESENTATION OF INVOLUTE SPUR GEAR TEETH found by dividing the numbers found
in the table by the diametral pitch for
inch-size gears or by multiplying the
numbers in the table by the module for
metric-size gears. The lower portion of
the tooth from points C to D is drawn

TO FIND RADII R AND r

as a radial line ending in a small fillet at

SEE TABLE BELOW. the root circle.

INCH GEARS METRIC GEARS

Radii in Inches Radll in Millimeters
Working Drawings of
RADIUS R RADIUS r RADIUS R RADIUS r Spur Gears
Divide No. Divide No. No. of Multiply No. Multiply No.
By MDL by MDL
The working drawings of gears which
by P by P Teeth
are normally cut from blanks are not
251 096 12 2.51 96
262 1.09 13 262 1.09 complicated. A sectional view is suffi-
2 72 1 22 14 2 72 1 22
282 1.34 15 2.82 1.34
cient unless a front view is required to
292 1 46 16 292 1 46 show web or arm details. Since the
302 58 17 302 58
teeth are cut to shape by cutters, they
1 1

3.12 1 69 18 3.12 1 69
322 1 79 19 322 1 79 need not be shown in the front view.
332 1.89 20 3.32 1.89
See Figs. 17-3-7 and 17-3-8.
341 1 98 21 3 41 1 98
3 49 2.06 22 3.49 206 ANSI recommends the use of phan-
357 2 15 23 3.57 2.15
tom lines for the outside and root cir-
364 224 24 3.64 2.24
371 233 25 3.71 233 cles and a center line for the pitch
3 78 242 26 3.78 242 circle. In the section view the root and .

385 250 27 385 2 50

392 259 28 392 259 outside circles are shown as solid

399 267 29 3.99 2.67 lines.
406 276 30 4.06 2 76
4 13 285 31 4.13 285 The dimensioning for the gear is
420 293 32 4.20 2 93 divided into two groups, because the
4.27 3.01 33 4,27 3,01
34 4.33 309 finishing of the gear blank and the cut-
4 33 3.09
439 3 16 35 439 3 16 ting of the teeth are separate opera-
4.20 3 23
4.20 323 36
420
tions in the shop. The gear-blank
4 45 420 37-40 445
463 463 41-45 463 4 63 dimensions are shown on the drawing
5.06 5.06 46-51 506 506
while the gear tooth information is
5.74 52-60 5 74 5 74
5 74
652 652 61-70 6.52 652 given in a table.
7 72 772 71-90 7 72 7 72
The only differences in terminology
9 78 9 78 91-120 9 78 9 78

121-180 13 38 13 38
between inch-size and metric-size gear
13 38 13.38
21 62 21 62 181-360 21 62 21 62 drawings are the terms diametral pitch
and module.
Fig. 17-3-6 Methods of drawing involute spur gear teeth. For inch-size gears, the term diame-

BELTS. CHAINS AND GEARS 351

 (A) PLAIN STYLE

(B) WEBBED STYLE

ROUNDSAND FILLETS R.IO

(C) WEBBED WITH CORED HOLES CUTTING DATA
NUMBER OF TEETH 30
PITCH DIAMETER 6.000
DIAMETRAL PITCH 5
PRESSURE ANGLE 14.5°
WHOLE DEPTH .431

CHORDAL ADDENDUM .204

— CHORDAL THICKNESS
CIRCULAR THICKNESS
300
.314

Working drawing of a spur gear.

WORKING DEPTH .400
Fig. 17-3-8
ss

(D) SPOKED STYLE

Fig. 17-3-7 Stock spur gear styles.

tern and have a standard diametral Pitch diameter

pitch instead of a preferred standard = number of teeth -r diametral pitch
tral pitch is used instead of the term = 36 ^ 12 = 3.00 (pinion)
module. Therefore it is recommended in.
module. The diametral pitch is a ratio = 90 -J- 12 = 7.50 in. (gear)
that the diametral pitch be referenced
of the number of teeth to a unit length
beneath the module when gears Sum of the two pitch diameters
of pitch diameter
designed with standard inch pitches = 3.00 in. + 7.50 in. = 10.50 in.

Diametral pitch = DP = are used. For gears designed with stan- = sum of the two pitch
Center distance '/:

PD dard modules, the diametral pitch need diameters

not be referenced on the gear drawing. »*»
Module is the term used on metric = = 5.25 in
The standard modules for metric gears 2
.

gears. It is the length of pitch diameter

are 0.8. 1, 1.25, 1.5. 2.25, 3, 4. 6, 7, 8, 9, EXAMPLE A 3.18-module, 24-tooth
per tooth measure in millimeters 2
10, 12. and 16.
pinion mates with a 96-tooth gear. Find
PD
Module = MDL the center distance.
N
Spur-Gear Calculations Pitch diameter (PD)
Fromthese definitions it can be seen = number of teeth x module
that the module is equal to the recipro- Center Distance The center distance = 24 x 3.18 = 076.3 (pinion)
cal of the diametral pitch and thus is between the two shaft centers is deter- = 96 x 3.18 = 0305.2 (gear)
not its metric dimensional equivalent. mined by adding the pitch diameter of
known, the two gears and dividina the sum
Sum of the two pitch diameters
If the diametral pitch is the
= 76.3 + 305.2 = 381.5 mm
module can be obtained by 2.
Center distance = Yi sum of the two pitch
Module = 25.4 4- diametral pitch diameters =
EXAMPLE 1 A 12 DP. 36-tooth pinion
Gears presently being used in North mates with a 90-tooth gear. Find the 381.5
= 190.75 mm
America are designed in the inch sys- center distance.

352 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

Ratio The ratio of gears a relation-
ship between any of the following:
is
UNIT 17-4 20-tooth steel pinion that will carry the
horsepower (kilowatts) required at the
1. Revolutions per minute of the gears Power-Transmitting desired speed. The intersection of the
Number of teeth on the gears lines representing values of revolu-
2.
Capacity of tions per minute and horsepower (kilo-
3. Pitch diameter of the gears

The obtained by dividing the

ratio is
Spur Gears watts) indicates the approximate gear
diametral pitch (module) required.
any of the three by the
larger value of The number of teeth normally
corresponding smaller value. Gear drives are required to operate should not be less than 16 to 20 in a
under such a wide variety of condi- 14.5° pinion, nor less than 13 in a 20°
EXAMPLE 3 A
gear rotates at 90 r/min
tions that it is very difficult and expen-
pinion.
and the pinion at 360 r/min.
sive to determine the best gear set for a Ratings shown for spur gears in cata-
particular application. logs normally are for class
Ratio = = 4 or ratio = 4:1 1 service.
90 The most economical procedure is
For other classes of service, the ser-
to select standard stock gears with an vice factors in Fig. 17-4-1 should be
EXAMPLE 4 A gear has 72 teeth, the
adequate load rating for the appli- used.
pinion 18 teeth.
cation.
72
= 4 or
Approximate horsepower (kilowatt)
Ratio ratio 4:1
IS ratings for spur gears of various sizes
Selecting the Spur-Gear Drive
(numbers of teeth), at several operat-
EXAMPLES A gear with a pitch diame-
ing speeds (revolutions per minute),
1. Determine the class of service.
ter of 8.500 in. meshes with a pinion 2. Multiply the horsepower (kilo-
are given in catalogs with the spur-gear
having a pitch diameter of 2.125 in. watts) required for the application
listings.
D .. PD of gear by the service factor.
Ratio = Ratings for gear sizes and/or speeds
PD of pinion not listed may be estimated from the
3. Select spur-gear pinion with a cata-
log rating equal to or greater than
8 500 values shown in Fig. 17-4-2.
= -
= 4 thehorsepower (kilowatts) deter-
2.125 Pitch-line velocities exceeding 1000
mined in step 2.
ft/min (5 m/s) for 14.5° PA (pressure
4. Select driven spur gear with a cata-
or Ratio = 4: angle), or 1200 ft/min (6 m/s) for 20°
log rating equal to or greater than
PA, are not recommended for metallic
Determining the Pitch Diameter and Out- thehorsepower (kilowatts) deter-
spur gears. Ratings are listed for
side Diameter The pitch diameter of a mined in step 2.
speeds below these limits.
gear can readily be found if the number
The ratings given (or calculated) EXAMPLE 1 Select a pair of 20° spur
of teeth and the diametral pitch or
should be satisfactory for gears used gears which will drive a machine at 150
module are known. The is equal to OD under normal operating conditions, r/min. Size of driving motor = 25 hp,
the pitch diameter plus two adden-
that is, when they are properly 600 r/min. Service factor = 1.
dums. The addendum for a 14.5°-spur-
mounted and lubricated, carrying a Solution Since the service factor is 1,
gear tooth is equal to 1 -r DP (U.S.
smooth load (without shock) for 8 to 10 we do not need to increase or decrease
Customary) or the module (metric). the design horsepower. Refer to the
hours a day.
EXAMPLE 6 A 14.5°-spur gear has a The charts shown in Fig. 17-4-2 indi- charts shown in Fig. 17-4-2A, which
diametral pitch of 5 and 40 teeth. cate the approximate horsepower show design data for 20°-spur gears
(kilowatt) ratings of 16- and 20-tooth having 16 and 20 teeth. Selecting a pin-
'itch i diameter = N ^ DP
steel spur gears of several tooth sizes ion having 16 teeth and reading ver-
= 40 4- 5
= 8.00 in. operating at various speeds. They may tically on the column showing 600
be used to determine the approximate r/min to horsepower rating of 25, we
OD PD + 2 ADD = 8.00 + 2 diametral pitch or module of a 16- or Find that the required DP is 4. (Select
J tfr)
= 8.00
= 8.40 in.

EXAMPLE 7 A 14.5°-spur gear has a

SERVICE
SERVICE
module of 6.35 and 34 teeth.
OPERATING CONDITONS FACTOR
CLASS
Pitch diameter = N x MDL Class 1 Continuous 8 to 1 hr per day duty, with smooth load (no shock) 1.0
= 34 x 6.35
Class II Continuous 24-hr duty, with smooth load, or 8 to 1 hr per day, 1.2
= 216 mm
with moderate shock
OD = PD + 2 ADD = 216 + 2(6.35)
Continuous 24-hr duty with moderate shock load 1.3
= 228.7 mm Class III

Class IV Intermittent duty, not over 30 min per hr, with smooth load 0.7
(no shock)

Class V Hand operation, limited duty, with smooth load (no shock) 0.5
ASSIGNMENTS Heavy shock loads and/or severe conditions require the use of higher service factors Such conditions may require
Factors of I 5 to 2.0 or greater than required for Class I service
See Assignments 9 through 11 for Unit
17-3 on page 362. Fig. 1 7-4-1 Service class and factor for spur gears.

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 353

 14.5° 16 AND 20 TOOTH STEEL SPUR GEARS 20° 16 AND 20 TOOTH STEEL SPUR GEARS
70 .0 20
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REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE
14.5° PRESSURE ANGLE 20° PRESSURE ANGLE
(A) DIAMETRAL PITCH SELECTION CHARTS

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REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE

14.5° PRESSURE ANGLE 20° PRESSURE ANGLE
(B) MODULE SELECTION CHARTS
Fig, 17-4-2 Module and diametral pitch selection charts for 16 and 20 tooth spur gears. (Boston Gear Works.)

354 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

the DP equal to or greater than the • Gear: N = 4 x 20 = 80, MDL =
horsepower required.) 5.08, PD = 80 x 5.08 = 406.4 mm UNIT 17-5
• Pinion: N = 16, DP = 4, PD = 16 ^ Second, using a module of 6.35. we Rack and Pinion
4 =
4.000 in. have
• Ratio 4:1
• Pinion: N = 16. MDL = 6.35, PD = A rack is a straight bar having teeth
• Gear: N = 16 x 4 = 64. DP = 4, PD
101.6 mm which engage the teeth on a spur gear.
= 64 + 4 = 16.000 in. See Fig. 17-5-1. In theory, it is a spur
• Gear: N = 64, MDL = 6.35, PD =
406.4 mm gear having an infinite pitch diameter.
EXAMPLE 2 A 5 hp, 1200 r/min motor Therefore, all circular dimensions
is used to drive a machine that runs 8 Since both sets of gears are of the same
become linear. The addendum, deden-
hours a day under moderate shock. If diameter, the overall size is not a fac-
dum, and tooth thickness are the same
the machine is to run at 200 r/min and as the mating spur gear. To draw the
tor.Checking on the cost per set, we
at the capacity of the motor, what spur teeth on a rack, lay out the addendum
find that therewould be considerable
gears would you select? savings by selecting the gear and pin-
and dedendum distances from the
Solution The operating conditions of pitch line. Divide the pitch line into
ion having the module of 5.08. Since
the machine are such that the machine lineal pitch distances equal in size to
the extra strength of the gear set hav-
fits into the service class 2 and requires ing a module of 6.35 is not required in
the circular pitch on the gear. Divide
a service factor of 1.2. Therefore each of these spaces in half to get the
this instance, we would recommend
lineal thickness. Through these points
Horsepower required for design purposes the gear and pinion having a module of
draw the tooth faces at angles of 14.5
= 5hp x 1.2 = 6 hp 5.08.
or 20° from the vertical lines. Darken
The pinion will be mounted on the in the top and bottom lines of the teeth
motor and runs 1200 r/min. Select-
at and add the tooth fillets. The specifica-
ing a 20° pinion having 16 teeth, refer tions for the teeth of the rack are given
to Fig. 17-4-1B to find the required DP. in the same manner as for spur gears.
Reading vertically on the 1200 r/min See Fig. 17-5-2.
line and horizontally at 6 hp we find
that the required DP is 8. Reference and Source Material
ASSIGNMENT
1. Boston Gear Works.
• Pinion: N = 16. DP = 8, PD = 16 -
Unit 17-5 on
See Assignment 14 for
8 = 2.000 in.
page 364.
• Gear: N = 16 x 6 = 96, DP = 8, PD ASSIGNMENTS
= 96 - 8 = 12.000 in.
See Assignments 12 and 13 for Unit Review for Assignment
17-4 on page 363. Unit 17-3 Gear Formulas
EXAMPLE 3 A 7.5 kW, 900 r/min motor
is attached by means of 14.5°-
spur gears to a punch that operates 24
hours a day. The reduction in revolu-
tions per minute is 4:1. Select a gear
and pinion assuming that the punch is
being operated at motor capacity.
Solution The operating conditions of
the machine are such that the machine
fits into the service class 3 and requires
a service factor of 1.3. Therefore
Kilowatts required for design purposes =
7.5 x 1.3 = 9.75 kW
The pinion is mounted on the motor

and runs at 900 r/min. Refer to Fig.

17-4-2B. Reading vertically on the 900
r/min line and horizontally at 9.75 kW,
we may select either a pinion having a
module of 5.08 and N of 20 or a module
of 6.35 and N of 16. First, using a mod-
ule of 5.08, we have

• Pinion: N = 20. MDL = 5.08. PD =

101 .6 mm. Gear travels at 225 r/min.
or one-fourth of pinion revolutions
per minute. Fig. 17-5-1 Racks. (Gear Specialties, lnc.|

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 35S

 are transferred to the front view, and
the profiles for the teeth are drawn.
Radial lines from these points are
taken, and the small end of the tooth is
developed. The teeth on the side or
section view are now drawn by pro-
jecting the teeth from the front view.
ADDENDUf Cast iron is normally used for large
gears and small gears that are not sub-
ject to heavy duty. Often a gear and
pinion are made of different materials
for efficiency and durability. The pin-
ion is made of
a stronger material
LINEAL because the teeth on the pinion come
PITCH into contact more times than the teeth
LINEAL THICKNESS = CIRCULAR THICKNESS on the gear. Common combinations
are steel and cast iron, and steel and
Fig. 17-5-2 Rack and pinion.
bronze.
For hp or kW ratings of bevel gears,
refer to manufacturers' catalogs.

UNIT 17-6 The actual gear teeth are often ASSIGNMENTS

shown on assembly or display draw- See Assignments and 16 for Unit
Bevel Gears ings. One of the most common conven- 17-6 on page 364.
15

drawing the teeth is the

tions used for
Bevel gears are used to transmit power Tredgold method which is shown in Review for Assignments
between two shafts whose axes inter- Fig. 17-6-4. Unit 6-4 Bills of Materials
sect. The axes may intersect at an\ An arc whose radius is taken on the Unit 7-1 Full-Section Views
c
angle, but the most common is 90 . back cone is used as the pitch circle, Unit 9-3 Retaining Rings
They are similar to rolling cones hav- and a tooth is developed using stan- Unit 9-1 Keys
ing the same apex. The teeth are the dard spur-gear formulas. Tooth sizes Unit 19-1 Plain Bearings
same shape as spur-gear teeth but taken on the OD and pitch diameter Unit 19-4 Oil Seals
taper toward the cone apex. There-
fore, many spur-gear terms may apply
to bevel gears. Miter gears are bevel TERM FORMULA
gears having the same diametral pitch Addendum, dedendum, whole depth, Same as for spur gears
or module, pressure angle, and pitch diameter, module, diametral
number of teeth. pitch, number of teeth, circular pitch,
Figures 17-6-1 and 17-6-2 show chordal thickness, circular thickness
bevel gear definitions and formulas. PD
Pitch cone radius
2 x sin of pitch angle

= PD of gear
=
N of qear
Pitch cone angle Tan pitch angle
PD of pinion N of pinion
Working Drawings of Addendum angle T _ _^ Arl ,,.._ ,
,
n Addendum
Bevel Gears Pitch cone radius
The working drawings of bevel gears. T__ Dedendum
Dedendum angle
like those of spur gears, give only the Pitch cone radius
dimensions of the bevel gear blank. Face angle Pitch cone angle plus addendum angle
The cutting data for the teeth are given
Cutting angle Pitch cone angle minus dedendum angle
in a note or table. A single section view
is normally used, unless a second view
Back angle Same as pitch cone angle

is required to show such details as Angular addendum Cos of pitch cone angle > addendum
spokes. Sometimes both the bevel gear Outside diameter Pitch diameter plus two angular addendums
and pinion are drawn together, show- Crown height Divide Vi the outside diameter by the tangent of the face angle
ing their relationship. The dimensions Face width 1 '/2 to 2'/2 times the circular pitch
and cutting data will depend on the
method used in cutting the teeth, but Chordal addendum Addendum i
circular thickness 2 x cos pitch cone angle
—
the information shown in Fig. 17-6-3 is
4PD
commonlv used. Fig. 17-6-1 Bevel-gear formulas.

356 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 -2.563-

DEDENDUM
ADDE WHOLE DEPTH
r- ANGULAR
ADDENDUM

PITCH
CONE ANGLE-
04.000
CUTTING ANGLE- .877
FACE ANGLE- 4.282
01.50
ADDENDUM ANGLE
DEDENDUM ANGLE

CUTTING DATA
NO. OF TEETH 20
DIAMETRAL PITCH 5
TOOTH FORM 14.5° INV
CUTTING ANGLE 40°-25'
HEIGHT WHOLE DEPTH 42°-00'
.431
MOUNTING
CHORDAL ADDENDUM .204
CHORDAL THICKNESS .314

Fig. 17-6-2 Bevel-gear nomenclature. Fig. 17-6-3 Working drawing of a bevel gear.

- BACK CONE

Fig. 1 7-6-4 Bevel gear assembly or display drawing.

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 357

UNIT 1 7-7 to conform with the teeth on the worm. the number of threads on the worm. A
Thread terms such as pitch and lead worm gear with 33 teeth and a worm
Worm and are used on the worm. with a multiple thread of three has a
Since a single-thread worm gear ratio of 1 1 1
Worm Gears one revolution advances the worm
in :

About 50:1 is the maximum ratio

gear only one tooth and space, a large recommended. Since a single-thread
Worm gears are used to transmit reduction in velocity is obtained. worm has a low lead angle, it is ineffi-

power between two shafts that are at Another feature of worm gearing is the cient and consequently not used to
right angles to each other and are non- high mechanical advantage acquired. transmit power. The lead (or helix)
intersecting. Theon the worm
teeth The ratio of worm gear speed to the angle should be between 25 and 45° for
on the rack, and
are similar to the teeth worm speed is the ratio between the efficiency in transmitting power; as a
the teeth on the worm gear are curved number of teeth on the worm gear and result, multithread worms are used.

-FACE LENGTH
-WHOLE DEPTH
LEAD
-ADDENDUM

^liiVS^
OUTSIDE
DIAMETER
THREADS OFLEFTHANDLEANTOTHELEFT PITCH
WHEN STANDING ON EITHER END DIAMETER

LEFT-HAND WORM GEAR AND WORM

THREADS OF RIGHT HAND LEAN TO THE RIGHT

WHEN STANDING ON EITHER END

RIGHT-HAND WORM GEAR AND WORM

THROAT RADIUS-
Fig. 17-7-1 How to identify a left-hand and
right-hand worm gear. Fig. 17-7-3 Worm gear and worm nomenclature.

LEFT-HAND WORM GEAR AND WORM

RIGHT-HAND WORM GEAR AND WORM

Fig. 17-7-2 Location of bearings to absorb
thrust load on worm and worm gear. Fig. 17-7-4 Assembly drawing of a worm and worm gear assembly. (Dimensions not shown.)

358 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

The number of threads on a worm may drawing is normally used for the worm When a worm and worm gear appear
vary from one to eight. gear. When a second view is required, as an assembly drawing, both views
Figures 17-7-1 to 17-7-5 supply data the throat and root circles are shown are drawn and the conventional solid
on worm gear drawings and formulas. as solid lines, and the outside circle is line for the of the OD worm and the
not shown on
this view. As for the throat diameter of the worm gear is
Working Drawings of Worm worm drawing, the root and the out- shown as broken lines where the teeth
and Worm Gears (Fig. 17-7-6) side diameter are shown as solid lines, mesh.
These are similar to working drawings and a second view is not normally
of other gears. A one-view section required.

Term Symbol Formula Definition

Pitch diameter of worm PDw PDw = 2C - PDg

NP
Pitch diameter of gear PDg PDg = 2C - PDw or—

Pitch P The distance from one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth
measured parallel to the worm axis.
It is equal to the circular pitch on the worm gear
(2C - PDw) X -J7

N
Lead L L = -PDg + R The distance the thread advances axially in one revolution of the worm
L = P x T
L = Tan La x -rrPDw

The number of threads or on worm;

Threads T T=i starts e.g., 2 for double thread,
P 3 for triple thread

Gear teeth N N= -PDg Number of teeth on worm gear

p

Ratio R R=^- Divide number of gear teeth by number of worm threads

T

_PDw - PDg
Center distance C
2

Addendum ADD ADD = 0.3 I8P Single and double threads

ADD = 0.286P Triple and quadruple threads

Whole depth WD WD = 0.686P Single and double threads

WD = 0.623P Triple and quadruple threads

Outside diameter, worm ODw ODw = PDw - 2ADD

Outside diameter, gear ODg ODg = TD + 0.4775P Single and double threads

ODg = TD -r 0.3183P Triple and quadruple threads

Throat diameter TD TD = PDg + 2ADD

Face width, gear F F = 2.38P + .25 (inch) Single and double threads
F = 2.38P - 6 (metric)

F = 2.15P + .20 (inch) Triple and quadruple threads

F = 2.15P - 5 (metric)

Face length, worm FL FL = 6 x P

Lead angle La Divide lead by circumference of pitch diameter of worm.

PDw x 3.1416
tangent of lead angle
Quotient is

PDw _ worm
Throat radius Rt Rt = add Subtract addendum from half of pitch diameter of

Rim radius Rr Rr =
^ - P

Fig. 17-7-5 Worm and worm gear formulas.

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 359

 GEARS
A simple gear drive consists of a
toothed driving wheel meshing with a
similar driven wheel. Tooth forms are
designed to ensure uniform angular
rotation of the driven wheel during
CUTTING DATA
tooth engagement. Gears are available
NO. OF TEETH 36
with precision-cut teeth or with un-
ADDENDUM .159
finished teeth.
WHOLE DEPTH .343
NO. OF THREADS 2
PITCH (AXIAL) 500 BELTS
PRESSURE ANGLE 14.50

LEAD ANGLE 70-53'

A belt drive consists of an endless flex-
ible belt that connects two wheels, or
LEAD-RH
pulleys. Belt drivesdepend on friction
between the and the pulley sur-
belt
faces for the transmission of power.
In the case of V-belts, the friction
for the transmission of the driving
force is increased by wedging the belt
into the grooves on the pulley.
V-belt drives are available in single
or multiple strands for varying power-
transmission requirements.
CUTTING DATA Another type of belt has shallow
NO. OF THREADS 2 teeth molded on the inside of the driv-
PITCH .500 ing face. The pulleys have teeth for
PRESSURE ANGLE 14.5° engagement with the belt teeth.
LEAD ANGLE 7°-53'

LEAD-RH
WHOLE DEPTH
ADDENDUM
.343
.159
CHAIN DRIVES COMPARED
WITH GEAR DRIVES
Fig. 17-7-6 Working drawing of a worm and worm gear.

Advantages of Chains
Shaft center distances for chain drives
ASSIGNMENTS of these media
unit the characteristics are relatively unrestricted, whereas
are compared, and the conditions with gears, the center distance must be
See Assignments 17 and 18 for Unit
favorable to the use of each type of such that the pitch surfaces of the
17-7 on page 364.
drive are discussed. gears are tangent. This advantage
often will result in a simpler, less
Review for Assignments
costly, and more practical design.
Unit 19-1 Bearimzs CHAINS
Chains are easily installed. While all
Unit 19-4 Oil Seals
A chain drive consists of an endless drive media require proper installa-
Unit 7-5 Assemblies in Section
chain whose links mesh with toothed tion, the assembly tolerances for chain
Unit 6-4 Bill of Material
wheels, called sprockets, which are drives are not as restricted as those for
Unit 9-2 Pin Fasteners
keyed to the shafts of the driving and gears; and the resultant savings in
driven mechanisms. the time of installation may be an im-
portant item in meeting the produc-
Roller Chains The unique feature of a
tion schedule required of the driven
roller chain is its freedom of joint
machine.
UNIT 17-8 action during its engagement w ith the
The ease of chain installation is a
sprocket. This is accomplished by
Comparison of articulation of the pins of the bushings,
definite advantage where later changes
in design, such as speed ratio, capac-
Chain, Gear, and while the rollers turn on the outside of
the bushings, thus eliminating rubbing
ity, and centers, are anticipated.

Belt Drives action between the rollers and the

Advantages of Gears
sprocket teeth.
When space limitations require the
Chains, gears, and belts are used for SilentChains Comparable ease of joint shortest possible distance between
power drives between rotating shafts action occurs in the engagement of the shaft centers, a gear drive is usually
that cannot be directly coupled. In this silent chain with the sprocket. preferable to a chain drive.

360 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 The maximum speed ratio for satis-
factory operation of a gear drive is usu-
ally greater than that for chain drive.
Gears can be operated at
rotative speeds than chain drives.
CHAIN DRIVES COMPARED
WITH BELT DRIVES
Advantages of Chains
Chain drives do not slip or creep as do
As
belt drives. a result, chains main-
tain a positivespeed ratio between the
driving and the driven shafts, and they
are moreefficient since no power is
lost because of slippage.
Chain drives are more compact than
belt drives. For a given capacity, a
chain will be narrower than a belt, and
sprockets will be smaller in diameter
than pulleys; thus the chain drive will
occupy less overall space.
Chains are easy to install. A chain
can be installed by wrapping it around
the sprockets and then slipping the
pins of a connecting link into position.
The required minimum arc of con-
tact is smaller for chains than for belts.
This advantage becomes more pro-
ASSIGNMENTS
Assignments for Unit 17-1,
Belt Drives
1. V-Belt Drive Problems. Do any
[a] A 0.33 hp (0.25 kW), 1750 r/min
motor is to operate a furnace blower
having a shaft speed of approx-
imately 765 r/min. The center dis-
tance between the motor and
blower shafts is approximately 13.5
in. (340 mm). The type of drive
required is V-belt.
nounced as the speed ratio increases
and thus permits chain drives to oper-
ate on much shorter shaft center
higher distances.
Where several shafts are to be
driven from a single shaft, positive
speed synchronism between the
driven shafts is usually imperative.
For such applications, chains are more
suitable.
Chains do not deteriorate with age;
nor are they affected by sun, oil, and
grease. Chains can operate at higher
temperatures. Chain drives are more
practical for low speeds.
Chain elongation resulting from nor-
mal wear is a slow process; the chain,
therefore, requires infrequent adjust-
ment. Belt stretch, however, necessi-
tates frequent tightening
adjustment, by idlers, or by shortening
the belt.
Advantages of Belts
Since no metal-to-metal
occurs between a belt and
belts require no lubrication, although
leather belts need periodic applica-
tions of belt dressing to preserve their
flexibility.
Generally speaking, a belt drive
for Chapter
[b] A 0.50 hp (0.37 kW), 160 r/min
motor is used to operate a drill press.
The spindle speed is 520 r/min, ± 5
r/min. The center distance between
three. the motor and blower shafts is
approximately 22 in. (550 mm).
Select a suitable V-belt.
(c) A ! .5 hp 750 r/min motor
( 1 . 1 kW),
is to operate a band saw whose
flywheel turns at approximately 800
r/min. A pulley attached to the
flywheel shaft connects, by means
of a V-belt, to the pulley on the
motor shaft. Center-to-center dis-
tance of shafts is 13.5 in. (340 mm).
Calculate the size of the V-belt
required.
operates with less noise than a chain
drive.
Flat belt drives can be used where
extremely long center distances would
make chain drives impractical.
In the extremely high-speed ranges,
flat belts can be operated to better
advantage than chains.
CONCLUSION
No one type of power drive is ideal for
alltypes of service. This unit has dis-
cussed the relative merits of chain,
gear, and belt drives, and should pro-
vide a guide to the selection of the best
type for a given application.
Reference and Source Material
by shaft
I. American Chain Association.
ASSIGNMENT
contact See Assignment 19 for Unit 17-8 on
pulleys, page 364.
Review for Assignment
Unit 17-1 Belt Drives
Unit 17-2 Chain Drives
Unit 17-3 Gear Drives
1
1 [d) A 0.50 hp (0.37 kW), 1750 r/min
motor drives a power hacksaw. The
shaft on the hacksaw is to run at
approximately 750 r/min, and the
center-to-center distance of the
shafts is 5.5 in. (400 mm). Calculate
1
the size of V-belt required.
1 (e) A 0.75 hp (0.6 kW), 1750 r/min
motor is used to drive a punch
machine whose flywheel turns at
approximately 500 r/min. A pulley is
attached to the flywheel shaft and
connects to the motor pulley by
means of a V-belt. Center-to-center
distance is 17 in. (430 mm). Calcu-
late the size of V-belt required.
BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 361
 2. V-Belt Motor Drive. On a B- or A3-size 4. This the same as Assignment 3 except
is same horizontal plane as the line shaft.
sheet, lay out a 0.25horsepower (hp) or that a double chain is to be used. The diameters of the motor shaft and
0.2 k\X/ motor to drive shaft A between 5. The head shaft of an apron conveyor, line shaft are 1.69 and 1.75 in. (42 and

8 5 and 835 r/min by means of a V-belt

1 which handles rough castings from a 44 mm), respectively. A shaft distance of
drive. Refer to Fig. 17-1 -A or 17-1-B. shakeout, operates at 66 r/min and is 48 to 60 in. 220 to 520 mm) will be
( 1 1

Design for normal duty. Other details driven by a gear motor whose output is acceptable. Select a triple chain.
can be seen in Fig. 17-1-10. Draw top 7.5 hp (5.6 kW) The head
at 100 r/min. 8. A centrifugal fan is to be driven at 2800
and front views. From manufacturers' shaft has a 2-in. (50-mm) diameter, and r/min by a 0-hp (7.5-k\X/) electric motor.
1

catalogs select the belt and pulleys and the gear motor shaft has a 1.75-in. (44- The motor speed is 800 r/min, and the
1

call for them in a bill of material. Scale is mm) diameter. Shaft center distance shaft has a 1.375-in. (35-mm) diameter.
1 :4 inch or 1 :5 metric. should not exceed 42 in. (1055 mm). The compressor shaft has a .25-in. (32- 1

Select a multiple chain (moderate shock). mm) diameter. The center distance is to
Assignments for Unit 1 7-2, 6. A gear-type lubrication pump located in be approximately 20 in. (500 mm). The
Chain Drives the base of a large hydraulic press is to overall drive must not exceed a 5-in.
3. A tumbler barrel is to be driven at be driven at 860 r/min from a 1.25-in. ( 25-mm) radius on the motor or a 3-in.
1

approximately 40 r/min by a speed (32-mm) diameter shaft operating at (75-mm) radius at the fan.
reducer powered by a 5 hp (3.7 kW) 1000 r/min. The pump is rated at 3 hp
electric motor. The reducer output speed (2.4 kW) and has a I.375-in. (35-mm) Assignments for Unit 7-3, 1

is 00 r/min, and the output shaft is .75

1 1 diameter shaft. Shaft center distance Gear Drives
in. (44 mm) in diameter. The shaft diame- must not be less than 10 in. (250 mm). 9. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make working
ter of the tumbling barrel is 2 in. (50 mm). 7. A 10-hp (7.5-kW), 480-r/min electric drawings for the two gears described in
The shaft center distance is approx- motor is to drive a line shaft, which is either Fig. 1 7-3-A or Gear
Fig. 1 7-3-B. 1

imately 36 in. (900 mm). Select a single subject to light service, at 1 60 r/min. The will require one view only and be drawn
chain (heavy shock). motor shaft will be in approximately the to full scale or 1:1. Gear 2 will require

ADJUSTABLE TO FIT MOTOR

HP C L

.12 10.75 4.62

6 10.75 4.62

.25 i
25 5.12

53 11.75 5.62 .6250

.6245
.50 12.62 6.50

.75 13.50 7.38

115 VOLT 1750 RPM

MOTOR DIMENSIONS

-J —2.44

Fig. 17-1-A V-belt drive problems.

ADJUSTABLE TO FIT MOTOR

kW c L

0.1 274 118

0.12 274 118

0.20 286 130

0.25 286 144

0.37 320 166

0.56 344 188

115 VOLT I750REV/MIN

MOTOR DIMENSIONS

Fig. 17-1-B V-belt drive problems.

362 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 GEAR #1 GEAR #2 two views and will be drawn to half
Iti $1 scale or Select a proper key size and
Tooth form — 1
4.5° Tooth form — 20° use your
1 :2.

judgment for dimensions not

PD— 6.00
DP—
N— 50
DP— ? A given. Include with each gear drawing a
cutting data block.
Face width— 1 .00 Face width — 1.75 II if 10. On a B- or A3-size sheet, prepare a
Web— 40 Shaft— 01.75
working drawing of two gears in mesh
Shaft— 01.10 Hub— 03.00 x 2.75 GEAR Pb N DP DIRECTION R'MIN
CENTER
DISTANCE from the information found in Fig. 7-3- 1

Hub— 01.90 x 1.50 Lg (total length) A 7.00 28 4 C'WISE 300 C or 7 -3-D. Show two views with three
1

Matl— Ml 6 Spokes— 60 Thk, B 3.00 12

or four teeth shown in mesh. Add suit-
1 .50 wide, tapered C 6.00
able keys and use your judgment for
to 1.10 wide D 12 3
dimensions not given, include cutting
Matl— Ml
GEAR PD N DP DIRECTION R/MIN
data for each gear. Scale is full or 1:1.
o'ffy/fljcE
Fig. 17-3-A Single spur gears. 11. On a B- or A3-size sheet, complete the
missing information on the gear-train
problems shown in Fig. 7-3-E or 7-3-F 1 1

GEAR #1 GEAR #2
ft ill
— — 20° fl fl

n
Tooth form 14.5° Tooth form
PD— 127 N— 44 Assignments for Unit 1 7-4,
Module— 6.35 Module— 6.35 f I
? I ° I
TJ Power-Transmitting Capacity of
Face width — 26 Face width 46 — Spur Gears
Web— 10 Shaft— 045 1 2. Show your calculations for the designs
Shaft— 028 Hub— 076 x 70.6 GEAR PD DP CENTER of suitable pairs of spur gears to operate
N DIRECTION R/MIN
Distance
Hub— 050 x 40 Lg (total length) the equipment described in a and b or c
A 7.50 4 A'WISE 240
Matl— Ml 6 Spokes— 16 Thk, and d below.
B 13
40 wide, tapered (a) A 1200-r/min motor drives, by
c 10.00

to 30 wide D 3.20 16 means of a spur gear and pinion, a

Matl— Ml E 8.00 6 machine rated at 8 hp and operating
F 40 under moderate shock 12 hours a
Fig. 17-3-B Single spur gears. day. The reduction in r/min is 4:1.
Fig. 17-3-E Gear-train calculations.
Select a suitable pair of spur gears to
transmit the power required.
(b) A punch press rated at 22-hp, 900-
Ill r/minis to be driven by a 30-hp,
,
fl
GEAR DATA 1200-r/min motor. The punch,
Tooth form — 14.5°
"V which is subjected to moderate
— 6.00
Center-to-center distance
Gear— N— 36
Face width— 1.10
D~T _. .
.. -
shock, will be in

gears to transmit the power

operation 16 hours
a day. Select a suitable pair of spur

Shaft— 01.25 GEAR PD N MDL DIRECTION R MIN

DISTANCE required.
Web— .40 A 228 6 6 35 C'WISE 300 (c) A 1200-r/min motor drives, by
Hub— 02.10 x 1.50 Lg B 12 means of a spur gear and pinion, a
Matl— Ml C 7632 machine rated at 7.5 kW and operat-
Pinion — N — 24 D 12 3 18
ing under moderate shock 8 hours a
Shaft— 01.10 :.- day. The reduction in r/min is 3:1.
GEAR PD N MDL DIRECTION R/MIN DISTANCE
Matl— Steel Select a suitable pair of spur gears to
A 160
54 transmit the power required.
Fig. 17-3-C Meshing spur gears. 6
B 108
(d) An 1800-r/min motor drives a
c 5
C'WISE 2400
machine which is kW and
rated at 2
D 80
runs at 450 r/min under moderate
shock 1 8 hours a day. Select a suit-
IH ti.. Ijl .It! able pair of spur gears to transmit
GEAR DATA
the power required.
—
V a f
Tooth form 14.5°
13. Show your calculations for the design of
— 127
Center-to-center distance
Gear— N— 24
Face width
Shaft— 032
— 30
GEAR PD N
wu
MDL DIRECTION R/MIN DISTANCE
suitable pairs of spur gears to operate
the equipment described
[a] A
in a or b below.
machine which works under
smooth operating conditions is used
Web— 10 A 182 88 .'. 240 twice a day for about minutes. It 1

Hub— 054 x 38 Lg B 18 5 08 is manually operated and is rated at

Matl— Ml C 203.52 7 hp (6 kW) and runs at 800 r/min.

Pinion N — 16 D 101 76 22 Two motors are in stock at the plant;
Shaft— 030 E 203 04 4 23
one rated at 7 hp (6 kW) and 200 1

Matl— Steel F 10
r/min, the other at 5 hp (4 k\&) and
Meshing spur gears. Fig. 17-3-F Gear-train calculations. 750 r/min. Spur gears are to be used.
Fig. 17-3-D

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 363

 Make a report to the plant engineer
GEAR DATA Assignments for Unit 7-7, 1

on the selection of motor and gears Worm and Worm Gears

which you would recommend. PD— 4.50
7. On an A3- or B-size sheet, make a work-
(6) A 900-r/min motor drives an air Pitch cone angle — 45° 1

ing drawing of a worm and the mating

compressor which operates DP—
Tooth form— 14.5° worm gear from the data given in a or b
between 20 minutes every
15 to below. Use your judgment for dimen-
Face width — .25
hour. The compressor which is rated
1

sions not given. Include on the drawing

Shaft— 01.00
at 5 kW (7.5 hp) runs at 600 r/min, the cutting data. Scale is full or 1:1.
under smooth operating conditions. Hub— 01.75 x 1.50 Lg
Web thickness — .62 (a) A worm and worm gear have a pitch
Select a suitable pair of spur gears to of .5236 in. The gear, made of cast
transmit the power required. Fig. 1 7-6-A Single bevel gear. has 30 teeth; shaft dia = .88,
iron,
hubdia = 1.75, hub length = 1.90,
face width = 1 .00, web thickness =
.40. The worm, made of hardened
Assignment for Unit 7-5, 1
steel, is 3.50 long on a 0.88 shaft,
Rack and Pinion pitch dia = 2. 1 2, single thread, RH
14. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a work- GEAR DATA lead.
ing assembly drawing of the gear and PD— 114.3 (o) A worm and worm gear have a pitch
rack shown in Fig. 7-5-A or 7-5-B. Use
1 1
Pitch cone angle 45
;

of 1 3.3. The gear, made of cast iron,

yourjudgment for dimensions not given. Module— 6.35 has 30 teeth; shaft dia = 22, hub dia
Show four or five teeth in mesh. Scale is Tooth form — 14.5° = 44, hub length = 48, face width
full or 1:1. Face width — 32 = 25, web thickness = 10. The
Shaft— 024 worm, made of hardened steel, is 88
Hub— 044 x 32 Lg long on a 022 shaft, pitch dia = 54,
Web thickness— 16 single thread, RH lead.
GEAR AND RACK DATA 18. On an A3 or B-size sheet, make a two-
Fig. 1 7-6-B Single bevel gear.
Gear- -N— 36 view detail assembly drawing of a worm
DP— and worm gear from the data given in (a)
Tooth form 14.5° or (b) below. Use your judgment for
Web— .50 dimensions not given. Include the cut-
Shaft— 01.25 ting data on the drawing. Scale is half or
Hub— 02.25 x 1.75 Lg GEAR DATA 1:2.

Face width— 1.25 (a) A worm and worm gear have a pitch
Matl— Ml
DP— of .75. The gear, made of phosphor
Face width— 1.10 bronze, has 24 teeth, shaft dia =
Rack- -Matl— Steel
N— 22 1 .25, hub dia = 2.25, hub length =
Fig. 1 7-5-A Gear and rack. Shaft— 01.00 2.50, web thickness = .50. The
Hub— 01.90 x 1.50 Lg
worm, made of steel, has a pitch dia
Web— .75 = 2.50, left-hand double thread,
GEAR AND RACK DATA Matl— Ml shaft dia = 1 .00.
Gear— N— 30 PINION DATA (6) A worm and worm gear have a pitch
MDL— 5.08
Tooth form — 14.5°
N— 14 of 1 9. The gear, made of phosphor
Shaft— 0.75 bronze, has 24 teeth, shaft dia = 32,
Web— 1
hubdia = 58, hub length = 64, web
Hub— 1.25 Lg
Shaft—035 thickness = 3. The worm, made of
Matl— Steel 1

Hub— 058 x 45 Lg has a pitch dia = 64, left-hand

steel,
Face width 32 — Fig. 1 7-6-C Bevel gear assembly. double thread, shaft dia = 26.
Matl— Ml
Rack— Matl— Steel
Fig. 1 7-5-B Gear and rack. Assignment for Unit 17-8,
Comparison of Chain, Gear,
GEAR DATA and Belt Drives
Module— 6.35 1 9. Your supervisor has asked you to submit
Assignments for Unit 1 7-6, Face width — 30 a report recommending the type of
Bevel Gears N— 22 power transmission best suited for the
15. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a work- Shaft— 025 machinery layouts shown in either Fig.
ing drawing of a bevel gear from the Hub— 048 x 38 Lg 17-8-A or Fig. 7-8-B. Make a detailed
1

data shown in Fig. 7-6-A or 7-6-B.1 1 Web— 20 report that specifies the power transmis-
Use yourjudgment for dimensions not Matl— Ml sion parts required to properly operate
given. Scale is full or 1:1. the equipment.
PINION DATA
16. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make an
assembly working drawing of the gears
N— 14
described in Fig. 7-6-C or 7-6-D. Add
Shaft— 020
1 1

to the drawing the cutting data for the

Hub— 32 Lg
gears. Use yourjudgment for dimen-
Matl— Steel
sions not given. Scale is full or :1. 1 Fig. 1 7-6-D Bevel gear assembly.

364 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 30 HP MOTOR
750 RPM
1.38 SHAFT
COAL BREAKER CENTRIFUGAL FAN
3500 RPM 400RPM
1.25 SHAFT 1/2 HP MOTOR
1160 RPM

Fig. 17-8-A Power-transmission drive.

22.4 kW MOTOR
1750 R/MIN
36 SHAFT
COAL BREAKER CENTRIFUGAL FAN
3500 R/MIN 400 R/MIN
32 SHAFT 0.37 kW MOTOR
1160 R/MIN

Fig. 17-8-B Power-transmission drive.

BELTS. CHAINS. AND GEARS 365

CHAPTER 18
Couplings,
Clutches, Brakes,
and Speed
Reducers
UNIT 18-1
Couplings and
Flexible Shafts
S3 ria;/an

(A) SLEEVE
There are many types of flexible
couplings, but all are similar in opera-
tion.
shaft,
part
both.
There are two hubs, one on each
connected by an intermediate
w hich may be flexible, floating, or

Flexible couplings may also be

COUPLINGS divided into three main categories:
Couplings, as the name implies, are those that use mechanical movement,
used to couple
two types of
or join shafts. There are
couplings: permanent
mn. rmm those that depend on the flexing of
materials, and those that combine
couplings and clutches. mechanical movement with flexing.
Permanent couplings are not nor- wszM iissssr The table shown in Fig. 18-1-4 lists
mally disconnected except for assem- the most common types of couplings
bly or disassembly purposes, while and their main qualities. It should be
clutches permit shafts to be connected used only as a guide, since special
or disconnected at will. (B) FLANGED materials can affect qualities consider-
abl> and. of course, there are excep-
:

Fig. 18-1-1 Solid couplings.

Permanent Couplings tions to every rule.For most jobs, any
Permanent couplings can be divided one of several couplings may be suit-
into threemain categories: solid, flexi- vent shock from being transferred able: then cost determines the final
ble, and universal. from one shaft to another and are rec- selection.

Solid Couplings Solid

ommended where several power To aid in selecting the correct-size
couplings should
machines are connected on one shaft. coupling, most manufacturers rate
be used only when driving and driven
See Figs. 18-1-2 and 18-1-3. power transmitted in horsepower per
shafts are mounted on a common rigid
100 revolutions per minute (kW per
base, so that shafts can be perfectly
aligned and will stay that way in ser-
r/min) and give maximum permissi-
ble revolutions per minute. The rating
vice. If two shafts are not in exact
can be determined by the simple
alignment and are connected by a rigid
formula
coupling, excess bearing wear may
occur on the bearing supporting the hp per 100 rev/min =
shaft. The steel sleeve coupling and
the flanged coupling shown in Fig. driving hp x 100 x service factor
coupling revolutions per minute
18-1-1 are solid couplings.

Flexible Couplings These are intended or

to compensate for unintentional mis-
Kilowatts per 100 rev/min =
alignments or transient misalignments
such as those caused by thermal Fig. 18-1-2 Flexible coupling. driving kilowatts x service factor
expansion or vibration. They also pre- (Oldham Principle) coupling revolutions per minute

366 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 The service factor depends on the
source of driving power and the type of
duty. For smooth power sources such
as an electric motor driving smooth
loads like a centrifugal compressor,
the factor is 1. It can be as high as 5
for reciprocating gasoline or diesel
(A) ROLLER CHAIN (B) SILENT CHAIN (C) MORFLEX engines coupled to loads with cyclic
torque variations such as a single-cyl-
inder compressor without a flywheel.

Universal Couplings Commonly called

universal joints, universal couplings
are for applications where angular dis-
placement of shafts is a design require-
ment. It is easier to select universal
couplings than flexible couplings
because there are fewer types of them.
Most common is the Hooke's joint,
which has a cross-type trunnion con-
(D) EXPLODED ASSEMBLY OF A RUBBER BALL COUPLING (F) APPLICATION nected to driving and driven shafts by

## PARALLEL
MISALIGNMENT
SHOCK AND
VIBRATION
U-shapeci endpieces. See Fig. 18-1-5.
Its main disadvantage is that because
the trunnion is always at right angles to
the driven shaft,

shafts.
it gives a sinusoidal
variation in angular velocity between
Other disadvantages are that it
cannot compensate for out-of-parallel
alignments and it does not compensate
for changing distances between driv-
ing and driven points when the angle
END FLOAT
MISALIGNMENT
between shafts changes. These disad-
vantages disappear when two univer-
(E) SURE-FLEX COUPLING (G) 4-WAY FLEXACTION
sal are used, one with a sliding spline.
Fig. 18-1-3 Flexible couplings. (A, B, and C— Morse Chain Co.; as in automotive systems using the
D, F, and G — Commonwealth Mfg.; E — T. B. Wood's Sons Co.)

gear
gear insert
insert spring
insert
ball
tire spring
ball disk
disk
spring

Chain
Straight
Curved
Sliding
Metal Metal Plastic
Bellows Helical Rubber
Plastic
Rubber Rubber
Radial

Grid
(A) SINGLE JOINT

— high
Angular — average . • • .

misalignment — low
— high * * * *

Out-of-parallel — average (B) DOUBLE JOINT

misalignment — low
— high * *

***** ***
* * *

End float — average *

— low
— high
r/min — average ....*.
— low
— high
Torsional — average . .

resilience — low (C) CORRECT ARRANGEMENT

Lubrication ANGLES MUST BE EQUAL
, * . * .
required
Fig. 18-1-5 Universal joints— Hooke's type.
Fig. 18-1-4 Basic features of common flexible couplings. (Boston Gear Works)

COUPLINGS. CLUTCHES. BRAKES. AND SPEED REDUCERS 367

Hotchkiss drive. Hero, the transmis-
sion and differentia] pinion shafts are
parallel, so rotational fluctuations are
canceled out. When two joints arc
used in this manner, the U-shaped tit-
tings o\-\ the drive-shaft ends must be
parallel, or else the rotational fluctua-
tions will he increased instead of can-
celing out.
If constant velocity is essential with
only one universal, a special constant-
velocity universal must be used. Most
of these have some type of ball drive,
where the driving points of contact
bisect the driving angle. They are more
complex than the Hooke's type and
more expensive. The universal cou-
pling shown in big. 1S-1-6 is designed
to transmit a constant velocity . The
drive is through steel balls in races,
designed so that the plane of contact
between the balls and races always
bisects the shaft angle. Flexible shafts
also give constant velocity but are lim-
ited to transmitting relatively low
power.
Fig. 18-1-6 Constant velocity universal
coupling. (The Bendix Corp.)
FLEXIBLE SHAFTS
Flexible shafts are used to transmit
power around corners and at various
angles when driving and driven ele-
ments are not aligned. Speedometers,
tachometers, and indicating and
recording instruments are typical ap-
plications.
Flexible shafts are constructed of
helicalh wound wire and designed for
transmission of rotary power and
motion between two points located so
that their relative positions preclude
the use of solid shafts.
Principal parts are shown in Fig.
18-1-7. They are
1 . Flexible shaft, the bare w orking ele-
ment without end fittings, some-
times called the core or cable.
368 POWER TRANSMISSIONS
UNIT 18-2
Clutches and Brakes
CLUTCHES
(Al CABLE
The simplest use of a clutch is to start
and stop a machine or rotating element
without starting and stopping the
prime mover. Clutching devices have
CASING
been designed to do a variety of other
(B)
jobs, such as to maintain constant
speed, torque, and power or to limit
torque. They are also used for auto-
matic disconnection, quick starts and
stops, gradual starts, and nonreversing
and overrunning functions.
Three types of clutches currently in
general use are mechanical, electric,
and hydraulic. These categories break
down into numerous subtypes provid-
(2) LOOSE FEMALE NUT ing special characteristics and func-
(C) CASING END FITTINGS tional capabilities.
(Dl
^
END FITTING
Mechanical Clutches
Mechanical clutches are basically of
Fig. 18-1-7 Principal parts of a flexible shaft. two types: positive and friction. Posi-
tive clutches operate by meshing the
metal teeth or jaws of the driving mem-
ber with corresponding elements on
the driven member. Friction clutches
2. Shaft end fittings fastened to the press one or more driving members
ends of a flexible shaft to permit against corresponding driven mem-
connection to driving and dri\en bers, such as disks, bands, or shoes.
elements. Positive clutches will break but cannot
3. Flexible casing, a flexible, tubelike slip; friction clutches slip but do not
covering which acts as a runway or break.
guide for the flexible shaft, protects Although not used as commonly as
it from dirt and injury, and helps friction clutches, positive clutches
retain lubrication. have important applications. For
4. Casing end fittings, parts fastened example, they are used in many special
to allowconnection or coupling to synchronized drives. They are used
the housing of the driving and extensively in machine tools, business
driven elements. machines, and household appliances.
In integral sizes they are used in pow er
References and Source Material presses, construction machinery, and
1. Machine Design. Mechanical automotive transmissions.
drives reference issue. 1979. Positive clutches are available in
three basic types, in addition to numer-
ous special designs.
ASSIGNMENTS The square-jaw clutch, also called
See Assignments 1 and 2 for Unit 18- the claw clutch (Fig. 18-2-1A). origi-
on page 373. nally used teeth in the as-cast condi-
tion.
Review forAssignments Spiral-jaw clutches (Fig. 18-2-1 B)
Unit 6-4 Assembly Drawings have eliminated many of the undesir-
Unit 7-1 Full Sections able features of the square-jaw type.
Unit 8-3 Drawing Nuts and Bolts The spiral-jaw clutch will engage at
Unit 9-1 Keys higher speeds than the square-jaw. but
 -FLYWHEEL The simplest and most commonly
-CONES WEDGED FRICTION DISC used electric clutch is the single-disk
.TIGHTLY TOGETHER
friction clutch. See Fig. 18-2-4. Its
action is basically that of an elec-
tromagnet. When the electromagnet is
energized, an armature is drawn into
direct contact with the face of the elec-
tromagnet. In the single-disk clutch,
(A) SQUARE JAW UiJlImm<» the electromagnet is shaped like a
doughnut, and the coil which creates
(A) CONE (B) PLATE OR DISC the field is located inside the doughnut
Fig. 18-2-2 Axial-type friction clutches. shell. Friction material is added to one
side of the shell to form one of the
Overrun clutches drive in one direc- clutch faces. The other face is that of
tion only and overrun or freewheel in the armature, a segmented iron disk.
the other direction. The operation of
the overrun clutch is very simple. As MAGNET
ARMATURE

(B) SPIRAL JAW

the shaft and inner race rotate in the
direction of the arrow shown in Fig.
\
18-2-3, the rollers roll up to the high
spots of the inner race, thus jamming
the inner and outer races as one. caus-
ing the outer race to rotate.
However, if the inner race should Fig. 18-2-4 Electric clutch.
travel at a lower speed than the outer
race. stop, or reverse its direction,

then the outer race would not turn w ith Hydraulic Clutches
the inner race because the rollers (Fluid Couplings)
would not engage the outer race. Fluid couplings are similar to torque
converters, except they do not have a
OUTER RACE
ROLLER stator between the impeller and the
INNER RACE turbine. See Fig. 18-2-5. They simply
transmit input torque, whereas the
torque converter multiplies input
(C) MULTIPLE TOOTH torque. Some fluid couplings can be
Fig. 18-2-1 Positive clutches. (A and B— Link used as variable-speed drives.
Belt Ltd.; C— The Bendix Corp.)
(A) ROLLERS JAMMING THE (Bl ROLLERS NOT MAKING
INNER AND OUTER CONTACT WITH OUTER
RACES AS ONE RACE

will shock-load the driver at engage- Fig. 18-2-3 Overrun clutch.

ment if load inertia is high. It drives in
one direction only and has a tendency
to freewheel. Electric Clutches
Multiple-tooth clutches (Fig. Electric clutches perform the same
1S-2-1C)have multiple teeth modified functions as mechanical clutches but
invarious ways to provide strength or are controlled electromagnetically
high-speed capability. rather than mechanically.
Friction clutches usually fall into All electric clutches have one thing
two principal classifications: rim in common — a magnetic field that Fig. 18-2-5 Fluid coupling.
clutches, in which the contact pressure determines torque. Remote control is (Twin Disc Clutch Co.)

is applied, normally, to the shaft axis
against a rim or drum: and axial
clutches, in w hich the contact pressure
is applied by shift movement along the
shaft, as in cone or disk clutches.
One of the earliest of the axial-type
clutches was the familiar cone clutch.
See Fig. 18-2-2A.
In the disk type of clutch, one or
more friction disks are clamped to
metal plates. See Fig. 18-2-2B.
thus both feasible and economical.
An electric clutch acts as either an
on-off or a continuous-slip device.
Whenever a machine operation in-
volves starting or stopping a motor
more than approximately 12 times per
minute (or 4 to 5 times per minute for
an enclosed motor), an electric clutch
should be used to clutch the load in and
out, thus allowing the motor to run
continuously.
BRAKES
Basically, any brake is simply an
extension of a clutch, in which one
member is held stationary. Brakes
may be used as on-off devices or as
drags. Brakes may be classified into
two major types: mechanical and
electric.

COUPLINGS, CLUTCHES, BRAKES, AND SPEED REDUCERS 369

 basic types: magnetic-particle, eddy-
Mechanical Brakes
current, hysteresis, and friction.
A mechanical brake is a frictional
The most widely used type of elec-
device that converts kinetic energy to
atmo- tric brake is the electromagnetic fric-
heat and dissipates it into the
tion-disk type, in which a friction unit
sphere. It can be actuated mechan-
is electrically actuated or released. See
ically, pneumatically, hydraulically.
Fig. 18-2-8.
or electrically.
Most commercial brakes are band,
References and Source Material
drum, or disk types.
1. Machine Design, Mechanical
Band Brakes These are among
the drives reference issue, 1979.
oldest types of brakes. Basically, a
band brake consists of a flexible steel
band lined with friction material. See ASSIGNMENTS
Fig. 18-2-6. See Assignments 3 and 4 for Unit 18-2
on page 373.

Fig. 18-2-7 Drum brakes. (The Bendix Corp

Review forAssignments
Unit 6-4 Assembly Drawings
Unit 7-1 Full Sections
Unit 7-2 Half Sections
Unit 8-3 Drawing Nuts and Bolts
Unit 9-1 Keys

UNIT 18-3
(A) AUXILIARY BRAKE FOR A TRUCK
USUALLY MOUNTED ON THE Adjustable-Speed
TRANSMISSION
Drives and Speed
Reducers
PACKAGED
ADJUSTABLE-SPEED
DRIVES
Packaged mechanical adjustable-
speed drives range in availability from
(A) SPRING-ACTUATED ELECTRICALLY small machine tools to trucks. They
RELEASED may provide only a few selected
speeds or be able to vary speed infi-
nitelyover a wide range. Efficiency is
(B) COMBINATION BAND-DISC BRAKE generally high; for many units, effi-
USED MOSTLY IN FARM
MACHINERY ciency will be over 90 percent depend-
Fig. 18-2-6 Band brakes. (The Bendix Corp.) ing on the type of drive. An example of
a variable-speed drive is shown in Fig.
18-3-1.
Drum Brakes Drum brakes are perhaps
Adjustable-speed drives can be clas-
the best known type of mechanical
sified in three major categories
brake, mainly because of their wide-
spread use in automobiles. See Fig. 1. Stepped
18-2-7. They are available in two basic 2. Stepless. limited range
configurations, external-contracting 3. Stepless, infinite range
and internal-expanding.

Electric Brakes
Basically, an electric brake is
to an electric clutch, except that one
element is rigidly held. Like clutches,
electric brakes are available in four
GEAR DRIVES
similar (B) ELECTRICALLY ACTUATED Multispeed gear transmissions provide
exact shaft speed at high efficiency.
Fig. 18-2-8 Electromagnet friction-disk
brakes. (A Dings Brakes Co.; B- -Warner They are used in machine tools, mobile
Electric Brake & Clutch Co.) equipment, and other applications

370 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 -SLEEVE CONNECTED TO
.MAIN POWER SOURCE
INPUT GEAR
-FIXED OUTPUT GEARS
-OUTPUT SHAFT

COUNTERSHAFT
SLIDING GEARS

(A) SLIDING GEAR

CLUTCH OUTPUT SHAFT

FIXED GEARS
-INPUT SHAFT

(B) CONSTANT MESH

Fig. 18-3-3 Steel-belt variable drive. (Link
-INPUT SHAFT Belt Ltd.)
-FIXED GEAR

All-Metal Belt In this unit, power is

transmitted by means of a self-forming

UTPUT SHAFT laminated steel belt or chain which
FIXED STEPPED GEARS engages radial teeth on conical pulley
(C) IDLER GEAR flanges. See Fig. 18-3-3.
Fig. 18-3-1 Variable-speed drive for 14 in.

(35mm| lathe. (Rockwell Mfg. Co.) V-Belt A highly compact belt drive
-SUN GEAR
for wide speed variation has been
achieved through use of a modified
V-RINGGEAR form of the compound floating-sheave
where selective control of a number of principle. Speed adjustment is accom-
fixed speeds is necessary. plished by changing the position of the
(D) PLANETARY
Two broad categories of general movable flange on the bottom input
Fig. 18-3-2 Gear-type adjustable-speed
transmissions are available. In one sheave.
drives.
type, the speed is selected manually in ;

the other, speed changes occur auto-

matically at predetermined points.
Basic Types
The most common selective-speed
transmissions are parallel-axis ar-
rangements. These can be broadly
classified into four types.
Sliding Gears Speed adjustment
effected by sliding gears on one or
more intermediate parallel shafts. See
Fig. 18-3-2A. Shifting is generally
accomplished by disengaging the input
shaft.
Constant-Mesh Several gears of differ-
ent sizes mounted rigidly to one
mesh with mating gears free to rotate
on the other shaft. See Fig. 18-3-2B.
Idler One shaft carries several differ-
ent-size gears that are rigidly mounted.
See Fig. 18-3-2C. Speed adjustment is
through an adjustable arm which car-
ries an idler gear to connect with fixed
or sliding gears on the other shaft.
This arrangement is used to provide
stepped speeds in small increments
and is frequently found in machine
tools.
Planetary This type of gearing (Fig.
18-3-2D) is the most versatile and com-
pact gear arrangement for a given ratio
is range and torque capacity. At the same
time, it is also the most expensive,
because of the clutching and braking
elements necessary to control the
operation of the unit. In addition, prac-
tical ratios available with planetary
sets are limited.
shaft
BELT AND CHAIN DRIVES
Packaged belt and chain
vert constant input speed into output
that is steplessly variable within a cer-
tain range. They may contain
motors and built-in gear reducers to
obtain low output speeds. Electric
motors are the most commonly used
power-input devices.
FRICTION AND
TRACTION DRIVES
Friction or traction drives transmit
rotary motion by friction generated at
the point or line of contact. Speeds are
changed by moving the contact point
or line relative to the centers of rota-
tion of the driving and driven mem-
bers. The amount of friction between
the parts determines the transmittable
power.
These drives operate best at con-
stant load, withno sudden shocks to
cause destructive slippage at the fric-
tion point.
Contact of metallic surfaces pro-
vides one practical method of obtain-
drives con- ing stepless speed adjustment. See
Fig. 18-3-4.
integral
IMPULSE DRIVES
Adjustable impulse drives provide infi-
nitely adjustable output speeds, usu-
ally in low-speed ranges. They provide

COUPLINGS. CLUTCHES, BRAKES, AND SPEED REDUCERS 371

 However, this section considers only
those packaged units —
primarily gear-
TURBINE-HI
type —
whose prime function is the
reduction of speed.
- Hh
Base-Mounted Reducers
(A) TYPICAL SINGLE STAGE Base-mounted speed reducers are
ROTATINGHOUSING CONVERTER number of gear types:
available in a
helical, double-helical spur, spiral
bevel, straight bevel, worm, double-
€ tfj£- STATOR enveloping worm, and herringbone.
common geared
In addition to the
A —— TURBINE
1
AT STALL AT RACING
-« IUDC I I C C
reducers, many unconventional
designs are available. Figure 18-3-7
shows a worm-type speed reducer.
(B) TYPICAL FLOW PATTERN IN CONVERTER
Shaft-Mounted Reducers
Fig. 18-3-6 Torque converter adjustable-
speed drive.
A shaft-mounted speed reducer is an
enclosed gear unit mounted on and
supported by the input shaft of the
driven machine. To prevent rotation of
TORQUE CONVERTERS the housing, it is anchored by a torque-
The hydraulic torque converter pro- reaction member to a suitable rigid
vides infinitely variable torque within support.
CAM SURFACES its limits, solely in response to load These reducers are available as heli-
ON SPLIT variation. It makes use of the kinetic cal, herringbone, and spur-gear units,
OUTPUT SHAFT
energy of fluid in motion. The torque of single or multiple reduction stages
converter is similar to a fluid coupling (Fig. 18-3-8) with the output hub either
Fig. 18-3-4 Friction-type adjustable-speed
except for the addition of a stator. concentric with or parallel to the input
drive. (Cone Drive Gears)
Figure 18-3-6A shows the schematic shaft of the speed reducer.

high-ratio speed reductions in a com- blade arrangement of a typical single-

pact package. See Fig. 18-3-5. stage, rotating-housing converter. Fig- References and Source Materials
The principle of operation is contin- ure 18-3-6B shows the typical flow pat- I. Machine Design. Mechanical
uous indexing. The driving member tern among the impeller, turbine, and drives reference issue. 1979.
engages the driven, moves it a pre- stator at stall, when maximum torque
determined distance, and then disen- multiplication occurs, and at racing,
ASSIGNMENTS
gages. when no torque is transmitted.
See Assignments 5 and 6 for Unit 18-3
on page 373.
OUTPUT SHAFT CONNECTED TO MACHINE SPEED REDUCERS
Any device which reduces the speed of
the driving unit is a speed reducer.

SPEED CONTROL

Fig. 18-3-5 Impulse-type variable-speed Fig. 18-3-7 Base-mounted speed reducer. Fig. 18-3-8 Shaft-mounted reducer. (Dodge
drive. (Zero-Max Ind. Inc.) (Winsmith Div. of U.M.C.) Mfg. Corp.)

372 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 18
HUMIDOR CORROSIVE
Assignments for Unit 18-1,
Couplings and Flexible Shafts
1. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the
motor-to-gear box drive unit shown in
Fig. 8- -A. A flexible coupling is required
1 1

to connect the shafts, and the type of

coupling specified is shown in the figure.
Call for the correct-size coupling on the
drawing. Scale is as specified.
2. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the FAN AND MOTOR LAYOUT
motor-to-pump drive assembly shown in
SHAFT
Fig. 18-1 -B. Flexible couplings are
required to connect the shafts, and the
type of coupling specified is shown in the
7SZZ M '//_//] _rxv7
NO.

37 FN .375
A

1.50
B

.70 i
F

-i
0G
.88
L 0M
.375

figure. Call for the proper couplings on

the drawing. Scale is as specified.
"^.
w^^^w^ 1
50 FN
62 FN
75 FN
.50

.62

.75
1.62

1.75

2.00
1.00

1.10

1.20

FLEXIBLE COUPLING DATA

S 2
uj Z

> o
1.00

1.38

1.50
§1
i- oc
D D
O UJ
.50

.62

.75

Assignments for Unit 18-2,

Clutches and Brakes Fig. 18-1-A Motor to gearbox drive.

3. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a full-

section assembly drawing of the friction

clutch shown in Fig. I8-2-A Scale is 1:1.

Use your judgment for dimensions not

shown.
4. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a half-
section assembly drawing of a gear
mounted on the outer race hub of the
overrunning clutch, model 2, shown in 1

Fig. 18-2-B. Scale is full or 1:1. Use your --H—jo nU- —|n) d!->-H —
judgment for dimensions not given.
PUMP DRIVE LAYOUT

Assignments for Unit 18-3, PART SHAFT MAX

D H G N
A B C F L
Adjustable-Speed Drives and NO. SIZE R/MIN

Speed Reducers 163 A 40 5000 120 50 100 20 30 200 60 10 3

5. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a full- 163 B 40 5000 120 50 115 20 30 215 60 10 3

section assembly drawing of the sliding- 163 C 40 5000 120 50 130 20 30 230 60 10 3

gear speed reducer shown in Fig. 8-3-A. 1 163 D 40 5000 120 50 145 20 30 245 60 10 3

Support the gears on journal bearings. 163 E 40 5000 120 50 160 20 30 260 60 10 3

The gears are held to the shafts by set- COUPLING DATA

screws and keys. Gears Cand Dare com- Fig. 18-1-B Motor to pump drive.
bined into one part and slide on the
countershaft. See Fig. 18-3-2A. Complete
the chart on the figure showing the two -SHAFT 40
speeds available (when gears C and E DRIVEN BODY
mesh and when gears Fand D mesh) for
LINING
the different motor inputs. Use yourjudg- MOTOR BLOCK
ment for dimensions not shown. Scale is
0* -BELT DRIVE
SPRING

1:1.

6. On make a draw-
a B- or A3-size sheet,
ing of the speed reduction assembly TAPERED BUSHING
shown in Fig. 18-3-B. The motor and DRIVEN
UNIT DRIVE BODY
worm-gear reducer are mounted on a
table. The coupling FC 5 joins the two. A
1

steel sprocket, mounted directly on the

MODEL A G H
reducer shaft,is to move a chain at an B C D E F MAX MAX
approximate rate of 40 ft per hour. Call
CLUTCH
F32N 90 85 43 21 60 25 32 25
out on the assembly drawing the catalog F4IN 116 100 50 25 66 32 40 25
numbers for the coupling and sprocket F54N 140 125 55 35 90 32 45 50
selected. Scale is half size or 1 :2. Show the
coupling and sprocket in full section. Fig. 18-2-A Friction clutch.

COUPLINGS, CLUTCHES, BRAKES, AND SPEED REDUCERS 373

 SET SCREW
NO. 60
.75 PITCH ROLLER
P.D CHAIN SPROCKET

875

CATALOG HUB

^sr P.D. TEETH L

NO. DIA
KS8 1.96 8 1.50 1.38

KS9 2.19 9 1.65 1.38

KSI0 2.43 10 1.94 1.38

KSII 2.66 II 2.10 1.25

A FULL COMPLEMENT OF SPRAGS BETWEEN F-S SERIES
CONCENTRIC INNER AND OUTER RACES 5 6 8 10 12 14 KSI2 2.90 12 2.10 1.25
TRANSMITS POWER FROM ONE RACE TO MODEL NUMBER
THE OTHER BY WEDGING ACTION OF THE
SPRAGS WHEN EITHER RACE IS ROTATED SPEED REDUCTION ASSEMBLY
IN THE DRIVING DIRECTION. ROTATION IN
STANDARD .500 .875 1.125 1.375 1.625
THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION FREES THE BORE SIZE .625 .750 1.000 1.250 1.500 1.750
SPRAGS AND CLUTCH IS DISENGAGED OR
"OVERRUNS." JOx.05 30x15
KEYSEAT .20x10 20xl0 24x12 .30x15 .40x20 .44x22
t

STANDARD 20x10 .20x10 .24x12 .30x.l 5 .40x20 .44x22

HUB KEYWAY
A 2.75 3.20 3.30 3.60 3.90 4.40
COUPLING
B 2.20 2.90 3.25 3.75 4.45 5.25
CATALOG HOLE HOLE HUB
LENGTH
C
1.250 1.375 1.750 2.250 2.500 2.875 NO. DIA LENGTH O.D. DIA PRO)
1.249 1.374 1.749 2.249 2.499 2.874
FC 12 .50 .84 1.25 ll.OO .60 2.30
D 1.25 1.45 1.60 1.75 2.00 2.25 FC 15 .50 1.00 1.50 |l.25 .75 2.75

E 1.00 1.25 1.60 2.00 2.40 2.90 FC20 .50 1.40 2.00 j
1.75 1 .10 3.70

F 1.00 1.30 1.30 1.45 1.45 1.60

.068 .068 .076 .076 .076 .076

K
.048 .048 .056 .056 .056 .056

.905 1.220 1.220 1.345 1.345 1.530

M
.900 1.215 1.215 1.340 1.340 1.525
7.00- H 2.50
R 1.45 1.55 1.70 1.80 2.10 2.35

S .55 1.00 .90 1.00 1.40 1.55

-.4995
OIL HOLE .25-28 .25-28 .25-28 .25-28 .25-28 .25-28 r .499O
Fig. 18-2-B Overrun clutch.
GEAR DATA: 20° SPUR GEAR. PITCH - 4. PITCH DIA - 6.00.
FACE WIDTH - 1.00. HUB PROJECTION ONE SIDE ONLY - .25.
HUB DIA - 3.50. SHAFT DIA - 1.375. T
4.25

GEAR NUMBER i
OF TEETH MOTOR 1750 RPM
A 20

B 30

C 20

D 24

E 30

F 26

GEAR DATA: COL'J T EP

INPUT OUTPUT
SHAFT DIA - 20 SHAFT
R/MIN R/MIN R/MIN
FACE WIDTH - 15
MODULE -3.175 1150
RATIO 1740 : I

1750
WORM GEAR REDUCER

Fig. 18-3-A Sliding-gear speed reducer. Fig. 18-3-B Speed reduction assembly.

374 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

CHAPTER 19
Bearings,
Lubricants,
and Seals

Plain bearings are often referred to

UNIT 19-1
Bearings
Bearings permit smooth, low-friction
movement between two surfaces. The
movement can be either rotary (a shaft
rotating within a mount) or linear (one
surface moving along another).
Bearings can employ either a sliding
or a rolling action. Bearings based on
rolling action are called rolling-ele-
ment bearings. Those based on sliding
action are called plain bearings.
The basic principles of design and
application of antifriction bearings
were conceived many centuries ago.
They originated for one purpose only
— to lessen friction. Through the ages
people wanted to move heavy objects
across the earth's surface. As far back
as 1100 B.C.. we know that such friction
was reduced by the insertion of rollers
between the object and the surface
over which it was being moved. The
Assyrians and Babylonians used roll-
ers to move enormous stones for their
monuments and palaces. Down
through history are recorded many
similar examples of people's war on
friction.
PLAIN BEARINGS
OIL CUP OR LUBRICATING FITTING
as sleeve bearings or thrust bearings.
terms that designate whether the bear-
ing is loaded axially or radially.
Lubrication is critical to the opera-
tion of plain bearings, so their appli-
cation and function are also often
referred to according to the type of
lubrication principle used. Thus, terms
such as hydrodynamic, fluid-film,
hydrostatic, boundary-lubricated, and
self-lubricated are designations for
particular types of plain bearings.
Although some materials have an
(A) OIL HOLE IN SHAFT
inherent lubricity or can be lubricated
by virtue of a film of slippery solid,
-OIL POCKET
most bearings operate w ith a fluid film
— generally oilbut sometimes a gas.
By far the largest number of bear-
ings is oil-lubricated. The oil film can
be maintained through pumping by a
pressurization system, in which case
the lubrication termed hydrostatic.
is
Or it can be maintained by
a squeezing
or wedging of lubricant produced by
the rolling action of the bearing itself:
this is termed hydrodynamic lubrica- (B) OIL GROOVE IN BEARING
tion. The designs shown in Fig. 19-1-1 Fig. 19-1-1 Common methods
illustrate simple, effective arrange-
of lubricating
plain bearings.
ments for providing supplementary
lubrication.
BEARING HOUSING-
Bearing Types
PRESS FIT a
Journal or Sleeve Bearings These are
cylindrical or ring-shaped bearings
RUNNING FIT-

A plain bearing is any bearing that

works by sliding action, with or with-
designed to carry radial loads. See Fig.
19-1-2. The terms sleeve and journal £33 ,..„.)
out lubricant. This group encompasses
all types other than rolling-
essentially
element bearings.
are used more or less synonymously
since sleeve refers to the general con-
figuration while journal pertains to any
JOURNAL-

Fig. 19-1-2
w
Journal or sleeve bearing.

BEARINGS. LUBRICANTS. AND SEALS 375

portion of a shaft supported by In bushings for small motors and in ASSIGNMENTS
ing. In another sense, however, the automotive engine bearings, babbitt is and
See Assignments 1 2 for Unit 19-
term journal may be reserved for two- generally used as a thin coating over a
on page 392.
bearings used to support the steel strip. For larger bearings in
journals of an engine crankshaft. heavy-duty equipment, thick babbitt is Assignments
Review for
The simples) and most widely used cast on a rigid backing of steel or cast
Unit 7-5 Assembly Drawings
types o\' sleeve hearings are cast- iron.
in Section
bronze and porous-bronze (pow- Bronzes and Copper Alloys Dozens of Unit 17-3 Spur Gears
dered-metal) cylindrical bearings. copper alloys are available as bearing Appendix Bolts. Setscrews
Cast-bronze bearings are oil- or materials. Most of these can be
grease-lubricated. Porous bearings
grouped into four classes: copper-
are impregnated with oil and often and
lead, leaded-bronze, tin-bronze,
reservoir in the housing.
have an
Plastic
oil
bearings are being used
aluminum-bronze. UNIT 19-2
increasingly in place of metal. Origi- Aluminum Aluminum bearing alloys Antifriction Bearings
nally, plastic was used only in small, have high wear resistance, load-carry-
lightly loaded bearings u here cost sav- ing capacity, fatigue strength, and
Ball, roller, and needle bearings are
ing was the primary objective. More thermal conductivity; excellent corro-
classified as antifriction bearings since
recently, plastics are being used and low cost. They are
sion resistance;
used extensively in connecting-rods
friction has been reducedto a mini-
because of functional advantages,
and main bearings in internal-combus-
mum. They may be divided into two
including resistance to abrasion, and
pumps,
tion engines; in hydraulic gear
main groups: radial bearings and thrust
they are being made in large sizes.
bearings. Except for special designs,
pumping equipment, in roll-
in oil-well
Thrust Bearings This type of bearing ball and roller bearings consist of two
neck bearings in steel mills; and in
differs from a sleeve bearing in that rings, a set of rolling elements, and a
reciprocating compressors and aircraft
loads are supported axially rather than cage. The cage separates the rolling
equipment.
radially . See Fig.
Thin, disklike
19-1-3. elements and spaces them evenly
thrust bearings are called thrust Porous Metals Sintered-metal self- around the periphery (circumference
washers. lubricating bearings, often called of the circle). The nomenclature of an
powdered-metal bearings, are simple antifriction bearing is given in Fig.
and low in cost. They are widely used 19-2-1.
in home appliances, small motors,
HOUSING machine tools, business machines, and
*
T farm and construction equipment. BEARING LOADS
/^ROTATING
7
/21m^ SHAFT Common methods used when sup- Radial Load Loads acting perpendicu-
\ ffl plementary lubrication for oil-impreg-
^THRUST lar to the axisof the bearing are called
JV |
1
1/ BEARING nated bearings
Fig. 19-1-4.
is needed are shown in radial loads. See Fig. 19-2-2. Although

W/ designed primarily
1

radial bearings are

V/A for straight radial service, they will

V/A References and Source Material withstand considerable thrust loads
1. SKF Company Ltd. when deep ball tracks in the raceway
2. Machine Design, Mechanical are used.
drives reference issue, 1979.
Thrust Load Loads applied parallel to
the axis of the bearing are called thrust

-BEARING
loads. Thrust bearings are not
designed to carry radial loads.

Combination Radial and Thrust Loads

When loads are exerted both parallel
and perpendicular to the axis of the
Fig. 19-1-3 Thrust bearings.
bearings, a combination radial and
-OIL SATURATED
FELT SEAL thrust bearing is used. The load ratings

listed in the manufacturers* catalogs

vBEARING
Bearing Materials for this type of bearing are for either
pure thrust loads or a combination of
Babbitts Tin and lead-base babbitts are +— ' both radial and thrust loads.
among the most widely used bearing
materials. They have an
embed dirt and have excellent com-
ability to
L FELT WICK BALL BEARINGS
patibility properties under boundary- Fig. 19-1-4 Supplementary lubrication for Ball bearings fall roughly into three
lubrication conditions. oil-impregnated bearings. classes: radial, thrust, and angular-

376 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 contact. Angular-contact bearings are
used for combined radial and thrust
loads and where precise shaft location
is needed. Uses of the other two types

are described by their names: radial

bearings for radial loads and thrust
bearings for thrust loads. See Fig.
19-2-3.

Radial Bearings
Deep-groove bearings are the most
widely used ball bearings. In addition
to radial loads, they can carry substan-
tial thrust loads at high speeds, in
either direction. They require careful
alignment between shaft and housing.
Self-aligning bearings come in two
types: internal and external. In inter-
groove
nal bearings, the outer-ring ball
isground as a spherical surface.
Externally self-aligning bearings
SEPARATOR have a spherical surface on the outside
of the outer ring, which matches a con-
cave spherical housing.
Double-row, deep-groove bearings
embody the same principle of design
as single-row bearings.
Double-row bearings can be used
where high radial and thrust rigidity is
Fig. 19-2-1 Antifriction bearing nomenclature. (SKF Company)
needed and space is limited. They are
about 60 to 80 percent wider than com-
parable single-row, deep-groove bear-
ings, and they have about 50 percent
more radial capacity.
Angular-contact thrust bearings can
support a heavy thrust load in one
direction, combined with a moderate
radial load. High shoulders on the
LOAD inner and outer rings provide steep
contact angles for high thrust capacity
and axial rigidity.
LOADl

Thrust Bearings
In a sense, thrust bearings can be con-
LOAD sidered to be 90° angular-contact bear-
LOAD
COMBINATION RADIAL AND THRUST
ings. They support pure thrust loads at
(A) RADIAL (B) THRUST (C)
moderate speeds, but for practical pur-
Fig. 19-2-2 Types of bearing loads.
poses their radial load capacity is nil.

Because they cannot support radial

loads, ball thrust bearings must be
used together with radial bearings.
Flat-race bearings consist of a pair
of flat washers separated by the ball
complement and a shaft-piloted

^F" retainer, so load capacity

Contact stresses are high, and torque
is limited.

resistance is low.

One-directional, grooved-race bear-

DEEP GROOVE SELF-ALIGNING DOUBLE ROW ANGULAR CONTACT THRUST ings have grooved races very similar to
Fig. 19-2-3 Ball bearings. (SKF Company) those in radial bearings.

BEARINGS, LUBRICANTS, AND SEALS 377

 Two-directional, groove-race bear-
ings consist o( two stationary races,
one rotating race, and t\\ o hall comple-
ments.
ROLLER BEARINGS
I he principal t\pes of roller bearings
arc cylindrical, needle, tapered, and
spherical. In general, they have higher
load capacities than ball bearings of
the same si/e and arc widely used in
heavy-duty, moderate-speed applica-
tions. However, except for cylindrical
bearings, they have lower speed
capabilities than ball bearings. See
Fig. 19-2-4.
Cylindrical Bearings
Cylindrical roller bearings have high
radial capacity and provide accurate
guidance to the rollers. Their low fric-
tion permits operation at high speed,
and thrust loads of some magnitude
can be carried through the flange-roller
end contacts.
Unlike ball bearings, cylindrical
roller bearings are generally lubricated
with oil: most of the oil serves as a
coolant.
Needle Bearings
Needle bearings are roller bearings
with rollers that have high length-to-
diameter ratios.
(A) CYLINDRICAL
Compared with other roller bear-
ings, needle bearings have much
smaller rollers for a given bore size.
Loose-needle bearings are simply a
full complement of needles in the
annular space between two hardened
machine components, which form the
bearing raceways. They provide an
effective and inexpensive bearing
assembly with moderate speed ca-
pability, but they are sensitive to
misalignment.
Caged assemblies are simply a roller
complement with a retainer, placed
between two hardened machine ele-
ments that act as raceways. Their
speed capability is about 3 times higher
than that of loose-needle bearings, but
the smaller complement of needles
reduces load capacity for the caged
assemblies.
Thrust bearings are caged bearings
with rollers assembled like the spokes
of a wheel in a waferlike retainer.
Tapered Bearings
Tapered roller bearings are widely
used in roll-neck applications in rolling
mills, transmissions, gear reducers,
geared shafting, steering mechanisms,
and machine-tool spindles. Where
speeds are low. grease lubrication suf-
fices, but high speeds demand oil lubri-
cation — and very high speeds demand
special lubricating arrangements.
(B) TAPERED (C) SPHERICAL
Spherical Bearings
Spherical roller bearings offer an
unequaled combination of high load
capacity, high tolerance to shock
loads, and self-aligning ability, but
they are speed-limited.
Single-row bearings are the most
widely used tapered roller bearings.
They have a high radial capacity and a
thrust capacity about 60 percent of
radial capacity.
Two-row bearings can replace two
single-row bearings mounted back to
back or face to face when the required
capacity exceeds that of a single-row
bearing.
BEARING SELECTION
Machine designers have a large variety
of bearing types and sizes from which
to choose. Each of these types has
characteristicswhich make it best for a
certain application. Although selec-
tion may sometimes present a complex
problem requiring considerable expe-
rience, the following considerations
are listed to serve as a general guide for
conventional applications.
1. Generally, ball bearings are the less
expensive choice in the smaller
sizes and lighter loads, while roller
bearings are less expensive for the
larger sizes and heavier loads.
2. Roller bearings are more satisfac-
tory under shock or impact loading
than ball bearings.
3. If there is misalignment between
housing and shaft, either a self-
aligning ball or spherical roller bear-
ing should be used.
4. Ball thrust bearings should be sub-
jected to pure thrust loads only. At
high speeds, a deep-groove or angu-
lar-contact ball bearing will usually
be a better choice even for pure
thrust loads.
5. Self-aligning ball bearings and cyl-
indrical roller bearings have very
low friction coefficients.
6. Deep-groove ball bearings are
available with seals built into the
bearings so that the bearing can be
prelubricated and thus operate for
long periods without attention.

LOOSE CAGED BEARING CLASSIFICATIONS

(D) NEEDLE Because of standardization of bound-
Fig. 19-2-4 Roller bearings. (The Torrington Co. & Orange Roller Bearing Co.|
ary dimensions, it is possible to

378 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

replace a bearing by another bearing Bearings may be mounted directly
produced by a different manufacturer on the shaft or on tapered adapter
without any modification to the exist- sleeves. When the bearing is mounted
ing assembly. directly on the shaft, the inner ring
Ball and roller bearings are classi- should be located against a shaft shoul-
fied into various series: rigid ball jour- der of proper height. This shoulder
nals, self-aligning ball journals, rigid must be machined square with the
roller journals, etc. Each series is sub- bearing seat, and a shaft fillet should
— extra
divided into types light, light, be used. The radius of the fillet must
medium, and heavy — meet varying
to clear the corner radius of the inner
load requirements. Each type is man- ring. See Fig. 19-2-6. This also applies
ufactured to a range of standard sizes when the outer ring is mounted in the
which are usually represented by the housing.
diameter of the bore. Therefore, when
(A) LOCKWASHER LOCKNUT
a bearing is ordered, the series, type, — BEARING RING HOUSING
and size are specified.
Figure 19-2-5 shows a range of bear-
ings to a common bore at A and to a
common outside diameter at B. A
selection can therefore be made for a
given shaft size or for a given housing (A) STANDARD (B) RELIEVED
diameter, and the series selected will Fig. 19-2-6 Correct shaft and housing fillet
depend on the load which is applied to radii.

the bearing.

To hold the bearing inner ring axially

on the shaft, a locknut and lockwasher
are commonly used. See Fig. 19-2-7.
Not only is this method effective and
convenient, but nuts and washers spe-
(B) ADAPTOR SLEEVE
cially made purpose are also
for the
readily obtainable. A tab in the bore of
the lockwasher engages a slot in the
shaft, and one of the many tabs on the
periphery of the washer is bent over
(A) COMMON BORE DIAMETER into one of the slots in the nut OD.
Instead of a nut, a retaining ring fit-

ted into a groove in the shaft can be

used for simple bearing arrangements.
See Fig. 19-2-8.
If another machine component,
such as a gear or pulley, is fitted along-
side the bearing, the inner ring is often
secured by means of a spacing sleeve.
A sleeve is often used for spacing the
inner rings when the bearings are
(C) WITHDRAWAL SLEEVE
located reasonably close together.
(B) COMMON OUTSIDE DIAMETER Some bearings are merely mounted Fig. 19-2-7 Locking devices.
Fig. 19-2-5 Standard bearing sizes. against a shoulder without other
means of securing the inner ring tapered adapter sleeves. The outer
axially. This is particularly the case surface of the sleeve is tapered to
where there are no axial forces tending match the tapered bore of the bearing
SHAFT AMD HOUSING FITS
inner ring. This will provide the
to displace the bearings on the shaft.
If a ball or roller bearing is to function The housings for the two bearings are required tight fitbetween the inner ring
satisfactorily, between the
both the fit rigidly connected, and when thrust and the shaft. The adapter sleeve is
inner ring and the shaft and the fit occurs, the bearing taking the load is slotted to permit easy contraction and
between the outer ring and the housing pressed against its shoulder. is threaded at the small end to fit a
must be suitable for the application. On long standard shafting it is locknut. When the sleeve is drawn up
The desired fits can be obtained by impractical to apply bearings, with an tight between the bearing and the
selecting the proper tolerances for the interference fit, directly on the shaft. shaft, a press fit is provided at both the
shaft diameter and the housing bore. Therefore, they are applied with shaft and the inner ring.

BEARINGS, LUBRICANTS. AND SEALS 379

 SPACING SLEEVE" If the operating conditions are such
LOCKNUT that the outer rings can be mounted
LOCK WASHER with a push fit in the housing and
closed bearings (bearings capable of
carrying thrust load in either direction)
are used, axial location may be con-
trolled, as shown in Fig. 19-2-9A. The
outer ring of the held bearing has a
clearance of only .001 to .002 in. (0.05
to 0.1 mm) with the housing shoulders,
while the floating bearings (Fig.
19-2-9B) have a free displacement
axially in the housing.
(A) LOCKNUT (B) FLOATING SNAP RING (C) FIXED SPACING SLEEVE
One of nhe most critical factors
affecting bearing operation is the
mounting fit of the bearing on the shaft
and in the housing. If there is any
clearance or looseness between the
shaft and the bore of the inner ring, the
shaft, as it rotates, will roll along the
bore of the inner ring. The rolling shaft
in the bearing bore will cause the shaft
to rapidly wear and become pro-
gressively looser. Soon it will become
SHOULDER MOUNTING too sloppy for further operation. The
(D) SPACING SLEEVE (E)
best way to prevent this rolling action
and wear is to press-fit the inner ring
ADAPTOR SLEEVE WITHDRAWAL on the shaft.
SLEEVE
Similar reasoning applies to a bear-
ing subject to a load which rotates in
space with the inner ring. Here, if the
outer ring has a clearance in the hous-
ing bore, it will roll around the housing
bore and wear loose. In this case it
would be necessary to have the outer
(F) ADAPTOR SLEEVE (G) WITHDRAWAL SLEEVE ring press-fit in the housing.
Fig. 19-2-8 Axial mounting of inner rings. In all cases, it is necessary to press-
fit the bearing ring which has relative

rotation with respect to the direction of

the radial load.

Seals for Grease Lubrication

RETAINING RING
In order that ball or roller bearings
may operate properly, they must be
LOCKNUT AND
LOCK WASHER

ADAPTOR SLEEVE

(A) SHIELD ONLY (B) SHIELD AND WASHER

(A) FIXED (B) FLOATING Fig. 19-2-10 Bearing seals for grease
Fig. 19-2-9 Outer ring mountings.
lubrication.

380 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

protected against loss of lubricant and essential feature for retaining the oil is

entrance of dirt and dust on the bearing a groove in the rotating shaft, or a
surfaces. In its simplest and least rotating ring or collar from whose
space-requiring form, this is accom- edges the oil is thrown by centrifugal
plished in some types of bearings by force. The oil-groove seal shown in

the use of a thin steel shield on one or Fig. 19-2-12A retains the oil effectively
both sides of the bearing, fastened in a but should be used only in dry and
groove in the outer ring and reaching dust-free placeswhere there is little
almost to the inner ring as illustrated in danger of contamination. Figure
Fig. 19-2-10. All other types of bearings 19-2-12B shows examples of labyrinth
require a seal between the bearing seals which retain the oil and protect
housing and the shaft: the types and against contamination. (Al GENERAL
designs of which are shown in Fig. SYMBOL (Bl APPLICATION

19-2-11. Other types of seals are

BEARING SYMBOLS
explained in Units 19-4 and 19-5.
Simplified Representation The sim-
rQ — n

Seals for Oil Lubrication plified representation (general symbol)

With oil lubrication, the sealing of rolling bearings (see Fig. 19-2-13)
devices have the double function of should be used in all types of technical IC) WHEN IT IS DESIRABLE TO SHOW CONTOUR FORM

protecting the bearing against con- drawings, wherever it is not necessary Fig. 19-2-13 Simplified representation of

tamination and retaining the lubricant to show the exact form or size of the ball and roller bearings.

in the housing. Protection is obtained rolling bearings or details of their inner

by means of friction seals or flingers. design. functional principle of the set of rolling
as when grease lubrication is used. The Where it is desirable to show the elements, symbols for the appropriate
type of rolling element and raceway
LEATHER OR surface are added. See Fig. 19-2-13C.
SYNTHETIC RUBBER
GREASE GROOVES^ Pictorial Representation Pictorial repre-
FLINGERS
sentation of bearings, as shown in Fig.
19-2-14A, is used chiefly in catalogs
and magazines. It is not recommended
for production drawings because of the
extra drafting time required.

Schematic Representation Designers

and engineers frequently use sche-
matic layouts in their initial design
layout. The schematic diagrams of
bearing tvpes and their application are
shown in Figs. 19-2-14C and 19-2-15.
(A) FELT RING B)GREASE (C)CUFF D) LABYRINTH SEALS
GROOVES SEAL
Fig. 19-2-11 Housing seals for grease lubrication

References and Source Material

FLINGERS 1. Machine Design, Mechanical
drives reference issue. 1979.
2. SKF Company. LTD.

ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 3 through 5 for Unit
19-2 on page 393.

DRAIN HOLE
Review for Assignments
Unit 17-3 Spur Gears
(A) OIL GROOVES (B) LABYRINTH SEALS Unit 9-3 Retaining Rings
Fig. 19-2-12 Housing seals for oil lubrication. Unit 9-1 Keys

BEARINGS, LUBRICANTS, AND SEALS 381

 ROLLER BEARINGS THRUST BEARINGS NEEDLE BEARINGS
BALL BEARINGS
RADIAL RADIAL SELF SPHERICAL
DEEP
ANGULAR DOUBLE ALIGNING CYLINDRICAL SELF ROLLER
CONTACT DOUBLE ROW ALIGNING

^
GROOVE

ra H J r~^

7\M n s^
2zi2 is
(A) PICTORIAL

.' '/\* po

\# Oc3
(B) SIMPLIFIED

• m C3 C3

C3 C3
(C) SCHEMATIC
Fig. 19-2-14 Representation of bearings on drawings.

Provision for lubrication is made

[\AA/1 within the units, and sealing elements
retain the lubricant and exclude for-
eign materials. Some types are pre-
II lubricated and sealed at the factory.
L
TT-F^^- Rigid and Self-Aligning Types Rigid pre-
mounted units require accurate
IN align-
X ment with the shaft.

D
*
*/*N
*/

./
:

^
_^
r»!

LaaaJ
!•!

Fig. 19-2-15 Schematic representation of bearings.

UNIT 19-3 ponents are incorporated within a

Premounted Bearings single unit to ensure proper protection,
lubrication, and operation of the bear-
ing. Both plain and rolling-element
Premounted bearing units consist of a bearing units are available in a variety
bearing element and a housing, usually of housing designs and for a wide range
assembled to permit convenient adap- of shaft sizes, as shown in Figs. 19-3-1 Fig. 19-3-1 Adjustable shaft support with
tation to a machinery frame. All com- and 19-3-2. journal bearings.

382 POWER TRANSMISSIONS


(A) FLANGED HOUSING SELF-ALIGNING-SEALED
(B) PILLOW BLOCK SELF-ALIGNING-SEALED
Fig. 19-3-2 Premounted bearing units.
Self-aligning units compensate
minor misalignment mounting struc-
in
tures, shaft deflection, and changes
which may occur after installation.
Self-alignment in sleeve and in some
rolling types is accomplished by the
use of separate inner housings into
which the bearing element is assem-
bled.
Expansion and Nonexpansion Types
Expansion bearings permit axial shaft
movement. The principal application
forexpansion units is in equipment
where shafts become heated and
increase in length at a greater rate than
the structure on w hich the bearings are
mounted.
Nonexpansion bearings restrict
shaft movement relative to the mount-
ing structure and keep shaft and
attached components accurately posi-
tioned. These bearings also serve as
thrust bearings within their capacity.
Nonexpansion sleeve bearings usually
for require collars attached to the shaft at
both ends of the housing.
Pillow blocks provide a convenient
means of mounting shafts parallel to
the surface of a supporting structure.
Bolt holes are provided, usually elon-
gated, to permit alignment: and dowel
holes are sometimes predrilled for use
in maintaining final position on the
supporting member. Pillow blocks are
available with rigid or self-aligning
bearings of expansion or nonexpan-
sion types and with either sleeve or
rolling bearings. Housings are either
split or solid.
Reference and Source Material
1. Machine Design, Mechanical
drives reference issue. 1979.
ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 6 and 7 for Unit 19-3
on page 394.
Review for Assignments
Unit 2-6 Phantom Outlines
Unit 6-4 Assembly Drawings
Unit 7-1 Full Sections
UNIT 19-4
Lubricants and
Radial Seals
LUBRICANTS
There are two main reasons why lubri-
cants are used in any bearing: (1) to
reduce friction between rubbing sur-
faces and (2) as coolants to carry off
heat which may be generated in bear-
ings. Either or both of these functions
may be required of a lubricant on a
particular bearing.
As friction reducers, lubricants can
be considered from two aspects. When
a hydrodynamic bearing is started,
for instance, metal-to-metal contact
occurs. Here, the actual oiliness of the
lubricant lowers the coefficient of fric-
tion between the two sliding surfaces.
In slider bearings operating on full
fluid-film lubrication, the lubricant
separates the two- sliding surfaces
completely, and shearing of the lubri-
cant is substituted for sliding friction.
Any system of rolling elements, like
a ball bearing, should theoretically
reduce friction radically. If balls and
rollers were perfectly smooth and in-
elastic, frictionwould be very low. But
materials deform, and rolling elements
slip under load. Also, uncaged balls or
rollers tend to rub or slide against one
another. When a separator or cage is
present, the rolling elements slide
against it. and the cage itself rubs
against any guiding flange surfaces.
Because of this sliding, lubrication is
needed to minimize wear and friction.
All lubricants can be grouped
roughly into three general types: oils,
greases, and solid-film lubricants.
Oils and Greases
Whether to use oil or grease and what
kind of or grease to use are ques-
oil
tions that, for slider bearings, must
usually be decided early in design
phases, since bearing design depends
on the lubricant and the type of lubri-
cation selected.
BEARINGS. LUBRICANTS. AND SEALS 383
 Solid-Film Lubricants Fittings must be accessible not only
Oils arc slippery, hydrocarbon liq-
Even the smoothest machined sur- to the coupling on a portable lubricat-
uids. Grease is a semisolid, combining
faces have microscopic roller-coaster ing device, but also for possible field
a lubricant with a thickening
fluid
profiles. When one such surface slides installation of other types of lubrica-
agent, usually a soap. In the past, the
on another, the surface irregularities tion equipment. Pipe-thread connec-
soaps in greases were considered as
complicate lubrication. Under hydro- tions are the most universal.
storehouses for the oil. Pressure and
dynamic conditions, a lubricating liq-
temperature squeezed out the oil to Individual Bearings When life expec-
lubricate bearing surfaces. This is uid may be interposed between the
tancy is satisfactory, certain bearings
probably only partly true. Soap mole- surfaces to prevent them from scrap- require no lubrication maintenance
cules are attracted to metal surfaces. ing one peak against another. prelubricated. permanently sealed
The lone hydrocarbon chain molecule When a pure lubricant or a mixture bearings (rolling-element or plain),
sticks separate the rubbing metal sur- of lubricants is applied as dry powder,
solid or dry-film lubricated plain bear-
faces. grease, or an oil suspension, it is called
ings, and porous bushings. But the
Both and grease are used to lubri-
oil a solid lubricant. When the lubricant is
capabilities ofeven these three types
cate rolling- and sliding-contact bear- applied in a uniformly thin layer, con-
of bearings can be improved by adding
ings. In fact, either type of lubricant fining a high concentration of lubricant
internal reservoirs or external lubricat-
can be used in some applications, but to a given area, it is called a bonded dry
ing devices.
each type has peculiar assets that film. Inorganic or organic binders and
Internal Reservoirs The oldest method
equip it for certain types of applica- solvents provide the vehicle for these
uses the direct contact of grease stored
tions. films.
in the cavity of a rolling-element bear-
ing or in the grooves of a plain bearing.
For oil lubrication, felt wicks or
Assets of Oil Some of the advantages of Lubricating Devices wool-waste packings are used to retain
oils are: Available lubricating devices range the oil and to transfer it to the moving
from simple fittings to completely surface by direct contact.
1. Oil is easier to drain and refill. This
is important if lubricating intervals
automatic systems. Lubricating de- External Reservoirs These devices for
vices may be classified as internal or individual bearings include drop-feed,
are close together. It is also easier
external. The bearings they serve can constant-level, thermal-expansion,
to control the fill volume of the oil in

the housing or reservoir.

be lubricated individually or as a bottle, wick-feed oilers, and pressure

2. An oil lubricant for a bearing might

group. grease cups. Only the drop-feed or
Internal devices, or devices that use gravity oiler (Fig. 19-4-1) is in fairly
also be usable at many
other points
in the machine, even eliminating the
reservoirs contained within the hous- common use.
ing of the bearing or group of bearings,
need for a second grease-type lubri-
cant.
are part of the original equipment
3. Oil is more effective than grease in design. External devices, or devices

carrying heat away from bearing that rely on reservoirs in a separate

and housing surfaces. In addition, housing, are often proprietary. Fre-

oils are available for a greater range
quently, external devices are applied
to bearings containing internal lubrica-
of operating speeds and tempera-
tures than greases. tion methods to provide additional

4. Oil readily feeds into all areas of

lubricant.

contact and can carry away dirt,
water, and the products of wear.
Assets of Grease Some
tages of greases are:
1. Grease does not flow as readily as
oil. so it can be more easily retained
ina housing. Since grease is easily
Individual bearing devices include
oil cups, hydraulic grease fittings, and
drip oilers. Group methods gener-
ally supply lubricant under pressure
through a distribution system to a
of the advan- number of bearings. Fig. 19-4-1 External reservoir lubricating
system.
Hand Lubrication Hand lubrication
refers to the manual use of any porta-
ble or semiportable lubrication equip- Multiple Bearings A suitable housing or
ment for bearing-by-bearing applica- enclosure required for all internal-
is

contained, leakproof designs are tion. reservoir methods for lubricating

unnecessary. For hand lubrication from portable multiple bearings. This enclosure
2. Less maintenance is required. devices, accessibly located fittings maintains proper lubricant level and
There is no oil level to maintain: must be provided. For oil-lubricated prevents loss of lubricant from within
regreasing is infrequent. bearings, the simplest provision is a the internal complex. The enclosure
3. Grease has better sealing abilities drilled hole into which fluid lubricant is must also prevent the entrance of con-
than oil. This asset may help to dripped. To avoid plugging or con- taminants. Three common types of
keep dirt and moisture out of the tamination, a tube or cup with a spring- internal lubricating systems are shown
housing. loaded hinged lid is usually installed. in Fig. 19-4-2.

384 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 The sealing element must be flexible
enough to follow shaft runout but stiff
enough to prevent collapse under
operating conditions.
The combination of angles between
the trim surface and what is called the
approach angle is critical. This is par-
ticularly true of the angle toward the
(C)SPLASH LUBRICATION WITH
(A) BATH LUBRICATION (B) SPLASH LUBRICATION PRESSURE LUBRICATING SYSTEM oil. If an angle is too acute, an other-

Fig. 19-4-2 Internal lubricating systems.

wise well-designed seal will perform
poorly.

Installation The bore must be round

GREASE AND OIL SEALS tion of the seal compound. If the shaft and smooth. It must have a proper

is hard and has a surface finish of bet- lead-in chamfer, with a minimum of
Factors in the Selection ter than 20 u,in. (0.5 u.m), any of the tool leads and marks, and no tool-

compounds can be used. On rougher return grooves. A bottom should be

of Oil Seals
shafts, the acrylics and silicones wear designed into the bore, and the bore
Efficient oil seals are available today
too rapidly to be used. should be concentric with the bearing
for every application. But if modern
retention surface.
sealing techniques and advancements
Sealing Materials The type of lubricant The shaft should have a chamfer,
are to be utilized, oil seals must be
and the mean operating temperature and. generally speaking, the surface
selected, inspected, and installed cor-
usually govern the choice of the elas- should be approximately 20 p.in. (0.5
rectly. There are a number of factors
tomer (any elastic substance resem- u,m) with above-C45 Rockwell hard-
to be considered in carrying out these
bling rubber) to be used for the seal ness in abrasive applications and
operations.
compound. Since mean operating tem- above-B80 Rockwell hardness when
The environment in which the seal
peratures seldom exceed 220°F abrasive conditions are absent.
will operate is the most important fac-
(105°C), nitrile rubber compounds are
be
tor in the selection of materials to
the most widely used sealing mate- Felt Radial Seals
used for the seal. In particular, the
rials. They wear best, are easiest to
user must consider Felt is a built-up fabric made by inter-
mold, and are low in cost. locking fibers through a suitable com-
1. Fluid to be sealed in Silicone compounds are preferred bination of mechanical work, chemical
2. Fluid to be sealed out forsome applications. Not all silicone action, moisture, and heat, without
3. Mean temperature of the environ- compounds are safe to use. however. spinning, weaving, or knitting. It may
ment Most will disintegrate rapidly in many consist of one or more classes of
4. The shaft on which the sealing ele- automatic-transmission fluids and in Fibers — wool, reprocessed wool, or

5.
ment runs
The sealing element designs for
some engine oils.
Newfluorelastomer compounds,
reused wool —
which are used alone or
combined with animal, vegetable, and
which tooling has been developed such as Viton, have a long life at very synthetic fibers.
high temperatures in almost any lubri- Felt has long been used as an impor-
The be sealed in are usually
fluids to
cant. Their cost is high, however.
lubricants. The composition of fluid tant material for sealing purposes. The
They get quite stiff, but not brittle, at
main reasons are oil wicking, oil
differs greatly, even within one
low temperatures. absorption, filtration, resiliency, low
classification.
The mediumto be sealed out is usu- friction, polishing action, and cost.
ally aircontaining varying amounts of See Fig. 19-4-3.

dust, gravel, water, slate, etc. Dirt can

radically shorten seal life and often
dictates the selection of the oil-seal
compound. Dirt and dust get under the
sealing lip and cause heavy wear and
scoring of both the shaft and seal
Water and cause rusting of the
salt
shaft surface, with consequent pitting
of the shaft and rapid wear of the seal
lip.
The mean temperature of the
environment has a radical effect on the
seal lifeand strongly influences the
choice of sealcompound.
The shaft on which the seal must
ride has some influence on the selec-
RADIAL SEALS
Typical seal designs being used today
feature both single- and dual-lip seal-
ing elements bonded securely to metal
lip. cases that add strength and rigidity to
the seals. The bonding of the sealing
element to the case eliminates internal
leakage resulting from clamping.
For several years, extensive tests
and investigations have been con-
ducted to evaluate the effect of various
cross-sectional shapes for sealing ele-
ments. Several conditions must be sat-
isfied in developing proper shapes,
some of which conflict with others.
Radial Positive-Contact Seals
Radial positive-contact seals are
dynamic rubbing seals. Operational
effectiveness of a dynamic seal in-
stallation was once measured by an
easy standard: if it did not leak too
much too soon, it was a good seal.
Today's operational concepts require
sealing effectiveness with absolute
minimal leakage over wide service
parameters.
A radial positive-contact seal is a
device which applies a sealing pres-
sure to a mating cylindrical surface to
retain fluids and. in some cases, to

BEARINGS. LUBRICANTS. AND SEALS 385


(Al FELT RING IN (Bl FELT RING HELD (C) UNIT ASSEMBLY
RECESS. REMOVAL BY PLATE. EASILY RECOMMENDED
OF SHAFT FOR REPLACED WHERE SPACE
SEAL REPLACEMENT IS CRITICAL
Fig. 19-4-3 Felt seal designs.
OUTSIDE FACE ID
OUTSIDE FACE
- BORE DIA
SEAL OD
Fig. 19-4-4 Metal-cased radial seal nomenclature.
exclude foreign matter. Although this
definition fits almost all dynamic con-
tact seals, including packings and felt
rubbing seals, attention is given in this
chapter to the types of seals more com-
monly known as oil seals or shaft
seals. See Fig. 19-4-4.
The rotating-shaft application of the
radial seal is most common. However,
the radial seal is also used where shaft
motion is oscillating or reciprocating.
Among the factors which recom-
mend a shaft seal over other possible
sealing media are ease of installation
and small space allocation necessary
in design of equipment, relative low
cost for high effectiveness, and ability
to handle simultaneously a wide range
of variables while providing a positive
sealing effect throughout.
Types Because of the variety of
applications, the radial seal is man-
ufactured in numerous types and sizes.
They are generally categorized as
1. Cased where the leather or
seals,
synthetic sealing element is re-
tained in a precision-manufactured
metal case
2. Bonded seals, with the synthetic
element permanently bonded to a
386 POWER TRANSMISSIONS
mmm^A
^SHAFT^
(A) LABYRINTH SEAL
(D) CUPPED FELT (El MACHINED-CARRIER
SEALING DAM
RING. GOOD AGAINST MOUNTING. WIDELY
GRIT AND DUST USED WITH BALL AND
ROLLER BEARING
(B) BUSHING AND RING SEAL
SEALING ELEMENT Fig. 19-4-5 Clearance seals.
INNER CASE
PRESS FIT
//SURFACE (METAL)
J OUTSIDE CASE A labyrinth seal consists of one or
TRIM
SURFACE more thin strips or knives which are
f BONDED attached to either the stationary hous-
CASE
ing or the rotating shaft. A simple laby-
PRESS FIT
-) SURFACE rinth is shown in Fig. 19-4-5 A.
(RUBBER)
Bushing and Ring Seals The bushing-
type seal is a close-fitting stationary
sleeve within which the shaft rotates.
Leakage from a high-pressure station
flat washer or to a formed-metal atone end of the bushing to a region of
case low pressure at the other end is con-
trolled by the restricted clearance
Seals of both categories can be pro-
between shaft and bushing. Ideally,
vided with spring-tension elements,
the bushing and shaft are perfectly
either garter-spring or finger type, for
concentric, and no rubbing takes
sealing low-viscosity fluids or where
place. See Fig. 19-4-5B.
either shaft speed or eccentricity
demands higher seal contact pres-
Split-Ring Seals
sures.
Split rings are used for a large number
of seal applications. See Fig. 19-4-6.
Clearance Seals
Expanding split rings (piston rings) are
Clearance seals limit leakage by
used in compressors, pumps, and
closely controlling the angular clear-
internal-combustion engines. Applica-
ance between the rotating or re-
tions for straight-cut and seal-joint
ciprocating shaft and the relatively sta-
tionary housing. There are two basic
rings are common and
in industrial
aerospace hydraulic and pneumatic
clearance-seal types: labyrinth, and
cylinders (linear actuators), where the
bushing or ring. These seal types are
ruggedness of piston rings is advan-
employed when a small loss in effi-
tageous and where various degrees of
ciency because of leakage can be per-
leakage can be tolerated.
mitted. Clearance seals are used when
pressure differentials are beyond the
design limitations of contact seals
Axial Mechanical Seals
(face and circumferential).
By convention, the term axial me-
chanical seal, or end-face seal, desig-
Labyrinths Some advantages of laby- nates a sealing device which forms a
rinth seals are reliability, simplicity, running seal between flat, precison-
and flexibility in material selection. finished surfaces. Used for rotating
They are used mainly in heavy indus- shafts, the sealing surfaces usually are
trial, power, and aircraft applications located in a plane at a right angle to the
where relatively high leakage rates shaft. Forces which hold the rubbing
may be tolerated and where design faces in contact are parallel to the
simplicity is an absolute necessity. shaft.
 CYLINDER
of fluid past the juncture of the rotating
seal ring and the shaft.
Since the rotating seal ring is station-
RING JOINT ary with respect to the turning shaft,
SEAL RING sealing at their junction point
plished easily through the use of gas-
kets, O-rings, V-rings, cups,
(A) ACTION OF MEDIUM ON SPLIT forth.
RING SEAL
basic seal, a stationary member is
incorporated in the end cap of the unit.
A complete seal consists basically of
two elements: the seal-head unit,
is accom- which incorporates the housing, the
end-face member, and the spring
and so assembly: and the seal seat, which is
the mating member that completes the
precision-lapped face combination.

'////////, End-Face Seals Shaft Sealing Shaft sealing elements

The main advantage of an end-face include the O-ring, V-ring, U-cup,
:
seal low leakage rate. For exam-
is its wedge, and bellows. See Fig. 19-4-8.
ple, the ratio of leakage between The first four of these elements con-
SEALING POSITION mechanical packings and end-face stitute one category —
the pusher-type
(B) STRAIGHT-CUT SEAL RING seals averages about 100:1. In addi- seal. As the face wears, these sealing
tion, the end-face seal causes little elements are pushed forward along the
wear of the sleeve or shaft on which it shaft to maintain the seal.
seals. Dynamic sealing is created on Pusher-Type Elements For the case of

V
^F the seal faces in a vertical plane to the
shaft.
the O-ring, the hydraulic pressure and
a mechanical preloading factor pro-
Y/S////A The basic development of an end- vide the sealing effect.
SEALING POSITION
face seal is shown in Fig. 19-4-7. A For the V-ring, U-cup, and wedge,
(C) STEP SEAL RING shaft with a simple O-ring as its sealing the sealing function is created by
Fig. 19-4-6 Split-ring seals. member provided with a housing
is mechanical and hydraulic means. Me-
that incorporates one of the sealing chanical preloading to the shaft is pro-
faces. The housing encloses the O- vided by spring action incorporated in
rings and effects a preload on the shaft, the seal design and by hydraulic pres-
Axial mechanical seals replace con-
ventional stuffing boxes where a fluid
thereby ensuring its sealing. A spring sure in the stuffing box.

must be contained in spite of a sub-

assembly is added to energize the end- The V-ring and U-cup designs seal at

stantial pressure head. These seals

face member axially. providing spring the shaft surface and at the mating sur-
pressure against the end-face member face of the housing. The sealing action
have many advantages, such as
to keep the faces together during peri- is obtained from both spring force and
1. Reduced and power losses
friction ods of shutdown or lack of hydraulic hydraulic pressure acting against the
2. Elimination of wear on shaft or pressure in the unit. To complete the spreader element, which reacts against
shaft sleeve
3. Zero or controlled leakage over a
END CAP OR PLATE
long service life SEAL HEAD OR END FACE MEMBER
4. Relative insensitivity to shaft O-RING SEAL
deflection or endplay O-RING SHAFT SEAL

5. Freedom from periodic mainte-

SEAL SEAT
nance

Axial mechanical seals do have dis-

advantages. As precision components
they demand careful handling and
installation.
While differing in design detail, all
mechanical seals make use of the fol-
lowing elements

1. Rotating seal rings

Fig. 19-4-7 Basic end-face seal design.
2. Stationary seal rings
3. Spring-loading devices
PUSHER TYPES BELLOWS TYPE
4. Static seals

The rotating seal ring and the sta-

tionary seal ring are spring-loaded
v
together by the spring-loading appa-
ratus, and sealing takes place on the
surfaces of these two rings, which rub
together. The static seal component of (A)O-RING (B) V-RING (C) U-CUP (D) WEDGE (E) ELASTOMER (F) CONVOLUTION
an axial mechanical seal stops leakage Fig. 19-4-8 Shaft seal configurations.

BEARINGS, LUBRICANTS. AND SEALS 387

 the wiogS o\' the seal, spreading it in
both directions.
Bellows-Type Elements The bellows-
shaped sealing member differs from
the pusher t\ pe in that it forms a static-
seal between itself and the shaft.
Henee. all axial movement is taken up
by bellows flexure.
Molded Packings
Molded packings are often called auto-
matic, hydraulic, or mechanical pack-
ings. As a general group, these pack-
ings usually do not require any gland
adjustment after installation. The fluid
being sealed supplies the pressure
needed to produce the force for sealing
the packings against the wearing
surface.
This general classification of pack-
ings can be subdivided into two cate-
gories: lip and squeeze types.
Lip-Type Packings Lip-type packings of
the flange, cup. U-cup. U-ring. and V-
ring configurations are used almost
exclusively for dynamic applications.
Although rotary motions are encoun-
tered, the packings discussed here are
used primarily for sealing during
reciprocating motion. Hence, all the
recommendations and designs men-
tioned applv to reciprocating service.
See Fig. 19-4-9.
(C) U-CUP (D) U-RING
(E) V-RING
Fig. 19-4-9 Lip-type packings.
388 POWER TRANSMISSIONS
Flanged Packings The flange, some- 1. Low initial cost
times called the hat. is the least popu- 2. Adaptability to limited space
lar of all the lip-type packings. 3. Ease of installation
Cup Packings Leather cup packings, 4. High efficiency
one of the oldest types of lip or 5. No need for adjustment
mechanical packings, are used in large 6. Tolerance to wide ranges of pres-
volume for both hydraulic and pneu- sure, temperature, and fluids
matic service at low and high pres- 7. Sealing in both directions
sures. 8. Relatively low friction
Squeeze-Type Packings Squeeze-type
Squeeze-type packings are gener-
molded packings are made in a variety ally fitted to a rectangular groove,
of sizes and shapes (see Fig. 19-4-10), machined in a hydraulic or pneumatic
but nearly all of them offer these mechanism. Nomenclature for the
advantages dimensions of a squeeze-packing seal
groove is identified as that part which
applies the squeeze to the cross section
of the O-ring.
O-Rings O-ring seals work under the
principle of controlled deformation.
7M/7/M Some slight deformation is given the
D-RING
D-SHAPED RING MAKES GOOD ROD SEAL FOR
elastic O-ring in the form of diametral
RECIPROCATING MOTION. PERFORMS EQUAL- squeeze when it is installed. See Fig.
LY WELL IN HYDRAULIC OR PNEUMATIC 19-4-11. But it is the pressure from the
APPLICATIONS.
confined fluid that produces the defor-
////////////////////
mation which causes the elastic O-ring
to seal.
There are three types of applications
for dynamic O-rings:
DELTA-RING
1. Reciprocating, where the sealing
TRIANGLE-SHAPED RING. SOLVES TWISTING
PROBLEM OF O-RING, BUT SINCE FRICTION actionis that of a piston ring or a
IS GREATER, EXPECTED LIFE IS RELATIVELY
seal around a piston rod.
SHORT. HAS LIMITED APPLICATIONS
2. Oscillating, where the seal rotates
back and forth through a limited
.
number of degrees or several com-
plete turns. This may be combined
with very short reciprocating
strokes. The main difference
O-RING IS MOST COMMON FORM OF SQUEEZE between oscillation and rotation is
PACKING. SEALS IN BOTH DIRECTIONS. HAS the amount of motion involved.
LOW INITIAL COST. USED FOR RECIPROCAT-
3. Rotating, where a shaft turns inside
ING, OSCILLATING AND ROTATING MOTION.
the ID of the O-ring.
'////,
1KTT Squeeze-type packings are eco-
nomical and easy to install and can be
.
*'////
1! V///
used whenever conditions permit.
T-RING
T-SHAPED RING IS NOT SUSCEPTIBLE TO
SPIRAL FAILURES. USED AS ROD OR PISTON
SEAL FOR RECIPROCATING MOTION CAN
BE USED FOR OSCILL ATING MOTION UNDER
LOW PRESSURES.
777/////.
LOBED RING 7//
SQUARE-SHAPED RING WITH FOUR ROUNDED (A) DIAMETRAL (B) UNDER
LOBES. CAN BE USED IN CONVENTIONAL SQUEEZE PRESSURE
O-RING GROOVES FOR RECIPROCATING RO-
TATING, AND OSCILLATING MOTION O-RINGS ARE FITTED INTO RECTANGULAR
SUPERIOR TO O-RING IN MOST ROTATING GROOVES IN HYDRAULIC MECHANISMS, AND
APPLICAT'
SEALED BY BEING FORCED, BY PRESSURE,
INTO CREVICES.
Fig. 19-4-10 Squeeze packings. Fig. 19-4-11 O-rings.
 One of the ideal applications of an SEAL SYMBOLS Review for Assignments
O-ring is as a piston seal in a hydraulic- Unit 19-2 Antifriction Bearings
The simplified representation of seals
actuating cylinder. Another common Unit 9-3 Retaining Rings
as shown in Fig. 19-4-12 is recom- Appendix Cap Screws
application uses the O-ring as a valve
mended for use on drawings, wherever
seat or as a valve stem packing.
it is not necessary to show the exact

form and size of seals.

^ Where it is desirable to
functional principle of the seal, sym-
show

bols for the appropriate type of seal are

the

added. See Fig. 19-4-13. UNIT 19-5

Static Seals
References and Source Material
1. Machine Design. Mechanical and Sealants
n drives reference issue, 1979.

O-RING SEALS
(A) GENERAL SYMBOL (B) APPLICATION ASSIGNMENTS
Fig. 19-4-12 Simplified representation of All static O-ring seals are classified as
seals.
See Assignments 8 and 9 for Unit 19-4
gasket-type seals. Static O-ring seals
on page 394.
are generally easier to design into a
unit than dynamic O-ring seals. Wider
SHAFT-SEALS GROOVE-SEALS tolerances and rougher surface
finishes are allowed on metal mating
members. The amount of squeeze
1

/ ONE TONGUE, LEFT

SEALING INSIDE
SIDE.
1
>' SEALING OUTSIDE. LEFT. applied to the O-ring cross section can
also be increased. This type of non-
moving seal is used in flanges, flange

\ ONE TONGUE, RIGHT SIDE,

SEALING INSIDE.
2
<
SEALING OUTSIDE. RIGHT
flange unions and cylinder end
fittings,
caps, valve covers, plugs, etc.

Groove Design
most common
A rectangular groove is

\
the for O-rings used as
ONE TONGUE. LEFTSIDE, SEALING OUTSIDE, LEFT,
3
SEALING OUTSIDE. 3
> BACKRING. flange gaskets.
The rectangular groove can be
machined half in the face plate and half

4
X ONE TONGUE, RIGHT SIDE,
SEALING OUTSIDE.
4
X SEALING OUTSIDE. RIGHT,
WITH BACKRING.
in the flange, or the entire groove can
be cut in one member. Various flange-
type sealing designs and applications
are shown in Fig. 19-5-1. In some
5
/ ONE TONGUE. LEFTSIDE,
WITH DUST TONGUE.
SEALING INSIDE.
5
>
SEALING INSIDE, LEFT.
flange-gasket designs, a triangular
groove can be used to provide ease of
machining and consequent reduced
cost.Round-bottom grooves are also
6
\ ONE TONGUE, RIGHT SIDE,
WITH DUST TONGUE,
SEALING INSIDE.
6
<
SEALING INSIDE. RIGHT. used.

FLAT NONMETALLIC GASKETS

7
/ ONE TONGUE. RIGHT
WITH DUST TONGUE,
SEALING OUTSIDE.
SIDE,
7 >' SEALING INSIDE, LEFT,
WITH BACKRING. A gasket creates and maintains a tight
seal between separable members of a
mechanical assembly. Although a seal

X ONE TONGUE, LEFTSIDE,

WITH DUST TONGUE,
SEALING OUTSIDE.
8
X SEALING INSIDE, RIGHT.
WITH BACKRING
may be obtained without a gasket, the
gasket promotes an efficient initial seal
and prolongs the useful
assembly.
life of an

X TONGUES. LEFT AND RIGHT,

SEALING OUTSIDE.
9
>
SEALING INSIDE AND OUTSIDE Basic flange joints (Fig. 19-5-2) are
suitable for all kinds of flat gaskets,
plain or jacketed. For moderate pres-
sures up to 200 lb/in. 2 (1400 kPa) the
10

X TONGUES, LEFT AND RIGHT.

SEALING INSIDE.
10 x/ SEALING LEFT AND RIGHT. simple flange joint is applicable.
Metal-to-metal joints are particu-
compressible
larly suitable for truly
Fig. 19-4-13 Functional representation of seals. materials, such as cork composition

BEARINGS, LUBRICANTS, AND SEALS 389

 BASIC FLANGE .. TO METAL METALLIC GASKETS
JOINTS JOINTS
Metallic gaskets are used for high pres-
sures and for temperature extremes
that cannot be handled by nonmetallic
gaskets.
Solid metal gaskets generally re-
APPLICATIONS OF AN O-RING TO CYLINDER
HEAD COVERS. BLIND FLANGES. ETC. THE quire thick flanges. Thinner flanges
(B)
HIGHER THE PRESSURE. THE TIGHTER can be used with metal O-rings. The
THE SEAL. THIS DESIGN AUTOMATICALLY
PRELOADS THE O-RING IN THE GROOVE. rings are made of thin-walled metal
NUTS ARE TIGHTENED ONLY ENOUGH TO tube, bent and welded to form a con-
MAINTAIN METAL-TO-METAL SURFACE
CONTACT. THIS TYPE OF INSTALLATION tinuous circle.
WILL SEAL HIGH PRESSURES WITHOUT
THE EXCESSIVE BOLT STRESS NECESSARY
WITH CONVENTIONAL GASKETED JOINTS. SEALANTS
(C) Sealants are used to exclude dust. dirt,
moisture, and chemicals or to contain
a liquid or gas. They can also protect
against mechanical or chemical attack,
exclude noise, improve appearance,
TWO O-RINGS SIZES USED FOR SEALING and act as an adhesive. See Fig. 19-5-4.
A RECTANGULAR PRESSURE CHAMBER.
THE OUTSIDE O-RING IS STRETCHED IN A Sealants are generally used for less
GROOVE AND THE CAPSCREW HEADS ARE severe conditions of temperature and
SEALED BY SMALL O-RINGS IN COUNTER-
BORE. THIS DESIGN IS A SIMPLE AND pressure than gaskets. Sealants are
Fig. 19-5-2 Flat gasket joints.
EFFECTIVE METHOD OF SEALING X-RAY categorized as hardening and nonhar-
HEADS. GEAR PUMP END-PLATES AND
OTHER APPLICATIONS WITHOUT REQUIR- dening.
ING LAPPED SURFACES.

- =AULTY SUGGESTED REMEDY

PROJECTION OR "EAR"
30LT HOLES CLOSE TO EDGE CAUSES BREAKAGE IN STRIPPING
AND ASS5

O-RING GASKET AS USED ON A FLANGE NOTCH INSTEAD OF HOLE

UNION. THE O-RING MAKES A TIGHT SEAL
WHEN THE UNION SCREWED DOWN
IS
FINGER-TIGHT. THE ROUND-BOTTOM GROOVE
HAS THE SAME DIAMETER AS THE ACTUAL VERY SMALL BOLT HOLES OR AVOID HOLE SIZES UNDER 06 DIA.
REQUIRE HAND PICKING EASY _L HOLE IS FOR LOCATING
CROSS SECTION OF THE O-RING. THE 0- TO MISS OR INDEXING. CHANGE TO NOTCH
RING PROTRUDES .02 TO .03 IN. (0.39/0.79mml
ABOVE THE FACE OF THE FLANGE. THE
VOLUME OF THE GROOVE IS CALCULATED TO
BE THE SAME AS THE MINIMUM VOLUME OF
gg^
THE O-RING. HED EDGES SLOTS REQUIRE HAND PICKING E PERFORATION
COSTLY DIES AND DIE
{ : / /o<- .ANCE
nor
- L LS. HIGH SCRAP LOSS STRETCHING OR HAVE THE GASKET IN MIND DURING
DELICATE CROSS /' DISTORTION IN SHIPMENT OR USE. EARLY DESIGN STAGES
SECTIOI RESTRICTS CHOICE TO HIGH TENSILE
A MODIFICATION OF THE FLANGE-TYPE :'. to
GROOVE. THIS TYPE OF TRIANGULAR STRENGTH MATERIALS
over-all size
GROOVE IS USED WHERE EASE OF MACHIN-
ING AND REDUCED COST ARE IMPORTANT.
THIS TYPE OF DESIGN MAKES AN EFFECTIVE RESULTS IN PERFECTLY USABLE MOST GASKET MATERIALS ARE COM-
SEAL. HOWEVER. THE O-RING IS PERMANENTLY
;rki\g toler PARTS BEING REJECTED AT IN PRESSABLE. MANY ARE AFFECTED
-^PLIED TO COMING INSPECTION. REQUIRES DITY CHANGES. TRY
DEFORMED. PRESSURES ARE LIMITED ONLY GASKET THICKNESS .0 CORRESPONDENCE TO STANDARD OR COMMERCIAL TOL-
BY THE CLEARANCE BETWEEN THE MATING LENGTH
r
REACH AGREEMENT ON PRACTICAL ERANCES BEFORE CONCLUDING
METAL SURFACES AND THE STRENGTH OF ETC. TS INCREASES COST OF PARTS THAT SPECIAL ACCURACY IS
AND TOOLING. DELAYS DELIVERIES REQUIRED
THE METAL ITSELF.
Fig. 19-5-1 Flange-type static O-ring seal :e OF FILLETS. RADII. MOST GASKET STOCKS WILL CON-
ETC. FF UNLESS PART IS MOLDED. SUCH FORM TO MATING PARTS WITHOUT
designs. TOG-- FEATURES MEAN EXTRA OPERATION PRESHAPING BE SURE RADII.
AND HIGHER COST ;
ERS. ETC ARE FUNCTIONAL.
.

NOT MERELY COPIED FROM METAL

:tions EXTRA OPERATION TO SKIVE

--
DERATION TO GLUE. DIE-CUT DOVETAIL JOINT
and cork-and-rubber. These joints :

DIFFICULT TO OBTAIN SMOOTH.

bear a great similarity to joints EVEN JOINTS WITHOUT STEPS OR
ERSE GROOVES
designed for rubber O-rings. Gasket
design considerations are shown in
Fig. 19-5-3. Fig. 19-5-3 Common faults in gasket design and suggested remedies.

390 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 ROLLER- CAP-..
-DIAPHRAGM

-PIN
(A) (B) (C)

BUTT JOINT: USE SEALANT IF THICKNESS OF PLATE IS SUFFICIENT (A), OR BEAD SEALED (B), IF
PLATES ARE THIN. TAPE CAN ALSO BE USED, (C). IF JOINT MOVES DUE TO DYNAMIC LOADS OR
THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION, A FLEXIBLE SEALANT WITH GOOD ADHESION MUST
BE SELECTED. SELECT FLEXIBLE TAPE FOR BUTT JOINT IF MOVEMENT IS ANTICIPATED.

rf zzzz* Oflftft i
(C)
u

LAP JOINT: SANDWICH SEALANT BETWEEN MATING SURFACES, AND RIVET, BOLT, OR SPOT WELD
SEAM TO SECURE JOINT (A). THICK PLATES CAN BE SEALED WITH A BEAD OF SEALANT IB), AND
TAPE CAN ALSO BE USED (C), IF SUFFICIENT OVERLAP IS PROVIDED AS A SURFACE TO WHICH
THE TAPE CAN ADHERE.

(A) (B)
t
; f
SYNTHETIC RUBBER
POOR * GOOD BETTER BEST SEWN LEATHER
(D) BOOT TYPE
ANGLE JOINT: SIMPLE BUTT JOINT CAN BE SEALED AS SHOWN IN (A), IF MATERIAL THICKNESS (t) Fig. 19-5-5 Exclusion seals.
ISSUFFICIENT. BUT BETTER CHOICE IS BEAD OF SEALANT SHOWN IN (B), WHICH IS INDEPENDENT
OF MATERIAL THICKNESS. SUPPORTED ANGLE JOINTS WITH BEAD (C), OR SANDWICH SEAL (D),
ARE BETTER CHOICES.
Fig. 19-5-4 Common methods for sealing Joints.

Hardening sealants may be either corrosion. Static joints are easily References and Source Material
rigidor flexible, depending on their sealed by tight fits and gaskets. Sealing 1. Machine Design, Mechanical
composition. Nonhardening types are between parts having relative motion, drives reference issue, 1979.
characterized by plasticizers that such as between a housing and a mov-
come to the surface continually, so is more difficult.
ing shaft,
that the sealant stays "wet" after Sometimes seals designed only for
ASSIGNMENTS
application. inclusion are used to perform the inclu- See Assignments 10 and 11 for Unit 19-5
sion and exclusion functions simul- on page 397.
taneously. This is inadvisable, except
EXCLUSION SEALS under very light service conditions. Review for Assignments
Exclusion seals are used to prevent the Inclusion seals usually do a poor Unit 8-3 Spotfacing
entry of foreign material into the mov- exclusion job and are damaged by even Appendix Cap Screws
ing parts of machinery. See Fig. 19-5-5. small amounts of abrasive material.
This protection is necessary because Exclusion seals can be classified
foreign material entry contaminates into four general groups: wiper,
the lubricant and accelerates wear and scraper, axial, and boot seals.

BEARINGS, LUBRICANTS, AND SEALS 391

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 19
Assignments for Unit 19-1,
Bearings ted into the gear box. Setscrew collars, or 19-] -D. For the assembly shown on
I. On a B- or A3-size sheet, complete the as shown in the Appendix, are mounted the the largest portion of the shaft is
left,

on the shafts to prevent lateral move- positioned in the housing by a combina-

assembly drawings shown in Fig. 9- -A 1 1

ment. Select suitable 6 DP .59 MDL), tion radial and thrust bearing. Com-
or 19-1 -B. The shaft, shown in the right 1 ( 1

20°-spur gears from manufacturers' cat- plete the internal design of the housing
view, is supported by two plain bearings
press-fitted into the shaft support and alogs which revolve the smaller shaft 4 to properly locate and support the
means of an times as fast as the larger shaft. Lock the bearing.
lubricated by oil fitting.

Select suitable bolts and fasten the shaft gears to the shafts using setscrews and The shaft shown in the assembly on
support to the mounting plate. flats on the shaft. Scale is full or 1:1. the right rests on a thrust bearing. Com-
The shafts for the gear box are sup- 2. On a B- or A3-size sheet, complete the plete the housing detail, and show the

ported by two plain bearings press-fit- assembly drawings shown in Fig. 1 9- 1 -C bearing in position.

A B C -MOUNTING PLATE
19— 1—
1.875 .375 .625
INCH
19-l-B
47.63 10 16
r METRIC
\

0C

-0C
s

-
^
-SHAFT SUPPORT

-GEAR BOX
Fig. 19-1-A, B Journal bearings.

HOUSING
LOAD

LOAD LOAD

0A
0B

LOAD LOAD

A B C D

19— 1—
2.00 .75 1.00 2.50
INCH
19— — 1

50 20 25 60
METRIC
Fig. 19-1-C, D Thrust and journal bearings.

392 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

Assignments for Unit 19-2,
Antifriction Bearings
3. On a B- or A3-size sheet, complete the SHAFT A
gearbox assembly drawing shown in
Fig. 19-2-A or 19-2-B. Gears are
mounted on shafts A and Sand are posi-
tioned and held to the shafts by Wood-
ruff keys and setscrews. The shafts are
supported by radial ball bearings which
are positioned on the shafts with retain-
ing rings. The bearings are to be posi- 0B
tioned and held to the housing by SHAFT B

internal shoulders on the castings and

by cover plates bolted to the housing.
Each shaft will have one floating and
one fixed outer ring mounting. The bear-
ings will be purchased with seals on one
side. From the information given, select
suitable keys, bearings, retaining rings,
and gears from the Appendix or manu-
facturers' catalogs. Note: Shaft A must
be able to be removed from the housing
with the gear in position. Scale is full or
1:1.

On a B- or A3-size sheet, complete the

gearbox assembly drawing shown in
Fig. 19-2-C or 19-2-D. Gear and the 1

shaft are cast as a single unit. Gears 2, 3,

Fig. 19-2-A, B Ball bearings. 0A 0B C GEAR DATA
6, and 7 are fastened to their respective
shafts by keys and are held in location by 19-2-A DP 10
.785 1.000 3.000 SHAFT A N=I5
retaining rings. Gears 4, 5, and 8 are INCH SHAFT B N=45
formed as one part which slides along ings are positioned at points A and B on
19-2-B MODULE 2.54
the lay-shaft meshing with gear 3, 6, or each Each shaft will have one
shaft. 20 25 76.2 SHAFT A IM = I5
7. Retaining rings located at each end of floatingand one fixed outer ring mount- METRIC SHAFT B N=I5
this sliding-gear assembly locate it in the ing. The gear end of the primary shaft
three positions, and a key locks the must be designed to house bearing A of catalogs or the Appendix for standard
assembly to the shaft. Radial ball bear- the mainshaft. Refer to manufacturers' parts. Scale is full or 1:1.

ASSIGNMENT SHAFT A B GEAR DATA

INCH MILLIMETERS
19-2-C
PRi-.VP
MAINSHAFT
•
394
.394
591
.787 GEAR
PITCH = I0
1 |
20°
2 |
SPUR GEAR
3 ' 4 5
FACE WIDTH 60
]
6 ! 7 1 8
,1111 .50 1.00 1.50
J I

10
I

20
I

30 40
L
INCH LAYSHAFT .591 .591 N 20 40 25 | 35 30 30 I 35 25
PRIMARY 10 15 MODULE-- 2.54 20° SPUR GEARFACE WIDTH 16
19-2-D
MAINSHAFT 10 20 GEAR 1 2 3 1
4 i 5 6 |
7 8
METRIC
LAYSHAFT 15 15 |
N 20 ,
40 25 ]
35 \
30 30 J
35 2E

t MAINSHAFT

LAY-SHAFT

Fig. 19-2-C, D Gearbox.

BEARINGS, LUBRICANTS, AND SEALS 393

 On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a sche-
matic presentation of bearings, gears,
and belts, similar to Fig. 9-2- 5, of one 1 1

of the assemblies shown in Fig. 1 9-2-E or

1 9-2-F Scale is to suit.

Assignments for Unit 19-3,

Premounted Bearings
6. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a two-
view (front- and side-view) assembly
drawing of the adjustable shaft support
shown in Fig. 19-3-A. Draw the front
view in full section. Include on your
drawing a bill of material. Scale is full
or 1:1.
E> 7. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a one-
view assembly drawing of the adjust-
able shaft support shown in Fig. 9-3-B. 1

Show the bearing housing in its lowest

position and a phantom outline of the
bearing housing in its top position. Show
only those dimensions that would be
used for catalog purposes. Scale is full
or 1:1.

Fig. 19-2-E Lathe. (Timken Roller Bearing Co.)

Assignments for Unit 1 9-4,
Lubricants and Radial Seals
8. On a B- or A3-size sheet, complete the
two assemblies shown in Fig. 9-4-A or 1

19-4-B given the following information.

Radial Oil-Seal Assembly. The inner
ring of the tapered roller bearing is held
laterally on the shaft by the shaft shoul-
der. A cover plate which is bolted to the
housing by four socket-head cap screws
has a stepped shoulder the same diame-
ter as that of the outside diameter of the
bearing. This shoulder serves two pur-
poses: it locks the outer ring of the bear-
ing in position, and it locates the cover
plate radially on the shaft. The cover
plate has a recess to accommodate a
metal-cased radial seal. The shaft diame-
ter for the oil seal should be slightly
smaller than the diameter of the shaft for
the bearing. The outside face of the
cover plate and the oil seal should be
flush. Scale is full or 1:1.
Oil Ring Seal Assembly. A magnetized
ring press-fitted into the housing firmly
holds the mating ring on the shaft ele-
ment by magnetic force. The carbon ring
in the face of the mating ring, in bal-
anced contact with the lapped surface of
the magnet, forms a permanent, self-
adjusting face seal. O-rings in both the
mating ring and the magnetic shaft ele-
ment (between the element and hous-
ing) prevent leakage of confined fluids.
Fig. 19-2-F Honing gearbox. (Timken Roller Bearing Co Scale is twice size or 2:1.

394 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 PT 4 BEARING- X 4012 ROUNDS AND FILLETS R3 PT 5 BEARINGS
PT 5 GUIDE PIN MATL - . 13 DRILL ROD X 1.00 LG, 2 REQD MATL-BRONZE 2 REQD
PT6BASE PIN MATL - .18 DRILL ROD X 1.25 LG, 2 REQD
PT 7 OIL CAP - XGF-D5

PT 8 BOLT, HEX HD REGULAR - .25 - 20 NC X 1.62 LG,

2 REQD
REGULAR - .25 - 20 UNC, REQD PT6
PT 9 NUT, HEX HD 2
'

SET SCREW
SLOTTED HEADLESS,
CONE POINT
MIO X 30 LG
3 REQD 20 SLIDE FIT FOR PT 2

PT8 HEX HD JAM NUT

PT3YOKE MATL-CI I REQD
MIO 2 REQD

6 X 90 CSK
3 HOLES SPACED AT 90
PT 4 BEARING HOUSING
PT2 MATL-STEEL I REQD
BEARING HOUSING
MATL-CI REQD I

PT 2 VERTICAL SHAFT
MATL-STEEL I REQD PT 7 SET SCREW
06 X 45 CHAMFER SLOTTED HEADLESS
BOTH ENDS , HEADER POINT M 10 X 15 LG
2 REQD
20 SLIDE FIT FOR PT 2

25 40

ROUNDS AND FILLETS R 3

NOTE - DIAMETERS SHOWN FOR

SLIDE AND PRESS FITS
ARE NOMINAL DIMENSIONS

$.40 4 SLOTS I 00_

PT I BASE
- PT 3 SHAFT
PT I BASE MATL-CI I REQD MATL-CRS 2 REQD ir. MATL-CI I REQD

Fig. 19-3-A Adjustable shaft support. Fig. 19-3-B Adjustable shaft support

A B C D

19-4-A
75 1 25 1.50 75
INCH

19-4-B 20 30 38 19
METRIC

HOUSING

MATING RING

MAGNETIC SHAFT ELEMENT

HOUSING

RADIAL OIL SEAL ASSEMBLY OIL RING SEAL ASSEMBLY

Fig. 19-4-A, B Oil seals.

BEARINGS, LUBRICANTS. AND SEALS 39S

 7.50

-*-l.00-»
STROKE
-» 90-»-l 40
CYLINDER HEAD

'"//,
- C \ \ v \ \'

02.75

01.25

-v / /

— 1.75-
0.70 .50 NPT-
HING RETAINER
-4X '50-I6UNF
03.I2-I8UNC X
PISTON ROD-
I.00LG MATL-SAE 1045 PISTON, MATL - MEEHANITE
01.00

NOTE - ALL DIMENSIONS SHOWN ARE NOMINAL: CLEARANCES, TYPES OF FIT, O-RINGS, RETAINING RINGS, PACK NG, SEALS, ETC. I

TO BE SELECTED BY STUDENT

(A) BRONZE BUSHING WITH FELT RING PACKING (C) SQUEEZE PACKING (O-RING) HELD IN GROOVE IN PISTON

(B) THREE GROOVES IN PISTON SURFACE TO (D) THREE INTERNAL RETAINING RINGS HELD IN ONE GROOVE
ACCOMODATE SPLIT-RING SEALS IN HOUSING TO HOLD CYLINDER HEAD AGAINST SHOULDER
Fig. 19-4-C Hydraulic cylinder.

0A 0B 0C 0D 0E F G H 0J K L M N 0P R

19-5-A
2.90 2.00 1.00 3.75 4.50 .25 1.80 4.75 3.50 .375 .60 .40 1.50 2.00 3.50
INCH

19-5-B
73 50 25 95 110 M6 45 120 90 MI0 15 10 40 50 90
METRIC (K) HEX HD CAP SCREWS
4 EQUALLY SPACED-

(F) HEX BOLTS & NUTS

4EQUALLY SPACED

FLANGED PIPE COUPLING CYLINDER-HEAD CAP

Fig. 19-5-A, B Flanged pipe coupling and cylinder-head cap.

396 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

On a B- or A3-size sheet, complete the Assignments for Unit 19-5, Cylinder Head Cap. The cylinder head
hydraulic cylinder assembly shown in Static Seals and Sealants cap is fastened to the cylinder head by
Fig. 19-4-C. The sealing and fastener 10. On a B- or A3-size sheet, complete the four hex-head cap screws equally
requirements are with the draw-
listed two assemblies shown in Fig. 1 9-5-A or spaced. Locking is accomplished by lock-
ing. Add a bill of material calling out the 1 9-5-B, given the following information. washers. Spotfacing on the cast head
standard sealing and fastener parts. Flanged Pipe Coupling. The flanges cap is required because of the rough
Scale is full or 1:1. are fastenedby hex bolts, nuts, and lock- finish of the casting. An O-ring provides

washers. Alignment is accomplished by the seal.

a tongue-and-groove joint, similar to 11, On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a detail

that shown in Fig. 9-5-2E, and a gasket
1 drawing of the gasket used with the
positioned in the groove provides the domed cover shown in Fig. 19-5-C.
seal. Material is neoprene. Scale is 1 :2 or half
size.

58

50

8, S FACE 14,

6 HOLES EVENLY SPACED ON 0180

Fig. 19-5-C Domed cover.

BEARINGS. LUBRICANTS, AND SEALS 397

 Cams, Linkages,
and Actuators

UNIT 20-1

Cams and Cam

Motions

A cam is a machine element designed

to generate a desired motion in a fol-
low er by means of direct contact.
Cams are generally mounted on rotat-
ing shafts, although they can be used
so that they remain stationary and the
follower moves about them. Cams
may also produce oscillating motion,
or theymay convert motions from one
form to another.
The shape of a cam is always deter-
mined by the motion of the follower.
The cam is actually the end product of Fig. 20-1-1 Cam application. (Manifold Machinery Co.)
a desired follower movement. From
the standpoint of engineering alone,
cams have many decided advantages is comparatively easy with standard action is normally parallel to the cam

over the fundamental kinematic four-
bar linkages. See Fig. 20-1-1. Once
they are understood, cams are easier
to designand the action produced by
them can be more accurately forecast.
For example, to cause the follower
system remain stationary during a
to
is very difficult when
portion of a cycle
linkages are used. With a cam this is
accomplished by a contour surface
which runs concentric with the cen-
ter of rotation. To produce a given
motion, velocity, or acceleration dur-
ing a specific portion of a cycle is very
difficult to do with linkages, whereas it
cam motions, especially when the
design is achieved with the aid of a
computer. See Fig. 20-1-2.
By far the most popular types of
cams are the OD or plate cam and the
drum or cylinder cam. In the case of
the OD cam. the body of the cam is
usually shaped like a disk with the cam
contour developed along its circum-
ference. With these cams the line of
action of a follower is generally per-
pendicular to the cam axis. With the
drum cam. the cam track is generally
machined around the circumference of
the drum. In this type of cam the line of
axis. The level-winding mechanism on
a fishing reel is an example of a drum
cam. Other popular types of cams
include the conjugate cam (multiple
cams joined together): the face cam. in
which the cam track is cut into the face
of the disk; and the index cam. which
is similar to a drum cam except that the
motion of the follower passes in an arc
over the cam itself.
As machine speeds increase, the
need for properly designed quality
cams becomes more evident. The
essential specifications necessary to
produce a cam of optimum quality are:

398 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 2. Cam displacement, measured in
degrees or inches (millimeters), is

the cam motion measured from a

specific zero or rest position and
M relates to the follower mechanism
>•
f as defined above.
3. Cam profile is the actual working
s surface contour of cam.
4. Base circle is the smallest circle
drawn to the cam profile.
5. Trace point is the center line of the
(A) OD OR PLATE CAM (B) BARREL (DRUM OR (C) CONJUGATE CAM follower roller or its equivalent.
CYLINDER) CAM
When a flat follower is used, the
cam profile is the envelope of
successive positions of the flat
follower.
6. Pitch curve is the locus of succes-
sive positions of the trace point as
cam displacement takes place.
7. Prime circle is the smallest circle
drawn in the pitch curve from the
cam center. It is related to the base
circle by the roller radius.
8. Pressure angle is the angle
between the normal to the pitch
(D) FACE CAM (E) COMBINATION DRUM (F) INDEX CAM curve and the instantaneous direc-
AND PLATE CAM tion of motion of the follower.
Fig. 20-1-2 Common cams. 9. Pitch point is the position on the
pitch curve where the pressure

1. Proper dynamic design which con- CAM NOMENCLATURE angle is maximum.

10. Pitch circle is the circle which
siders the velocity, acceleration,
(Refer to Figs. 20-1-3 and 20-1-4) passes through the pitch point.
and jerk characteristics of the fol-
1 1. Transition point is the position of
lower system. These include vibra- 1. Follower displacement is gener-

tion and shaft torque analysis. ally defined as the position of the
maximum where acceler-
velocity

follower mechanism from a spe-

ation changes from plus to minus
2. Proper material selection which
(force on follower changes direc-
takes into account cost, wear, and cific zero or rest position in rela-
tion). In a closed cam this is some-
surface stresses produced by the tion to time or some fraction of the
times referred to as the crossover
system. machine cycle (cam displacement)
point, where, because of the
measured in degrees or inches
reversing acceleration, the fol-
(millimeters).
lower roller leaves one cam profile
and crosses over to the opposite
- MAXIMUM PRESSURE
(or conjugate) one.

Figure 20-1-5 illustrates typical cam

DIRECTION OF MOTION and follower combinations used in
FOLLOWER machine design.

TRACE POINT

FALL —
PITCH CIRCLE

CAM PROFILE-
FOLLOWER
DISPLACEMENT
PRIME CIRCLE
"Y"

-PITCH CURVE
BASE CIRCLE

Fig. 20-1-3 Cam nomenclature. Fig. 20-1-4 Cam displacement diagram.

CAMS. LINKAGES. AND ACTUATORS 399

 FOLLOWER MOTION
OTION
OFFSET
FOLLOWER

(Al RADIAL IB) OFFSET RADIAL SWINGING FOLLOWER

FLAT FACE FOLLOWER
RADIAL FOLLOWERS

NO I ROLLER AND CAM

LLOWEF
MOTION
CONJUGATE RADIAL CLOSED CAM FOLLOWER
DUAL ROLLER FOLLOWERS

SPRING LOADED CONJUGATE SWING ARM

CONJUGATE CAM ROLLERS DUAL ROLLER FOLLOWERS INDEX CAM FOLLOWER

Fig. 20-1-5 Typical cam and follower combinations.

CAM FOLLOWERS 0\M MOTIONS The choice of motion that the cam
must produce depend, first, on the
will
The common types of cam followers In the early phases of the development
cycle timing and, second, on the sys-
are shown in Fig. 20-1-6. The roller of the cam mechanism, it is customary
tem or machine dynamics. For the pur-
follower is more suitable where high to work with only center lines to estab-
pose of showing cam layout tech-
speeds, heat (friction), and wear are lish the desired motions. It is obvious
niques, cams producing the following
factors. See Fig. 20-1-7. that some data have been specified or
motions will be discussed
determined from related parts of the
design to establish the cam and linkage 1. Uniform motion
FOLLOWER MOTION requirements and to provide base 2. Parabolic motion
points from which to start the cam 3. Harmonic motion
linkage design. These data will usually 4. Cycloidal motion
be the motion requirements and timing 5. Modified trapezoidal motion
relationships of a particular part of the 6. Modified sine motion
ROUND FLAT ROLLER OFFSET ROLLER machine such as a feed slide, a folding 7. Synthesized, modified sine-har-
Fig. 20-1-6 Types of cam followers. mechanism, or a label applicator. monic motion

400 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 time. The construction of the parabolic
curve as shown in Fig. 20-1-8C is
found in the same manner as detailed
in Fig. 4-5-2.
By using the uniformly accelerated
and retarded method of construction
for this motion, the divisions will
(C) ROLLER FOLLOWER increase and decrease by a ratio of
1:3:5:5:3:1. For instance, a follower is
to rise 2.25 in. in 180°. Plotting points
every 30° and using six proportional
divisions of 1:3:5:5:3:1, we find in the
first30° the follower rises one-eigh-
teenth of the total rise of 2.25 in., or
.125 in.; in the next 30° the follower
rises three-eighteenths of the rise of
2.25 in., or .375 in. and in the third 30°
,

VZP/////////////7/,
the follower rises five-eighteenths of
(A) APPLICATION (D) ROLLER BEARINGS
(B) YOKE MOUNTINGS the rise of 2.25 in., or .625 in.; the
FOR ROLLER BEARINGS and last rises being .625.
fourth, fifth,
Fig. 20-1-7 Cam-roller followers.
.375,and .125 in., respectively. This
motion would produce a jerk if used in
The first four are illustrated in Fig. taking the distance traveled and mak- connection with a cam having a dwell.
20-1-8. ing it proportional to the square of the

Uniform Motion RADIUS VARIES BETWEEN 1/3 TO FULL RISE"

(Constant Velocity Motion) 6-

Uniform motion is used when the fol-

lower is required to rise and drop at a
uniform rate of speed. If a follower is
to rise 1.50 in. in one-half of a revolu-
tion, or 180° of the cam, then for every
30' of cam rotation the follower would

rise one-sixth of 1.50 in., or .25 in.

This curve is also referred to as a
12
30° 60° 90°
3
CAM DISPLACEMENT ANGLE
120°
4
150°
5
180°
6 I
60°
2
90°
3
CAM DISPLACEMENT ANGLE
120°
4
150"
5
180°
6

straight-line motion, and it is most (A) UNIFORM MOTION (B) MODIFIED UNIFORM MOTION
commonly used in connection with
screw machines to control the feed of a
±
"*€
cutting tool. If it were used with a
dwell area in a cam. there would be a <o/

jerk at the start and stop of the motion.

<o/"
Since this kind of motion starts and
ends abruptly, it is often modified **/" S\
slightly to reduce the shock on the fol-
150° 180° 30& 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°
lower. A radius is used at the begin- 5 6 I 2 3 4 5 6
ning and end of the motion, and a line CAM DISPLACEMENT ANGLE CAM DISPLACEMENT ANGLE
tangent to these arcs is drawn. The PARABOLIC CONSTRUCTION METHOD
II) (2) UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED AND RETARDED METHOD
size of the radius varies between one-
(C) PARABOLIC MOTION
third and full-rise height depending on
how sharp the rise is. This motion is
5^-
known as modified uniform motion.
'
Since this type of motion is not desir- cc (-
2
able for high speeds, motions that start \\ %
( O
and end slowly, reaching their max-
a <
imum speed in the center, are used. u.
—
2
X / 1

Parabolic Motion 60° 90° 150° 180°

1

Parabolic motion, commonly referred 2 3 5 6

to as uniformly accelerated and CAM DISPLACEMENT ANGLE CAM DISPLACEMENT ANGLE

retarded motion, or constant accelera- (D) HARMONIC MOTION (E) CYCLOIDAL MOTION
tion, is described by a curve found by Fig. 20-1-8 Cam motions.

CAMS. LINKAGES. AND ACTUATORS 401

Harmonic Motion To illustrate the effect of cam dis- criticalwith the modified trapezoid
This motion, often referred to as crank placement for a given cam size and than with the cycloidal curve. An
motion. is produced b\ a true eccentric follower displacement on the pressure advantage over the cycloid is lower
operating against a flat follow er w hose angle, the return, or fall, curve has acceleration, which means lower
surface is normal to the direction of been shown with a much larger angle. forces on output members (the fol-
linear displacement. Figure 20-1-S) Note that the maximum pressure angle lower system). High inertias can be
illustrates this type of cam. However, has been considerably reduced. handled more satisfactorily with the
it is more frequently necessary to pro- modified trapezoid than with the
duce simple harmonic displacement
a Cycloidal Motion cycloid. This curve also is jerk-free
with less than 361) o\' rotation of the Figure 20-1-8E illustrates the graphic when used in a cam having a dwell.
cam, as illustrated in Fig. 20-1-10. and method of laying out a cycloidal profile
the ordinates for the cam pitch curve using a rolling circle, as shown on the Modified Sine-Curve Motion
can then be determined as shown in lefi end of the illustration. This curve, The modified sine curve
is a combina-

Fig. 20-1-8D. It may be impossible to
use a flat follower since the harmonic-
pitch curve usually has a reentrant or
reversing curve and a flat follower
would just bridge the hollow part.
Since a roller follow er is the most prac-
tical and reliable type, the develop-
ment of the cam profile with this t\pe
of follower is shown. This motion
would also produce a jerk if used in
connection with a cam having
when generated accurately, produces
a very smooth jerk-free motion when
used in a cam having a dwell. This
curve is best suited for light loading at
high speeds.
Modified Trapezoidal Motion
The modified trapezoid is made by
combining the cycloid and the con-
stant-acceleration curve. Manufactur-
a dwell. ing accuracy requirements are less
tion of cycloidaland harmonic curves.
This curve will absorb more errors
than the modified trapezoid or the
cycloidal curve. The torque change
from positive to negative is 0.2 in the
modified trapezoid and 0.4 in the modi-
fied sine curve. This means that the
modified sine curve can stand a more
flexible, or elastic, input drive than the
modified trapezoid. This curve (modi-
fied sine) is ideal for high inertia, as
well as for reasonably high speed.

Synthesized, Modified Sine-

Harmonic Motion
Because of the complex makeup of the
profiles of this curve, only the informa-
tion shown in Fig. 20-1-11 is covered in
this text.

SIMPLIFIED METHOD
OF LAYING OUT
A CAM MOTION
The method show n in Fig. 20-1-1 IB is a
quick and accurate method for laying
out a cam motion. The divisions shown
on the lines in Fig. 20-1-11A are accu-
rately divided into the proper divisions
AIFOLLOWER IN LOWEST POSITION (B) FOLLOWER IN HIGHEST POSITION (C) CAM ROTATED 30° for the various cam motions. For
Fig. 20-1-9 Eccentric plate cam. example, it is required to construct a
2.00 in. parabolic rise in 120° of cam
rotation.
60° 90O 1200
_ HARMONIC r ,30° PARABOLIC RISE I 35° MODIFIED UNIFORM C
Method
i i ,

1. Draw two parallel horizontal lines

2.00 apart representing the rise.
in.
2. Select a suitable distance for the
cam displacement and divide the
120° into 10 equal parts (12°. 24°,
36°, etc.).
3. Using the edge of a sheet of paper,
mark on it the divisions for the par-
abolic motion shown in Fig.
Fig. 20-1-10 Cam displacement diagram. 20-1-1 1A.

02 POWER TRANSMISSIONS
 4. Using this marked paper as the
3 4 5 6 7 scale, lay the scale between the
UNIFORM MOTION SCALE base line and the top of the 2.00 in.
rise, as shown IB, and
in Fig. 20-1-1
transfer the points from the scale to
the drawing.
5. Project these points horizontally to
their respective cam divisions and
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
draw the curve.
HARMONIC MOTION SCALE

CAM DISPLACEMENT
DIAGRAMS
In preparing cam drawings, a cam dis-

4 5
PARABOLIC MOTION SCALE
4 5
CYCLOIDAL MOTION SCALE
5 6
TRAPEZOID MOTION SCALE
6
placement diagram is drawn first to
plot the motion of the follower. The
curve on the drawing represents the
path of the follower, not the face of the
cam. The diagram can be any conve-
nient length, but often it is drawn equal
to the circumference of the base circle
6 8 910 of the cam, and the height is drawn
equal to the follower displacement.
The lines drawn on the motion diagram
are shown as radial lines on the cam
drawing, and sizes are transferred
from the motion diagram to the cam
drawing. Figure 20-1-10 shows a cam
8 9 10
displacement diagram having three dif-
ferent types of motion plus three dwell
periods. Most cam displacement dia-
grams have cam displacement angles
of 360°.

References and Source Material

4 5 6 910
1. Eonic Cams.

MODIFIED SINE MOTION SCALE 2. Commercial Cam and Machine Co.

ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 1 for Unit 20-1 on page
01 2 415.

SYNTHESIZED MODIFIED SINE-HARMONIC MOTION SCALE Review for Assignment

Unit 4-1 Dividing a Line into Equal
Parts
(A) COMMON CAM MOTION SCALES

DEVELOPED CAM ANGLE

PARABOLIC / X UNIT 20-2

T
MOTION / /
SCALE -x / / Plate Cams
2.00
Rl SE
In preparing cam drawings, the radial
ordinates should be laid out in the
1
opposite direction to that in which the
12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 cam rotates.
In drawing plate cams, the prime cir-
SCALE APPLICATION
(B) cle constructed first. This circle rep-
is
Fig. 20-1-11 Simplified method of laying out cam motion. resents the face of a flat follower or the

CAMS, LINKAGES. AND ACTUATORS 403

 diagram is drawn first. The ordinate
NOTE: DISTANCES A TO L (SHOWN IN COLOR)
lines constructed on the motion or dis-
ON THE CAM DRAWING ARE TRANSFERRED placement diagram are drawn on the
TO DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAM.
cam drawing as radial lines, and the
corresponding distances from the base
line to the motion curve are transposed
to the cam drawing, locating the path
of the follower. With cams using a
roller follower, the roller diameter is
then drawn in several positions along
PRIME CIRCLE the path of the follower in order to
construct the profile of the cam face.
When the follower has a flat surface,
the paths of the follower and the cam
PATH OF FOLLOWER face are one.
(PITCH CIRCLE)
Figure 20-2-2 shows a plate cam
which produces a simple harmonic dis-
placement with less than 360° of rota-
DISTANCE F = MAXIMUM FOLLOWER
vJ^'l80o DISPLACEMENT = 2 X OFFSET tion of the cam. The ordinates for the
CAM DRAWING cam pitch curve are constructed as
-PATH OF FOLLOWER
shown in Fig. 20-1-8D. It may be
impossible to use a flat follower since
the harmonic pitch curve usually has a
FOLLOWER reentrant, or reversing, curve and a
DISPLACEMENT
flat follower would just bridge the hol-
low part. Since a roller follower is the
120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270°

ONE COMPLETE REVOLUTION OF CAM

DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAM
Fig. 20-2-1 Eccentric plate cam.
r PRESSURE
ANGLE
/

center line of a roller follower, which-

ever is used, in it lowest position. It
also represents the base line on the
motion diagram.
One of the simplest cams to produce
is the eccentric-plate cam, as illus-

trated in Fig. 20-2-1.The shape of the

cam a perfect circle, and the offset
is

distance for the camshaft is equal to

one-half the follower displacement.
Radial lines are marked off on the cam
PRIME CIRCLE
drawing, with the center of the shaft as
center. The distance between the
prime circle and the center of the roller
PITCH CURVE
follower on the radial lines is trans-
PRESSURE
posed to the displacement diagram. ANGLE
The length of the displacement dia-
gram can be any convenient size, but 180°
often the circumference of the prime CAM DRAWING
circle is chosen in order to keep it in
the same scale as the follower dis-
placement height. Since this type of FOLLOWER
DISPLACEMENT
cam does not provide a dwell period, it L
has limited applications.
Since most cams combine motions
and dwells in their design, the drawing
sequence is different than that for DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAM
eccentric cams. The cam displacement Fig. 20-2-2 Simple plate cam with harmonic motion.

404 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 KEYSEAT-MAIN DRIVE SHAFT -PITCH CURVE
most practical and reliable type, the <£

/
development of the cam profile with
r-CYCLOIDAL
/
-CYCLOIDAL r
20 /
this type of follower is shown.

-
10
y V VV |

CONJUGATE CAMS FOLLOWER

DISPLACEMENT
Conjugate cams are used when a
desired motion cannot be obtained
with a single cam. See Fig. 20-2-3.
Many indexing mechanisms use con-
jugate cams to obtain the necessary
indexing. A displacement diagram is 0^
required for each cam.
FOLLOWER
DISPLACEMENT

— CONSTANT VELOCITY
POINT "A"
71 Y\^
>N^1It N VI
1
1
ANGLE DISP
I
I0L
48° 3 250
* I
.

0° 30° 60° 120° 240° 300° 360°

Fig. 20-2-5 Dimensioning the cam profile.
FOLLOWER
DISPLACEMENT

NOTE FROM 45° TO 60° ALL DISPLACEMENTS OF

CAM NO. 2 MUST BE LESS THAN CAM NO 3 TO properly cut the point A and maintain
PREVENT INTERFERENCE.
Fig. 20-2-4 Timing diagram. the contour, a new set of coordinates
must be established. These are shown
tfjM4J[iB as R cul and O cut To produce such data
.

!
Fig. 20-2-3 Conjugate cam.
TIMING DIAGRAMS
A convenient method of relating the
movement of various machine mem-
bers which are activated by cams
the use of a timing diagram.
20-2-4 shows the timing relationship
for three cams.displacements are
If
plotted to scale, the diagram can be
used for checking interferences. It can
also be used for specifying the various
types of transitions. If zero displace-
ment is used to denote the prime circle
radius, the timing diagram can be used
by most manufacturers to produce
finished cam data. The only additional
data required would be a detailed
To produce a master
or a single
cam, a table of cam radii with corre-
sponding cam angles must be supplied.
The cam is then cut on a milling
machine, or some other suitable
machine tool, by point settings. The
result is a surface with a series of
ridges which must be filed down to a
is by smooth profile. The cam radius, cut-
Figure ting radius, and frequency of machine
setting determine the extent of filing
and the final accuracy of the profile.
For accurate master cams, settings
must often be in 0.5° increments, cal-
culated to seconds. The preparation of
this table may require the solution of
six or eight equations for each of these
machine settings.
If a cam has been developed by
layouts and has a profile as shown in
Fig. 20-2-5, it may appear that the easi-
cam becomes a laborious and expensive
task.
In describing a profile, always
dimension to the pitch curve produced
by the follower center. This holds true
whether the cam
developed by
is
The actual fol-
layout or analytically.
lower location requires two physical
dimensions: radial displacement and
angular displacement. Radial dis-
placement is expressed as a distance
from the cam center or as a displace-
ment from the prime circle. Angular
displacement is measured in degrees
from some zero reference, such as a
keyseat, a dowel hole, or a timing hole,
as shown in Fig. 20-2-6.
The easiest method of presenting
these data is in tabular form, rather
than dimensioning the detailed cam.
Data should be given in at least 1°

drawing of the cam blank. est way to describe this contour is to increments, although 0.5° increments
scale the angle /?, from 0° and scale the are preferred. Increments of 0.5° allow

DIMENSIONING CAMS
The old method of developing cam
contours on the drawing board by
layout has been outdated. In the past,
a detailed cam was developed from an
enlarged layout, using swung arcs and
straight lines. However, it is difficult
to make a quality cam that has been
developed by this method.
displacement D from the center of the the manufacturer to use discretion in
cam to the profile surface. Admittedly, selecting the intervals required to pro-
this method would define the surface duce the finished cam.
or cam profile. Standard practice on tolerancing
However, the only method of man- polar (angular) data is to hold the
ufacturing that could be used is to angles basic (zero tolerance) and to
broach the cam with a very small point place all tolerance on the displacement
cutter. If a cutter radius is added to the value. The only angle that is toler-
displacement value and a cut is made, anced is the one that relates the zero
the adjacent contour is undercut. To reference to some other point on the

CAMS, LINKAGES. AND ACTUATORS 405

 -PITCH CURVE
PITCH CURVE PRIME CIRCLE cam. such as a keyseat or dowel hole.
Figure 20-2-7 shows this method, plus
one of the ways in which to tolerance
the pitch curve contour.
Figure 20-2-8 is an alternate method
.0005-
of establishing the pitch-curve toler-
-BASE CIRCLE
ances. Both these examples contain
"^ 178°
three fundamental specifications "TABULATED VALUES

1. Tolerance on basic cam size Variations from the smooth curve representing the tabulated
values shall not exceed the limits as follows:
2. Tolerance on total transition
OR FROM PRIME CIRCLE 3. Tolerance on the pitch curve over A— Tabulated values are to the center of a .2500
FROM CENTER ±0002 diameter cutter.
some increment of cam angle
(A) DIMENSIONING RADIAL DISPLACEMENT B — The base circle, as established by the initial cut,

the third specification which

It is shall establish a reference. This initial cut shall not vary
by more than from the tabulated
ensures smooth continuity of the cam
.001 values.

surface. C — The values of all errors, in the interval from 0°

through 178°, within bands allowing either cyclic
far the simplest method of
shall lie
By or random variations not exceeding ± .0002 from the
describing the contour is by denoting (straight) center line of the band. The center line shall start

at the initial cut point and shall end at 178° within .001
the type of transition. In this case, the from the initial cut point.

type of dynamic curve chosen is called

D - In the interval from 178° through 360°, all errors
out on the detailed print, such as shall lie within bands allowing either cyclic or random

cycloidal, harmonic, modified-sine, variations not exceeding .0005 from the (straight) center

line of the band. The center line of this interval shall start
etc. Most cam manufacturers are capa- at the actual end point of the first interval center line at
TO TIMING HOLE- ble of producing their own incremental 1 78° and end at the initial cut position at 360°.

FROMKEYSEAT OR FROM TIMING HOLE data. In most cases, the charge for this Fig. 20-2-8 Alternate method of
(B> DIMENSIONING ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT service is nominal. Figure 20-2-9 is an establishing pitch-curve tolerances.
illustration of this type of cam detail
Fig. 20-2-6 Dimensioning point "A" on the
cam profile. drawing.

Figure 20-2-10 illustrates a detailed

cam drawing used by cam manufactur-
ers. The radial and displacement
500 FOLLOWER-BASIC dimensions for the motions are shown
TIMING HOLE EST B — in tabular form.
ZEROREF
— CYCLOIDAL RISE

CAM SIZE
2 200 1 005
BASE RADIUS Cam size depends primarily on three
factors: the pressure angle, the curva-
and the camshaft size.
ture of profile,
Secondary factors which affect size
and design are cam-follower stresses,
available cam material, and available
space.
If a layout is made, such as shown in
Fig. 20-2-11. it becomes obvious that
the maximum pressure angle for a
given cam and follower displacement
becomes smaller as the cam-pitch cir-
cle becomes larger. It is advisable to
limit this maximum pressure angle to
30 or 35°.
Figure 20-2-11 also shows how cam
CYCLOIDAL FALL curvature is related to cam size. For a
given displacement //, cam rotation B,
TOLERANCES:
I-TABULATED VALUES ARE TO THE CENTER OF A ,500 FOLLO and roller radius r, the larger cam with
2- ALLANGLES ARE BASIC AND IN RELATION TO TIMING HOLE pitch-curve radius Rp 2 has a much
3-TOTAL TRANSITION TABULATED VALUES
4-THE RELATIVE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Ai "FNT DEGREES MUST
-
easier curve to manufacture. Note
NOT EXCEED 0002 FROM THE DIFFERENCE ESTABLISHED BY THE TABULATED DATA
5-DWELLSTO BE CONCENTRIC TO ID OF C- T p TOTAL INDICATOR)
, ,
I
how the smaller cam with radius Rp x

READING). has much smaller radii of curvature

Fig. 20-2-7 Tolerancing polar data. near the high end of the displacement.

406 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 Fig. 20-2-9 Plate cam drawing. MAXIMUM PRESSURE
ANGLE-35°
\
—M2«- B

— 78

-~ 20-38-

120"
PARABOLIC
DROP

Fig. 20-2-11 Increasing the cam size

decreases the pressure angle.

TOLERANCE ON RADIAL DISPLACEMENT ± 00

TOLERANCE ON ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT 10.5°
Figure 20-2-11 also shows the effect
180° HARMONIC RISE DWELL |2Q0 PARABOLIC DROP DWELL
of roller diameter on the shape and
RADIAL accuracy of the cam profile. Always
ANGULAR
DISPLACEMENT
DISPLACE FROM use the smallest possible roller consis-
MENT PRIME CIRCLE
0° tent with the load it has to carry.
180° !
250 Another factor affecting cam size is
210° 1 250 the cutting away of a previously gener-
330°
ated cam profile by virtue of too large a
00 180° 2I0O 33
DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAM cam roll. This is illustrated in Fig.
NOTE ANGULAR AND RADIAL DISPLACEMENT DIMENSIONS FOR MOTIONS SUPPLIED BY CAM MANUFACTURER. 20-2-12. Basically, the cam-follower-
roll radius must be less than the pitch-
curve radii at any point along the pitch
curve.

References and Source Material

1. Eonic Inc.

I 500
ASSIGNMENTS
I
See Assignments 2 through 4 for Unit
20-2on page 416.
100

A Review
Unit 4-1
for Assignments
Dividing a Line into Equal
Parts
Unit 9-1 Keys
Unit 20-1 Cam Motions

CAM FOLLOWER
PITCH CURVE
PITCH CURVE
ROTATION DEG. MIN. SEC. DISPLACEMENT ROTATION DEG. MIN. SEC. DISPLACEMENT
— 30 [- RADIUS

I— 60 -
120.000 119 48 280.000 279 59 5 250001
121.000 120 48 8 650446 281000 280 59 5 250014
122.000 121 48 8 650310 282.000 281 59 5.250105
123000 122 48 8 649938 283.000 282 59 5250350

182.000 181 fi 316000

183.000 182 6 317.000

208.000 207 1? 347000 346 6823881

209.000 208 M 348.000 347 6872336

CAM FOLLOWER RADIUS MUST BE LESS THAN PITCH

239.000 5 250022 419.000 8 650454 Fig. 20-2-10 Cam CURVE RADIUS AT ANY POINT TO AVOID CUT AWAY.
240.000 5 250001 420.000 8 650467
manufacturing data. Fig. 20-2-12 Factors affecting cam size.

CAMS, LINKAGES. AND ACTUATORS 407

UNIT 20-3
Positive-Motion
Cams
To ensure positive motion of the fol-
lower in both directions. positi\e-
molion earns are employ ed. Two types
.md ams with yoke-type
c

followers. Face cams are similar to

5.00
plate earns, except that the follower
engages a groove on the face of the
cam rather than on the outside edge of
the cam. One disadvantage to this type
of cam is that the outer edge of the cam

groove tends to rotate the roller in the

direction opposite to that of the inner
edge, resulting in wear in both the cam
and the roller. However, this is not
serious at slow speeds. Yoke-type fol-
low ers are used for operating light
mechanisms. The follower surface is

flator tangent to the curvature of the

cam. With this type of cam. only one-
half of the cam displacement diagram
need be drawn since the other half of 30° 30°
DWELL HARMONIC DWELL 120° HARMONIC DROP
the cam is identical to the first half. See 180° RISE

Figs. 20-3-1 and 20-3-2.

i
1

938± .001

^\
' 1 1 1 1 1

30° 210° 240°

DISPLACEMENT DIAGR/

*, DISPLACEMENT TOLERANCE ON RADIAL DISPLACEMENT ± .001 ANGULAR OISPl- RADIAL DISPLACEMENT

IT ;-.
\

TOLERANCE ON ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT r0.5° FROM KEYSEAT FROM PRIME CIRCLE

NOTE: ANGULAR AND RADIAL DISPLACEMENT
DIMENSIONS FOR MOTIONS SUPPLIED :

BY CAM MANUFACTURER 30° o

-FOLLOWER 20° 938
:-: 938

Fig. 20-3-2 Face cam drawing.

CAM -
a 360° CAM ROTATION
UNIT 20-4
Theoretically, a tapered follower
with its cone center on the cam axis

Fig. 20-3-1 Cam with yoke follower.

Drum Cams should give the best results. See Fig.
20-4-1B. Actually, straight rollers give
excellent results as long as the roller
The layout of a drum or cylinder cam length and diameter are not too large in
starts, aswith any cam. with the deci- relation to the cam cylinder diameter.
ASSIGNMENTS
sion as to what profile and follower Sw inging follow ers are used on index-
See Assignments 5 through 8 for Unit type will be used. Many cylinder cams ing-tvpe cvlindrical cams, as shown in
20-3on page 417. are used with straight in-line followers Fig. 20-1-5.
so that the follower moves in a path For drum or cylindrical groove
Review for Assignments parallel to the axis of the cam. The cams, the displacement diagram is
Unit 4-1 Dividing a Line into Equal pitch surface is developed and shown replaced by the developed surface of
Parts as a rectangle (Fig. 20-4-1 A), and the the cam. as shown in Fig. 20-4-2. The
Unit 9-1 Keys follower displacement is plotted with groove show n in the front view of the
Unit 20-1 Cam Motions rectangular coordinates. cam is found by projection.

408 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 Points from the developed surface of
thecam and their corresponding points
on the top view are projected to the
CIRCUMFERENCE = front view, as shown by the letter A at
CAM DISPLACEMENT
position 210°.

ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 9 and 10 for Unit 20-4
on page 417.

Review for Assignments

Unit 4-1 Dividing a Line into Equal
PITCH SURFACE -
Parts
PITCH CURVE (PATH OF FOLLOWER) Unit 20-1 Cam Motions

(A) CAM DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAM FOR DRUM CAM

H
*-ffP UNIT 20-5
Indexing

Indexing is the conversion of a con-

stant-speed rotary-input motion to an
intermittent rotary-output motion.
Press-feed tables, packaging ma-
chines, machine tools, switch gear,
and feeding devices are but a few of the
(B) TAPERED FOLLOWER
many machines found in industry that
Fig. 20-4-1 Drum cam details.
require indexing or intermittent
motion.

ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT DISPLACEMENT

DIRECTION OF FROM TIMING HOLE FROM BASE LINE
CAM ROTATION 0°
210° 1.250

300°

TOLERANCE ON RADIAL DISPLACEMENT FROM BASE LINE ± .001

TOLERANCE ON ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT FROM BASE LINE ±0.5°
NOTE: ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT AND DISPLACEMENT FROM BASE
LINE SUPPLIED BY CAM MANUFACTURER.

210° HARMONIC RISE 90° MODIFIED 60° DWELL

210° 360°
CIRCUMFERENCE OF CAM

DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAM

Fig. 20-4-2 Drum cam drawing.

CAMS, LINKAGES, AND ACTUATORS 409

 In recent years, advances in the
design and manufacture of positive
intermittent-motion devices have
improved significantly the smoothness
and speed o\~ indexing motions possi-
ble with Geneva-type drives.
The manifold indexing mechanism
(Fig. 20-5-1A) consists of two basic ele-
ments: a cam attached to the input
shaft and a turret attached to the out-
put shaft. The input and output shafts
are at right angles hut do not lie in
same plane. The cam is of concave
globoidal form with a track that
engages roller followers which project
radially from the edge of the turret
disk. Part of the cam track is straight,
so that when
the roller followers
engage it, no movement of the turret
can take place. The angle of the cam
occupied by this part is called the dwell
angle.
The remaining part of the cam track
progresses along the cam axis in heli-
cal fashion, thus rotating the turret.
Before a roller leaves one end of the
cam track, another roller enters the
the other end to maintain continuity of
movement. The angle of the cam
occupied by this part of the track is
called the cam index angle. Thus, one
revolution of the cam represents one
indexing cycle, during which the turret
indexes from one station to the next
and dwells for a specific period. The
number of times that this takes place in
one revolution of the turret is called
the number of stops.
The tangent drive (Figs. 20-5-1C and
20-5-1E) consists of a constantly rotat-
ing driver and a driven wheel. The
wheel may have four, five, six, or eight
precision-machined radial slots. A
matching cam follower, mounted on
needle bearings on the driver, engages
one of the slots on each revolution of
the driver, thereby indexing the wheel.
The concave section between the slots
is precisely machined to mate with the

locking hub of the driver to prevent

movement of the wheel during dwell.
The tangent drive indexes over an
angle equal to 360° divided by the
number of slots or stations in its wheel.
For example, each index of a four-sta-
tion tangent driveis 90°; each index of

a five-station drive is 72°. See Fig.

20-5-2.
The time ratio of a tangent drive is
expressed by the arc (in degrees) of
each revolution of the driver that the
wheel is being indexed and the arc of
each revolution that the wheel is at rest
or dwell. The time ratio refers to each
(A) BARREL CAM revolution of the driver and, therefore,
(Manifold Machinery Co. Ltd remains constant, regardless of the
(B) BARREL CAM driver speed. The actual speed of in-
(Commercial Cam & Machine Co.) dexing is a function of the driver speed
and is directly proportional to it.
The indexing application shown in
Fig. 20-5-1F employs an overrun
clutch and a rack and gear. The input
or driver shaft is connected to a rack
which converts rotary motion into
reciprocating motion. The gear which
isattached to an overrun clutch rotates
in both directions. The overrun clutch
(C) 6-STATION DRIVE drives the shaft in one direction but
(D) CONJUGATE CAMS
(Geneva Motions Corp. (Commercial Cam & Machine Co.) overruns or freewheels on the shaft in
the other direction, producing an inter-
mittent rotary motion.
rDRIVE SHAFT

References and Source Material

POSITIVE DIRECTION 1. Manifold Machinery Company.
OF SHAFT
Limited.
GEAR AND OVERMOUNT OVER-RUN CLUTCH 2. Geneva Motions Corporation.
MOVE WITH RACK IN THIS
DIRECTION. SHAFT DOES
NOT MOVE BECAUSE OF
. OVER-RUN

(E) -STATION DRIVE

4
(F) OVERRUN CLUTCH, CRANK, AND GEAR
AND RACK
ASSIGNMENT
(Geneva Motions Corp.)
See Assignment 11 for Unit 20-5 on
Fig. 20-5-1 Indexing mechanisms.
page 417.

410 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 DRIVER WHEEL
1
Ul
-iift/icMOi
IVI 1_ IMOI
niue
UIVO
MODEL A B C D E F G H K L M N

4S5 5.00 8.00 12.59 2.06 4.00 .50 1.50 .75 .88 .62 2.00 1.00

4 /-~ >*\ t
U
STATIONS z 4S5.5 5.50 8.62 13.75 2.06 4.40 .50 1.50 .75 .88 .62 2.00 1.00

STATIONS
)s$i @ 4S6

4S7 5
6.0

75
9.50

124
15.06 2.19 4.75

194 48 62
.50

12
1.50

40
.75

16
1.00

16
.75

12
2.00

45
1.00

20
~^^v y 5

A 1
E . o
4S90 90 150 224 48 75 12 40 16 16 12 45 20
TIME
.
' '
V
RATIO: 1 II 1 II 1
>
3
2 4S100 100 164 256 50 82 12 40 20 20 16 48 22
r,
90o INDEX 1
1 1

-
Um-I
270° DWELL 4S115 115 190 287 50 95 12 40 20 20 16 48 22

5S5 5.00 8.19 12.47 2.06 3.38 .50 1.50 .75 .88 .62 2.00 1.00
5 X
^v """"••
J~ - ~L CJ
STATIONS ! (\
5S5.5 5.50 9.00 13.69 2.06 3.69 .50 1.50 .75 .88 .62 2.00 1.00

* ~1 (n) 1
<^®y
5S6 6.00 9.78 14.94 2.19 4.03 .50 1.50 .75 1.00 .75 2.00 1.00
STATIONS
\ yOl^—^. y 5S75 75 124 190 48 53 12 40 16 16 12 45 20

A ~— E -
o
5S90 90 150 225 48 60 12 40 16 16 12 45 20
TIME H
J LU
RATIO: 1
1
5S100 100 164 252 50 70 12 40 20 20 16 48 22
-1

— 1
1 1

-
108° INDEX -
.-

252° DWELL 5S115 115 190 287 50 77 12 40 20 20 16 48 22

6S5 5.00 8.75 12.31 1.62 2.94 .50 1.50 .75 .88 .62 2.00 1.00

6 I -"n tt CJ

STATIONS z 6S5.5 5.50 9.62 13.50 1.62 3.14 .50 1.50 .75 .88 .62 2.00 1.00

6S6 6.00 10.50 14.75 1.75 3.50 .50 1.50 .75 1.00 .75 2.00 1.00

STATIONS

TIME
L :

—v ~\

r-w
'

—
/

1
* —rOi
—
E

F 1
CJ
cr
i-
LU
6S75

6S90
75

90
134

160
188

222
35

35
46

52
12

12
40

40
16

16
16

16
12

12
45

45
20

20

RATIO: J
III 11 II 1
o i
6S100 100 180 250 38 60 12 40 20 20 16 48 22

120° INDEX -

6S115 115 204 274 38 67 12 40 20 20 16 48 22

240° DWELL

8S5 5.00 9.31 11.94 1.62 2.28 .50 1.50 .75 .75 .62 2.00 1.00
I
8
J&1K- CJ
z 8S5.5 5.50 10.22 13.12 1.62 2.50 .50 1.50 .75 .75 .62 2.00 1.00

©
STATIONS

STATIONS
E

£® 8S6

8S75
6.00 11.16 14.34 1.75

75 144 193 35
2.75

46
.50

12
1.50

40
.75

16
.75

12
.75

12
2.00 1.00

45 20
CJ

TIME A — E — cr 8S90 90 170 215 35 40 12 40 16 12 12 45 20

— ^^
- M - r G -|
UJ
RATIO: J
1
1
^
•

8S100 100 190 243 38 48 12 40 20 16 16 48 22

II 1! \l \\ 1! II 1
_1
1350 INDEX - i

-L
225° DWELL 8S115 115 214 274 38 52 12 40 20 16 16 48 22

Fig. 20-5-2 Indexing drives.

CAMS. LINKAGES, AND ACTUATORS 41


UNIT 20-6
Linkages
One o\ the ever-present problems in
machine design is the mechanization
of various interrelated motions. These
motions are usually preassigned. often
quite arbitarily, and specify the
tionships of moving parts or simply the
end motion o\ a single part. Illustra-
tions are present in all types of
machinery. Typical examples are
seen in textile machinery, packaging
machinery, printing presses, valve
mechanisms in steam locomotives,
machine tools, automotive equipment,
household articles, instruments, com-
puting devices, and many other com-
mon mechanisms. Upon closer obser-
vation, itbe noticed that all these
will
devices are simply combinations and
arrangements of basic mechanical ele-
ments such as gear trains, cam actua-
tors, cranks and links, sliders, bolts
and pulleys, and other rotating and
sliding parts. Combinations of the
crank, link, and sliding elements are
commonly termed bar linkages.
Locus of a Point
The locus of a point in a linkage or
mechanism is the path traced by that
point as it moves according to certain
controlled conditions. The study of
loci is important in machine design to
determine
1. The position of various links and
rela- joints in the cycle of the mechanism
2. The relative speeds of different
parts
3. Forces exerted in the mechanism
using applied machines in conjunc-
tion with diagrammatic layouts
The designer is often called upon
make these diagrammatic layouts
assist in the design of the container for
linkages that will be of the most eco-
nomical and space-saving nature, as
well as to ensure that parts of adjacent
linkages will not foul one another at
any point of the movement of the
machine.
Cams versus Linkages
The best-known solution for a function
generator is the cam: flat cams for
functions of single variables and barrel
cams for functions of two variables.
As computing devices, linkage
mechanisms enjoy a number of advan-
tages over cams, with the one excep-
tion that the functions must be contin-
uous. Linkages are essentially straight
members joined together. Only a small
number of dimensions need to be held
closely. The joints make use of stan-
dard bearings, and the links in effect
form a solid chain and are not subject
to to undue acceleration limitations.
to The harmonic transformer and the
four-bar linkage shown in Fig. 20-6-1
are the two bar linkages most com-
monly used as function generators.
The harmonic transformer consists of
crank, connecting link, and slider. It
may be driven from the crank end
when a rotary input and linear output

p MOTION OF SLIDER
OUTPUT RANGE
CRANK POSITION- —
-CRANK RADIUS

(A) PIVOT BEARING JOINT

BOWED RETAINING RING —

SHOULDER WASHER

DISPLACEMENT

-INPUT MOTION OF CRANK

IA) HARMONIC TRANSFORMER

P!N — ' — SLIDING ROD
^

(B) RADIAL-BEARING JOINT

BOWED RETAINING RING

OUTPUT CRANK

SHOULDER WASHER
OUTPUT RANGE

OUTPUT CRANK
DISPLACEMENT

BETWEEN PIVOTS

(Bl FOUR-BAR LINKAGE

IC) SELF-ALIGNING JOINT
Fig. 20-6-1 Linkages used as function generators. Fig. 20-6-2 Linkage joints.

412 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 MACHINE BASE
are desired orfrom the slide end when
a linear input and rotary output are DRIVE-
CRANK PIVOT
required. Two cranks and a connecting
link form the four-bar linkage, whose
input and output are both rotary. By
assignment of correct values to the
various parameters, these linkages will
mechanize many single-variable func-
tions. The selection of these values is
INDICATOR LINK
termed a linkage layout. Typical link-
age joints are shown in Fig. 20-6-2.

STRAIGHT-LIME MECHANISM -INDICATOR PATH-

Fig. 20-6-3 Terminology of a four-bar straight-line mechanism.

A straight-line mechanism is a linkage
device used to guide a given point in an
approximate straight line. Several RACK RETAINER
such mechanisms use five or more
links to produce exact straight-line
motion of a given point. A four-link (or
four-bar) mechanism, using finite
links, can only approximate a straight
line.

The four elements of the four-bar CONVERTING ROTARY MOTION INTO CONVERTING ROTARY MOTION INTO
linkage (Fig. 20-6-3) are: RECIPROCATING MOTION OSCILLATING MOTION

1. A link which will be caused to move

so that one point on it, called the
indicator, travels along the desired
— —CRANK OFFSET
path. This link is composed of two MOVABLE
.-> TOP RACK
rigidly connected parts: the con- V_ (OUTPUT!
necting link, joining the drive point
FIXED RACK
and the control point, and the indi-
cator link, connecting the indicator
CRANK (INPUTl ^ TWO SPUR GEARS
to the drive point.
TABLE MOVES FOUR TIMES CRANK OFFSET
2. A drive crank, to which a turning CRANK WITH GEARS AND RACK
torque is applied to move the mech-
CONVERTING ROTARY MOTION INTO RECIPROCATING MOTION
anism and which is connected to the
Fig. 20-6-4 Converting rotary motion into oscillating or reciprocating motion.
link at the drive point.
3. A control crank, which serves only
to guide the link control point in the not thought of as a linkage since it is pitch curve from the slide displace-
proper path. usually a slide or plunger, such as an ment at each increment of cam dis-
4. The base of the machine, to which automotive valve assembly in a simple placement. Figure 20-6-6 shows how
the two cranks are pivotally at- L-head engine. A linkage is generally this is done.
tached. considered to be a group of levers and For extra accuracy and for high-
links. See Fig. 20-6-4. speed machinery, these displacements
For identification purposes, indica-
Figure 20-6-5 shows a typical cam should be calculated.
torpath is the term used to describe
linkage composed of a fairly heavy
the approximate straight-line path
slide, a short link, and a bell crank. If References and Source Material
through which the indicator travels,
the slide, which has the largest mass in 1. Machine Design.
and straight line refers to the desired
the linkage, is to be moved with the 2. Eonic, Inc.
theoretical straight line.The indicator
most favorable accelerating forces, its
path and the straight line will coincide
displacement-to-time relationship
at three or four places.
must govern the shape of the cam pro-
ASSIGNMENTS
file. Since the bell crank and link swing

about fixed and instantaneous centers See Assignments 12 through 15 for Unit
SYSTEMS HAVING LINKAGES
during the stroke, the displacement 20-6 on page 417.
AND CAMS increments of the slide and the cam
A cam is of no value and can perform profile do not bear the same relation- Review for Assignments
no useful function without a follower ship to the cam displacement. It is Unit 9-4 Springs
linkage. A simple follower is generally therefore necessary to plot the cam- Unit 20-1 Cam Motions

CAMS. LINKAGES, AND ACTUATORS 413

 mm! © SLIDE DISPLACEMENT
HARMONIC MOTION
I

POSITIONS OF THE BELL CRANK

LOCATED FROM POSITION OF SLIDE

-POSITION OF ROLLER LOCATED FROM BELL CRANK POSITION

-POSITION OF ROLLER
SHOWN FOR EVERY
15° OF CAM ROTATION

Fig. 20-6-6 Plotting the pitch curve from the slide displacement for the cam
shown in Fig. 20-6-5.

Fig. 20-6-5 Cam linkage.

(A) EXTERNAL RATCHET (B) U-SHAPED PAWL (CI DOUBLE-ACTING ROTARY RATCHET (D) INTERNAL RATCHET

OUTER RACE

(E) FRICTION RATCHET (F) SHEET-METAL RATCHET AND PAWL (G) JACK (H) RATCHET WRENCH
Fig. 20-7-1 Ratchet and pawl application.

414 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 2 PAWLS OF
UNIT 20-7 DIFFERENT LENGTH

Ratchet Wheels
Ratchet wheels are used to transform
reciprocating or oscillatory motion
into intermittent motion, to transmit
motion in one direction only, or as an
indexing device.
When a motion is to be transmitted
at intervals rather than continuously
and the loads are light, ratchets are
ideal because of their low cost. Fig. 20-7-2 Designing a ratchet wheel and
Common forms of rachets and pawls pawl.

are shown in Fig. 20-7-1. The teeth in

the ratchet engage the teeth in the PAWLS LOCK RATCHET WHEEL EVERY 11.25°
pawl, permitting rotation in one direc-
Fig. 20-7-3 Ratchet with two pawls.
tion only. The pawl, which fits into the ratchet is reversed, the balls roll to the
ratchet teeth as shown in Fig. 20-7-2, is low points on the teeth and disengage
pivoted at one end. A spring or coun- the outer roller. This principle is used
terweight is normally used to maintain on overrunning clutches.
contact between the wheel and pawl. Ratchet wheels and pawls are also See Fig. 20-7-3. Adding another pawl
In Fig. 20-7-KG) and (H), lever or pawl used widely to control drum rotation in of different length doubles the number
balls are used to shift the pawl to the hoisting equipment. of indexing positions.
alternative position so that the ratchet In designing a ratchet wheel and
will work in reverse. pawl, lay out points A, B, and C. as
shown in Fig. 20-7-2, on the same cir-
ASSIGNMENTS
In friction ratchets [Fig. 20-7-l(E)],
balls are used between the ratchet and cle to ensure the smallest forces are See Assignments 16 and 17 for Unit
the follower. As the ratchet rotates in acting on the system. 20-7 on page 418.
the direction of the arrow shown, the Another method to increase the
balls roll up on the high spots on the number of stops made by the ratchet Review for Assignments
teeth, wedging the ratchet and outer wheel without increasing the number Unit 9-4 Springs
race together. If the direction of the of teeth is the use of multiple pawls. Unit 9-1 Keys

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 20

Assignment for Unit 20-1,

Cams and Cam Motions CAM 1 CAM 2
1. On a B- or A3-size sheet, draw dis-
placement diagrams for each of the two — Rise
-Rise 2.00 in 150° with harmonic 1.50 in 120° with uniform
cams shown in Fig. 20- -A or Fig. 20- -
1 1
motion motion
B. Scale is full or 1:1.
-Dwell for 45° -Dwell for 60°
-Drop 2.00 120° with uniformly
in — Rise .50 in 60° with parobolic
accelerated and retarded motion motion
-Dwell remainder — Drop 2.00 with harmonic motion
— Displacement diagram 2.00 high for remainder
-X 12.00 long — Displacement diagram 2.00 high
X 12.00 long

Fig. 20-1 -A Cam displacement problem.

CAMS. LINKAGES. AND ACTUATORS 415

Assignments for Unit 20-2, CAM 1
CAM 2
Plate Cams
2. On a B- or A3 -size sheet, design a plate
cam that will activate a 50-in. roller -Rise 50mm in 120° with cycloidal — Rise 30mm in 90° with modified
follower as follows: motion uniform motion
Rise 1.50 in in 180 with harmonic -Dwell for 60° -Dwell for 60°
motion — Rise 20mm 45° with harmonic
-Drop 10mm in 90° with uniform in
Dwell 30 motion
motion
Drop 150 in. in 120° with modified
— Drop 40mm in 90° with uniformly — Drop 50mm in 120° with parobolic
uniform motion
accelerated and retarded motion motion
Dwell for remainder
-Displacement diagram 50mm high — Displacement diagram 50mm high
Prime = 3.00 in., plate thickness =
circle X 300mm long X 300mm long
.50 in. shaft = 01.00 in., hub = 01.75
in \ 1. 50 in. long, keyseat to suit. Add a

chart to the drawing showing the angu- Fig. 20-1-B Cam displacement problem.
lar and displacements every 1 5°,
radial
taking the radial measurements from the
prime circle. Scale is full or 1:1.
3. On a B- or A3-size sheet, design a plate
cam that will activate a 010-mm roller On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the
follower as follows: Prime = 70 mm, plate thickness =
circle parallel-drive indexing unit shown in Fig.
Rise 40 mm
in 150° with uniformly 10 mm, shaft = 026 mm, hub = 044 x 20-2-A or 20-2-B with the timing
Fig.

accelerated and retarded motion 32 mm long, keyseat to suit. Add a chart hole rotated to position B. Use your
Dwell for 45
c
to the drawing showing the angular and judgment for dimensions not shown.
Drop 40 mm in 1
20° with modified radial displacements every 15°, taking The angular and radial displacement val-
uniform motion the radial measurements from the prime ues locate the center of the roller. Scale is
Dwell for remainder circle. Scale is 1:1. half size or 1 :2.

-TIMING HOLE -TIMING HOLE

-CAM "A"
75°.

01.25 ROLLER 032 ROLLER

—. 01.44 -—
— 042 h-

ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT AND RADIAL DISPLACEMENT FOR CAM "A". ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT AND RADIAL DISPLACEMENT FOR CAM "A".
CAM "B" IS OPPOSITE HAND TO CAM "A". ANGULAR DIMENSIONS SHOWN CAM "B" IS OPPOSITE HAND TO CAM "A". ANGULAR DIMENSIONS SHOWN
ON DRAWING ARE FOR CAM "A". ON DRAWING ARE FOR CAM "A".
0° 3.74 25° 4.08 50° 750 950 3.47 950 88.1
5.51 4.86 00 94.9 250 103.6 50° 139.9 750 123.4
SO 3.75 30° 80O 100° 3.61 100O 91.6
4.32 55° 5.46 4.59 50 95.2 30O 109.7 55° 138.6 80° 116.5
10° 35° 105O 3.68 105O 93.4
3.76 4.64 60° 5.37 85° 4.26 10° 95.5 35° 117.8 60° 136.3 85° 108.2
150 3.80 40° 4.95 650 5.24 900 110° 3.73 110° 94.7
3.78 15° 96.5 40° 125.7 65° 133.0 90° 96.0
200 3.90 45° 5.24 70° 5.06 93° 115° 115°
3.41 3.74 20O 99.0 45° 133.0 70° 128.5 93° 86.6 94.9
AND 120° AND 120°
Fig. 20-2-A Parallel-drive indexing unit. Fig. 20-2-B Parallel-drive indexing unit.

416 POVVER TRANSMISSIONS

Assignments for Unit 20-3, Assignments for Unit 20-4,
Positive-Motion Cams Drum Cams _J(j /-0 2.75

5. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a two- 9. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a two- y- &0 °

view drawing of a face cam from the view drawing of a drum cam from the f "S^C MIDPOINT
/ /
following information: following information: / /
» m~
.FIXED
Rise 1.20 in. in 150° with harmonic
motion
Dwell 30°
Rise 1.50 in. in 120° with parabolic
motion
Dwell for 60°
1
A
o. I

B
/
Drop
motion
1 .20 in. in 1 20° with parabolic Drop
motion
sine
1.50 in. in I50
c
with modified
\^ /

Dwell for remainder Dwell for remainder

SIMPLE CRANK
Roller = prime circle = 3.00 in.,
0.50 in., Roller follower = 0.50 in., cam = 03.00
OD of face cam = 6.50 in., cam thick- in. in. long, follower groove =
x 3.50
ness = .00 in., groove depth = .38 in.,
1 .40 deep. Use your judgment for
in.

shaft = 01.00 in., hub = 01.75 in. x dimensions not given. Show the full
2.75
1.50 in. long. Add a suitable keyseat. development of the cam, which will FIXED SWIVEL-ROD
Prepare a chart showing angular and serve as a motion diagram. Prepare a FREETOSLIDE
THROUGH-
radial displacement for every 5°, taking 1 chart showing the angular displacement
the radial measurements from the prime from a timing hole located at 0°, and the
circle. Scale is full (1:1). displacement from the base line for
=
every 15 . Scale is full (1:1).
10. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a two-
view drawing of a drum cam from the
On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a two- following information:
view drawing of a face cam from the Rise 32 mm
in 150° with harmonic
following information: motion CRANK WITH SLIDING ROD
Rise 24 mm
in 120° with parabolic Dwell for 45" Fig. 20-6-A Simple crank mechanism.
motion Drop 32 mm in 1
20° with trapezoid
Dwell 45° motion
Drop with cycloidal motion for the Dwell for remainder
remainder
Roller follower = 014 mm, cam = 070
Roller = 012 mm, prime circle = 080 mm x 64 mm groove =
long, follower
mm, OD of face cam = 160 mm, cam 10 mm deep. Use your judgment for
thickness = 25 mm, groove depth = 12 dimensions not given. Show the full
mm, shaft = 024 mm, hub = 042 x 28 development of the cam, which will
mm long. Add a suitable keyseat. Pre- serve as a motion diagram. Prepare a
pare a chart showing angular and radial chart showing the angular displacement
displacement for every 15°, taking the from a timing hole located at 0°, and the
radial measurements from the prime cir- displacement from the base line for
cle. Scale is 1:1. every 5°. Scale is 1:1.
1

Assignment for Unit 20-5, (A) CROSS LINKED CRANK

7. Make a two-view drawing of a yoke cam
that will raise the yoke .40 in. The cam is
an eccentric cam having a dia. of 3.50 in.
and a plate thickness of .75 in. Shaft =
01.06 in., hub = 01.75 in. x 1.10 in. long
having the extension on one side only.
The yoke is .40 in. thick and has a wall
width of .75 in. A. 25 in. x 1.25-in. steel
Indexing
1
11. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a two-
view drawing of the indexing drive 6S5
or 6S75 shown in Fig. 20-5- 2. Use your 1 A (FIXED)
judgment for dimensions not shown.
Draw an angular displacement diagram,
plotting points every 5° on the index
cycle. Add suitable keyseats. Scale is full

guide bar is welded to the top and bot- (1:1).

tom of the yoke.

Assignments for Unit 20-6,
Linkages
12. Simple Crank Mechanism. On a B- or A3-
Make a two-view drawing of a yoke cam
size sheet, lay out the two linkages
yoke 35 mm. The cam
that will raise the
shown in Fig. 20-6-A and plot the paths
is an eccentric cam having a dia. of 90 C
at 1 intervals of the points indicated.
mm and a piate thickness of 20 mm. Scale is full (1:1).
Shaft = 028 mm, hub = 044 mm x 30
mm long with the extension on one side 13. On a B- or A3-size sheet lay out the two
only. The yoke is 10 mm thick and has a linkages shown in Fig. 20-6-B and plot
wall width of 20 mm. A 6 mm x 30 mm the paths at 1
5° intervals of point Cin (A) (B) WATT'S APPROXIMATE STRAIGHT
steel guide bar is welded to the top and and fin (B). Points Cand Eare located at LINE MECHANISM
bottom of the yoke. midpoint of links. Scale is full (1:1). Fig. 20-6-B Linkage problems.

CAMS, LINKAGES. AND ACTUATORS 41

 CUTTER TRAVEL 17.00

ADJUSTABLE
TRUNNION

240°

2.50-1 / DRIVE
y WHEEL

POSITION OF TRUNNION
(A) SHAPER SHOWING QUICK RETURN MECHANISM (B) MOTION DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAM
Fig. 20-6-C Shaper using Whitworth quick-return mechanism stroke.

14. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the

shaper shown in Fig. 20-6-C and com-
plete the motion displacement diagram
two complete strokes. Take positions
for
every 30° of trunnion rotation starting at 1.25
position 240°. Motion displacement dia-
gram size is 4.00 x 9.00 in. Scale is :4. 1

Repeat the above by changing the 2.50

in. trunnion radius to 4.00 in.

15. On a B- or A3-size sheet lay out the two

linkages shown in Fig. 20-6-D. For the
Peaucelliers mechanism plot the path
taken by point C. Plot points by moving
point D every .25 in. For the toggle link-
age, plot the distance X for every 5° of 1

rotation of point A.AB = 2.50\n.,BC =

1 .75 in., BD = 2.25 in. Scale is full [1:11.

{£[ PEAUCELLIER'S MECHANISM (B) TOGGLE LINKAGE

Fig. 20-6-D Linkages.

Assignments for Unit 20-7,

Ratchet Wheels
16. On a B- or A3-size sheet lay out a brake
assembly using a U-shaped pawl with a
ratchet wheel. The ratchet wheel is to
DRIVE PAWL
have 24 teeth; OD of 46 mm; hub 048 1

mm; shaft 032.5 mm; keyseat to suit;

width of teeth 12 mm; depth of teeth 10
R 25
mm; and the hub is to extend 6 mm on 1
0100
one side. Scale is 1 : 1 . Show two views.
1 7. Ratchet and Crank Mechanism. On a B-
or A3-size sheet, lay out a one-view HOLDING PAWL
drawing of the ratchet design shown in (DROPS IN AND LOCKS
Fig. 20-7-A. Two pawls are used, a drive RATCHET JUST BEFORE
DRIVE PAWL)
pawl as shown and a holding pawl held SPRING
in position by a spring. Using crank rota-
C
tion positions every 22. plot the path
,
CRANK
of theend of the drive pawl. Use your 14 WIDE
judgment for dimensions not shown. DRIVE MECHANISM
Scale is 1:1. 20-7-A
Fig. Ratchet and crank mechanism.

418 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

CHAPTER 21
UNIT 21-1
Hydraulics
The more complex industry becomes,
the more vital becomes the role played
by fluids in the industrial machine.
One hundred years ago, water was the
only important fluid which was con-
veyed from one point to another by
pipe. Today, almost every conceivable
fluid is handled pipes during its pro-
in
duction, processing, transportation, or
utilization. The age of atomic energy
and rocket power has added fluids
such as liquid metals —
for example,
sodium, potassium, and bismuth — as
well as liquid oxygen, nitrogen, etc., to
the list of more common fluids such as
oil, water, acids, and liquors that are
being transported in pipes today. Nor
is the transportation of fluids the only
phase of hydraulics which warrants
attention now. Hydraulic and pneu-
matic mechanisms are used exten-
sively for the controls of modern
aircraft, seagoing vessels, automotive
equipment, machine tools, earthmov-
ing and road-building machines, and
even in scientific laboratory equip-
ment where precise control of fluid
flow is required.
So extensive are the applications of
hydraulics and pneumatics that almost
every designer has found it necessary
to be familiar with at least the elemen-
tary laws of fluid flow.
Fluid
BASIC PRINCIPLES
The science of hydraulics dates back
several thousand years when water
wheels, dams, and sluice gates were
used to control the flow of water for
irrigationand domestic use. Today,
however, the term hydraulics com-
monly refers to power hydraulics in
which fluid is used under controlled
pressure to do work.
A fluid is infinitely flexible, yet as
unyielding as steel. It can readily
change its shape: it can be divided into
parts to do work in different locations;
it can move rapidly in one place and
slowly in another; and it
force in any or all directions.
medium except fluid
same degree of positiveness, accu-
racy, force, and pressure.
It is interesting and important to
note that a hydraulic pump does not
pump pressure. The pump merely pro-
duces flow. Pressure is generated only
when a cylinder, motor, valve, or con-
striction tends to resist fluid flow. If
the flow wereencounter only negli-
to
gible resistance, the developed pres-
sure would be slight.
Both force and pressure are pri-
marily measures of effort. Work, how-
ever, is a measure of accomplishment.
It describes the application of a force
through a distance and flexibility of
control, with the ability to transmit a
maximum of power in a minimum of
mass.
Power
Although this unit does not aim at an
in-depth treatment of hydraulic com-
ponents and circuits, it will neverthe-
less be helpful to start by considering
some of the fundamental principles
involved.
Force, Pressure, Work,
and Power
Force is defined as any cause which
tends to produce or modify motion. To
move an object, such as a machine tool
head, force must be applied to it. The
amount of force required depends on
can transmit a the object's inertia. In the foot-pound
No other or U.S. Customary system, force can
combines the be expressed in any of the units of
weight, but it is commonly expressed
in pounds. In the metric system force
is measured in newtons (N) for light
forces, kilonewtons (kN) for inter-
mediate forces, and meganewtons
(MN) for strong forces. (A newton is
approximately one-quarter of a pound-
force.)
In the U.S. Customary system,
pressure is usually expressed in terms
of pounds per square inch (psi). In the
metric system, pressure is measured in
pascals. A pascal (Pa) is the pressure
produced when a force of one newton
is applied to an area of one square
meter (Pa = N/m 2 ).
The pascal is a very small unit of
measure, equivalent to approximately
0.001 pounds per square inch (lb/in. 2 ).
FLUID POWER 419
It used for very low-pressure
is work per unit of time. In the U.S. Cus-

applications. In most instances the tomary system, horsepower (hp) is the

kilopascal (kPa) and megapascal standard unit of power measurement.
One horsepower is that amount of
(M Pa arc used. In (laid power applica-
I

power necessary 000 lb one

to raise 33
tions the kilopascal is the recom-
one minute or 550one ft in one
mended unit o( pressure. A 1-kPa ft in lb

pressure is equal to approximately second. In the metric system the watt

20.9 lb/ft2 or 6.895 lb, in-
,
(W) is the standard unit for all forms of
The Earth's atmosphere provides an power: heat, electric, mechanical, etc.
example of the relationship between A watt is energy per unit of time mea-
force and pressure. The blanket of air sured in joules per second (J/s). The
enveloping the Earth's surface is of preferred units are watt (W) for small
Mich volume that its total mass could values, kilowatt (kW) for intermediate
be measured in U.S. Customary tons values, and megawatt (MW) for large
(2000 lb), or metric tons (megagrams). values. One watt is that amount of
However, the force exerted by the power necessary to move one newton
mass of a column of air 1 in.
2
in cross- one meter in one second.
sectional area only 14.7 lb/in. 2 (I m 2
is
Fig. 21-1-2 Transmission of mechanical
forces.
in cross-sectional area is only 101.325
kPa) at sea level. Thus atmospheric Behaviors and Mechanics
2
pressure at sea level is 14.7 lb/in. of Fluids
(101.325 kPa). but for low-accuracy In the 17th century, Pascal formulated piston P is 1 in.
2
, the pressure at every
work 15 lb/in. 2 (100 kPa) is used. The the fundamental law which forms the point in the system is 2 psi. When a
relationship between force, pressure, basis of modern hydraulics. Pascal's pressure of 2 psi is applied to the lower
and area is expressed mathematically law states: Pressure at any one point in surface of piston W, the resultant
as a static liquid is the same in every upward force is 2 x 50, or 100 lb,

Force pressure x area

direction and exerts equal force on because the area of piston is 50 in.
2
W
equal areas. Figure 21-1-1 illustrates and force equals pressure times area.
(U.S. Customary)
Force in lb lb/in. 2 x in. this principle. In either case, we can multiply force
(Metric) Newtons pascals x meters 2 only by sacrificing distance propor-
N Pa x m2 tionally. If we move piston P down-
ward a distance of 50 in., we have
As mentioned previously, work is a forced 50 in. 3 of liquid to the underside
measure of accomplishment, describ- of piston W. Since piston has an W
ing the application of a force moving area of 50 in. 2 50 in. 3 of liquid can
,

through a distance. In the U.S. Cus- raise piston W

only 1 in.
tomary system, work is expressed in
terms of in. -lb or ft-lb. Thus, if a force Characteristics of Flow Pascals law
of 1200 lb moves a ram 4 in., the work neglects the factor of friction because
it deals with static fluids. When a fluid
accomplished equals 4800 in. -lb, or
400 ft-lb. In the metric system, work is
expressed in joules. A joule (J) is the
^ T^ flows in a hydraulic circuit, friction
results and heat is produced. Thus
Fig. 21-1-1 Pascal's law.
energy required or expended to move a some of the energy being transferred is
force of one newton a distance of one lost in the form of heat energy.

meter. The joule is the special name Since fluids are practically Although friction can never be elimi-
given the derived unit newtonmeter incompressible, mechanical forces nated entirely, it can be controlled to
(N • m). The kilojoule (kJ)
is the pre-
may be transmitted, multiplied, or some extent. The four main causes of
ferred unit. The
joule (J) is used to controlled by means of hydraulic fluids excess friction in hydraulic lines are
express small quantities of energy, under pressure. This is demonstrated excessive length of lines, excessive
megajoules (MJ) are used for large in Fig. 21-1-2. Assume that the masses number of bends and fittings or
Thus, if a force of 500 N
quantities. of pistons P and W
are equal. Assume improper (too sharp) bends, excessive
moves a ram 3 m, the work accom- also that the face of piston P has an fluid velocity caused by undersized
plished equals 1500 J, or 1.5 kJ. The area of 1 in. 2 that the face of piston
, W lines, and excessive viscosity of fluid.
formula is has an area of 50 in. 2 and that the two
, Figure 21-1-3 illustrates the effect of
communicating containers are filled friction upon pressure. Since pressure
Work = force x distance with liquid. is a result of resistance to flow, the
ft-lb = lb x ft If we were to exert a downward pressure at point B is zero. Assume
J = N x m force of 2 lb on piston P, this force that the mass of the fluid and the diam-
would be transmitted undiminished in eter of tube A are such that a static
The concept of work makes no every direction, acting with equal pressure of 10 psi is created at point C.
allowance for the time factor. Power is force on equal areas. Since the area of Then the flow from point C to point B

420 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 D E F
6. The force exerted by a cylinder is well-designed reservoir serves other
dependent on the pressure applied useful purposes. Its construction
and the piston area. assists in the separation of air and con-
7. The speed of a cylinder is depen- taminants from the fluid and helps to
dent on its piston area and the rate dissipate heat generated within the
of fluid flow into it. system.
8. Te flow velocity through a pipe var- A reservoir which conforms to Joint
ies inversely with the square of the Industry Conference (JIC) specifica-
Fig. 21-1-3 Illustrating effect of friction inside diameter (ID). Doubling the tions is illustrated in Fig. 21-1-4. The
upon pressure. ID increases the area 4 times. tank constructed of hot-rolled steel
is

plates with welded joints. Extensions

of the tank ends support the tank and
has resulted in a pressure drop of 10 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS may be bolted to the floor. The tank
psi.
All hydraulic circuits are essentially bottom is concave and has a drain plug
The potential energy at point C is
the same regardless of the application in the middle.
completely dissipated in moving the
(machine tools, airplanes, farm equip-
fluid to point B. This potential energy
ment, boats, etc.). There are four basic Strainers and Filters
has been converted into the heat
components required: a tank (reser- To ensure longand trouble-free
life
energy produced by the friction of the
fluid moving through the tubes.
voir) to hold the fluid, a pump to force performance of hydraulic compo-
The height of the fluid in tubes D, E,
the fluid through the system (the pump nents, it is important to keep the
isdriven by an electric motor or other
and F illustrates the action of friction hydraulic fluid clean.
power source), valves to control fluid Filters, strainers, and magnetic
in producing a pressure drop. In a
pressure and flow, and an actuator (a plugs can be used to remove foreign
moving fluid, pressure drop tends to
cylinder for linear or a motor for rotary particles from the hydraulic fluid and
increase and pressure tends to
motion) to convert the energy of fluid are most effective as safeguards
decrease as the distance from the
movement into mechanical force to do against contamination. Typical filters
source of pressure increases.
the work. and strainers are shown in Fig. 21-1-5.
The complexity of hydraulic sys-
HELPFUL INFORMATION tems will vary, of course, depending
Hydraulic Fluids
on the application.
Some of the points already mentioned Hydraulic fluid characteristics have an
are repeated below, along with several important effect on equipment perfor-
may help in under-
additional facts that HYDRAULIC EQUIPMENT mance and maintenance.
standing machinery hydraulics. In addition to serving as a power
Reservoirs transmitting medium, hydraulic fluid
1. Oil the most commonly used
is
Although it primarily serves as a sup- must keep wear to a minimum by
hydraulic fluid because it serves as
ply source for hydraulic system fluid, a providing good lubrication.
a lubricant for hydraulic compo-
nents and is practically incom-
pressible.
2. The mass of oil varies considerably AIR MOUNTING PLATE
BREATHER
with change in viscosity. However, RETURN LINE
55 to 58 lb/ft 3 (2.6 to 2.8 kPa) covers
the viscosity range of common
hydraulic fluids.
3. Pressure at the bottom of a 1-ft col-
umn of oil will be approximately 0.4
psi. To approximate pres-
find the
sure at thebottom of any oil col-
umn, multiply the height in feet by
0.4.
4. There must be a pressure drop
(pressure difference) across an ori-
fice or constriction to cause flow
through it. Conversely, if there is
no flow, there will be no pressure - BAFFLE PLATE
drop. DRAIN PLUG
5. A fluid is pushed into a pump.
Atmospheric pressure supplies this
•CLEAN OUT
push (in an unsupercharged pump) PLATE-BOTH ENDS
at 14.7 lb/in. 2 (101.3 kPa) at sea
level. Fig. 21-1-4 Reservoir.

FLUID POWER 421

 BY -PASS -
--ROAT

0U1

k
CARTRIDGE
BODY
BODY-
1 "
i" !'
1
1

CARTRIDGE—
r
-

- -
-
: :

(A) FULL FLOW FILTER (B) PROPORTIONAL TYPE FILTER

E JNIO^ PIPE JOINTS

CONNECTION. 9 TO REMOVE STRAINERS
THRU COVER FOR (B) VANE

(EZ ^Z:
ACCESS OPENING SHOULD BE PROVIDED
SO STRAINERS MAY BE REMOVED FOR
CLEANING WITHOUT DRAINING OIL FROM TANK
;
- :
:-_ : -- = :""-- ~-~- '-" -__-"" :' =

Fig. 21-1-5 Filters and strainers.

Hydraulic Pumps leakage, its output is relatively

Hydraulic pumps are devices for con- unaffected by variations in system Fig. 21-1-6 Positive-displacement pumps.
verting mechanical energy into pressure. See Fig. 21-1-6.
hydraulic energy. When a hydraulic
pump is operated, performs two
it
Actuators
functions. First, its mechanical action
creates a partial vacuum at the pump
Hydraulic actuators and hydraulic A double-acting cylinder (Fig.
inlet which enables atmospheric pres-
pumps have opposite functions: the 21-1-7B) permits application of
actuators convert hydraulic energy hydraulic pressure on either side of the
sure in the reservoir to force liquid
through the inlet line into the pump.
back to mechanical energy to perform piston to control linear motion in either

Second, its mechanical action delivers

this liquid to the pump outlet and
forces it into the hydraulic system.
Pumps are broadly classified as
either non-positive-displacement or
positive-displacement units.
A as either linear or rotary. A linear
non-positive-displacement
produces a continuous flow. How-
ever, because of its design, there is no
useful work. In a typical circuit, the of two opposite directions. The type
actuator mechanically linked to the
is shown is called a differential cylinder
workload, and is actuated by fluid
from the pump so that thrust or torque
is transferred to the work.
Actuators can be classified broadly
<»»dW»dWI
pump
actuator such as a ram or cylinder is
used for such operations as clamping, :_r -c" .:•

pressing, or traverse and feed motions.

positive internal seal against leakage,
and its output varies considerably as Rotary actuator applications include
pressure varies. chucking, indexing, and turning.
Practically all pumps used in power Linear Actuators The simplest linear
13
hydraulic systems — whether on indus- actuator is the single-acting cylinder or
IBI DOUBLE ACTING DIFFERENTIAL TYPE
trial machinery, mobile vehicles, or ram (Fig. 21-1-7A), which applies force
aircraft — are of the positive-displace- in only one direction. Fluid directed I M
ment type. into the housing displaces the rod
A positive-displacement pump pro- hydraulically: the retracting force can
duces a pulsating flow but since . it pro- be gravity or some mechanical means, : : JBLE ACTING NONDIFFERENTIAL TYPE
vides a positive internal 5 ea! against such as a spring. Fig. 21-1-7 Cylinders.

422 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

because the piston area at the left is A relief valveof the simple type is Directional Control Valves Although all

larger, providing a slower, more
powerful work stroke when fluid pres-
sure applied to the
is LH
side. The
return stroke will be faster due to the
smaller piston area. Reciprocating
motions of this type are required on
machine tools such as shapers. If equal
forces in both directions are required,
the piston rod is designed to extend
through both ends of the cylinder, as in
Fig. 21-1-7C. This is a non-differential-
type cylinder.
Rotary Actuators Rotary actuators or
motors, like rotary pumps, are of
either the gear, vane, or piston design.
The piston design is further divided
into radial or axial types. Actually,
many hydraulic pumps can be used
motors with little or no modification.
Valves
Valves are used in hydraulic circuits to
control pressure, as well as the direc-
tion and rate of fluid flow. They can be
classified as pressure controls, direc-
tional controls, and flow controls.
Valves, like pipes, are generally
rated according to size and pressure.
The valve name may be based on its
usual function (relief valve) or a fea-
ture of its construction (gate valve).
Pressure Control Valves The most com-
mon type of pressure control valve is
the relief valve. A relief valve may be
used to provide overload protection
for circuit components or to limit the
force or torque exerted by a linear
actuator or rotary motor. With a relief
valve the flow is diverted back to the
reservoir.
shown in Fig. 21-1-8A. The valve is
installed so that one port is connected
to the pressure line, the other to the
reservoir. The ball is held on its seat by
thrust of the spring. Spring thrust can
be changed by turning the adjusting
screw.
When pressure at the valve inlet is
insufficient to overcome spring force,
the ball remains on its seat and the
valve is closed as shown. The position
of the ball prevents flow through the
valve.
When pressure at the valve
exceeds the adjusted spring force, the
ball is forced off its seat and the valve
is opened. Liquid flows from the pres-
sure line through the valve to the reser-
as
voir. This diversion of flow prevents
further pressure increase in the pres-
sure line. When pressure decreases
below the valve setting, the spring
reseats the ball and the valve is again
closed.
Sequence valves, as shown in Fig.
21-1-8B, are used on machines requir-
ing operations which must occur in a
proper sequence. Sequence valves will
not operate until the pressure of one
unit has reached a certain level.
Sequence valves differ from relief
valves in that when a sequence valve is
used the flow is diverted to another
portion of the system to perform work.
Pressure-reducing valves are used
to block or modulate flow at a preset
pressure. Unlike the two valves dis-
cussed so far, reducing valves are nor-
mally open, the most common being a
spool valve, which is shown in Fig.
21-1-8C.
directional control valves have a com-
mon function of controlling direction
of fluid flow, they vary considerably in
construction and operation.
Directional controls can be classi-
fied on the basis of principal charac-
teristics: the type of internal valving
element, the method of actuating the
valving element, and the number of
positions of the valving element as well
as the flow paths created in the various
positions.
Check valves are the simplest of all
inlet directional control valves. They per-
mit fluid to flow in one direction only.
See Fig. 21-1-9.
OUTLET
-PISTON
INLET INLET
STRAIGHT RIGHT ANGLE
Fig. 21-1-9 Check valves.
Multiple-way valves are known as
two-way, three-way, or four-way,
depending on the number of primary
parts the valve contains. See Figs.
21-1-10 through 21-1-12.
Many variations are possible when
classifying valves according to the
number of positions or flow paths.
They may be of the simple on-off vari-
ety or have a wide selection of flow
paths through them.

COMPOUND

(A) PRESSURE RELIEF (B) SEQUENCE VALVE (C) PRESSURE REDUCING

Fig. 21-1-8 Pressure-control valves.

FLUID POWER 423

 INLET (PRESSURE! INLET (PRESSURE) INLET (PRESSURE) INLET (PRESSURE)
P P

OUT

UNACTUATED ACTUATED UNACTUATED

VALVE NORMALLY OPEN VALVE NORMALLY CLOSED

Fig. 21-1-10 Two-way, two-position valves.

The operation of a two-way sliding- CYLINDER Changing the displacement would

spool valve is shown in Fig. 21-1-10. change the operating speed and would
Usually containing a sliding spool, have an inverse effect on the force or
two-way valves provide a choice of torque output. For this and other rea-
two flow paths exclusive of the valve's sons, such as the impracticability of
center position. In either shifted posi- changing the bore of a cylinder, speed
tion, the pressure port is open to one control usually is accomplished by
cylinder port, but the opposite cylin- controlling the flow rate.
der port is not open to the tank. (In a With full pump delivery directed
four-way valve, the opposite cylinder into a cylinder, the actuator travels at
port would be open to the tank, making its maximum speed. A larger pump
two flow paths in either shifted would move it faster; a smaller one
TO TANK
position.) would move it more slowly. Logically,
Flow Control Valves The widespread
NORMAL POSITION then, the use of a variable delivery

use of hydraulic circuitry in machine

pump would provide a relatively sim-
CYLINDER ple means of controlling actuator
tool applications stems in part from the
speed. Since operating pressure would
ease with which traverse and feed
vary with the workload, the vol-
rates can be controlled through the use
umetric efficiency of the pump would
of various types of flow controls.
determine feed-rate accuracy.
The speed of an actuator, whether it
be a hydraulic cylinder or a motor, is
A restrictor-type flow control valve
(Fig. 21-1-13) has a compensator spool,
determined by its displacement and
the amount of fluid available to
which held in position by a light
is
it.
spring, and pressure sensor beyond
the throttle. In this type, the compen-
sator spool is normally held in the open
position, and tends to shut off, not per-
TO TANK mitting fluid in excess of the throttle
setting to enter the valve. The balance
4-WAY VALVE ACTUATED LEFT
of the pump delivery is then available
for other purposes.

TO TANK CHAMBER PLUNGER

NORMAL OR EXHAUST SPRING IN ^-ORIFICE

PUSH
OUT

TO TANK
TO TANK CHAMBER-^ / '-FLOW CONTROL THROTTLE
ACTUATED OR EXHAUST
ACTUATED RIGHT -ORIFACE

Fig. 21-1-11 Four-way, two-position valve. Fig. 21-1-12 Four-way, three-position valve. Fig. 21-1-13 Flow-control valve.

424 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 used depends on the amount and kind
of information required. Pictorial and
n WORKING LINE
1
r1 VALV
cutaway diagrams are illustrated in
LD Fig. 21-1-14.

Pictorial Diagrams
A pictorial diagram is primarily used to
show the piping arrangement of a cir-
n The symbols are outline drawings

&
cuit.
showing the actual external shape of
the components, with the piping
RESERVOIR shown to the various parts of the units.
(A) PICTORIAL DIAGRAM Because they show nothing of the
internal construction or function of the
CYLINDER components, pictorial diagrams have
little value for instruction or trou-
bleshooting. Pictorial symbols are dif-
ficult to standardize on a functional
basis. Typical pictorial symbols are
shown in Figs. 21-1-14A and 21-1-15.

Cutaway Diagrams
Cutaway diagrams contain much infor-
mation about the operation of a circuit
and the construction and operation of
its components. These diagrams are

ideally suited for instruction and are

widely used for that purpose. Because
of the time and cost involved, they are

(B) CUTAWAY DIAGRAM

seldom made for other purposes. Cut-
away symbols are difficult to draw,
Fig. 21-1-14 Comparison between pictorial and cutaway diagrams.
and the part functions are not readily
apparent. Figures 21-1-5 and 21-1-14B
Not
all circuit diagrams are com- illustrate typical cutaway symbols for
FLUID CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS For instance, a diagram which is
plete. common hydraulic parts.
An accurate diagram of the fluid circuit to be used only for piping would not
is one of the most important pieces of need to show the sequence of opera- Arrangement of Symbols
literature accompanying a machine. tions or sizes and ratings of the Symbols are arranged in the diagram to
The information shown in the circuit components. facilitate the use of straight intercon-
diagram is essential for an understand- Fluid circuit diagrams are of four necting lines. Where components have
ing of the operation of the machine and types, namely, pictorial, cutaway, definite mechanical, functional, or
for installation or troubleshooting. graphical, and combination. The type otherwise important relationships to
one another, their symbols should be
so placed in the diagram. The conduc-
r tors (interconnecting lines) are drawn
] RESERVOIR straight for clarity. They are not
V intended to indicate actual installation
ELECTRIC
MOTOR PUMP
UrtH of pipelines and are drawn as
double lines depending on the type of
diagram. Single lines are used on pic-
single or

0= DIRECTIONAL VALVE torial diagrams, double lines on cut-

away diagrams.
CYLINDER
4 -f\h References and Source Materials
y- o-
-DEEr- 1. Crane Canada, Limited.
STRAIGHT RIGHT ANGLE
SIMPLE
^ COMPOUND
FLOW 2. Vickers, Incorporated.
CONTROL
CHECK VALVES VALVE
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVES ASSIGNMENTS
WORKING LINE DRAIN LINE See Assignments 1 and 2 for Unit 21-1
Fig. 21-1-15 Typical pictorial diagrams. on page 433.

FLUID POWER 425

 metric figures which are easy to work 21-2-2. The symbols can be combined
UNIT 21-2 with and which clearly define the types in any form is necessary to cor-
that

Graphical Diagrams and functions of the components. No rectly depict a composite unit. Unless
attempt is made to show the shape or multiple diagrams are furnished show-
internal construction of a component. ing the various phases of operation,

Graphical diagrams are preferred by 1 Note the differences in the diagrams the symbols will be shown in a diagram
most application and service engineers shown in Fig. 21-2-1. in their normal or neutral position. The

for designing and troubleshooting
hydraulic circuits. The graphical sym-
bols are combinations of simple geo-
Some of the standard graphical sym- reservoir symbol, like that of the elec-
bols specified by the Joint Industry trical ground symbol, may be repeated
Conference (JIC) are shown in Fig. several times on a graphical diagram.

(GI^V
TV Jk
rl
(BI
rflrzrfh
(C)|

nx m a

In
!!
—i<

B
M
s . ,

(B) CUTAWAY DIAGRAM i

IDIVV J
(C (m)(bi
'C J
X LIST OF COMPONENTS
A-RESERVOIR
B-ELECTRIC MOTOR
C-PUMP
(A) GRAPHICAL DIAGRAM D-MAXIMUM PRESSURE (RELIEF) VALVE
E-DIRECTIONAL VALVE
F-FLOW CONTROL VALVE
G-RIGHT ANGLE CHECK VALVE
H-CYLINDER

Hfc
(G)l3>

\*

(C) PICTORIAL DIAGRAM D) COMBINATION DIAGRAM

Fig. 21-2-1 Fluid circuit diagrams.

LINE. WORKING (MAIN)

— LINE. PILOT (FOR

LINE. LIQUID
CONTROL)

DRAIN
(D)
®
MOTOR
«
FIXED VARIABLE
DISPLACEMENT DISPLACEMENT
# 1
I I

ir,
c
PRESSURIZED

i
(A) CONDUCTORS ABOVE FLUID LEVEL
(E) PUMPS

IT.
ONE DIRECTION BOTH DIRECTIONS
IB) FLOW *SHOW LINE ENTERING OR EXITING BELOW
RESERVOIR ONLY WHEN BOTTOM CONNECTION
SINGLE ACTING IS ESSENTIAL TO CIRCUIT FUNCTION.

FILTERING ELEMENT J . L
BELOW FLUID LEVEL
SINGLE END ROD DOUBLE END ROD

FILTER STRAINER
DOUBLE ACTING
lLBELOW ABOVE
(C) (F) CYLINDERS
SIMPLIFIED

(G) RESERVOIR WITH CONNECTING LINES

Fig. 21-2-2 Graphical symbols.

426 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 r 1
1
1
j-- ~ "I 1 "1

5 5 [VENT 5xx
FIXED VARIABLE L_t7_I RELIEF RELIEF '

CHECK 2-WAY ADJUSTABLE WITH SEQUENCE REDUCING

MANUAL WITH VENT
BYPASS XX DENOTES PRESSURE SETTING
(A) MISCELLANEOUS VALVES (B) FLOW CONTROL VALVES (C) PRESSURE CONTROL VLAVES

+ 4r
W
SINGLE MULTIPLE
Vv
-f-
D K} -f^
Vv

NORMALLY CLOSED NORMALLY OPEN INFINITE POSITION

ENVELOPES

^
TWO-WAY VALVES
_LL TO CYLINDER TO CYLINDER

PORTS Hzli
NORMALLY
Pll NT
INLET TO TANK
(PRESSURE) OR EXHAUS
iSr"
INLET TO TANK
(PRESSURE) OR EXHAUST
± CLOSED

T rfm ft
UNACTUATED
TOCYLINDER TO CYLINDER
ACTUATED

PORTS CLOSED OR BLOCKED PUSH

W 1
XX TO TANK INLET TO TANK INLET
X NORMALLY
OPEN
OR EXHAUST (PRESSURE)
UNACTUATED
OR EXHAUST (PRESSURE)
ACTUATED
PORTS OPEN THREE-WAY TWO-POSITION VALVE
ENVELOPES AND PORTS

SYMBOL APPLICATION
rrLi^M i i

lJX
w NORMAL
i
MANUAL - GENERAL 1 I

N W
I
H SYMBOL WITHOUT
INDICATING TYPE 1

X 1 1
i
ACTUATED
<fc| ^ PUSH BUTTON
i
TWO POSITION

& £. 1
LEVER
i±±

PEDAL OR -n- I
h h. 1

TREADLE
NORMAL

~
SOLENOID r"TY
=1 KIT _ '

In A I

ACTUATED RIGHT
TO TANK
°=l ^C: MECHANICAL 1_lU1A T TO TANK
ACTUATED LEFT
^u r
ACTUATORS AND CONTROLS
THREE POSITION
FOUR-WAY VALVES
(D) DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

Fig. 21-2-3 Graphical valve symbols.

FLUID POWER 427

 Directional valves, because of vari-
ous types of controls and flow paths,
require a numbei of different symbols.
A basic directional valve symbol con-
sists of an envelope (square) for each
position of the valve. The envelopes
are drawn side by side in their correct
order with each showing the flow path
for its position. The method of actuat-
ing a v alve is also shown symbolically.
See Fig. 21-2-3.
SYMBOL RULES
1. Svmbols show connections, flow
paths, and function of the compo-
nent represented. They do not
indicate conditions occurring dur-
ing transition from one flow-path
arrangement to another. Further,
they do not indicate construction
or values such as pressure, flow-
rate, and other component set-
tings.
2. Sv mbols do not indicate the loca-
tion of ports, direction of shifting
of spools, or position of control
elements on actual components.
3. Symbols may be rotated or re-
versed without altering their
meaning.
4. Line width does not alter meaning
of symbols.
5. Symbols may be drawn any suit-
dire
r; rx
i__rixu
i_fv
val
Pig. 21-2-4 Simple hydraulic circuit.
428 POWER TRANSMISSIONS
able size. Size may be varied for HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
emphasis or clarity.
EXAMPLE 1 Figure 21-2-4 is a typical
6. Letter combinations used as parts
example of a simple hydraulic circuit.
of graphical symbols are not nec-
When the directional control valve
essarily abbreviations.
(two-position, three-way, spring-oper-
7. Where flow lines cross, a loop is
ated, push-button control) is in the
used, except within a symbol
position shown in Fig. 21-2-4A, the
envelope. A loop may be used in
cylinder piston extends. When the
this case if clarity is improved by
piston reaches the end of its stroke,
its use.
the pump flow is then diverted through
8. In multipleenvelope symbols, the
the pressure control (relief) valve.
flow condition shown nearest a
When the push button is operated on
control symbol takes place when
the directional control valve, the port
that control is caused or permitted
to the pump is blocked, as shown in
to actuate.
9. Each symbol is drawn to show the
Fig. 21-2-4B. The weight (mass) of the
piston forces the hydraulic fluid from
normal or neutral condition of the
the cylinder through the directional
component unless several circuit
control valve to the reservoir, and the
diagrams are furnished showing
piston retracts. Since pump flow
various phases of circuit opera-
through the directional control valve is
tion.
blocked, the fluid is diverted through
10 Arrows should be used within
the pressure control (relief) valve back
symbol envelopes to show the
to the reservoir.
direction of flow path in the com-
ponent as used in the application EXAMPLE 2 Figure 2 1-2-5 shows a sim-
represented. A double-ended ple hydraulic circuit using a three-posi-
arrow is used to indicate reversing tion, four-way valve controlling the
flow. movement of a double-acting cylinder.
11. External ports are where flow Figure 21-2-5A shows the control
lines connect to the basic symbol, valve in its neutral position. Since
except where component enclo- pump flow through the directional con-
sure is used. trol valve is blocked, the fluid is di-
12. External ports are at the intersec- verted through the pressure control
tions of flow lines and the compo- (relief) valve back to the reservoir.
nent enclosure symbol when en-
closure is used.
-*-
DIRECTIONAL t f
CONTROL VALVE
WAY
3 POSITION. 4
w 1
iiX*
41 X \N
X
.L
lL
(B) FORWARD STROKE
:rT
e> PUMP
1
*v:
^L
^-\ STRAINER
RESERVOIR
(A) NEUTRAL POSITION
(C) RETRACTING STROKE
(B)
Fig. 21-2-5 Graphic diagram showing a three-position,
four-way valve controlling a cylinder.
 When the operator shifts the control
valve to the right, fluid is directed to
the head of the cylinder (Fig. 21-2-5B).
The fluid at the other end of the cylin-
der is directed back to the reservoir.
The pump continues to pump oil after
completed
the cylinder rod has its
stroke. This excess oil is returned via
the relief valve to the reservoir.
At the end of the forward stroke, the
operator shifts the control valve to the
left which causes the cylinder rod to
retract (Fig. 21-2-5C). Fluid is directed
to the rod end of the cylinder and the
fluid from the head end returns to the
reservoir. When the operator releases
the control valve handle, the valve
returns to its neutral position.
Reference and Source Material
1. Vickers. Incorporated.
ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 3 and 4 for Unit 21-2
on page 434.
UNIT 21-3
Pneumatics
Compressed air has been used as a
means of transmitting power for a long
time, but in recent years pneumatics
has taken on a new sophistication.
With the availability of miniaturized
valves and fluidic devices, air can now
supply the nerves and brains, as well
as the muscles, of complex automated
equipment.
What is air? Air may be defined as a
colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. prin-
cipally composed of nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and water vapor. Its
molecules are widely separated and in
constant motion, t- veling in straight
lines. At sea level, air exists at a pres-
sure of 14.7 lb/in. 2 (101.3 kPa). Air
mixes readily with other fluids.
BASIC LAWS
There are several simple basic laws
governing the behavior of air that are
important to pneumatic system design.
Boyle'sLaw This law defines the rela-
tionship between volume and pressure
and states that if the temperature
constant, the volume of a given mass
of gas varies inversely as its absolute
pressure. It can be written
W
where
= PiVi
=
5
pressure (absolute)
Z ,
the initial
V, = the initial volume
P2 = the final pressure (absolute)
V-, = the final volume
Charles'Law This law refers to the
behavior of a gas when changes in tem-
perature take place and states that
when there is no change in volume, the
pressure of a gas varies directly with
its absolute temperature.
Pascal's Law This law states that the
pressure of a gas in a container is trans-
mitted undiminished in all directions
and acts at right angles to the surfaces
of the container. See Fig. 21-1-1.
STOP VALVE
Fig. 21-3-1 Receiver critical back pressure
S3 percent of supply pressure.
Airflow
Air will only flow when a difference of
pressure exists and flows toward the
lower pressure. The rate of flow
depends on the initial pressure, the dif-
ference in pressure, and the size,
shape, and smoothness of the orifice.
The shape and smoothness of the ori-
fice are important. A straight or
smoothly curved pipe assists airflow,
and smooth inner walls reduce fric-
tion. Rough surfaces slow adjacent
layers of air and reduce the effective
area of the pipe.
TO LUBRICATE VALVES. CYLINDERS. ETC
TO FILTER OUT DIRT AND WATER
AIRLINE
COMPRESSOR
AIR
RECEIVING
TANK
(RAW AIR)
JFILTERl
is Fig. 21-3-2 Basic pneumatic components.
Critical Back-Pressure Ratio
In an enclosed air system, one other
factor must be considered. Figure
21-3-1 shows a supply tank at a con-
stant pressure of 100 psi connected
through a stop valve to a receiver tank
at atmospheric pressure (0 psi). If the
stop valve is opened, air will flow from
A toB at a rate dependent on the ori-
fice and pipe characteristics. Continu-
ing flow will reduce the differential
pressure between the supply and
receiver tanks, but it is an observed
phenomenon in gas behavior that the
rate of flow does not change until the
receiver tank pressure has reached 53
percent of the supply pressure, in this
case. 53 psi. Conversely, if the pres-
sure in the receiver falls below 53 psi,
any further decrease in pressure will
not increase airflow. This is called the
criticalhack-pressure ratio, and can
be important when selecting the size of
a valve.
S.
RECEIVER
TANK
PS I
PNEUMATIC EQUIPMENT
Air Supply Installation
is
Before any pneumatic equipment can
operate,it must have a supply of air at
the correct pressure, in sufficient vol-
ume, and properly conditioned. See
Fig. 21-3-2. The supply starts at the
compressor which has a rated output
pressure in psi or pascals and a rated
volume in standard cubic feet per min-
ute (SCFM) or cubic meters per sec-
ond. This is often known as free air
delivered (FAD). A standard cubic
foot (ft 3 ) of air is the weight of air con-
tained in 1 ft 3 of space at 70°F and 14.7
psi absolute. A standard cubic meter of
air is the mass of air contained in 1 m3
of space at 21°C and 101.3 kPa.
The compressor obeys Boyle's law
by pushing air at atmospheric pressure
into a smaller volume to increase the
TO MAINTAIN A
CONSTANT PRESSURE
REGULATOR
TO TOOLS ORCYLINDERS
=f
CONDITIONED AIR OUT
u MAY BE ADVISABLE AT THIS
-A SECOND FILTER
LOCATION TO REMOVE WATER AND OIL CONDENSATION
PRODUCED BY THE EXPANSION OF THE AIR FLOWING
THROUGH THE REGULATOR.
FLUID POWER 429
pressure. Unfortunately, Charles' law Conditioning the Air ments are rated by the size, ,. i

dictates thai as pressure increases So compression of the air. the

does temperature: and warm air con-
tains more water vapor than cool air.
I'o decrease water content, a filter
should be fitted immediately down-
stream of the compressor w here mois-
far. the
removal of the moisture from the air.
and the piping of the air to the supply
points have been discussed. The next
concern is to condition the air before it
enters the tool, control, or power ele-
microns, of particles they will inter-
cept. A micron is .000 254 in. or 0.001
mm.
For work or power air, a filter of 50-
to 60-micron rating is normally suffi-
cient, since this air comes in contact

ture can be precipitated and drained
off.
Although there is a definite trend
toward oil-free compressors, indus-
trial compressors are still predomi-
nant of the oil-flooded type. Most
I >
have internal oil separators that are of
quite high efficiency, but a certain
amount of oil vapor does get through.
This oil can contain wear particles
from compressor parts: it also tends to
be burned due to the heat of compres-
sion. To prevent contamination of the
air system, it is recommended that an
efficient oil separator be fitted
between the compressor discharge
point and the air receiver.
Air Distribution System
The air distribution system will be con-
sidered as beginning at the storage
tank where a supply of air is available
w ith most of the oil vapor and solids
already removed. Between the tank
outlet and the feeds to the individual
s\ stems, the biggest problem is how to
get rid of water. A certain amount of
precipitation will take place in the
tank, so a drain is normally provided
there. Methods of removing water in
other parts of a pneumatic circuit are
shown in Fig. 21-3-3.
BRANCH MAIN
WIDE PATTERN RETURN BEND,
ments to do some useful work. with contamination from cylinder or
shaft packings. Control air is not nor-
Filters The average filter available
mally subject to this, so should be
(Fig. 21-3-4) is designed to do twojobs:
passed through a secondary filter of
remove moisture and remove dirt.
about 5-micron rating. This finer filtra-
When air enters the filter, its path is
tion will add appreciably to the effi-
changed abruptly to a rotary direction,
ciency and life of the control section of
so centrifugal force hurls any particles
the circuit.
of water outward. Here they collect on
the sides of the filter bowl and gravi-
Pressure Regulators
tate to the bottom w here a baffle pre-
(Fig. 21-3-5)
vents air turbulence. This area is called
The three main reasons for regulating
the quiet zone and is drained by an
air pressure are
automatic or manual valve.
Dirt exists to a greater or lesser 1. To keep wasted air to a minimum
extent in various forms in any plant 2. To achieve maximum consistency
system and is intercepted in most fil- in circuit performance
ters by a cartridge element. These ele- 3. To maintain an optimum balance
between work output of compo-
nents and their wear rate
A regulator must be chosen to give
the correct w orking range, usuallv to
125 lb/in. 2 (0 to 1000 kPa).
AIR DIVERTER In locating the regulator, always try
to getit upstream of a lubricator, since
aircan be contaminated by the interac-
tion of some oils on the regulator
diaphragm.
QUIET ZONE
DRAIN
Fig. 21-3-4 Typical air filter.
ADJUSTING SCREW
BRANCH MAIN ADJUSTING
SPRING

DIAPHRAGM

STOP VALVE
AUTOMATIC DRAIN REGULATED_
AIR FILTER PRESSURE
LUBRICATOR
TRAP OR
WATER LEG
VALVE
Fig. 21-3-5 Simple spring-type regulator.

FLEXIBLE
HOSE
Air Lubricators
DRAIN
The standard-type lubricator (Fig.
HAND-OPERATED VALVE 21-3-6) operates by creating a pressure
AND AIR CYLINDER AIR DRILL differential between the lubricant con-
tainer and a metering chamber. This
Fig. 21-3-3 Air distribution diagram.
causes the oil to enter the metering

430 POWER TRANSMISSIONS


OIL FOG
Fig. 21-3-6 Air-lubricator oil-fog type.
chamber and disperse into the pipeline
as fog. Lubricators are designed to
operate with a certain size pipe and
airflow.
Common types of lubricators in use
are the oil-fog type and the micro-fog
type. The oil-fog type disperses rela-
tively large drops of oil which have a
tendency to fall out early, the normal
carrying distance before fallout being
about 15 ft (5 m) in a straight length of
pipe.
The micro-fog type disperses much
smaller oil particles which remain in
suspension more easily. The suggested
carrying distance before fallout for this
type is 25 ft (8 m) in a straight pipe.
In choosing the lubricant, it is
erable to use the grade recommended
by the component manufacturers.
AIR CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
Air circuit elements can be considered
under the three separate functions
they perform: power, control, and
signal.
Power Elements
Cylinders The most common power
elements are cylinders, and many fac-
tors influence their choice.
If work is to be performed in one
direction only, then a single-acting
cylinder (Fig. 21-1-7A) may be used.
This type is retracted by an internal
spring, an external load or gravity, or
bucking air. If work is to be done in
both directions, i.e., if the return load
exceeds cylinder friction, a double-
acting cylinder (Fig. 21-1-7B) is
needed.
The size of the cylinder will depend
on the magnitude of load and the dis-
tance it must be moved. The bore can
be found from the formula A = F/P,
where F is the load and P is the air
pressure available. The stroke should
equal the distance to be moved.
After it is decided which cylinder
will be used, its air consumption must
be calculated. This is the volume found
by calculating the volume of the free
end of the cylinder, adding the volume
of the piston rod end if the piston is
double-acting, and multiplying by the
frequency in strokes per minute.
This calculation is important, but it
is often neglected. It must be done not
only to decide the size of lubricator
required, but also to check if the plant
system has the capacity to operate the
circuit.
Air Motors Air motors are used to con-
vert the energy of compressed air into
continuous torque. They are not the
most efficient means of producing
torque, since the average motor needs
about 5 hp (4 kW) at the compressor to
produce 1.25 hp (1 kW) at the motor,
but they still have a lot in their favor.
With the growing popularity of
pneumatic controls, air motors can
make some machines or systems inde-
pendent of electricity, particularly if
the compressor is driven by an internal
combustion engine. They cannot be
pref-
harmed by stalling; they do not over-
heat, since the air expanding through
the motor has a cooling effect: they
have a very high power-to-mass ratio:
and they are very reliable (seldom
break down, only wear out slowly with
lots of warning).
There are three main types. See Fig.
21-3-7. The two piston types are the
workhorses, giving high power at
lower speeds. Vane types are the race-
horses, suitable for ligher loads at
higher speeds, and they are more com-
pact. The majority of low-kilowatt
(horsepower) motors in use are of this
type.
In selecting an air motor, it must be
remembered that power is propor-
(A) AXIAL PISTON (B) RADIAL PISTON
Fig. 21-3-7 Air motors.
tional to revolutions per minute and
pressure. This is the pressure at the
motor inlet, so air lines must be big
enough to pass the required volume of
air. If several motors are operating
intermittently from the same air sys-
tem, surge tanks or air reservoirs
should be provided. The motor chosen
should give the required power and
revolutions per minute at about one-
half the maximum pressure, so that
there will be no power loss under
adverse conditions.
Control Elements
Power Valves Power valves direct air-
flow to and from the work elements.
There are various designs of valve
action, and it is helpful if the action
requires low thrust to actuate the
valve. More important, the required
thrust should be constant and un-
affected by variations in pressure or
airflow through the valve or by
changes in friction within the valve.
To eliminate unnecessary air
wastage as the valve shifts, the action
should block the air supply from the
connecting flow paths in the valve as it
moves through midposition.
In most applications, the valve
action should be detented to keep it in
its selected position in the event of
failure in the controlling medium (elec-
tricity or air).
A good valve action provides a vari-
ety of flow paths by accepting and
valving air at any port. This allows the
use of the same valve for different cir-
cuit functions, such as normally open,
normally closed, two-way, three-way,
dual-pressure, and others.
There are three methods commonly
used to actuate a power valve: me-
chanical, electrical, and
air. In a two-
position valve, any combination of
these may be used.
The selection of power valves is
governed by the airflow required, the
(C) VANE TYPE
FLUID POWER 431
 ***

method of —
flow paths needed, and the
actuation.
Valves are termed by the number of
1>
FLOW DIRECTION AND/OR ENERGY SOURCE
PUMP. COMPRESSOR. ETC.
9
PRESSURE GAGE
How paths they pro\ ide. either two- or
three-position.
Two-position means that two flow
conditions exist that are relative to the H
position of the valve.
Three-position is similar but has a
third flow condition when the valve COMPRESSOR VACUUM PUMP UNIDIRECTIONAL BIDIRECTIONAL AIRLINE PRESSURE
MOTOR REGULATOR
mechanism is centered. PUMP, FIXED DISPLACEMENT
(ADJUSTABLE, RELIEVING)
One other factor must be known
when describing a power valve. That is
the number of ways it may be used and
number of ports
-r^r l^t
refers basically to the
REMOTE EXHAUST INTERNAL
or connections in the valve body. MANUAL AUTOMATIC RETURN
Figure 21-3-8 shows two types of DRAIN DRAIN
two-way. two-position valves. Air ACTUATORS ACTUATED
connected to one port on the right LUBRICATOR BY RELEASED PRESSURE
valve will only flow out of the other Fig. 21-3-9 Pneumatic graphic symbols.
port w hen the valve is actuated. This is
know n as a normally closed, two-way,
spring-centered valve returns to neu-
two-position valve. On the left is a nor- Pneumatic Circuits
mally open, two-way. two-position
tral.The pressure on the cylinder is
valve, since air flows until the valve is
EXAMPLE 1 See Fig. 21-3-10. When the relieved while the pressure inlet
actuated. operator shifts the control valve to the remains closed, preventing the valve
right, air is directed to the head end of from draining the compressor. With
the cylinder. The return air is directed the pressure removed from both ends
PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT back through the control valve to the of the cylinder, the cylinder rod can be
DIAGRAMS atmosphere. At the end of the forward moved readily. This action is called
stroke, the operator shifts the control floating and is used in both air and
Pictorial and Cutaway Diagrams The
valve to the left. Air is directed to the hydraulic circuitry.
same types of symbols as those shown
rod end of the cylinder, and the air
in the hydraulic pictorial and cutaway
from the head end is directed to the
diagrams also apply to pneumatic cir- CYLINDER
atmosphere by way of the control
cuits. See Unit 21-1.
valve. The pump continues to pump air
Graphic Symbols With the exception of after the cylinder rod has completed its
the symbols shown in Fig. 21-3-9, stroke. This excess air is disposed of CONTROL VALVE,
pneumatic graphic symbols are identi- by the pressure regulator valve to the W 3-POSITION
4-WAY FLOAT CENTER
cal to those used in hydraulic circuits. atmosphere. When the operator
See Figs. 21-2-2 and 21-2-3. releases the control-valve handle, the

LUBRICATOR
INLET (PRESSURE) INLET (PRESSURE) INLET (PRESSURE) INLET (PRESSURE)

m
P P P P

PUSH
IL-1
PUSH

I OUT 1 1 OUT OUT OUT

It {D* PRESSURE REGULATOR

I I l
t
I
(I

UNACTUATED ACTUATED UNACTUATED ACTUATED

r
ENVELOPE
TP

m
SYMBOL SYMBOL
i

SYMBOL
BO!
m
FLOW LINE NORMALLY SHOWN CONNECTED
TO UNACTUATED POSITION
.

" Lr METHOD OF ACTUATING -^^wa.

WV =i
^- ENVELOPE SHOWN FOR EACH i

POSITION OF VALVE PUMP

COMPLETE VALVE SYMBOL COMPLETE VALVE SYMBOL
VALVE NORMALLY OPEN VALVE NORMALLY CLOSED
Fig. 21-3-8 Two-way, two-position valves.
Fig. 21-3-10 Simple pneumatic circuit.

432 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 EXAMPLE 2 A typical sequence circuit cylinder headis forced through the

is shown in Fig. 21-3-11. The sequence sequence and control valves to the
of operation is (1) extend clamp cylin- atmosphere.
der, (2) extend work cylinder. (3) After the work cylinder is fully
work cylinder, and (4) retract
retract retracted, the pressure again builds up
I I

SEQUENCE clamp cylinder. When the control and overcomes the spring tension in
VALVE 2 valve sequence valve 2. forcing air into the
is shifted, air is directed into the
CLAMP head of the clamp cylinder extending rod end of the clamp cylinder and thus
CYLINDER
the piston and clamping the part. Air retracting the piston and releasing the
3 CONTROL VALVE
2-POSITION.4-WAY also flows to sequence valve 1, but no work. The air in the head of the work
flow occurs through the valve because cylinder is forced out of the cylinder
LUBRICATION of the spring-loaded ball. After the through the sequence and control
clamp cylinder has completed its valves to the atmosphere.
stroke, pressure builds up in the line
7~[J PRESSURE
PRESS
-
JfJ REGU LATOR and overcomes the spring tension in
the valve, permitting air to pass
References and Source Material
through the valve to the head of the
FILTER 1. J. Mooney, "Course on Basic Pneu-
work cylinder. The piston of the work matics," Design Engineering.
cylinder extends to perform the work.
2. Holman Bros., Limited, Maxam-
The pressure in the line is controlled Nopak Division.
by the pressure regulator valve.
When the control valve is released,
air pressure flows into the rod end of
the work cylinder, retracting the
piston. The air alsoflows to sequence
ASSIGNMENTS
valve 2 but is blocked by the spring- See Assignments 5 through 7 for Unit
Fig. 21-3-11 Sequerrce circuit. loaded valve. The air from the work 21-3on page 435.

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 21

Assignments for Unit 21-1,
Hydraulics
I. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a pictorial 2. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a cutaway
diagram of the automobile brake diagram of the hydraulic circuit shown in
hydraulic system shown in Fig. 2 1-1 -A Fig. 2 - -B. Label the parts. Scale is to suit.
1 1

Label the parts. Scale is to suit.

CHECK
VALVE
DIRECTIONAL VALVE

ALARM
I'.DICATOR "EAR
SWITCH WHEEL
CYLINDER

REAR
CYLINDER

Fig. 21-1-B Hydraulic circuit with one double-acting

Fig. 2 1-1 -A Brake hydraulic system. differential-type cylinder.

FLUID POWER 433

Assignments for Unit 21-2, Ml MID STROKE EXTENDING
Graphical Diagrams Solenoid B of valve F
during the extending stroke. Vent line
is held energized

3. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a graphical from valve D is blocked at valve G. Deliv-

diagram of the hydraulic circuit shown in ery of pump

B is directed through F into
head end of cylinder H. Discharge from
Fig. 21-2-A.
rod end of H flows to tank through valves
4. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a graphical F and C.

diagram of the hydraulic circuit shown in

Fig. 21-2-B.

LEGEND
A - RESERVOIR
B - STRAINER
C - ELECTRIC MOTOR
D - FLEXIBLE COUPLING
E - PUMP
F - MAXIMUM PRESSURE
(RELIEFI VALVE WITH VENT
G - DIRECTIONAL VALVE MANUAL
-3 POSITION. 4 CONNECTION
H - CHECK VALVE
J VALVE ISEQUENCEI
-
SINGLE FLOW PATH
K - CHECK VALVE
L - CYLINDER NO. I

M - CYLINDER NO. 2

(21 MID STROKE RETRACTING

At end of extension stroke, cam on cylin-

der H contacts limit switch LS. This

causes solenoid B of valve F to be de-
energized. F shifts to the spring offset
position and directs delivery of pump B
into rodend of H. Discharge from head
end of H flows to tank through valves F
and C.

(31 AUTOMATIC STOP

At end of retraction stroke, cam on cylin-

der H depresses vatve G. Valve D is now

POSITION OF DIRECTIONAL VALVE
FOR EXTENDING PISTON vented through valves E. G. F. and C.
Delivery of pump B returns to tank over
LEGEND
:- '.'OIR valve D at low pressure. Pressure drop
- through C assures pilot pressure for opera-

C CHECK VALVE tion of F.

D- RELIEF VALVE N 1

E- CHECK VALVE
3 POSITION DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL VALVE

4^
G-JWAV 2 POSITION DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL VALVE
H-CYLINDER
J-STRAINER

POSITION OF DIRECTIONAL
VALVE FOR RETRACTING PISTON

TO SEQUENCE THE ADVANCE OF TWO CYLINDERS. A SINGLE FLOW SEQUENCE (41 PUSHBUTTON START
VALVE IN THE SUPPLY LINE OF NO-2 CYLINDER (Ml IS SET TO OPEN AT A Depressing a push button causes solenoid
PRESSURE IN EXCESS OF THAT REQUIRED TO ADVANCE NO.1 CYLINDER (L). B of valve F to be held energized. F shifts
AS THE DIRECTIONAL VALVE IS SHIFTED IN POSITION FOR EXTENDING end of cylinder H to pump
to connect head
PISTONS. FLOW IS DIRECTED FROM PORT (a). WHEN CYLINDER (LI
B. and rod end of H to tank. Pilot flow
COMPLETES ITS STROKE. SYSTEM PRESSURE BUILDS UP OPENING THE
from vent of D stops and check valve F
SEQUENCE VALVE (Jl AND ALLOWING FLOW TO ADVANCE N0.2 CYLINDER
closes. Pressures equalize through balance
IM). BY SHIFTING THE DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE TO NEUTRAL. THE
CYLINDERS CAN BE STOPPED AND HELD IN ANY POSITION WHILE PERMITTING hole in hydrostat of D causing it to start

THE PUMP OUTPUT TO RESERVOIR THROUGH PORT (d). WHEN THE DIRECTIONAL to close. Acceleration of H takes place

CONTROL VALVE IS SHIFTED TO THE RETRACTING POSITION FLOW IS DIRECTED during the closing of the hydrostat of D.
FROM PORT Ipl TO PORT (bl. THE BY-PASS CHECK VALVE (Kl ALLOWS NO.2
CYLINDER (Ml TO RETRACT FREELY.

SEQUENCING THE ADVANCED STROKE OF TWO HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS AUTOMATIC VENTING OF RELIEF VALVE AT END OR EACH CYCLE BY CAM-OPERATED PILOT VALVE
Fig. 21-2-A Sequencing the advanced stroke of two Fig. 21-2-B Automatic venting of a relief valve at end of each cycle by a
hydraulic cylinders. cam-operated pilot valve.

434 POWER TRANSMISSIONS

 Assignments for Unit 21-3,
Pneumatics
5. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a graphical
diagram of the pneumatic circuit shown in
Fig. 21-3-A The circuit operations are as
follows.
All air entering the circuit passes
through the lubrication-control unit, then
it is delivered at a constant controllable

pressure to the inlet port of valves 1, 3, 5,

6,7,8, 10, 12, 13, 14, and 15.

The operation of this automatic circuit

depends entirely on the operation of
valve 2, which is depressed only when a
bar of sufficient length is properly posi-
tioned in the machine.
With the bar place, the operator
in
depresses valve Valve
1. passes a feed
1

through valve 2 to the bottom end of

valve 3, which passes air unrestricted to
the bottom end of cylinder A, thus
extending the piston rod to lift the saw.
Fig. 21-3-A Control circuit for an automatic sawing machine.
Toward the end of the upward stroke,
valve 5 is momentarily tripped, passing air
to the bottom end of valve 6, which oper-
ates, passing air to the top end of cylinder
NO. 3 CYLINDER DIRECTIONAL VALVE
B, thus retracting the piston rod to open 4-WAY, 2-POSITION
(AIR AND SPRING ACTUATEDI
the vise. When nearing its retracted posi- PORTS NOT CONNECTED
OPEN TO ATMOSPHERE
tion, the piston rod momentarily trips
valve 7 to pass air to the bottom end of
valve 8, which operates, passing air to the
top end of cylinder C, thus retracting the
WORKING LINE
piston rod to open the clamp. When fully
retracted, a pressure buildup operates DRAIN LINE

sequence valve 9, which allows air to pass

into the RH end of the cylinder D, thus
retracting the piston rod. At an appropri- NO. 2CYLINDER

ate point valve 10 is momentarily tripped

to pass air to the top end of valve 8, which
operates, passing air to the bottom end of
cylinder C, thus extending the piston rod
to clamp the bar. When fully extended, a
pressure buildup operates sequence valve
11, which allows air to pass to the LH end

of cylinder D, thus extending the piston r^

rod to feed the required length of bar into
(AIR AND SPRING ACTUATED)
the vise. |

PORT NOT CONNECTED NO. I CYLINDER

At a predetermined point, the piston ,
OPEN TO ATMOSPHERE

rod of cylinder D momentarily trips valve

12 to pass air to the top end of valve 6,
which operates, passing air to the bottom
end of cylinder B, thus extending the
piston rod to close the vise. As the vise
closes, valve 3 is tripped to pass air to the
1

top end of valve 3, which operates,

exhausting the line to the bottom of cylin-
der A. The saw, therefore, descends under
its own mass at a speed controlled by
adjustment of restrictor valve 4. When the
bar has been cut through, the saw trips
RH end of valve
valve 14 to pass air to the
15, which operates, passing air via valve 2
to the bottom end of valve 3, which oper-
ates to recommence the cycle.
6. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a graphical
diagram of the pneumatic circuit shown in OPERATING A SERIES OF CYLINDERS IN SEQUENCE
Fig. 21-3-B. Fig. 21-3-B Operating a series of cylinders in sequence.

FLUID POWER 435

J
PART 5 Special Fields
of Drafting
CHAPTER 22
Development
and Intersections

surfaces but also with the joining of the

UNIT 22-1
edges of these surfaces and with
Surface exposed edges. An allowance must be
made for the additional material neces-
Developments and sary for such seams and edges. The
drafter must also indicate where the
Intersections
material is bent. Several commonly
used methods of marking bend lines
SURFACE DEVELOPMENTS are shown in Fig. 22-1-2. If the finished

Many and
objects, such as cardboard
part is shown with the develop-
not
metal boxes, tin cans, funnels, cake
ment drawing, instructions such as
pans, furnace pipes, elbows, ducts,
bend up 90°, bend down 180°, bend up
45°, are shown beside each bend line.
and roof gutters, are made from flat Fig. 22-1-1 Sheet-metal application.
(Johnson & Johnson) Figure 22-1-3 shows a number of com-
sheet material that, when folded,
formed, or rolled, will take the shape
mon methods for seaming and edging.
Seams are used to join edges. The
of an object. Since a definite shape and
size are desired, a regular orthographic
drawing of the object, such as shown
FOLD LINES
in Fig. 22-1-1. is made first; then a
development drawing is made to show
the complete surface or surfaces laid
out in a flat plane.
\

Sheet-Metal Development
Surface development drawing is some- (B) THIN LINES MARKED WITH X
times referred to as pattern drawing.
because the layout, when made on E ^- FOLD LINES
FOLD LINES
heavy cardboard, thin metal, or wood,
isused as a pattern for tracing out the
developed shape on flat material. Such
A B / C D

patterns are used extensively in sheet- 1

metal shops. f

When making a development draw-

ing of an object which will be con-
structed of thin metal, such as a tin can (A) THIN LINES (C) THIN LINES MARKED WITH
or a dust pan. the drafter must be con- Fig. 22-1-2 Common methods used to identify fold or bend lines on
cerned not only with the developed development drawings.

DEVELOPMENT AND INTERSECTIONS 437

 GAGE NUMBER

•
_L r TYPE OF GAGE

THICKNESS

4
ID
T #16 USSI.0598) X 12.5X26

SINGLE DOUBLE -IT DEVELOPED WIDTH^J /

/

--NCE DEVELOPED LENGTH-/

..IRE ALLOWANCE = A ALLOWANCE - 2A ALLOWANCE = A

WIRED HEMMED SINGLE-LAP SOLDERED Fig. 22-1-4 Callout of sheet-metal sizes.

EDGES

i:r segments are then stretched and sewed

together to give the desired shape.
ALLOWANCE = A
SINGLE-LAP RIVETED
Sheet-Metal Sizes
i_ Metal thicknesses up to .25 in. (6 mm)
L —-it
^/
are usually designated
gage numbers, the more common
by a series of

"Q.u ALLOWANCE - 3A
gages being shown in Table 53 of the
ALLOWANCE ALLOWANCE Appendix. Metal .25 in. and over is
SIDE A SIDE = 2A B FLAT LOCK
BOTTOM - ZA BOTTOM = A given in inch or millimeter sizes. In

CUP JOINT PITTSBURGH CORNER LOCK

M
_^~c^_
ALLOWANCE
calling for the material size of sheet-
metal developments, customary prac-
tice is to give the gage number, type of
gage, and its inch or millimeter equiv-
SIDES - A
CONNECTOR = 2A alent in brackets followed by the
CAP-STRIP CONNECTOR developed width and length. See Fig.
22-1-4.
t Hl\

IT
Ul_
ALLOWANCE ALLOWANCE
r
ALLOWANCE
ALLOWANCE
SIDES
SHOOK
= A
= 3A
STRAIGHT-LINE
DEVELOPMENT
BOTTOM = 3A BOTTOM = A BOTTOM = A This is the term given to the develop-
CONNECTOR = A * B S-HOOK SLIP JOINT
ment of an object that has surfaces on a
II) BEADED DOVETAIL (2) FLANGED DOVETAIL (3) PLAIN DOVETAIL
flat plane of projection. The true size

SIDE OUTLET JOINTS SEAMS

Fig. 22-1-3 Joints, seams, and edges.

seams may be fastened together by

lock seams, solder, rivets, adhesive,
or welds. Exposed edges are folded or
wired to give the edge added strength SAFE EDGE
and to eliminate the sharp edge. (HEMMED EDGEI
• 2.50-
A surface is said to be developable if
a thin sheet of flexible material, such
as paper, can be wrapped smoothly
03 [•.25

about its surface. Objects that have t° P^° 4 5'-'

Is
-"
J
plane, or flat, surfaces, or single-
curved surfaces are developable; but if SIDE
V '
a surface is double-curved or warped,
approximate methods must be used to
develop the surface. The development END BOTTOM END
5 20
of a spherical shape would thus be
approximate, and the material would
/ S,
be stretched to compensate for small SIDE
inaccuracies. For example, the cover-
\
ings for a football or a basketball are
made in segments, each segment cut to 1
*
an approximate developed shape; the Fig. 22-1-5 Development of a rectangular box. DEVELOPMENT

438 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

of each side of the object is known, and
these sides can be laid out in succes-
sive order. Figure 22-1-5 shows the
development of a simple rectangular
box having a bottom and four sides.
Note that in the development of the
box, an allowance is made for lap
seams at the corners and for a folded
edge. The fold lines are
unbroken lines. Note also that all lines
for each surface are straight.
Figure 22-1-6 shows a development
drawing with a complete set of folding
shows a let-
instructions. Figure 22-1-7
ter box development drawing where
the back is higher than the front
surface.
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 1 for Unit 22-1
453.
UNIT 22-2
The Packaging
Industry
Packaging, which involves the princi-
ples of surface development, is one of
shown as thin, most diversified indus-
the largest and
world. Most products are
tries in the
packaged in metal, plastic, or card-
board containers. Many products,
from candy-coated gum to large televi- Fig. 22-2-1 Typical commercial containers.
(Photo: Fred Newman)
sion sets, are packaged in cardboard
containers. See Figs. 22-2-1 and 22-2-2.
Such containers, often referred to as
cartons, in many instances must be
attractive as well as functional. They
may be designed for sales appeal as
well as for protection against con-
tamination, shipping, and handling.
on page They are also designed for temporary
or permanent use.

BEND DOWN 180° -LOCK UNDER HEMMED

1
2: EDGE AND SOLDER
T BEND
10 DOWN
180°-
\ BEND UP 90°

BEND
UP
90°

5.20

u ^
J
THE PATTERN

Fig. 22-2-2 A familiar container made by

Fig. 22-1-6 Development drawing with a complete set of folding instructions. cutting and folding a flat sheet.

SAFE EDGE
ALLOWANCE

<Sl

SEAM ALLOWANCE

X V i
DEVELOPMENT (OUTSIDE SURFACE SHOWN)
Fig. 22-1-7 Development drawing of a letter box.

DEVELOPMENT AND INTERSECTIONS 439

 ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 2 through 4 for Unit
22-2 on page 453.

Review for Assignments

Unit 22-1 Surface Developments
Unit 4-3 Constructing a Polygon

UNIT 22-3
Fig. 22-2-3 Development of a
one-piece carton with fold-down
Radial Line
corners.
Development of
Flat Surfaces
Many cartons are printed, cut. extensively by food chain operators
creased, and sent to the customer in a such as Dunkin* Donuts. McDonald's,
flatposition. See Fig. 22-2-3. They and Taco Bell. Other shapes, such as Development of a Right Pyramid with True
take less space to store and ship and hexagons and octagons, as shown in Length of Edge Lines Shown See Fig.
are readily assembled. Locking Figs. 22-2-4 and 22-2-5. are becoming 22-3-1. A right pyramid is a pyramid
devices such as tabs hold each box popular because of their novel form. having all the lateral edges (from ver-
together. This type of container is used tex to the base) of equal length. Since
the true length of the lateral edges is
shown in the front view (line 0-1 or 0-3)
and the top view shows the true
lengths of the edges of the base (lines
1-2. 2-3. etc.). the development may be

constructed as follows: with as cen-

4) NOTE-ALLOWANCES FOR SEAMS
AND JOINTS NOT SHOWN
Fig. 22-2-4 Development of a truncated hexagon.
ter (corresponding to the apex) and
with a radius equal to the true length of
the lateral edges (line 0-1 in the front
view ). draw an arc as shown. Drop a
perpendicular from to intersect the
arc at point 3. With a radius equal to
the length of the edges of the base (line
1-2 on the top view), start at point 3 and
step off the distances 3-2. 2-1. 3-4. and
4-1 on the large arc. Join these points
with straight lines. These points are
then connected to point by straight
lines to complete the development.
Lines 0-2. 0-3. and 0-4 are the lines on
which the development is folded to
shape the pyramid. The base and seam
allowances have been omitted for
clarity.

DODECAHEDRON ICOSAHEDRON
Fig. 22-2-5 Twelve- and twenty-sided shapes.

440 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 TRUE LENGTH LINES OF 12, 2-3. 3-4. AND4 1

TRUE LENGTHS OF LINES I 2. 2 3. 3 4, AND 4 I

SEAM
RADIUS EOUAL TO TRUE LENGTH LINE
SEAM ALLOWANCE NOT SHOWN

RADIUS EQUAL TO TRUE LENGTH OF LINE 0-1

STEP OFF LENGTHS STEP OFF LENGTHS

OF BASE SIDES USING OF BASE SIDE USING A
A COMPASS OR DIVIDERS COMPASS OR DIVIDERS

DEVELOPMENT
LINES 0-2 AND 0-4 ARE (OUTSIDE SURFACE SHOWNI
DISTORTED ON THIS VIEW DEVELOPMENT (OUTSIDE SURFACE SHOWN)
SEAM ALLOWANCE NOT SHOWN

(Al DEVELOPMENT OF A PYRAMID

(A) DEVELOPMENT OF A PYRAMID

POSITION OF B AND D ON TOP VIEW FOUND BY PROJECTING -

RADIUS EQUAL TO TRUE DISTANCE
LINES HORIZONTALLY FROM POINTS B AND D ON THE FRONT
VIEW TO INTERSECT TRUE LENGTH LINE 3 AT Bi PROJECT A BETWEEN POINTS AC AND BD AS
VERTICAL LINE FROM POINT Bi TO INTERSECT LINE 0-3 IN THE FOUND ON FRONT VIEW
TOP VIEW AT POINT 82 ROTATE B2 90° FROM POINT TO
INE 0-2 AT B AND LINE 04 AT D _ RADIUS EQUAL T0
DISTANCE AC ON SEAM ALLOWANCES
FRONT VIEW NOT SHOWN
RAOIUS EQUAL TO
DISTANCE BD
/ RADIUS EQUAL TO TRUE
LENGTH OF LINE O-l
sDl \ y_
ON TOP VIEW

TRUE LENGTHS OF
LINES O-l. 0-2. 0-3.
AND 0-4

LINE El TRUE
LENGTH OF LINES
TRUE
B-2. AND D-4
LENGTH OF
LINE C-3 B

DEVELOPMENT
(OUTSIDE SURFACE SHOWNI
DEVELOPMENT
(OUTSIDE SURFACE SHOWNI
SEAM ALLOWANCE NOT SHOWN

(B) DEVELOPMENT OF A TRUNCATED PYRAMID (B) DEVELOPMENT OF A TRUNCATED PYRAMID

Fig. 22-3-1 Development of a right pyramid with true length of edge Fig. 22-3-2 Development of a right pyramid with true length edge
lines shown. lines not shown.

In developing a truncated pyramid
of this type, the procedure
as described above, except that only a
and 0-4 is
portion of lines 0-1, 0-2, 0-3,
required. The positions of points B and
D in the top view are found by project-
ing lines horizontally from points B
with a radius equal to distance AC in front view. Since only one true-length
is the same the front view, swing an arc. With B as line is required, it may be developed
center and with a radius equal to line directly on the front view rather than
BC on the development, swing an arc by making a separate true-length dia-
intersecting the first arc at C,. Join gram. With in the top view as center
point B to point C, with a straight line. and radius equal to distance 0-1 in the
With A as center and with a radius top view, swing an arc from point 1

and D in the front view to intersect the equal to line AB in the development, until it intersects the center line at
true-length line 0-3 at Bv
Project a ver- swing an arc. With B as center and point 1 Project a vertical line down to
, .

tical line from point B

to intersect x
with a radius equal to distance BD in the front view, intersecting the base
point B 2 in the top view. Rotate B 2 90° the top view, swing an arc intersecting line at point 1,. Line 0-1, is the true
from point to intersect line 0-2 at B the first arc at D
v Join AD
and D C
l t t
length of the edge lines. The develop-
and 0-4 atD. It will be noted that only with straight lines. ment may now be constructed in a sim-
lines A-l and C-3 appear as their true ilar manner to that outlined in the
length in the front view. The true previous development.
length of lines B-2 and D-4 may be Development of a Right Pyramid with True In developing a truncated pyramid
found by projecting a horizontal line Length of Edge Lines not Shown See Fig. of this type, the procedure is the same
from points B and D to point E on the 22-3-2. In order to construct the devel- except only the truncated edge lines
true-length line 0-1. opment, the true length of the edge are required. The true length of the
To complete the development, step lines 0-1, 0-2, etc., must first be found. truncated edge lines is required and
off distances 1-A line 1-0, 2-B on line
on The true length of the edge lines would may be found by projecting lines hori-
2-0, 3-C on and 4-D on line 4-0.
line 3-0, be equal to the hypotenuse of a right zontally from points A, B, C, and D in
Join points A, B, C, D, A with straight triangle having one leg equal in length the front view to intersect the true-
The top surface of the truncated
lines. to the projected edge line in the top length line 0-1, at points F and £,
pyramid may be added to the develop- view and the other leg equal to the respectively. Line F-l, is the true
ment as follows: With A as center and height of the projected edge line in the length of the truncated edge lines Al

DEVELOPMENT AND INTERSECTIONS 441

and £1. and line £1, is the true length of
the remaining truncated edge lines (
;

and /)4. The sides of the truncated pyr-

amid ma\ now be constructed in the
development vievi The top surface o\'
.

the truncated p\ ramid ma\ he added to

the development as follows: With
points A and B on the development as
centers and with a radius equal in
length to line BC on the development.
s\\ ing light arcs. With a radius equal in
length to the true distance between
points A and C or B and D
this is found
on the true-length diagram constructed
to the left of the front view) and with
center B. swing an arc intersecting the
first arc at C. Repeat, using point A as

center and intersecting the other arc at STEP OFF LENGTHS

OF BASE SIDES USING
point C. Join points B. C, and with A A COMPASS OR DIVIDERS
straight lines to complete the top sur- DEVELOPMENT
face. The base and seam lines have
IOUTSIDE SURFACE SHOWN)
been omitted for clarity.
Fig. 22-3-4 Development of a transition piece.

Development of an Oblique Pyramid See

Fig. 22-3-3. an oblique pyramid having
an arc intersecting the first arc at 0. Fig. 22-3-4. The development of the
all its lateral edges of unequal length.
With point as center and radius equal transition piece is created in a similar
The true length of each of these edges
in length to line 0-3 in the true-length manner to that of the development of
must first be found as shown in the
diagram, swing an arc. With point 2 as the right pyramid (Fig. 22-3-2).
true-length diagram. The development
center and radius equal in length to
may now be constructed as follows:
base line 2-3 found in the top view,
Lay out base line 1-2 in the develop-
swing an arc intersecting the first arc at
ment view equal in length to the base
line 1-2 found in the top view. With
point 3. Locate point 4 and point in a 1 ASSIGNMENTS
similar manner, and join these points,
point 1as center and radius equal in See Assignments 5 and 6 for Unit 22-3
as shown, with straight lines. The base
length to line 0-1 in the true-length dia- on page 454.
and seam lines have been omitted on
gram, swing an arc. With point 2 as
the development drawing.
center and radius equal in length to line Review for Assignments
0-2 in the true-length diagram, swing Development of a Transition Piece See Unit 22-1 Surface Developments

SEAM ALLOWANCE NOT SHOWN UNIT 22-4

Parallel Line
Development
The or curved, surface of a
lateral,
cylindrically shaped object, such^s a
tin can, is developable since it has a
single-curved surface of one constant
radius, The development technique
used for such objects is called parallel
linedevelopment. Figure 22-4-1A
shows the development of the lateral
surface of a simple hollow cylinder.
The width of the developmentis equal

to the height of the cylinder, and the

4 3 12
DEVELOPMENT length of the development is equal to
TRUE LENGTH DIAGRAM (OUTSIDE SURFACE SHOWN)
the circumference of the cylinder plus
Fig. 22-3-3 Development of an oblique pyramid by trianguiation. the seam allowance. Figure 22-4-1B

442 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

shows the development of a cylinder
with the top truncated at a 45° angle
(one-half of a two-piece 90° elbow).
Points of intersection are established
to give the curved shape on the devel-
opment. These points are derived from
the intersection of a length location,
representing a certain distance around
the circumference from a starting
point, and the height location at that
same point on the circumference. The
closer the points of intersection are to
one another, the greater the accuracy
of the development. An irregular curve
is used to connect the points of inter-
section.
Figure 22-4-1C shows the develop-
ment of the surface of a cylinder with
both the top and the bottom truncated
at an angle of 22.5° (the center part of a
three-piece elbow). It is normal prac-
tice in sheet-metal work to place the
seam on the shortest side. In the devel-
opment of elbows, however, this prac-
ticewould result in considerable waste
of material, as illustrated by Fig.
22-4-2A. To avoid this waste and to
simplify cutting the pieces, the seams
are alternately placed 180° apart, as
illustrated by Fig. 22-4-2B for a two-
piece elbow and by Fig. 22-4-2C for a
three-piece elbow. Refer to Figs.
22-4-3 and 22-4-4 for complete devel-
opments of two- and four-piece
elbows.

ENLARGED VIEW OF
SEAM AT A
CIRCUMFERENCE PLUS
SEAM ALLOWANCE

DEVELOPMENT LINES — CIRCUMFERENCE

DEVELOPMENT
{A) DEVELOPMENT OF CYLINDER

DEVELOPMENT OF PIPE NO. I

(B) DEVELOPMENT OF TRUNCATED CYLINDER

DEVELOPMENT OF PIPE NO 2

(C) DEVELOPMENT OF A CYLINDER WITH THE TOP AND BOTTOM TRUNCATED

Fig. 22-4-1 Development of cylinders.

DEVELOPMENT AND INTERSECTIONS 443

 (A)DEVELOPMENT OF A 2-PIECE ELBOW WITH
BOTH SEAMS ON LINE A

CIRCUMFERENCE = DIA X 3 1416-

DEVELOPMENT OF LOWER PART
Fig. 22-4-3 Development of a two-piece elbow.

~ LEG

5 6 7 Z

\ A

D ^ / x ^\\
(B)DEVELOPMENT OF A 2-PIECE ELBOW WITH
SEAMS ON LINES A AND C LEG
t

/'

-SEAM ON LINE C FOR

C
PIPE NO. 2 kL _\7
ALLOWANCES FOR SEAMS AMD JOINTS NOT SHOWN
CIRCUMFERENCE -

Fig. 22-4-4 Development of a four-piece elbow.

UNIT 22-5
Radial Line
1

1
1

B
i r- Development of
i-i)
Conical Surfaces
c 1 d* "2~3 1
B 1
c'l ASSIGNMENTS
M IT ^
1

f--J 1

'
'
1

D a|
|
1

See Assignments 7 and 8 for Unit 22-4 Development of a Cone The surface of a
j
i
1

on page 455. cone is developable, because a thin

(ClDEVELOPMENT OF A 3-PIECE ELBOW WITH
SEAMS ALTERNATED ON LINES A AND C sheet of flexible material can be
Review for Assignments wrapped smoothly about it. The two
Fig. 22-4-2 Location of seams on elbows. Unit 22-1 Surface Developments dimensions necessary to make the

444 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 development of the surface are the
slant height of the cone and the cir-
cumference of its base. For a right cir-
cular cone (symmetrical about the
vertical axis), the developed shape is a
sector of a circle. The radius for this
sector is the slant height of the cone,
and the length around the perimeter of
(A) PROPORTION OF HEIGHT TO BASE
the sector is equal to the circum-
ference of the base. The proportion of
the height to the base diameter deter-
mines the size of the sector, as illus-
trated by Fig. 22-5-1A.
Figure 22-5-1B shows the steps in
SEAM ALLOWANCE NOT SHOWN
the development of a cone. The top
view is divided into a convenient num-
ber of equal divisions, in this instance
12. The chordal distance between
these points is used to step off the
length of arc on the development. The
radius R for the development is seen as
the slant height in the front view. If a
cone is truncated at an angle to the
base, the inside shape on the develop-
76 5 4 3 2
8 9 10 II 12
1

ment no longer has a constant radius:

that is, it is an ellipse, which must be
DEVELOPMENT
plotted by establishing points of inter-
(Bl DEVELOPMENT PROCEDURE section. The divisions made on the top
Fig. 22-5-1 Development of a cone. view are projected down to the base of
the cone in the front view. Element
lines are drawn from these points to
the apex of the cone. These element
/*-R
lines are seen in their true length only
when the viewer is looking at right
angles to them. Thus the points at
which they cross the truncation line
must be carried across, parallel to the
base, to the outside element line,
DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT which is seen in its true length. The
development is first made to represent
(A) PROPORTION OF HEIGHT TO BASE the complete surface of the cone. Ele-
ment lines are drawn from the step-off
points about the circumference to the
center point. True-length settings for
each element line are taken from the
front view and marked off on the cor-
responding element lines in the devel-
SEAM ALLOWANCE NOT SHOWN opment. An irregular curve is used to
connect these points of intersection,
giving the proper inside shape.

Development of a Truncated Cone The

development of a frustum of a cone is
the development of a full cone less the
development of the part removed, as
shown in Fig. 22-5-2. Note that, at all
times, the radius setting, either /?, or
6 7
R2 is a slant height, a distance taken
,

DEVELOPMENT on the surface of the cone.

(B) DEVELOPMENT PROCEDURE When the top of a cone is truncated
Fig. 22-5-2 Development of a truncated cone. at an angle to the base, the top surface

DEVELOPMENT AND INTERSECTIONS 445

 STARTING LINE
UNIT 22-6
Development of
Transition Pieces

TRIANGULATION
Nondevelopable surfaces can be
developed approximately by assuming
made from a series of
the surface to be
triangular surfaces laid side by side to
form the development. This form of
development is known as triangula-
tion. Refer to Figs. 22-6-1 and 22-6-2.

DEVELOPMENT
(OUTSIDE SURFACE SHOWN)
.SEAM ALLOWANCE NOT SHOWN

EQUAL IN LENGTH TO ELEMENT

LINES 0-6 AND 0-8 IN TOP VIEW

NOTE-TRUE LENGTHS OF
ELEMENTS 0-1 AND 0-7 SHOWN
IN FRONT VIEW.

•SEAM
TRUE LENGTH DIAGRAM
Fig. 22-5-3 Development of an oblique cone.

will not be seen as a true circle. This
shape must also be plotted by estab-
lishing points of intersection. True
radius settings for each element line
are taken from the front view and
marked off on the corresponding ele-
ment line in the top view. These points
are connected with an irregular curve
to give the correct oval shape for the
top surface. If the development of the
sloping top surface is required, an aux-
iliary view of this surface shows its
true shape.
Development of an Oblique Cone See
Fig. 22-5-3. The development of an
oblique cone is generally accom-
plished by the triangulation method.
The base of the cone is divided into a
convenient number of equal parts and
elements: 0-1, 0-2. etc.. are drawn in
the top view and projected down and
drawn in the front view. The true
lengths of the elements are not shown
in either the top or front view but
would be equal in length to the hypot-
enuse of a right-angle triangle having
one leg equal in length to the projected
element in the top view and the other
leg equal to the height of the projected
element in the front view.
When it is necessary to find the true
length of a number of edges, or ele-
ments, then a true-length diagram is
drawn adjacent to the front view. This
prevents the front view from being
cluttered with lines.
Since the development of the Fig. 22-6-1 Forming a square-to-round
transition piece.
oblique cone will be symmetrical, the
starting line will be element 0-7. The
development is constructed as fol-
lows: With as center and radius equal
to the true length of element 0-6, draw
an arc. With 7 as center and radius
equal to distance 6-7 in the top view,
draw a second arc intersecting the first
at point 6. Draw element 0-6 on the
development. With as center and the
radius equal to the true length of ele-
ment 0-5, draw an arc. With 6 as center
and the radius equal to distance 5-6 in
the top view, draw a second arc inter-
secting the first at point 5. Draw ele-
ment 0-5 on the development. This is
repeated until all the element lines are
located on the development view. No
seam allowance is shown on the
development.
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 9 for Unit 22- 5 on
page 456.
Review for Assignment
Unit 22-3 Radial Line Development
of Flat Surfaces Fig. 22-6-2 Transition pieces.

46 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 ELEMENTS

SEAM ALLOWANCES NOT SHOWN

-STARTING LINE
DEVELOPMENT
OUTSIDE SURFACE SHOWN

TRUE LENGTH
OF ELEMENTS

Fig. 22-6-3 Development of a transition

piece — square to round.

Development of a Transition Piece

Square to Round See Fig. 22-6-3. The
transition piece shown is used to con-
nect round and square pipes. It can be
seen from both the development and
the pictorial drawings that the transi-
tion piece is made of four isosceles
whose bases connect with the
triangles
square duct and four parts of an
oblique cone having the circle as the
base and the corners of the square pipe
as the vertices. To make the develop-
ment, a true-length diagram is drawn
first. When the true length of line \A is
TRUE LENGTH DIAGRAMS
known, the four equal isosceles tri-
angles can be developed. After the tri- Fig. 22-6-4 Development of an offset transition piece — rectangular to round.
angle G-2-3 has been developed, the
partial developments of the oblique
cone are added until points D and K
have been located. Next the isosceles
triangles D-l-2 and /C-3-4 are added,
then the partial cones, and. last, half of
the isosceles triangle placed at each
side of the development.

Development of an Offset Transition

Piece —
Rectangular to Round See Fig.
22-6-4. The development of the transi-
shown is constructed in the
tion piece
same manner as the one previously
developed, except that all the elements
are of different lengths. To avoid con-
fusion, four true-length diagrams are
drawn and the true-length lines are
clearly labeled.

Transition Piece Connecting Two Circular

Pipes — Parallel Joints See Fig. 22-6-5. 12 II 10 9 8

The development of a transition piece TRUE lENGTH DIAGRAM

connecting two circular pipes is similar Fig. 22-6-5 Transition piece connecting two circular pipes — parallel joints.

DEVELOPMENT AND INTERSECTIONS 447

to the development of an obliqiu
(Fig. 22-5-3), except thai the c<

truncated. The apex of the cone. 0. is

:i-' .•.•F:H = \C£
located b> drawing the two given pipe
diameters in then proper positions and
extending the radial lir.es 1-1, and 7-7,

to intersect at point 0. First the devel-

opment is made to represent the com-
plete development of the cone, and
then the top portion is removed.
Radius settings for distances 0-2, and
0-3, on the development are taken
from the true-length diagram.
transition Piece Connecting Two Circular
PARTIAL DEVE-
Pipes— Oblique See Fig. 22-6-6.
Joints
When the joints between the pipe and Fig. 22-7-1 Development of a sphere — gore method.
transition piece are not perpendicular
to the pipe axis, then the transition
piece may be developed as shown.
Since the top and bottom of the transi-
tion piece will be elliptical in shape, a
partial auxiliary \iew is required to
find the true length of the chords
between the end points of the ele-
ments. The development is then con-
structed in a manner similar to that
outlined for Fig. 22-6-5.

ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 10 for Unit 22-6 on
page 456.

Review for Assignment

Unit 22-5 Development of a Cone

Development of a sphere — zone

SEAM ALLOWANCE NOT SHOWN
~2 'TRUE DISTANCE
BETWEEN NUMBERS
HALF DEVELOPMENT I
SHOWN IN AUXILIARY
VIEW

TRUE LENGTH LINES UNIT 22-7

6,
NOTE-TRUE LENGTH OF LINES
SHOWN IN FRONT VIEW
O-l AND 0-7
Development of
a Sphere

Since the surface of a sphere is double-

curved, it is not developable. How-
ever, the surface may be approx-
imately developed by either the gore or
TRUE LENGTH DIAGRAM
the zone method. In the gore method
AUXILIARY VIEW REQUIRED
"2 TO FIND TRUE CIRCUMFERENCE (Fig. 22-7-1) the surface is divided into
OF BASE
a number of equal sections, each sec-
Fig. 22-6-6 Transition piece connecting two circular pipes— oblique joints. tion being considered as a section of a

43 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

cylinder. Only one section need be position projected from the top view.
developed, for it will serve as a pattern When the prisms are flat-sided, the
for the others. In the zone method lines of intersection are straight, and
(Fig. 22-7-2). the sphere is divided into the lines in the development are
horizontal zones and each zone is straight.
developed as a frustum of a cone.
Intersecting Prisms —
Triangle and Pyra-
mid See Fig. 22-8-3. In drawing the
ASSIGNMENTS intersection of these two prisms, the
points of intersection in the top view
See Assignments 11 and 12 for Unit
are found by projecting the points of
22-7 on page 457.
intersection from the front view. If a
development of the pyramid is
required, true-length lines, which do
not appear in either the top or the front
UNIT 22-8 Fig. 22-8-2 Intersecting prisms at right view, must be found. Since only a few
angles. unknown, 0-D
Intersection of Flat true-length lines are line

Surfaces Lines — MEASUREMENTS TAKEN FROM FRONT VIEW

Perpendicular M 1
NOTE-ALLOWANCES FOR SEAMS
NOT SHOWN

Whenever two surfaces meet, there is

a line common to both called the line of

intersection. In making the ortho-
graphic drawing of objects that com-
prise two or more intersecting parts,
the lines of intersection of these parts
must be plotted on the orthographic
views. Figures 22-8-1 and 22-8-2 illus-
trate this plotting technique for the
intersection of flat-sided prisms. Fig-
ure 22-8-1 shows the development of
the parts. A numbering technique is
very valuable in plotting lines of inter-
section. In the illustrations shown, the
lines of intersection appear in the front
view. The end points for these lines are E DEVELOPMENT OF PYRAMID
established by projecting the height OUTSIDE SURFACES SHOWN)
position from the right side view to Fig. 22-8-3 Intersecting prisms — triangle and pyramid.
intersect the corresponding length

on the front view serves as a true-

length diagram. Lines 0-2,, 0-1,, and
0-5, on line 0-D are the true lengths of
lines 0-2, 0-1, and 0-5, respectively.
Point 1 on surface 0-E-F and 0-B-D is
located on the development as follows:
Draw a straight line through points
and 1 view to intersect the
in the front
base at point 7. Transfer distance CI in
DEVELOPMENT OF HORIZONTAL PRISMS the front view to the development
A B D C
view. Join points and 7 with a straight
line. With center and radius equal to
\^ distance 0-1, shown on the front view,
^ y^ swing an arc intersecting line 0-7 at
1/ point 1.
Points on the development of the
triangular prism are found by project-
DEVELOPMENT OF VERTICAL PRISMS ing lines from the top view to the
Fig. 22-8-1Plotting lines of intersection and making
INSIDE SURFACE SHOWN
development drawings of intersecting prisms. development view and transferring

DEVELOPMENT AND INTERSECTIONS 449

distances between points (numbers)
and lines (letters) from the front view
to corresponding points on the
development.
Intersecting Prisms Not at Right Angles—
Hexagon and Rectangle See Fig. 22-8-4.
Often a partial auxiliary view is drawn
to locate points of intersection such as
points A and B on line L.

SECTION T-T

Fig. 22-8-6 Intersecting prisms — triangle and pyramid.

PARTIAL AUXILIARY
Intersecting Prisms —
Triangle and Pyra- Because there are no edges on the cyl-

VIEW TO ESTABLISH mid See Fig. 22-8-6. Another method
LOCATION OF POINTS commonly used to locate points of
A AND B
intersection of lines and surfaces is the
use of vertical cutting planes located
on the edges piercing the surface. Thus
Fig. 22-8-4 Intersecting prisms not at right section R-R locates point C, section
angles — hexagon and rectangle. 5-5 locates point A, and section T-T
locates point B. The sectional views
shown are for illustrative purposes
Not at Right Angles
Intersecting Prisms only and need not be drawn. To estab-
Hexagon and Triangle See Fig. 22-8-5. lish point C, extend line LC in the
An auxiliary view is required to locate top view to intersect line 0-3 at C 2 and
points of intersection, such as points line 1-3 at C,. Project vertical lines
A. B. and C. To complete the side from C, and C 2 down the front view,
view, ends of lines D. E, and F and locating points C, on base line 1-3 and
points of intersection A. B, and C are C 2 on line 0-3. Join points C, and C-, at
projected from the top view. Distances point C. Extend a vertical line up from
between the hexagon and
lines of the point C to the top view, intersecting
triangle are transferred from either the line C^L at point C. Repeat for points A
top view or the auxiliary view. and B~.
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 13 for Unit 22-8 on
page 457.
inders, element lines of reference are
established about the cylinders in their
orthographic views. In the top view,
the element lines for the small cylinder
are drawn to touch the surface of the
large cylinder: for example, line 2
touches at T. This point location is
then projected down to the front view
to intersect the corresponding element
line, establishing the height at that
point. The points of intersection thus
established are connected by an irreg-
ular curve to produce the line of inter-
section. The same points of reference
used to establish the line of intersec-
tion are used to draw the development.
45° Reducing Tee See Fig. 22-9-2. This
figure illustrates the intersection of a
small pipe at an angle of 45° to a large
pipe. The same techniques of plotting
reference points are used as were pre-
viously described for a 90° reducing
tee.

UNIT 22-9 ASSIGNMENT

Intersection of See Assignment 14 for Unit 22-9 on
page 459.
Cylindrical Surfaces
Review for Assignment
90° Reducing Tee See Fig. 22-9-1. This Unit 22-1 Parallel Line Development
Fig. 22-8-5 Intersecting prisms not at right figure illustrates the plotting technique Unit 22-8 Intersection of Flat
angles — hexagon and triangle. for the intersection of cvlinders. Surfaces

450 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 DEVELOPMENT OF PIPE M
ALLOWANCES FOR SEAMS AND JOINTS NOT SHOWN
D 4
RS T B U VW C

DEVELOPMENT OF PIPE N (INSIDE SURFACE SHOWNI

Fig. 22-9-1 Plotting lines of intersection and making development drawings for a
90° reducing tee.

NOTE-ALLOWANCES FOR SEAMS AND JOINTS NOT SHOWN

Fig. 22-10-1 Intersecting prisms — hexagon

and cone.

Fig. 22-9-2 Plotting lines of intersection making development drawings for a 45°
reducing tee.

UNIT 22-10 tical linesdown from point A in the top

Intersecting Prisms
Intersecting Prisms —
Hexagon and Cone
See Fig. 22-10-1. The lines of intersec-
tionbetween the hexagon and cone are
developed as follows. Divide each side
of the hexagon into four parts (lines
every 15°). Through point A in the top
view, swing an arc intersecting hori-
zontal center line 0-4 at A,. From point
A, drop a vertical line down to the
front view, intersecting line 0-Z) at
point A,. Draw a light horizontal line
through A, in the front view. Drop ver-
view, intersecting this line at point A.
Repeat, locating point B. Point C may
be located in the front view by extend-
ing a light horizontal line from point C
on line 0-Z). Join points A, B, and C
with a line, which forms a hyperbolic
curve.
Intersecting Prisms —
Cone and Cylinder
See Fig. 22-10-2. The intersections of
the cone and cylinder elements in the
top view are first found and are then
projected down to the corresponding
elements in the front view. A smooth
curve is drawn through these points to Fig. 22-10-2 Intersecting prisms — cone and
produce the line of intersection. cylinder.

DEVELOPMENT AND INTERSECTIONS 451

 Intersecting Prisms — Cone and Oblique
Cylinder See Fig. 22-10-5. The cylinder
shown in the auxiliary view is divided
into 12 equal parts. Element lines are
drawn from the apex of the cone, point
0, through points 2 to 6 to the base of
the cone, establishing points 2, to 6,
inclusive. These points are projected
to corresponding points in the front
view and the element lines are drawn.
The element lines in the top view are
located by projecting vertical lines up
from points 2, to 6, in the front view to
intersect the base circle in the top
view. The lines of intersection are then
found by projecting lines from the cir-
cle to meet their corresponding ele-
ment lines.

Fig. 22-10-3 Intersecting prisms — cone and ASSIGNMENT

cylinder.
See Assignment 15 for Unit 22-10 on
page 459.

Intersecting Prisms —
Cone and Cylinder
Review for Assignment
See Fig. 22-10-3. The line of intersec- Unit 22-3 Radial Line Development
tion between the cone and the cylinder
of Flat Surfaces
is found by assuming the front view to
Unit 22-4 Parallel Line Development
have a series of horizontal cutting
Unit 22-5 Radial Line Development
planes passing through points 2, 3, 4,
of Conical Surfaces
5, and 6. The cutting-plane line passes
through the intersection of the cone
and cylinder. Each point on the line of
intersection is developed in a manner SECTION TAKEN ON PLANE 3

similar to that for Fig. 22-10-2. Fig. 22-10-4 Intersecting prisms — pyramid
and cylinder.
Intersecting Prisms — Pyramid
and Cylin-
der See Fig. 22-10-4. Cutting-plane
lines taken horizontally through points
2, 3, 4. 5. and 6 in the front view are
used to locate the lines of intersection.
Point 5 on the line of intersection is
located as follows. Draw a horizontal
linethrough point 5 on the half circle in
the front view to intersect line 0-A at
point Extend a vertical line from
5,.
point 5, view to intersect line
to the top
0-A at point 5,. Extend a line from 5, in
the top view at an angle of 45° to inter-
sect line 0-D. From this intersection,
extend a an angle of 45° in the
line at
direction of line 0-C to intersect a hori-
zontal line passing through point 5 on
the half circle in the top view. The
intersection of these lines is point 5. To
locate point 5 in the front view, drop a
vertical line from point 5 in the top
view to intersect the horizontal line
AUXILIARY VIEW
passing through point 5 of the half cir-
cle. Locate the other points in a similar
manner, and connect them with a 3| 4, 2, 5| 6|

smooth, curved line. Fig. 22-10-5 Intersecting prisms — cone and oblique cylinder.

452 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 22
Assignment for Unit 22-1,
Surface Developments and
Intersections
1 . On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a devel-
opment drawing complete with bend-
ing instructions of one of the parts
shown in Figs. 22-1-A to 22-1-D.
Dimension the development drawing,
showing the distance between bend
lines, and show the overall sizes. Scale is

full (111. 4.0O

MATL - 22 USS

Fig. 22-1-A Nail box

Fig. 22-1-B Wall tray.

Assignments for Unit 22-2,

the Packaging Industry
2. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a devel-
opment drawing of one of the boxes
shown in Figs. 22-2-A or 22-2-B. Scale is

full or 1:1. After the development draw-

#36 WIRE EDGE-
ing has been checked by your instructor,
add suitable seams andjoint allowances.
Then cut out the development, score on
the bend lines, and form and glue the
-230- 150-
box together.

T
50
U.S. CUSTOMARY W =1.75 H = 2.88 All

U •120-
ENLARGED VIEW
OF ONE CORNER
seams .25 wide, placed on the inside
in.

and glued. Material is .02-in. card-

board.
OF DEVELOPMENT
METRIC W= 44 H = 75 All seams 6 mm
Fig. 22-1-C Cake tray. wide, placed on the inside and glued.
Material is 0.5-mm cardboard.

W D-f -I- }-A

25 SAFE EDGE

C B

25 LAP SEAM NOTES. NOTES:

SEAM IS AT A. SEAM IS AT A
TOP AND BOTTOM TO TOP AND BOTTOM TO
MATL - 22 USS HINGE ATC-D. HINGE AT D-E.
Fig. 22-1-D Memo pad holder. Fig. 22-2-A Hexagon box. Fig. 22-2-B Octagon box.

DEVELOPMENT AND INTERSECTIONS 453

3. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a devel-
opment drawing of either the pencil or
swim goggle boxes shown in Figs. 22-2-
C and 22-2-D. On the exterior surface of
the box. lay out a design which has eye
appeal (color can be used) and which
contains in the design the name of the

item being sold, a company name, a slo-

gan, and any other feature you believe
would improve the salability of the arti-
cle Cut out the development, score on
the bend lines, and glue together. Note:

With reference to the swim goggle box,

the box is completely sealed and must be
broken to remove the goggles. Scale is
full (1:1).

4. Many containers are designed for a dual

purpose. The main purpose is to accom-
modate the article being sold. The sec-
ondary purpose is to use the container
MATL - .02 CARDBOARD
as a novelty item after the article is

removed. This next product is such a

Fig. 22-2-D Swim goggle box.
container. A company which produces
cat and dog food wishes to have a
dodecahedron- (12-sided) or ico-
sahedron- (20-sided) shaped container
having illustrations of different animals
on the sides. The container can be used
to hold small articles or as an art object
(mobile) which can be hung from the
ceiling.
On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out one
of the containers shown 22-2-E
in Figs.
MATL -0.5 CARDBOARD
and 22-2-F One of the sides forms a lid.
Fig. 22-2-C Pencil box.
On the exterior surface of the container
add a suitable design. Cut out the devel-
opment, score on the bend lines, and ICOSAHEDRON DODECAHEDRON
glue together. Scale is full (1:1). Fig. 22-2-E Food Fig. 22-2-F Food
container box. container box.
U.S. CUSTOMARY W = 1.75 in. All seams
.20 wide, placed on the inside and
in.

glued. Material is .02-in. cardboard.

metric W
= 45 All seams 6 mm wide,
placed on the inside and glued. Material -Z60
is 0.5-mm cardboard.

NOTES:
SEAM AT A-l.
IS
TOP HINGED AT A-B.
IS
NOTES:
BOTTOM IS HINGED AT 1-2.
SEAM AT A-l.
IS
TOP IS HINGED AT A-B.
MATL- .01 CARDBOARD. BOTTOM IS HINGED AT 1-2.
Assignments for Unit 22-3,
MATL -0.3 CARDBOARD
Radial Line Development of Flat
Surfaces
5. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a devel-
opment drawing of one of the con-
centric pyramids shown in Figs. 22-3-A
to 22-3-D. Add suitable seams. Scale is

full (1:1).

6. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a devel-

opment drawing of the eccentric pyra-
mid shown in Fig. 22-3-E. Add suitable
seams. Scale is full (1:1). Fig. 22-3-A Truncated concentric pyramid. Fig. 22-3-B Truncated concentric pyramid.

454 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

3
r~2.50

/
2
C
K7l NOTES:
D SEAM ISATA-I.
\2St TOP IS HINGED AT A-B.
/^^^ ,

BOTTOM IS HINGED AT 1-2.

MATL - .02 CARDBOARD.
NOTES:
SEAM ISATA-I.
NOTES:
SEAM ISATA-I.
TOPIS HINGED AT A-B. TOP IS HINGED AT A-D.
BOTTOM IS HINGED AT 1-2.
BOTTOM IS HINGED AT 1-4.
MATL -0.4 CARDBOARD MATL - 02 CARDBOARD

Fig. 22-3-C Truncated concentric pyramid. F ig. 22-3-D Truncated concentric pyramid.

Fig. 22-3-E Truncated eccentric pyramid.

Assignments for Unit 22-4, 8. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a two-
Parallel Line Development view and a development drawing of one
7. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a two- of the parts shown in Figs. 22-4-D or
view and a development drawing of one 22-4-E. Add suitable seams. Scale is full

of the elbows shown in Figs. 22-4-A to (1:11.

22-4-C. Add suitable seams. Scale is full

(1:1).

SEAM-, SEAM

-\— -02.50
SEAM SEAM
SEAM
SEAM

SEAM

•0 1.75
NOTES-
ALL SEAMS .25 WIDE
NOTES: NOTES: MATL - 18 USS
ALL SEAMS .25 WIDE. ALL SEAMS6 WIDE.
Fig. 22-4-C Four-piece elbow.
MATL -18 USS MATL- 18 USS
Fig. 22-4-A Three-piece elbow. Fig. 22-4-B Two-piece elbow.

BODY- y5 TABS EQSP

S> 10 WIDE
18 FLAT
LOCK SEAM /. 12 SAFE EDGE

2.50

MATL - 20 USS

Fig. 22-4-D Sugar scoop. Fig. 22-4-E Planter.

DEVELOPMENT AND INTERSECTIONS 455

Assignment for Unit 22-5,
Radial Line Development of
Conical Surfaces
9. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make develop-
ment drawings one of the assembled
of
parts shown 22-5-A to 22-5-E.
in Figs.

Use your judgment for the other views

required and add suitable seams. Scale is
full :1
1 for Figs. 22-5-A to 22-5-D, and
1 )

half size or 1 2 for Fig. 22-5-E

Assignment for Unit 22-6,

Development of Transition
-0.50
Pieces
10. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a two- MATL -24 USS MATL - 24 USS
view drawing plus a development draw- Fig. 22-5-A Funnel. Fig. 22-5-B Offset funnel.
ing of the transition piece of one of the
parts shown in Figs. 22-6-A to 22-6-D.
Use yourjudgment for size and location
of seams. Scale is full (1:1).

R.90

3.00

2.00

• 2.50 A MATL - 22USS » 60 H MATL - 22 USS MATL - 22 USS

Fig. 22-5-C Truncated cone. Fig. 22-5-D Oblique cone. Fig. 22-5-E Measuring can.

MATL - 20 USS

i— 01.12-H
MATL - 20 USS
Fig.22-6-A Concentric transition Fig. 22-6-B Offset transition Fig.22-6-C Transition piece- Fig. 22-6-D Transition piece-
piece —
square to round. piece — square to round. square to round. round to round.

456 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

Assignments for Unit 22-7,
Development of a Sphere
11. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a devel-
opment drawing of the ball shown in
Fig. 22-7-A. Use your judgment for the

views required. Either the gore or zone

method may be used. Scale is full (1:1).
Ball diameter is 3.00 in. or 80 mm.

12. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make develop-

ment drawings for the three parts of the
thermos bottle liner shown in Fig. 22-7-
B. Seam allowances need not be shown.
Scale is half size (1:2).

Assignment for Unit 22-8,

Intersection of Flat Surfaces
Lines Perpendicular
13. On a B- or A3-size sheet, select one of
the assembled parts shown in Figs. .25 ACROSS CORNERS
22-8-A to 22-8-D, complete the views
r-.70XI.25
and make development drawings of the
I

vertical and horizontal parts.

i~tt

j
k
Fig. 22-8-A Intersecting prisms.

—-32 » « 32-— r-13 X 19

' 1

Fig. 22-7-A Ball.

= t
50
A50 i

l_ r 1 { i 12
1 1 i_ 1

CONICAL

CYLINDRICAL-

SPHERICAL
SR 1.62

Fig. 22-7-B Thermos bottle liner. Fig. 22-8-B Intersecting prisms.

DEVELOPMENT AND INTERSECTIONS 457

L
 38 A, F a^<\ - — ni-oo
, SO

—— ~75» —-1.25— —-1.25-*-

-1.25-—
Y 2)1.00
i

1.25

1 1

t
_rT 1

1 »
1

1
1

'

2.00 t
2 on
J
1.00
1.00
'

1 | f t l ih i 1 t 1
!

'

ASv ^-l.38A/F

t>d 25 ACROSS FLATS

—- 1.25-»— —- 1.25-*-
01.00
1 1
_
t I
_ 2.00
/\ 1.25

^X 1
.38
1 1 II

C f-H.I2-»

Fig. 22-8-< : Inters ectlr '9 pri sm ;.

\- 38 — 1
^38-^j
01.25

—-1.25- -1.25- -D .75

2.00
r
U^ Li
1.00

01.25

.25- -1.25- 0.82

A 2.00
r
1.00

T I I

Fig. 22-8-D Intersecting prisms.

Fig. 22-9-A Intersecting prisms.

458 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 Assignment for Unit 22-9, Assignment for Unit 22-10,
32 A/F
Intersection of Cylindrical Intersecting Prisms
Surfaces 15. On a B- or A3-size sheet, select one of

14. On a B- or A3-size sheet, select one of the intersections shown in Figs. 22- 0-A
1

the intersections shown in Figs. 22-9-A to 22-10-C. Complete the lines of inter-

to 22-9-D. Draw all assemblies and com- section on the partially completed
plete the lines of intersection on all views, and make a development draw-
views. Scale is full (1:1). ing of the vertical part(s). Scale is full

-01.25- 50 -01.25- 50

2.00
2.00

32 A/F 1.00

(A) 90O REDUCING TEE (A) 900 OFFSET REDUCING TEE

01.00 -01.00

(B)45°REDUCING TEE (B) 45°0FFSET REDUCING TEE

Fig. 22-9-C Tees and laterals. Fig. 22-9-D Tees and laterals.

1.50

2.00
2.25

i *-OC
Fig. 22-10-A Fig. 22-10-B Fig. 22-10-C
Fig. 22-9-B Intersecting prisms. Intersecting prisms. Intersecting prisms. Intersecting prisms.

DEVELOPMENT AND INTERSECTIONS 459

CHAPTER 23
Pipe Drawings
M
IfcAill

UNIT 23-1
Pipes
One hundred years ago, water was the
only important fluid which was con-
veyed from one point to another in
pipes. Today almost every conceiv-
able fluid is handled in pipes, during its
production, processing, transporta-
tion, or utilization. The age of atomic
energy and rocket power has added
fluids such as liquid metals, oxygen,
and nitrogen to the list of more com-
mon fluids such as oil, water, gases,
and acids that are being transported in
pipes today. Nor is the transportation
of fluids the only phase of hydraulics
which warrants attention now. Hy-
draulicand pneumatic mechanisms are
used extensively for the control of
machinery and numerous other types
the pipe. This pipe was available up to
recent times in only three wall thick-
nesses —
standard, extra-strong, and
double extra-strong. See Fig. 23-1-1. In
order to use common fittings with
these different wall thicknesses of
pipe, the outer diameter (OD) of each
remained the same, and the extra
metal was added to the ID to increase
the wall thickness of the extra-strong
and double extra-strong pipe.
(Al STANDARD
SCHEDULE 40
Fig. 23-1-1 A comparison between steel
pipe.
Cast-Iron Pipe
Cast-iron pipe is often installed under-
ground to carry water, gas, and
sewage. It is also used for low-pres-
sure steam connections. Cast-iron
pipe joints are normally of the flanged
type or the bell-and-spigot type.
Seamless Brass and
Copper Pipe
These types of pipe are used exten-
sively in plumbing because of their
ability to withstand corrosion. They
have the same nominal diameter as
steel or iron pipe, but they have thin-
ner wall sections.
Copper Tubing
This pipe is used in plumbing and heat-
ing and where vibration and misalign-
ment are factors, such as in automo-
tive, hydraulic, and pneumatic design.

of equipment. Piping is also used as a

structural element in columns and
handrails. It is for these reasons that
drafters and engineers should become
familiar with pipe drawings.
KINDS OF PIPE
Steel and Wrought-lron Pipe
This type of pipe carries water, steam,
oil.and gas and is commonly used
where high temperatures and pres-
sures are encountered. Standard steel
and cast-iron pipe is specified by the
nominal diameter, which is always less
than the actual inner diameter (ID) of
The nominal size of pipe is given in
inch sizes, but the inside and outside
diameters and wall thickness are given
in millimeter sizes in the metric
system.
Because of the demand for a greater
variety of pipe for increased pressure
and temperature uses. ANSI
made available 10 different wall thick-
nesses of pipe, each designated by a
schedule number. Standard pipe is
now referred to as schedule 40 pipe
and extra-strong pipe as schedule 80.
Pipe over 12 in. is referred to as OD
pipe, and the nominal size is the OD of
the pipe.
Plastic Pipe
This pipe or tubing, because of its cor-
rosion and chemical resistance, is used
extensively in the chemical industry. It
is flexible and readily installed but is
not recommended where heat or pres-
sure is a factor.
has now
PIPE JOINTS AND FITTINGS
Parts that are used to join pipe are
called fittings.They may be used to
change size or direction and to join or
provide branch connections. They fall
into three general classes; screwed,
welded, and flanged. See Fig. 23-1-2.

460 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 EFFECTIVE THREAD-E IMPERFECT

A = PITCH DIAMETER AT END OF PIPE D-I0.05D + DP I

B = PITCH DIAMETER AT GAGING NOTCH (A+ 0.0625F)

E = EFFECTIVE THREAD (0.8D + 6.8IP
F = NORMAL ENGAGEMENT BY HAND
P = PITCH
DEPTH OF THREAD =0.8P

Fig. 23-1-5 American standard pipe thread.

Straight threads are used for special

applications which are listed in the
ANSI handbook.
Both the taper and straight pipe
Id SCREWED ID) SOLDERED IE) WELDED threads have the same number of
threads per inch of nominal pipe size,
Fig. 23-1-2 Common types of pipe joints.
and a pipe with a tapered thread may
thread into a fitting having a straight
Other methods are used for cast-iron thread, resulting in a tight seal.
pipe, copper, and plastic tubing. Tapered threads are designated on
Pipe fittings are specified by the drawings as NPT (American Standard
nominal pipe size, the name of the fit-
ting, and the material. Some fittings, 90° ELBOW 45° STREET ELBOW
TAPER EXAGGERATED
such as tees, crosses, and elbows, are
used to connect different sizes of pipe. I NPT OR I -11.5 NPT

These are called reducing fittings, and

their nominal pipe sizes must be spec-
ified. The largest opening of the 90"STREET
ELBOW SERVICE TEE
through run is given first, followed by TAPER SHOWN TAPER NOT SHOWN
the opposite end and the outlet. Figure EXTERNAL THREAD
23-1-3 illustrates themethod of desig-
nating sizes of reducing fittings.

Screwed
Screwed
Fittings
fittings, as shown in Fig.
45° Y-eEND
Ds
REDUCER
a
COUPLING

23-1-4, are generally used on small pipe

END VIEW SECTION VIEW
design of 2.50 in. or less. Common
practice is to use a pipe compound (A) SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION
(a mixture of lead and oil) on the

RETURN BEND
3 4 4 Fig. 23-1-4 Screwed fittings.

3Q3 -I I—
jj ,[Q :
TAPER SHOWN TAPER NOT SHOWN
threaded connection to provide a lubri- EXTERNAL THREAD

CROSS
cant and to seal any irregularities.
CROSS
The American standard pipe thread
3 is of two types —
tapered or straight.
The tapered thread, which is the more
common, employs a 1:16 taper on the
diameter of both the external and inter-
END VIEW SECTION VEIW
LATERAL LATERAL nal threads. See Fig. 23-1-5. This fixes
Fig. 23-1-3 Order of specifying the the distance to which the pipe enters (B) SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION
openings of reducing fittings. the fitting and ensures a tight joint. Fig. 23-1-6 Pipe thread conventions.

PIPE DRAWINGS 461

Pipe raper Thread) and ma\ be drawn lines. Other advantages over flanged
with or without the taper, as shown in or screwed fittings are that welded
Fig. 23-1-6. When drawn in tapered pipes are easier to insulate, they may
form, the taper is exaggerated. be placed closer together, and they are
Straight pipe threads are designated on lighter in weight (mass). The ends of

drawings as \l\s (American Standard the pipe and pipe fittings are normally
Pipe Straight Thread), and standard beveled, asshown in Fig. 23-1-7. to
thread symbols are used. All pipe accommodate the weld. Joint rings
threads are assumed to be tapered may be used when welded pipe must
unless otherwise specified. be disassembled periodically.

Welded Fittings Flanges

used where con- Flanges provide a quick means of dis- SCREWED WELDED
Welded fittings are
nections are to be permanent, and on assembling pipe. Flanges are attached Fig. 23-1-9 Flanges.

high-pressure and high-temperature to the pipe ends by welding, screwing,

or lapping. The flange faces are then

drawn together by bolts, the size and

&
90° SHORT
RADIUS ELBOW
/? tf
900 LONG
RADIUS ELBOW
REDUCING
ELBOW
a STRAIGHT
CROSS
spacing being determined by the size
and working pressure of the joint. See
Figs. 23-1-8

VALVES
and 23-1-9.

Valves are used in piping systems to

J fti stop or to regulate the flow of fluids

rv
r and gases. A few of the more common
types are described here.

180° SHORT 180° LONG STRAIGHT TEE REDUCING TEE Gate Valves
RADIUS RETURN RADIUS RUN
Gate valves are used to control the
flow of liquids. The wedge, or gate,
1.
lifts to allow full, unobstructed flow
and lowers to stop it completely. See
Fig. 23-1-10A.These valves are nor-
STRAIGHT
mally used where operation is infre-
CONCENTRIC ECCENTRIC
LATERAL REDUCER REDUCER quent and are not intended for throt-
Fig. 23-1-7 Welded fittings. (Tube Turns| tling or close control.

Globe Valves
These valves are used to control the
flow of liquids or gases. The design of
the globe valve requires two changes
in the direction of flow which slightly
.

reduces the pressure in the system.

The globe valve shown in Fig. 23-1-10B
is installed so that the pressure is on
90° ELBOW 90° REDUCING 45° STRAIGHT TEE STRAIGHT TEE REDUCING the disk which assists the spring in the
ELBOW ELBOW
cap to make a tight closure. This type
of valve is recommended for the con-
* trol of air. steam, gas, or other com-
a
pressibles where instantaneous on-
and-off operation is essential. Figure
23-1-10C is recommended for the con-
trol of liquids such as hot or cold
water, gasoline, oil, or solvents, where
the sudden closure of a valve might
45°LATERAL TAPER ECCENTRIC CROSS SIDE OUTLET cause objectionable and destructive
STRAIGHT REDUCER REDUCER STRAIGHT ELBOW STRAIGHT water hammer. The cap is fitted with a
Fig. 23-1-8 Flanged fittings. spring-loaded piston dashpot arrange-

462 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 merit which retards closure times and
helps eliminate shock.

Check Valves
As the name implies, check valves per-
mit flow in one direction, but check all
reverse flow. They are operated by the
pressure and velocity of line flow
alone, and they have no external
means of control or operation. See Fig.
23-1-10D.

PIPING DRAWINGS
(Al GATE VALVE (B) GLOBE VALVE (C) GLOBE VALVE (O) CHECK VALVE
Common valves. (Jenkins Bros. Ltd.)
The purpose of piping drawings is to
Fig. 23-1-10
show the size and location of pipes,
fittings,and valves. Since these items
may be purchased, a set of symbols
has been developed to portray these
features on a drawing.
There are two types of piping draw-
ings in use —
single-line and double-
line drawings. See Fig. 23-1-11. Dou-
ble-line drawings take more time to
draw and therefore are not recom-
mended for production drawings.
They are. however, suitable for cata-
logs and other applications where the
visual appearance is more important
TRANSITION
JOINT VALVE PIECE than the extra drafting time taken to
make the drawing.
(A) DOUBLE-LINE DRAWING
Single-Line Drawings
Beyond dispute, single-line drawings,
also known as simplified representa-
tions, of pipelines are able to provide
substantial savings without loss of
clarity or reduction of comprehensive-
ness of information. As such, the
simplified method is used whenever
possible.
Single-line piping drawings, as the
name implies, use a single line to show
the arrangement of the pipe and fit-

tings. The center line of the pipe,

"*
(J) EL80W IUSED ONLY TO INDICATE DIRECTION OF PIPEI regardless of pipe size, is drawn as a
IB) SINGLE-LINE DRAWING thick line to which the valve symbols
are added. The size of the symbol is
left tothe discretion of the drafter.
When the pipelines carry different liq-
uids, such as cold or hot water, a
coded line symbol is often used.
Drawing Projection Two methods of
projection are used —
orthographic
and pictorial. Orthographic projec-
tion, as shown in Fig. 23-1-12, is rec-
ommended for the representation of
single pipes either straight or bent in
one plane only. However, this method
J -^) E (CI FORMER SINGLE-LINE DRAWING SYMBOLS is also used for more complicated
Fig. 23-1-11 Piping drawing symbols. piping.

PIPE DRAWINGS 463

 PERMANENT DETACHABLE

-\$X\— i
A Fig. 23-1-15 Pipe connection.

Detachable connections or junc-

f PIPE LINE

tions may be shown by a single thick

line instead of a heavy dot. as shown in

I Fig. 23-1-16. The specifications, a gen-

eral note, or the bill of materials will
^-ADJOIN ING APPARATUS (TANK) listthe types of fittings such as flanges,
union, or coupling and whether the fit-
tings are flanged or threaded.

HO^r— , ^ FLANGE
Q-
^
I
— Q-M
37 00

PC -nxi-e—C
ADJOINING
APPARATUS
DETACHABLE
CONNECTION SUCH
AS A FLANGE
Fig. 23-1-12 Single-line orthographic piping drawing. Fig. 23-1-16 Adjoining apparatus.

Pictorial projection, as shown in

Fig. 23-1-13. isrecommended for all Fittings If no specific symbols are stan-

pipes bent in more than one plane and dardized, fittings like tees, elbows,
forassembl) and layout work, because crosses, etc.. are not specially drawn,
the finished drawing is easier to un- but are represented, like pipe, by a
derstand. continuous line. The circular symbol
for a tee or elbow may be used when it
CrossingsCrossing of pipes without is necessary to indicate whether the
connections are normally to be de- piping is coming toward or going away
picted without interrupting the line
(A) CROSSING OF PIPE SHOWN WITH- from the viewer, as shown in Fig.
representing the hidden line (Fig. OUT INTERRUPTING THE PIPE 23-1-17. Elbows on isometric drawings
23-1-14); but when it is desirable to PASSING BEHIND THE NEAREST
PIPE. may be shown without the radius.
indicate that one pipe must pass
However, the change of direction that
behind the other, the line representing
the piping takes should be quite clear if
the pipe farthest from the viewer will
this method is used.
be shown with a break, or interruption,
where the other pipe passes in front of
it. For microform purposes, the break

(B) USING AN INTERRUPTED LINE TO PIPE

o-
COMING PIPE
o
GOING AWAY
TOWARDS VIEWER FROM VIEWER
INDICATE PIPE FURTHEST AWAY.
Fig. 23-1-14 Crossing of pipes. (A) WITHOUT FLANGES
PIPE LINE
CONNECTED TO ENDS OF PIPE

should not be less than 10 times the line j

thickness.

Connections Permanent connections or

r
junctions, whether made by welding or
other processes such as gluing and sol-
-©
FRONT VIEW REAR VIEW
dering, are to be indicated on the draw- OF FLANGE OF FLANGE
ing by a heavy dot (Fig. 23-1-15). A (B) FLANGES CONNECTED TO ENDS
Fig. 23-1-13 Single-line pictorial piping general note or specification may OF PIPE LINE
drawing. describe the process used. Fig. 23-1-17 Indicating ends of pipe lines.

464 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

Adjoining Apparatus If needed, adjoin- Orthographic Piping Symbols UNIT 23-2
ing apparatus, such as tanks, ma-
Pipe Symbols If flanges are not at-
chinery, etc.. not belonging to the pip-
tached to the ends of the pipelines
Isometric Projection
ing itself may be shown by an outline
drawn with a thin phantom line. See
when orthographic projections are of Piping Drawings
drawn in. pipeline symbols indicating
Fig. 23-1-16.
the direction of the pipe are required.
If the pipeline is coming toward the
The scale of the drawing applies to the
Dimensioning dimension taken along the coordinate
front (or viewer), it be shown by
will
• Dimensions for pipe and pipe fittings two concentric circles, the smaller one axes (isometric axes). In drawing to
are always given from center to cen- being solid. See Fig. 23-1-17A. If the the isometric projection method, the

ter of pipe and to the outer face of
the pipe end or flange (Fig. 23-1-18).
• Pipe lengths are not normally shown
on the drawings, but left to the pipe
fitter.
• Pipe and fitting sizes and general
notes are placed on the drawing
beside the part concerned or. where
space is restricted, vvith a leader.
• A bill of materials is usually pro-
vided with the drawing.
• Pipes with bends are dimensioned
from vertex to vertex.
• Radii and angles of bends
dimensioned as shown Fig.
23-1-18B. Whenever possible, the
smaller of the supplementary angles
is to be specified.
• The outer diameter and wall thick-
pipeline is going toward the back (or
following rules should be followed.
away from the viewer), it will be • Parts of pipe that run parallel to the
shown by one circle. No extra lines are coordinate axes are drawn without
required on the other views. any special indication of being paral-
lel to the isometric axes. See Figs.
Flange Symbols See Fig. 23-1-17B.
and 23-2-2.
23-2-1
Flanges are to be represented, irre-
• With reference to calculations or
spective of their type and sizes, by two
programming for computer drafting,
concentric circles in the front view, by
it will probably be necessary to indi-
one circle in the rear view, and by a
short stroke in the side view, while cate the x, y, and z axes (coordi-
nates) on the drawing.
lines of equal thickness, as chosen for
the representation of pipes, are used.
may be Valve Symbols Symbols representing
in valves are drawn with continuous thin
lines (as opposed to thick lines for pip-
ing and flanges). The valve spindles
should be shown only necessary
if it is
to define their positions. will be It

ness of the pipe may be specified on assumed that unless otherwise spec-
BOTTOM
the line representing the pipe or else- ified, the valve spindle is in the posi-
where (parts list, general note, spec- tion shown in Fig. 23-1-19. ISOMETRIC COORDINATE AXES
ification, etc.).
HORIZONTAL
Source Material COORDINATE
• Crane Limited PLANE

• Jenkins Bros. Limited

ri • ANSI handbook

ASSIGNMENTS
i~i See Assignments 1 and 2 for Unit 23-1 VERTICAL
COORDINATE
SHOWING THE RADIUS OF ELBOW OPTIONAL on page 468. PLANE

(A) LINEAR DIMENSIONS VERTICAL

COORDINATE
PLANE
FLANGED
CONNECTION THREADED
CONNECTION

VERTICAL
(Bl RADII AND ANGLES OF BENDS HATCHING
LINES
ASSUMED
//• SPINDLE
_L y POSITION

WALL THICKNESS
OUTSIDE DIAMETER HORIZONTAL

7 iD^r— -d£j — I
HATCHING
LINES
TO TOP

-PIPING
02 38 X .16
NOTE: WHEN VALVE SPINDLES NOT SHOWN IT WILL
BE ASSUMED THAT THEY WILL BE IN THE POSITIONS POSITIONING PIPING ON COORDINATE AXES
(C) PIPE SIZE INDICATED ON DRAWINGS INDICATED ABOVE.
Fig. 23-2-1 Coordinate axes for piping
Fig. 23-1-18 Dimensioning piping drawings. Fig. 23-1-19 Valve symbols. drawings.

PIPE DRAWINGS 465

 ASSUMED
SPINDLE
POSITION

THIN LINES

(A) VALVES WITH THREADED CONNECTIONS

OR

Fig. 23-2-2 Coordinates for piping

drawings.
(B) VALVES WITH FLANGE CONNECTIONS

Flanges Fig. 23-2-4 Valve symbols.

Flanges are to be represented, irre-

spective of their type and sizes, by
Dimensioning
short strokes of equal-thickness lines
The preferred method of dimensioning
as chosen for the representation of the
isometric pipe drawings is the uni-
pipes. See Fig. 23-2-3.
directional system because of the ease
Flanges at the ends of vertical pipe
in execution and reading. See Fig.
parts should preferably be drawn to an
23-2-6.
angle of 30° to horizontal and flanges at
the ends of horizontal pipe parts in a
Source Material
vertical direction.
• Crane Limited
• Jenkins Bros. Limited

s/ /-FLANGE \, ASSIGNMENTS
0°
-\f y 30=

, ^ ^L , See Assignments 3 and 4 for Unit 23-2

on page 470. Fig. 23-2-5 Deviations from normal position
(Ai FLANGES FOR VERTICAL PIPE of valve spindle.
Review for Assignments
Unit 14-1 PictorialDrawings

TO OIL RETURN
VERTICAL LINES

(B) FLANGES FOR HORIZONTAL PIPE

Fig. 23-2-3 Flange positioning for isometric

04.50 X .24
drawings.
02.88 X .21

Valves
For isometric drawings it will be
For isometric drawings it will be
assumed that unless otherwise spec-
ified, the valve spindle is in the posi-
tion shown in Fig. 23-2-4. Valve
spindles should be drawn only if it is
necessary to define their positions.
Deviations from these positions can be
described by specifying the angle to
which the valve is rotated in a clock-
wise, or right-hand, direction when
looking in the direction of the positive
x, y, or z axes (Fig. 23-2-5).
Fig. 23-2-6 Unidirectional dimensioning.

466 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

.
 HORIZONTAL LINE
UNIT 23-3 "]_^
Supplementary DRAWING CALLOUT

Piping Information INTERPRETATION

(A) BY PERCENT
Direction of Flow The direction of flow
may be indicated by an arrowhead on '2l
the line representing the piping, as
DRAWING CALLOUT •HORIZONTAL LINE
shown in Fig. 23-3-1.
INTERPRETATION

(B) BY DEGREES
ZL

DRAWING CALLOUT +2.65

NOTE: ELEVATIONS SHOWN ARE IN FEET

HORIZONTAL LINE •

Fig. 23-3-1 Indicating direction of flow.

Level Indicators Level indications in

lieuof linear measurements may be INTERPRETATION

used to show the height of pipelines (O BY SPECIFYING END COORDINATES

and fittings. The preferred method of
indicating levels is shown in Fig. Fig. 23-3-3 Specifying slope of pipes.
23-3-2.

Support and Hangers Support and hang- Pipe Runs not Parallel with
33 NOTE ELEVATIONS SHOWN
50
ARE IN FEET ers are to be represented by their Coordinate Axes
~L appropriate symbols, as shown in Fig.
23-3-4A. The representation of repeti-
Deviations from the directions of the
coordinate axes are to be indicated by
tive accessories may be simplified, as means of hatched planes, as follows.
METHOD shown in Fig. 23-3-4B.
+2 90
1. For a part of a pipe situated in a
plane parallel to one of the vertical
_AL _y_ JiL JjL projection planes, vertical hatching
METHOD 2
GENERAL FIXED GUIDED SLIDING lines are drawn to indicate the verti-
(A) TYPES OF SUPPORTS cal projection plane (Fig. 23-3-6A).
(A) ORTHOGRAPHIC DRAWINGS
2. For a part of a pipe situated in a
-S? OR A ,„„ y y plane parallel to the horizontal
coordinate plane, horizontal hatch-
IBI INDICATING REPETITIVE DETAIL
ing lines are drawn to indicate the
Fig. 23-3-4 Supports and hangers.
horizontal projection plane (Fig.
23-3-6B).
Transition Pieces Transition pieces for
changing the cross section are indi- 3. For a part of a pipe not running
cated by the symbols shown in Fig. parallel to any of the coordinate
(B) ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS
23-3-5. The relevant nominal sizes are planes, both vertical and horizontal
Fig. 23-3-2 Level indicators.
indicated above the symbols. hatching lines are drawn to indicate
the vertical and horizontal projec-
on Pipes The direction
Specifying Slope 8/4 tion planes (Fig. 23-3-6C).
of slope is indicated by an arrow
located above the pipe pointing from (A) CONCENTRIC SINGLE If desired, in additon to the coordi-
the higher to the lower level. The nate planes, the prism of which the
amount of slope may be specified by
either a general note on the drawing or
(B)
C^>
B/4 4/2

CONCENTRIC MULTIPLE
pipe part forms the diagonal may be
shown in thin lines (Fig. 23-3-6D).
one of the methods shown in Fig. such hatching is not convenient,
If
23-3-3. However, with long piping for instance when using automated
runs, it may be useful to specify the "C^L drafting equipment, it may be omitted
slope by reference to a datum and level (C) ECCENTRIC SINGLE but should be replaced with the thin-
indication as shown in Fig. 23-3-3C. Fig. 23-3-5 Transition pieces. line rectangle or parallelopiped whose

PIPE DRAWINGS 467

 PLANE
PLANE

(A) (Bl (O

IB! Fig. 23-3-7 Alternate method of indicating pipe runs not in the direction of the coordinate
axes.

-VERTICAL PROJECTION PLANE

HORIZONTAL
PROJECTION
PLANE

Fig. 23-3-6 Indication of pipe runs not in

the direction of the coordinate axes.

diagonal coincides with the pipe. See

Fig. 23-3-7. Application of projection
planes is shown in Fig. 23-3-8.

Source Material
• Jenkins Bros. Limited

ASSIGNMENTS (A) ISOMETRIC

See Assignments 5 and 6 for Unit 23-3

on page 471. Fig. 23-3-8 Application of projection planes. (B) ORTHOGRAPHIC

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 23

Assignments for Unit 23-1, 1.00-in. pipe connections and, as such, line from the tanks is shown. A valve is
Pipes necessitate the use of reducing tees. Scale provided directly to the suction line. Con-
I. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a three- is '/2 in. = 1 ft (U.S. customary) or 1 20 nections are provided for both high and
view drawing of the fuel-oil supply sys- (metric). low suction. High suction guards against
tem shown in Fig. 23-1 -A. Include with 2. Heated tanks must be provided for the difficulties from sediment, while the low
the drawing a bill of materials calling for storage of industrial heating oil in most suction is necessary when the fuel oil sup-
all the pipe fittings and valves. The follow- plants using this fuel for boiler furnaces ply is extremely low.
ing valves are used: (1) relief valves, (2) generating heat or power or for process- free blow shown on the steam-line
The
globe valves, and (3) check valves. The ing furnaces. connections to the heating coils in the
numbers shown on the assignment corre- To ensure uninterrupted service when tanks is important for testing for the pres-
spond with the numbers listed above cleaning, or in the event of a breakdown ence of oil in the steam return line, since
Unions are used above the fuel oil pumps of one of the systems, a duplicate installa- oil would indicate a leak.
as detachable connections for ease of tion of tanks is shown in this layout. Since Extra-heavy globe valves of the re-
assembling and disassembling. The gages circulation must be provided to keep the grind-renew type are recommended on
and temperature-sensing element have oil fluid, a return line as well as a suction the oil lines to ensure maximum safety in

468 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 ALL PIPE AND FITTINGS 2.00 INCH OIL RETURN FROM BOILERS-
PIPE SIZE EXCEPT WHERE NOTED
IN ASSIGNMENT. OIL SUPPLY TO BURNERS-

OIL RETURN TO TANK IN FLOOR

OIL SUCTION FRO

STORAGE TANK IN FLOOR

-i r TEMPERATURE-SENSING
96 3 2 3
INCHES FEET
TEMPERATURE GA

PRESSURE GAGE STRAINER

(LATERAL)

I I I I I I I I I
|

SCALE IN METERS

Y !

FUEL-OIL PUMPS
ELECTRIC
OIL HEATER
Fig. 23-1-A Fuel-oil-supply system.
STEAM SUPP

the transmission of hazardous fluid and to

meet code requirements. Outside screw
and yoke gate valves are suggested
because they show at a glance if the valve
is opened or closed.
On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a three-
view drawing of the fuel-oil storage
connections with heating coil as shown in
Fig. 23-1-B. Include with the drawing a
bill of materials calling for all the pipe

fittings and valves. The oil lines are 1.50-

in. pipe, and the steam line is 2.00-in. pipe.
For the scale, see the drawing.

9630 2 3
INCHES FEET

I I I i i I I i
| |

PRESSURE GAGE
9
TEMPERATURE GAGE

CODE VALVES SERVICE

A GLOBEREGRIND-RENEW OIL LINES

Fig. 23-1-B Fuel-oil-storage

B GLOBE-BEVEL SEAT STEAM LIN=S
connections with heating coils
C GATE STEAM LINES
(Jenkins Bros. Ltd.)

PIPE DRAWINGS 469

M I
Assignments for Unit 23-2, Fig. 23-2-A Diesel-engine starting air system. CODE VALVE SERVICE
AIR STORAGE
Isometric Projection of Piping A BRONZE GLOBE FEED LINES TANK
Drawings B
AIR STORAGE TANK
BRONZE GLOBE DISCHARGE
SCALE LINES
For starting diesel engines, the most
3.
dependable and widely used method is 3
I I

2
METERS
10
I I I I

C BRONZE GLOBE DIESEL ENGINE

SHUTOFF CONTROL
an air system of the type illustrated in Fig. D BRONZE GLOBE AIR COMPRESSOR
DISCHARGE
23-2-A. With this starting system hooked
E BRONZE GLOBE PRESSURE GAGE
up to diesel installations generating SHUTOFF
3 STARTING AIR TANKS BRONZE GLOBE DRAIN VALVES
power and heat for such buildings as fac- F

tories, hotels, large apartment houses, G SPINDLE GATES

MAIN LINE
SHUTOFF
and stores, interruptions such as might
H BRONZE CHECK AIR COMPRESSOR
occur through failure of electric supply or CHECK
BRONZE CHECK AIR STORAGE TANK
storage cells are avoided. J
FEED LINES
Safety valves are provided for the com-
pressor and the air storage tanks. Check
valves are installed on the air storage tank
feed lines and the compressor discharge
lines to prevent accidental discharge of 9 PRESSURE GAGE
the tanks. L-GKx*-(j_ L-O-CX^ W-cxH^
Piping is arranged so that the com-
pressor will either fill the storage tanks
and/or pump directly to the engines. Any
of the three storage tanks may be used for
starting, and pressure gages indicate their
readiness. The engines are fitted with
quick-opening valves to admit air quickly
at full pressure and shut it off the instant
rotation is obtained. A bronze globe valve
is installed to permit complete shutdown

of the engine for repairs and for regula-

tion of the air flow. Drains are provided at
low points to remove condensate from
y //////;;/;//;; ///////////////////////// ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ&
the air storage tanks, lines, and engine
feeds.
Globe valves are recommended
throughout this hook-up except on the
main shutoff lines where gate valves are
used because of infrequent operation.
All valves connected to horizontal pipe-
lines 6 ft 800 mm) or higher above the
( 1

floor will have their spindles located on

the underside for ease of operation. Other
horizontally positioned valves will have
their spindles in the upright position.
All valves connected to vertical pipes
will have their valve spindles oriented to
the front of the drawing.
Flanges are to be located on the top
pipeline near the three starting air tanks
and near the air compressor for assembly
and disassembly purposes. Flanges are
located on the starting diesel engines.
On a B- or A3-size sheet, make an iso-
metric piping drawing for the diesel
engine starting system shown in Fig.
23-2-A. Scale is 'A in. = ft (U.S. custom-
1

ary) or :50 (metric). Include on your

1

drawing a bill of materials calling for the

pipe fittings and valves. All the fittings
are threaded, and 1.50-in. pipe is used S
throughout. zzzJzjV l \//////\ \' \' tttA .* , \ ^T7T^\ \ l] ////// ^ \
*
$ / /// £& .

4. In the piping layout of a boiler room SECTIONAL ELEVATION A-A

shown in Fig. 23-2-B, boilers I, 3, and 5 SCALE

are connected to supply the hot water to III. ,1,1 1 F-

rooms located on the first floor. Check FEET METERS

valves are placed on the cold-water lines Fig. 23-2-B Piping layout of boiler room. (Jenkins Bros. Ltd.)

470 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 adjacent to each boiler to prevent the hot
water from backing into the cold-water
lines. Gate valves are used to shut off the
main hot- and cold-water supply lines.
Globe valves are placed near the boilers
on the hot-water lines. Flanged connec-
tions are used at the boilers for ease of
assembly and disassembly. The size of pipe
is indicated on the plane view and the
scale is shown on the drawing.
On a B- or A3-size sheet, make an
metric drawing of the piping layout of a
boiler room. Include on the drawing
of materials calling for the pipe fittings
and valves. All fittings are of flanged type.
steadily improved as a result of the move- from the ceiling. Since the heaters in each
ment of shopping centers to suburban store or each section of a store are auto-
areas. This type of building, which is mul- matically controlled, fuel savings are
tiplying rapidly, is constructed either with effectedand even heating is ensured.
or without basement. It houses retail On a B- or A3-size sheet, make an iso-
stores, service establishments, amuse- metric drawing of the piping layout
ment centers, restaurants, and offices. shown. Include with the drawing a bill of
Heat and plumbing services in such materials, calling for all the pipe fittings
buildings are usually provided by the and valves. Pipe hangers are required for
owner or operator; and for this reason, he every 8 ft (2400 mm) of piping. Direction
iso- or she might give careful consideration to of flow, level indicators for horizontal pip-
low-cost and trouble-free installations. ing using the basement floor as zero, indi-
a bill An oil- or gas-fired steam boiler with cation of pipe runs not in the direction of
automatic control, and a separate gas- the coordinate axes (see Fig. 23-3-6), and
fired heater for hot-water supply, will a drainage slope of 1 :20 are to be shown
generally meet these requirements. on the drawing. Scale is '/s in. = ft (U.S. 1

The two-pipe heating system, located customary) and 1:100 (metric). Use 1.50-
Assignments for Unit 23-3, in the basement in the installation illus- in. pipe.
Supplementary Piping trated, utilizes unit heaters with indi-
Information vidual thermostatic controls. Valuable
5. The one-story, taxpayer-type building extra floor space is made available for ten-
(Fig. 23-3-A) has been developed and ants' use because the heaters are hung

SERVICE

^
HOT WATER MAIN
Vj
-cx>erj

C
ATE
BRONZE GATE
BRONZE GLOBE
ATE -

DISTRIBUTION SHUTOFF
SERVICE SHUTOFF

WATER SUPPLV TO BOILER

D PREVENT BOILER BACKFLO 1

.'.

COLD WATER MAIN E BRONZE GLOBE EMERGE NC Y 81 LE R F LI 1

BRONZE GLOBE DRAINS SHUTOFF

G bronze Globe - - HEATER!
STORE 2 STORE 3
H :.ate
- - .
z
n SAT | 5RAH .. - : : :

J BRONZE globe 5TEAM MAIN TRAP CONNECT .'.

K bronze globe TRAP BYPASS

L BPO'.ZE GATE - - WATER HEATER SHU" FF
.

-WATER HEATER BRONZE SWING CHECK PREVENT .'.-'.TEa h e A T E R : - KF LOW

. BRONZE GATE WATER SUPPLY SHUTOFFS
P IBB M SATE AlN SHUTOFF
r' BRONZE GATE RETURN SHUTOFF

I FLOAT AND THERMO TRAP

-TER TO STORE
4 COLD WATER TO STORE
5 DRAIN
PLAN VIEW

SCALE SCALE

FRONT ELEVATION SIDE ELEVATION

Fig. 23-3-A Piping connections for plumbing and heating in a small building. (Jenkins Bros. Ltd.)

PIPE DRAWINGS 471

 6. Lightand medium fuel oils, numbers 1, 2. demands, two are recommended to pro- On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a single-
3.and 5 (cold), which do not require pre- vide a second pump for standby service in line isometric drawing of the piping draw-
heating can be handled in a layout such as case of breakdown. Each pump is pro- ing shown. Design your own symbols for
shown in Fig. 23-3-B. Since the expense of vided with a pressure relief valve as a the indicators (gages, strainers, etc.) for
a preheater installation can be eliminated, protection against excessive oil pressure, which there are no standard symbols. The
this relatively simple system is economical which might become high enough to coding of these items should be shown
and easy to operate Similar systems are cause leaks in the oil piping. Check valves clearly off the main drawing. Show the
often installed in hotels, apartment in the relief lines prevent relieved oil from direction of flow and indicate on the
houses, office buildings, large residences, entering the idle standby pump. drawing that all horizontal pipes require a
and small industrial plants. Bronze valves are recommended slope of 1 20 for drainage purposes.
Using
Fuel oil, an unheated tank,
stored in throughout and must be of the appropri- the floor as zero elevation, scale the draw-
flows through a large-mesh, twin-type ate pressure rating. The plug-type globe ing and show by means of level indicator
strainer to a motor-driven pump which valve, recommended for the important symbols the height of all horizontal
provides the necessary oil pressure for individual burner shutoff, ensures positive pipelines. Include on your drawing a bill
satisfactory operation. The oil then passes tightness when closed and extremely of materials, listing all the valves and fit-
through a fine-mesh strainer which close regulation of oil flow, both of which tings. Scale for Fig. 23-3-B is A
]
in. = I ft
removes any small particles that might are essential to good oil burner operation. (U.S. customary) and :50 1 (metric).
clog the burner. Oil flow to the burner is The swing check valve indicated in this
controlled by a burner control valve layout is exceptionally serviceable for the
which opens or shuts according to the nonreturn control of steam, oil, water, and
boiler pressure. gas. It is generally used in connection
Although one fuel oil pump can ade- with a gate valve, offering comparable
quately handle the maximum boiler full, free flow*

CODE VALVES SERVICE

A FIG 470 GATE SUCTION STRAINER SHUTOFF

; _:' :'. r--'.Et => SiSi
B FIG 20SS GLOBE
C EiG 4 70 GATE ;•-:_;- 5 -< T OFF '.

D FIG 962 SWING CHECK

back flow
E FIG 530 A GLOBE PUVP DISCHARGE SHUTOFF
FIG 96? SWING CHECK
PREVENT BACKFLOW IN
F

G FIG 280 GATE SHUT OFF

; "- -

H FIG 530 A GLOBE

:

SHUT OFF
J FIG 530A GLOBE 5 _ - . € = — ' J-'-

K FIG 592 GLOBE OIL BURNER CONTROL

L FIG 703 NEEDLE -
: . - = : -g t :-.--_-

SCALE
L__ _L_1 I I I

Fig. 23-3-B Oil-burner piping for light oils. (Jenkins Bros. Ltd.)

472 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

CHAPTER 24
UNIT 24-1
Structural Drafting
The training of the structural
drafter of vital importance to the
is
engineering profession, the construc-
tion industry, and every structural
steel fabricator.
THE BUILDING PROCESS
The steps through which a building
proceeds from conceptual planning to
finished products are, generally speak-
ing, as follows.
1. An owner with the appropriate
financing establishes the require-
ments for a building to fulfill
particular function.
2. A design team (usually an archi-
tectand an engineer) studies the
owner's needs in reference to set
standards and conventions. The
following factors may influence
the preliminary design: available
materials, construction costs,
building codes, zoning, health
requirements, local bylaws, land
condition, fire protection, finance,
and setbacks.
3. With these parameters and the
owner's requirements, the consul-
tant or design team prepares
sketches of the finished building,
floor plans, and cost estimates,
which are submitted to the owner
for approval.
Structural
Drafting
The design team then takes over
4.
the job. The structural design
group designs the building frame,
taking into consideration factors
steel
some
Fig. 24-1-1 Erecting fabricated steel
supports for a building.
which influence the type and loca-
tion of structural members.
5. When the structural arrangements
have been finalized, layout draw-
ings are made. These give dis-
tances from center line to center
line, size and location of structural
components, and other specifics
of the design. When the layout
drawings have been completed,
checked, and approved, they are
sent to steel fabricators for tender-
ing. Tendering involves quoting a
price (usually a price for detailing,
supply, fabrication, and erection
of the steel members).
6. When the contract has been
received by the steel fabricator, he
or she makes a list of material
required so that the basic shapes
can be ordered from the steel pro-
ducer. The fabricator also begins
to detail (draw the individual
building members). These are
referred to as shop drawings.
7. As the shop drawings are com-
pleted, they are sent to the shop in
order that parts may be fabricated.
It is usually during this period that
the fabricator will make the erec-
tion drawings in conjunction with
the structural design group.
8. As the steel is fabricated, it is
either stored in the yard or sent to
the construction site if it is re-
quired immediately.
9. At the site, the steel is erected
using the erection drawings. See
Fig. 24-1-1.
STRUCTURAL DRAFTING 473
 SYMBOL
WT OR MT

T3

MISCELLANEOUS STANDARD STANDARD MISCELLANEOUS STRUCTURAL TEES EQUAL UNEQUAL

WELDED WIDE-
LEG LEG
WIDE-FLANGE FLANGE SHAPES BEAMS CHANNELS CHANNELS
ANGLES
SHAPES SHAPES

Fig. 24-1-2 Common structural steel shapes.

STRUCTURAL STEEL— PLAIN M shapes (formerly called joists and 6. L shapes, or angles, consisting of
light beams) are similar in contour two legs set at right angles, are
MATERIAL
to the W shapes. They are available available in sizes ranging from 3 to 8
It is important to remember that the in sizes ranging from 6 to 16 in. (150 in.(75 to 200 mm).
steel produced at the rolling mills and to 400 mm). 7. Hollow structural sections (HSS)
shipped to the fabricating shop comes Structural tees are produced by consist of round, square, and rec-
in a vt ide variety of shapes (approx- splitting S or W
shapes, usually tangular sections.
imately 600) and forms. At this stage it through the center of their webs, 8. Plates, and round and rectangular
is called plain material. thus forming two T-shaped pieces bars.
Many of these materials are shown from each beam.
in Fig. 24-1-2. They can be classified
and designated as follows:
1. S shapes (formerly called standard
beams or I beams) are rolled in U.S. Customary Examples
many sizes 3 to 20 in. (75 to 500 See Mote 1
Metric Size
mm). New Old Examples
2. C shapes (formerly called standard Shape Designation Designation See Mote 2
channels) are available in sizes Welded Wide Flange Shapes
ranging from 3 to 18 in. (80 to 450 (WWF Shapes)
mm). — Beam WWF48 x 320 48WWF320 WWF10O0 x 244
3. W shapes (formerly called wide- — Columns WWF350 x 315
flange shapes) and welded wide- Wide Flange Shapes (W Shapes) W24 x 76 24WF76 W600 x 114
flange (WWF) beams and columns. W14 x 26 14B26 W160 x 18
W shapes are available in sizes Miscellaneous Shapes (M Shapes) M8 x 18.5 8M18.5 M200 x 56
ranging from 6 to 36 in. (150 to 900 M10 x 9 10JR9.0 M160 x 30
mm) WWF
shapes, sometimes
Standard Beams |S

Standard Channels (C Shapes)

Shapes) S24 x 100
C12 x 20.7
241100
I2C20.7
S380 x 64
C250 x 23
referred to as H shapes, range in
Structural Tees
size from 14 to 48 in. (350 to 1200
—cut from WWF Shapes WWT24 x 160 ST24WWF160 WWT280 x 210
mm). — cut from W Shapes WT12 x 38 STI2WF38 WT130 x 16
— cut from M Shapes MT4 x 9.25 ST4M9.25 MT100 x 14
-SHAPE SYMBOL Bearing Piles (HP Shapes) HP14 x 73 I4BP73 HP350 x 109
-DEPTH OF SHAPE IN INCHES Angles (L Shapes) L6 x 6x .75 L6 x 6 x 3/4 L75 x 75 x 6
-WEIGHT IN POUNDS PER FOOT (leg dimensions x thickness) L6 x 4 x .62 16 x 4 x % L150 x 100 x 13

WI8x
V 114
Plates (width
Square Bar
Round Bar
x
(side)
(diameter)
thickness) 20 x
1.00
01.25
.50 20 x
Bar 1

Barl'A0
'A 500 x 12
01 25

030
Flat Bar (width x thickness) 250 x .25 Bar 2<A x 'A 60 x 6
(A) INCH DESIGNATION Round Pipe (type of pipe x 12.75 0D x .375 12% x % XS 102 OD x 8
OD x wall thickness)
SHAPE SYMBOL Square and Rectangular Hollow HSS4 x 4 x .375 4 x 4RT x 3/e HSS102 x 102 x 8
-DEPTH OF SHAPE IN MILLIMETERS Structural Sections (outside HSS8 x 4 x .375 8 x 4RT x 3/e

MASS PER METER IN KILOGRAMS dimensions x wall thickness)

Steel Pipe Piles 320 OD x 6
(OD x wall thickness)
W450x 170
Note —Values shown are nominal depth (inches) x weight per foot length (pounds).
1

—
Note 2 Values shown are nominal depth (millimeters) x mass per meter length (kilograms).
(B) METRIC DESIGNATION —
Note 3 Metric size examples shown are not necessarily the equivalents of the inch size examples shown.
Fig. 24-1-3 Structural steel callouts. Fig. 24-1-4 Abbreviations for shapes, plates, bars, and tubes.

474 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 MEAN THICKNESS -MEAN THICKNESS
© IOB 5
j© 10 B 7 © When steel shapes are designated on
^ U
L
WF
T r-9028
1

s
14 WF 34 14 34
drawings, a standard method of abbre- 1
i I

© 14
IOB 5
WF 34
© 14
I0B6
WF 34
—

©
2 viating should be followed that will
identify the size and shape of the steel
T ^1
part. See Figs. 24-1-3 and 24-1-4. How-
ft

3 14
IOB
WF 30
3
o s 14
I0B4
WF 30
—o o £
5
ever, themethod for calling for these
C AND MC SHAPES
Fig. 24-1-7 Slopes and dimensions of
standard shapes has changed over the flanges.
IOB IOB 2
few years. When called upon to
1

WF last
1©
14WF 30
24-0
© 14

24--0
30
© revise ormodify existing drawings, the parallel face flanges or with a 5 percent
(A) BEAM DESIGNATION PRIOR TO 1972 drafter must do so in the same conven- slope (2°51') on the inside of the flange.
© tion used previously on that drawing. See Fig. 24-1-7.
© 10B 5 _® IOB 7
WI4 X 34 WI4 X 34 Therefore, it is important that the draf- In structural steel shape tables,
a *
o
o o 2
" S
ter not only have the most up-to-date dimensions such as K and mean thick-
1 I0B5
i C
3 IOB 6
— I knowledge, but also be familiar with ness of sloping flanges are given. Since
"Z s
previous standards still in use on old the mean thickness of the sloping
drawings. See Fig. 24-1-5. flange is given, these dimensions may
Besides having to know the type of also be used for all flange shapes.
shapes available and their drawing If it is necessary to have the exact

^
/f>
WI4 X 30
24-0 J~
(J)
Wl4 X 30
24-0
© designation, one must also be familiar dimensions of a particular shape, they
with framing construction terms and must be obtained from the individual
(Bl BEAM DESIGNATION FROM 1972 ON
where these shapes are used. See Fig. mill's structural shape catalog. These
24-1-6. catalogs also give the pertinent radial
,® I0B5
t
© IOB 7
T® The abbreviations shown are dimensions in question. See Fig.
W350 X 51 W350 X 51

X
o o o intended only for use on design draw- 24-1-8.
.3 IOB 5 s I0B6 .1 ings. When lists of materials are being It is customary, on details made to a
'0
®
o
W350 X 51 W350 X 51
© prepared for ordering from the mills, scale of 1:8, 1:10 or smaller, for the
X IOB 3
— X I0B4 X the requirements of the respective curve indicating the toes of angles and
o a o
W350 X 44 c W350 X 44 o
s S s mills from which the material is to be of flanges, the interior fillets between
ordered should be observed. legs of angles, and the interior fillets
IOB 10 B 2 -

MC
1 ' •

T
® All S, C, and shapes have a between web, or stem, and flanges to
® W350 X 44
7 315
© W35 ° X **
7 315
16.67 percent slope on the inside faces be omitted in the drawing. It is usual to
(CI METRIC BEAM DESIGNATION AND DIMENSIONING of the flanges. This is equivalent to exaggerate on detail drawings the
Fig. 24-1-5 Building floor framing plan, 9°28' or a bevel of 1:6. W-shaped thickness of the leg, stem, web, or
(partial view) beams and columns are rolled with flange.

I. Anchors or hangers for open-web steel

joists
2. Anchors for structural steel
3. Bases of steel and iron for steel or iron
columns
4. Beams, purlins, girts
5. Bearing plates for structural steel
6. Bracing for steel members or frames
7. Brackets attached to the steel frame
8. Columns, concrete-filled pipe, and struts
9. Conveyor structural steel frame work
10. Steel joists, open-web steel joists, brac-
ing, and accessories supplied with joists

II. Separators, angles, tees, clips, and

other detail fittings
12. Floor and roof plates (raised pattern or
plain (connected to steel frame)
13. Girders
14. Rivets and bolts
15. Headers or trimmers for support of open-
web steel joists where such headers or
trimmers frame into structural steel mem-
bers
16. Light-gage cold-formed steel used to
support floor and roofs
17. Lintels shown on the framing plans or
otherwise scheduled
18. Shelf angles

Fig. 24-1-6 Structural steel terms.

STRUCTURAL DRAFTING 475

 W SHAPES S SHAPES

1
Steel Grades
There are hundreds of grades of steel
1
produced in mills today. However,
f only a few of those are suitable for
structural applications. The most com-
d — mon structural grade used in the
United States is ASTM A36. All struc-
tural members discussed in this chap-
ter will be assumed to be fabricated

UJ J from ASTM A36. while the bolts are

made from A307 or A325 depending on
the strength required.

Mill Tolerances
There are certain permissible devia-
tions brought about in the manufacture
Flange Web
Thick- Thick-
of structural steel that the drafter
Inch Depth Width ness ness Metric Depth Width should understand. These permissible
Designation d b t w k Designation d b deviations from the published dimen-
W24 x 94 24 'A 9 % x
fl 1% W610 x 140 617 230 sions and contours (as listed in the
W24 x 76 23% 9 "/.6 7
/.6 l
7
/.6 W610 x 113 608 228 AISC manual, in mill catalogs, and
WI8 x 114 18/2 11% 1 % 1"/|« W460 x 177 482 286 from the lengths specified by the pur-
W18 x 105 18% 11 3 A '5/16 */l6 l
5
/8 W460 x 158 476 284 chaser) are referred to as mill toler-
W18 x 96 181/8 11% l3
/l6 '/2 l'/2 W460 x 144 472 283 ances. See Figs. 24-1-9 to 24-1-11.
W18 x 60 18 'A Vh "/l6 7
/l6 P/.6 W460 x 89 463 192 The factors which contribute to the
W16 x 78 16% 8% % '/2 1% W410 x 114 420 261 necessity for a mill tolerance are as
W16 x 40 16 7 '/2 5/l6
1% W410 x 60 407 178 follows:
W14 x 74 14 \ 10% l3
/l6 7
/l6 1% W360 x 110 357 255
W14 x 48 13 3A 8 9
/l6 5/>6
1'A W360 x 72 350 204
1. The high speed of the rolling opera-
tions required to prevent the metal
W12 x 58 12 'A 10 % % 1% W3I0 x 86 310 254
from cooling before the process has
W12 x 50 12'A 8% % % 1% W310 x 74 310 205
W12 been completed.
x 36 12 'A 6% »/l6
5
/l6 l'/.6 W310 x 52 317 167
W12 x 27 12 6'/2 % 'A IS
A6 W310 x 39 310 165
2. The varying skill of operators in
WIO x 49 squeezing together the rolls for suc-
10 10 9/l6 S/l6
1% W250 x 73 253 254
WIO x 33 9 3A 8 7
W250 x 49 cessive passes of the metal, partic-
/l6 y.6 1 247 202
WIO x 25 10'/a 5 3A 7
/l6 'A 1 W250 x 39 262 147 ularly the final pass. See Fig.
WIO x 15 10 4 'A 'A 13
/l6 W250 x 22 254 102 24-1-12.
W8 x 35 8'/e 8 Vi 5
/l6 1 W200 x 52 206 204 3. The springing and wearing of the
W8 x 28 8 6'/2 7
/>6 5
/l6 l5
/l6 W200 x 46 203 203 and other mechanical factors.
rolls,
W8 x 20 8'/8 5'A % 'A % W200 x 42 205 166 4. The warping of the steel in the pro-
W8 x 15 8'/8 4 5
/>6 'A l3
/l6 W200 x 36 201 165 cess of cooling.
S24 x 100 24 7 'A % A
3
1
3
A S610 x 149 610 184
5. The subsequent shrinkage in the
S24 x 90 24 7/8 % % 1
3
A S610 x 134 610 181
length of a shape which was cut
S20 x 95 20 7'A 'Vl6 ,3
/l6 1% S510 x 141
while the metal was still hot.
508 183
S20 x 75 20 6% l3
/.6 % 1% S510 x 112 508 162 Under rolling tolerances (Fig.
S18 x 70 18 6A M/l6 "/.6 l'/2 S460 x 104 457 159 24-1-9) note that the maximum overall
SI 5 x 50 15 5% % 9/.6
1% S380 x 74 381 143 depth (C) can be Va in. over the nominal
S12 x 50 12 5'/2 •</l« "/l6 l
7
/l6 S310 x 74 305 139 depth. For example, a W24 x 94
S12 x 35 12 5 '/a 7 3/l6
S3I0 x 52
»/l6 /.6 l
305 129 beam (Fig. 24- 1 -8) is shown as having a
S10 x 35 10 5 '/2 % S250 x 52
1 Vb 254 126 24'/4-in. depth. However, its finished
S8 x 23 4%
8 7
/l6 7
/>6 1 S200 x 34 203 106 actual depth at C after rolling could be
C15 x 50 15 3 3A % 24 /: in. The depth at center line A
1

"/l6 l
7
/l6 C380 x 74 381 94
C15 x 40 15 3'/2 % '/2 l
7
/l5 C380 x 60 381 89
could be either 24-Vs in. (24Va + Va) or
C12 x 30 12 3% % '/2 1% C310 x 45
24% in. (241/4 - Va). The width of flange
305 80
C12 x 20.7 12 3 '/2 5/T6
1% C310 x 31 305 74
B could be 9Va in. (9 + Va) or 8%, in.
CIO x 30 10 3 7 (9 - -Vie) in place of the 9 in. width.
/!6 "/l6 1 C250 x 45 254 76
CIO x 20 10 2 3A 7
/l6 % C250 x 30 254
Suppose the W24 x 94 is ordered
1
69
cut to length from the mill as a 55-ft
long piece. It might be received by the
fabricator either as 55'-% (55 ft + Va
Fig. 24-1-8 Properties of common structural steel shapes.
in.) or 54'-ll 5/s (55 ft - Va in.) long

476 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 ROLLING TOLERANCES (Inches)
Maximum
Width Web Depth of
of Out of Off Any Cross
Depth Flange Square Center Section
A B TorT, E C
Over
Nominal Nominal
Size Over Under Over Under Max. Max, Size
3 3
1 2 in. and under Va Ve /l6 /.6 y.6 >A

3
Over 1 2 in. Va Va 'A /l6 'A 3/l6

CUTTING TOLERANCES (Inches)

Variation from Specified Length for Lengths Given

W Over 30 Over 40 Over 50

Shapes To 30 To 40 To 50 To 65 Over
Nominal Incl Incl Incl Incl 65
Depth Over Under Over Under Over Under Over Under Over Under
Beams 24 in.
and under

Beams
over 24 in.

All Columns

Fig. 24-1-9 Rolling and cutting tolerances for W shapes.

Nominal
ROLLING TOLERANCES

Depth
(Inches)
Flange
Width
Out of
Square
Out of
Square
r rr\^
Specified A B T T, C - D
Shape Size Over Under Over Under B B B
3 to 7 incl. '/l6 '/.6 Va '/.6 0.03 0.03
S Over 7 to 4 incl. 1 Ve Vie Va Va 0.03 0.03
3/. 6
Over 4 to 24 incl
1 Va 3/. 6 3/16 0.03 0.03

3 to 7 incl. >/l6 V\h '/l6 '/16 0.03 0.03

C Over 7 to 14 incl. Va V\ b Va Ve 0.03 0.03
3/l6
Over 14 Va Va 3/,6 0.03 0.03

S SHAPES

CUTTING TOLERANCES (inches)

Variation from Specified Lengths
Over 30 Over 40 Over 50
to to to
To 30 incl. 40 Incl. 50 Incl. 65 Incl. Over 65
Shape Over Under Over Under Over Under Over Under Over Under
Sand C
ft V* 3/4 'A 1 'A 1 Va 'A 1 'A 'A
Shapes

T|->

Fig. 24-1-10 Rolling and cutting tolerances for S and C shapes. C SHAPES

STRUCTURAL DRAFTING 477

 FLANGE SQUARE Dimensions should be arranged in a
WITH WEB manner most convenient to all who
must use the drawing. They should not
crowd the sketch and should cross the
fewest possible number of other lines.
The longest and overall dimensions
should be farthest away from the views
MINIMUM LENGTH OF JOINED BEAM= to which they apply. Dimensioning
I42MJ- ||t (35 -0-|l and descriptions of components (bill-
,
= 76'-llj

MAXIMUM LENGTH OF JOINED BEAM ing), in general, should be placed out-

(420 +| ) + (35-0 + a I = 77- 1 b side the picture. Dimensions should
REFER TO FIGURE 241-9
be given to the center lines of beams,
Fig. 24-1-11 Error between mating shapes. Fig. 24-1-13 Calculating minimum and to the backs of angles, and as
maximum length of joined beam. explained later, to the backs of chan-
nels. They should be given to the top
The handbooks prepared by the or bottom of beams and channels
American Institute of Steel Construc- (whichever level is to be held), but
tion (AISC) lists all the available struc- never to both top and bottom, because
tural shapes, their properties, and of a possible overrun or underrun, in
dimensions. However, for the conve- the depth, resulting from rolling.
nience of the student, all the dimen- As shown in Fig. 24-1-15, when four
sions which are required for examples or more equal spaces between bolts
and problems are reproduced in this are required, it is recommended that
text. the information be given as 4 @
2 = 8
instead of repeating 2 four times. This
reduces the possibility of error, both in
STRUCTURAL DRAWING
PRACTICES
1 Figure 24-1-14 is a table indicating the
scale and the type of structural drafting

T in which the scale is most frequently

used.

Dimensioning
SMALL STRUCTURAL SHAPES MAY BE
The general practice, in dimensioning
FORMED BY A WIDE VARIETY OF structural drawings, is to use the
PASSING PROCEDURES.
aligned method for dimensions and to
Fig. 24-1-12 The making of a C shape. place the dimensions above the dimen-
sion lines. Otherwise, the same gen-
eral guidelines as used in mechanical
piece. The fabricators have standards
drafting will apply. All dimensions
for ordering the plain material that
shown in this chapter will be in feet
take into consideration these cutting
and inches or inches. Metric (milli-
tolerances.
meters) measurements could also have Fig. 24-1-15 Dimensioning structural
Although this variation of length
been used. drawings.
would not be tolerated in the shop, it is
essential that the detailer be aware of
itspossible occurrence, so that when
Scales Principal Drawings
he or she specifies the required stock,
Inch and Foot Millimeter and Meter Used
the material obtained will fulfill the
purpose for which it was ordered. Full 1:1 Layout
3 = I'-O 1:5 Layout
Another example of mill tolerances is
1 = '-0
Vi 1 1:10 Layout or detail
shown in Fig. 24-1-13.
3/4 =
V-Q 1:20 Detail
Detailers can usually disregard mill
% = '-0 1 Erection or design
tolerances when and
detailing light- 3
/l6 = '-0 1 Erection or design
medium-mass trusses, standard 3/32 =
r-o Erection or design
beams, standard channels, struts, and i= r-o Detail
most plate girders. However, consid- '/2 = '-0 1 Detail or erection

eration must be given to the tolerances 'A = '-0 1 1:50 Erection or design

for all wide-flange beams and other Vs = '-0 1 1:100 Erection or design

heavy parts. Fig. 24-1-14 Scales for structural drawings.

478 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

.
reading the drawing and in layout of
the work in the shop. Do not include in
such an equation the distance locating
the group itself from some reference
point, even though the distance may
happen to be the same as the incre-
ment of spacing.
Elevation detail dimensions,
as levels, are generally furnished
note on the drawing. When it is desir-
able to show the level or vertical dis-
tance above some established refer-
ence point (usually ground level), the
value is given in inches (or millimeters)
and placed above the level symbol, as
shown in Fig. 24-1-15. A plus or minus
precedes the value, indicating that the
level specified is higher or lower than
the reference point.
Another dimensioning practice
enclose bolt and hole sizes in diamond-
shaped frames, as shown in Fig.
24-1-15. This helps to differentiate the
circular sizes from the linear dimen-
sions. Bolt symbols are shown in Fig.
24-1-16.
<> o interference must be eliminated by
SHOP FIELD
Fig. 24-1-16 Bolt symbols.
The neatness, and hence the legi-
of shop drawings is enhanced by
bility,
lining up notes and dimensions which
have the same common purpose. Thus
if the 5-in. cut instructions (Fig.
24-1-15) were required at both ends of
the beam, they would be shown at the
same elevation, even though the
dimension lines were not drawn from
end to end of the sketch. Attention
paid to these features, resulting in an
orderly and systematic presentation of
the necessary information, does much
to enhance the finished appearance of
a shop drawing.
Source Material
• American Institute of Steel
Construction
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 1 for Unit 24-1
493.
UNIT 24-2
Beams
As a rule, each beam in a system of
floor or roof framing makes a con-
venient erection unit. Hence, the
known
required shop fabrication for each
by a
beam is shown on a shop drawing,
which provides complete information
for that beam. Such a drawing seldom
pictures any part of the adjacent mem-
bers to which this beam will later be
joined in the field. However, in the
preparation of the beam detail draw-
ing, all the features that have a bearing
on the later installation of the beam
into its proper location in the frame, as
indicated on the design drawing, must
is to
be investigated.
The location of the open holes to be
provided in the beam for its field con-
nection must match the location of
similar holes in the supporting mem-
bers. Proper clearances must be pro-
vided so that the beam can be swung
into position after its supporting mem-
bers have been erected. Any possible
cutting away the excess material.
The various fabricating shop draft-
ing rooms do not always agree among
themselves on a standard way of mak-
ing shop drawings. In this text, details
will be presented in a manner that all
shops could use.
The two principal kinds of beam
connections generally used are the
framed and the seated types. In the
framed type, the beam is connected by
means of fittings (generally a pair
on page
Fig. 24-2-1 Beam to column connections.
short angles) attached to its web. With
seated connections, the end of the
beam rests on a ledge, or seat, which
receives the load from the beam just as
if the end of the beam rested upon a
wall. See Fig. 24-2-1.
should be noted that the depth of
It
the beam, dimensions in relation to the
depth of the beam, end connections,
cuts, and spacing of holes are drawn to
scale. Copes, blocks, and cuts are
shown in Fig. 24-2-2. It is the practice
of the structural detailer to draw the
depth dimensions to scale so that the
relation of detail is correct and so that
the fabricator can interpret the relation
of holes to bolts or holes more readily.
^EE~ -E
'CUT NOT CHIP"
"CUT AND CHIP'
NOTE PREFERRED
I
NOTE 2 USE IF SURFACE C
MUST BE FLUSH WITH WEB
Ml
Fig. 24-2-2 Copes, blocks, and cuts.
The length of beam and dimensions
can be drawn
in relation to the length
to scale but are usually foreshortened.
The reason that the length
is usually
foreshortened is that the scale length
would, in most cases, take more space
of
on a drawing than is economical and
would have no practical value to the
fabricator. However, foreshortening
the length so much that the holes in the
web or some of the detail will appear
crowded or ambiguous should be
avoided.
The structural detailer does not
always draw to the exact scale, but
exaggerates the drawings to clarify
details.An example is the two lines
that would show the thickness of the
top or bottom flange of a beam.
ASSEMBLY CLEARANCES
In order for members to assemble
readily, clearances are required be-
tween beams and columns or beams
and beams. It may also be necessary to
STRUCTURAL DRAFTING 479
 EQUAL TO OR GREATER THAN K DIMENSION Of BEAM achieved by making sketches of the
LEVEL /a
SYMBOL"\V_y connections at both ends. The detailer
first investigates the connection at one

end, for this example the north end of

the W18 x 60 of Fig. 24-2-4. A sketch,
shown in Fig. 24-2-5A, is then made of
— BOLTED CONNECTION the W18 framing into the W24. This
section represents what would be seen
if a viewer looked at the connection

from the west side of the VV18. A

CLOSEST WHOLE i sketch is then made of the south end
connection of VV18. From the sketches
ELEVATION TOP OF STEEL SHOWN THUS: (+98-61
the necessary detail requirements can
METHOD A be obtained. Of importance are the
number of bolts or size of fillet welds
APPROX ,
required, and the size of the connect-
l

ing angles. In this unit, the connecting-

NOTE - PRACTICE IS TO MAKE 0| AND 2
DIMENSIONS MULTIPLES OF i IN angle sizes are given. In Unit 24-3 the
Fig. 24-2-3 Assembly clearances. calculations for angle size and connec-
tions arecovered in detail.
Note that the south end flange of the
cut or shape the ends of beams for W18 x 60 is flush with that of the
mating parts to fit properly. The rec- supporting W21 x 73 flange. Figure
ommended clearances are shown in 24-2-5B is produced similarly to Fig.
Fig. 24-2-3. 24-2-5 A for the north end. except we
find that *he flange of the W18 will
ELEVATION: ALL STEEL FLUSH. TOP AT ELEV. +98-6
interfere with that of the W21. Thus
SIMPLE SQUARE-FRAMED - CONNECTIONS: TWO ANGLES 4X3XJX9
it

AT EACH END OF 8EAM becomes necessary to notch out or

BEAMS cope the W18.
METHOD B
The information — such as member Fig. 24-2-4 Partial design drawing. So^e shops would not dimension
length, size,and type: number of bolts: such ..cut, but would give it a standard
or type of fastener— squired by the mark. Others would simply note on the
structural detailer is obtained from the drawing COPE TO W21 x 73 and let
design drawing. These drawings usu- TOP AT ELEV. + 98'-6, as shown by the shop work out its proper shape and
ally describe the type of construction, Fig. 24-2-4B. Note that the top eleva- size.
end loads or loads at support if not tion of W24 x 76 is designated by Note that the intersection of the
normal type and size of bolts, ember i
( + 3), meaning that the top of the beam horizontal and vertical is not a sharp
shape and size, and any other data that is 3 in. above the reference elevation of corner (reentrant-cut), but is cut to a
would be required by the detailer. + 98'-6, or ( + 98'-9) as presented in small radius to provide a fillet at this
Figure 24-2-4 represents part of a Fig. 24-2-4A. point. However, since the shop has
design drawing for a steel-framed floor Before starting the drawing, the been trained to provide these fillets,
system as viewed from above. With its detailer should first establish what the they are not generally shown on the
notes, it contains, with the exception beam detail is going to look like. This is detail drawing.
of connection-angle detail, all the nec-
essary information required by the
shop detailer to detail the W18 x 60
beam. Unless otherwise shown by
dimensions or notes, members shown
on the design drawing are presumed to
be parallel or at right angles to one
another, with their webs in a vertical
plane, and to be in a level position from
end to end. Elevation detail dimen-
sions of beams are generally furnished
by a note on the drawing. In Fig.
24-2-4A the vertical distance, or eleva-
tion, isplaced above the level symbol
and is shown as +98'-6,forthe VV21 x
73 beam and +98 '-9 for the W24 x 76 C W2I X 73

beam. It might have been given by a (Al NORTH-EN! BEAM CONNECTION (B) SOUTH-END BEAM CONNECTION
note reading ALL STEEL FLUSH, Fig. 24-2-5 Detail of I 18 x 60 beam.

480 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 Since the two beams are flush on
top, the minimum depth of the cut Q is
made equal to or greater than the
distance for the W21 x
K Distance for the W21 Beam = l3/s
Following the guidelines shown in Fig.
24-2-3, the Q }
dimension for
is F/2 in. The length of the cut,
measured from the backs of the con-
necting angles, should allow for a mini-
mum Vi in. clearance between the toe
of the supporting beam and the flange
of the supported beam. To determine
the length of dimension Q2 add Vi in.
to half the flange width of the W21
beam. From this value subtract half
the web thickness of the W21 beam and
Vi6 in. The Vie-in. dimension
ance allowed between the web face
and the outer face of the connecting
angles.
Therefore Q2 = Vi + 4Vs - %z - V\t
, given in Unit 24-3. Note the end
= 4"/32. As previously used for Q,, the
dimension Q2 should be raised to the
nearest length evenly divisible by A in.
Thus the A n M
in. dimension (Q 2 ) is
raised to 4 /i in.
l
With the exception of the connect-
ing-angle data, Fig. 24-2-6
pleted shop drawing of the
beam. Note the following points.
1. The minus dimensions ( — 5/i6),
shown outside and opposite the
dimension line for the back-to-back
distance of the end connection
angles (25'-5 3/s), are the distances
from the center lines of the support-
ing beams to the back of each con-
necting angle. For a beam framing
to other shapes, the minus dimen-
sion (setback distance) is equal to
half the web thickness of the sup-
porting member plus '/i6in.,
rounded off to the nearest V\6 in.
TWO BEAMS -
Fig. 24-2-6 Detail drawing of W18 x 60
beam.
2. The center-to center distance of
25 '-6 between the two supporting
K beams is shown for reference
73 beam. purposes.
3. The actual or ordered length of the
W18 x 60 should be such that its
ends are about Vi in. short of the
this beam backs of the connecting angles.
Q2 , as This is to allow for inaccurate cut-
ting to specified length at the mill or
in the shop and therefore eliminate
any extra expense caused by recut-
ting or trimming during fabrication.
4. No top or bottom views are neces-
, sary because no holes are required
in either flange. In general, the shop
should not be required to look at
views which convey no necessary
is the clear- instructions.
5. The end connection angles are
shown, but not detailed. Informa-
tion on detailing these angles is
view of the angles is shown but the
W18 beam is not drawn.
X
6. The complete beam is given a ship-
ping or erection mark B 1 5 to iden-
, ,
tify it in the office, shop, and field.
There are many systems currently
is the com- in use for establishing the shipping
W18 x 60 mark. One of the most common
methods is to use a capital letter
followed by a sheet number. Each
separate shipping piece, detailed on
one sheet, has the same number
preceded by a different letter. In
this example the detail drawing of
the W 18 x 60 is the second sketch
on sheet 15; the third would be C15,
the fourth D15; and so on.
7. The connection angles are given
assembly or template marks, usu-
ally lowercase letters. This is done
for two reasons:
(a) It saves the detailing of these
angles again, when they are
used on the same piece (as on
the south end of the beam in this
example) or on other beams on
the same sheet.
(b) The angles will be punched on a
different machine from the one
used for the beam. The assem-
bly mark is a guarantee that the
correct angle will be assembled
on the correct beam. On the
given detail, the material re-
BI5
quired to fabricate only one
complete shipping piece is
listed,or billed. When duplica-
tion of the shipping pieces is
required, the shop multiplies
the billing for one complete
piece by the total number of
assemblies required.
Source Material
• American Institute of Steel
Construction
ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 2 and 3 for Unit 24-2
on page 494.
Review for Assignment
Unit 7-14 Conventional Breaks
Unit 24-1 Structural Steel— Plain
Material
UNIT 24-3
Standard
Connections
Standard framed-beam connections
are used for framing structural steel.
Since riveting is almost nonexistent in
most fabricating plants today, rivets
will not be considered in this context.
Standard connection angles are shop-
welded or bolted to the beam web and
field-bolted to their supporting mem-
ber. Only high-strength bolted connec-
tions of the friction type will be
considered in this chapter.
When detailing individual members,
the shop detailer should bear in mind
that each individual member must be
joined to other members. The place or
location of one member's attachment
shape or plate along with the means of
fastening is called the connection
plate, or the connection for short.
BOLTED CONNECTIONS
Bolts are placed on standard lines or
gages. The distance between bolt holes
is referred to as the bolt pitch, or pitch.
The gage and the pitch for a multiple
bolt connection detail must be suffi-
ciently large to allow for the wrench
clearance when a bolt adjacent to a
previously installed bolt or adjacent to
another part of the shape being joined
is tightened.. Figure 24-3-1 shows the
recommended gages to be used for
structural shapes.
STRUCTURAL DRAFTING 481
 — Gi LEG SIZE {INCHES' Of prime importance is consistency
f— , 3 of detail: for example, gages on an
2 j 2 '5 '

GAGE
1
r- 5 individual member should not vary
G2 G, >: 8 8
throughout the length of the member.
t G2
If a connection plate, made from a
G3 G3 2
I
sheared piece of steel, as shown in Fig.
24-3-2, is to have three holes across its
1 D
width of 10 in. for Vs-in. bolts, then the
gage could be VA in. with edge dis-
FLANGE WIDTH
tances of l'A in. If the fasteners to be
ifTOlj; FLANGE WIDTH G
3 4 2-8
used are 3/i-in. diameter bolts, then the
flange wioth G -1 1

edge distance of 1 A in. would have to

l

I TO 2 5T05| 3
2§T0H be adjusted. The minimum distance
3T03| 2? 6 TO 7^ 3|
from the center of a bolt hole to any
2^T02§ 3 7j AND UP ^5
3JT0 4 -
!
edge should not be less than that given
4T0-»i 2^T02| :

by Fig. 24-3-3. For the A

3
in. bolt, the
5 TO 5J 2g T03 5 4
EXTRA
2

3§T03§ GAGES
6 TO 7 j J
4 FOR
3§T04| W COLUMNS H
7 jTOS :
1

*^ 3=C
f ^r

W AND '' SHAPES

IA) |- BOLTED CONNECTION
(A) INCH SIZES
Oj BOLTS

— G| h— LEG SIZE (MILLIMETERS) .O

GAGE 200 150 125 100 90 75 65 30 45 35 25
( V 1

G2 G| 115 90 80 65 60 45 35 30 25 22 16 O
1

G3
G2

G3
80

80
60

65
45

50 -©-
T
.

IBI |- BOLTED CONNECTION

Fig. 24-3-2 Establishing gage sizes from

FLANGE WIDTH "

edge distance.
35 TO 40 : FLANGE WIDTH
FLANGE WIDTH G 45 25

60 TO 70 TO 50
40 45 AT AT ROLLED
75 TO 85 K 55 :
BOLT SHEARED OR GAS
DIAMETER EDGE CUT EDGE
90 TO 100 50 55 TO 60 :
:

>• ^ i
100 TO 120 65 TO 70 4C ~
| |
<t
125 TO 145 ; 75 TO 80 -
EXTRA 2 m 3 1 a

150 TO 85 TO 90 GAGES O w
185
FOR K T 2

TO 200
W COLUMNS 3 O
J-. 1
11 £
190 25 95 TO 110 BE
O 2
U
JJ
1 i 1 5

^,JJ £> I
, 3
09
D
1

ll
i 2
2;
r

14 26 20
44" 10

LU
16
20
28
34
22
26
22 38 28
1 - 2
_ 24 42 30
-I
2 _l 27 46 34
W AND M SHAPES
? 30 52 38
36 64 46
(B) METRIC SIZES
Fig. 24-3-3 Minimum edge distance for bolt
Fig. 24-3-1 Recommended gages. holes.

482 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 SOCKETS MIN. CLEAR. BOLT SIZE C D

60LTSIZE A B E F
LIGHT I3JTOI4
1 I-'
WRENCHES
fro, 2
| 21 l£ z

tn
D—
3 2 =
OZ
<->z 3: 2| 1
h 1 HEAVY :TOl| I5JT0I7|
CO —
2
Ij 4 3s '! la 3 WRENCHES
3 l| 4j 3/

16 70 55 28 32 LIGHT
16 TO 24 337 TO 356 54
IMPACT WRENCH 20 80 58 29 34
WRENCHES
24 90 65 33 36 Ei
s HEAVY TO TO 438 64
s~ 30 110 75 38 42
WRENCHES
24 36 375
36 30 85 43 48
Fig. 24-3-4 Minimum erection clearances.

minimum edge distance to the sheared pens, staggered centers are used as To determine the minimum pitch, refer
edge is VA in. Since the plate is 10 in. illustrated in Fig. 24-3-5. to Fig. 24-3-5. Read down the 2 in.
wide and a minimum edge distance of gage column to find where the dimen-
P/8 in. is required, the gage required EXAMPLE Given a flat bar 4Vz in. in
1 fall. If the dimen-
sion 2 3/i6 (2.18) will
would be (10 - 2 x P/s) -=- 2,or3 5/8in. width, which is to have a double line of sion not exact, use the next larger
is
5
If the connection plate had been an /8 in. bolts and a gage of 2 in., calcu- number (2.25). To the extreme left of
angle, the same reasoning as used late the pitch of the bolts. See Fig. the 2.25 value is the pitch required.
above would still pertain to the con- 24-3-6. For this problem, the pitch is 1.
nection detail. Another consideration Solution From Fig. 24-3-4 the clear-
is wrench clearance, which is illus- ance E required for a V% in. bolt is P/32. EXAMPLE 2 Figure 24-3-7 shows a par-
trated in Fig. 24-3-4. The minimum recommended distance tial design drawing similar to Fig.
Occasionally, a gage is too small for between holes is 2£, or 2 3/i6 in., which 24-2-4 except that it includes informa-
both holes to be placed adjacent to one is greater than the gage of 2 in. There- tion concerning the connection. It rep-
another at right angles. When this hap- fore, staggered holes will be required. resents part of a design drawing for a

Pitch Gage (inches)

(in.) 1 l>/4 V/l 1V4 2 2'A V/i 2V4 3 3'/4 VA 33/4 4 4'/4

\fy oc 1.25 1.50 1.75 2 OC 225 2.50 2 75 3.00 325 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25
</2 1.10 1.35 1.60 1.80 205 2.30 2.55 2.80 3.05 330 355 3.80 4.05 4.30
¥> 1.25 1.45 1.70 1.90 2.15 2.35 2.60 2.85 3.10 3.35 3.60 3.85 4.10 4.35

c 1 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 225 2.45 270 2.95 3.15 3.40 3.65 3.90 4.15 4.40
1'A 1.60 1.75 1.95 2 15 2.35 255 2.80 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.70 3.95 4.20 4.45
a. P/2 1.80 1.95 2.10 2.30 250 2.70 2.90 3. 1 335 3.60 3.80 4.05 4,30 4.50

% 1V4 2.05 2.15 2.30 2.50 2.65 2.85 305 3.25 350 3.70 390 4.15 4.40 4.60

R 2 2.25 2.35 2.50 265 285 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.05 425 4.50 4.70
D 2 'A 2.45 2.55 2.70 2.85 3.00 3.20 3.35 355 3.75 3.95 4.15 4.40 460 4.85
u 2'/2 2.70 2.80 2.90 3.05 3.20 3.35 3.55 370 3.90 4.10 4.30 4.50 4.75 4.95

3 23A 2.95 3.00 3.15 3.25 3.40 355 3.70 390 4.10 4.25 4.45 4.65 4.85 5.10

3 3.15 3.25 3.35 3.50 360 375 3.90 4.10 4.25 4.40 4.60 4.80 5.00 5.20
3'/. 3.40 3.50 3.60 3.70 3.80 3.95 4.10 4.25 4.40 4.60 4.80 5.00 5.20 5.35
3/2 3.65 3.70 3.80 3.90 4.05 4 15 4.30 445 4.60 4.80 4.95 5.15 5.35 5.50
3% 3.90 395 4.05 4.15 4.25 4.40 4.50 465 4.80 5.00 5.15 5.30 5.50 5.70

Pitch Gage (millimeters)

(mm) 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 no
5 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
10 27 32 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 81 86 91 96 100 105 1 10
15 29 34 38 43 47 52 57 62 67 72 76 81 86 91 96 101 106 111
20 32 36 40 45 49 54 59 63 68 73 78 82 87 92 97 102 107 112
25 35 39 43 47 51 56 60 65 70 74 79 84 89 93 98 103 108 113

30 39 42 46 50 54 58 63 67 72 76 81 85 90 95 100 104 109 114

E 35 43 46 49 53 57 61 65 69 74 78 83 87 92 97 101 106 111 115
fc_
40 47 50 53 57 60 64 68 72 76 81 85 89 94 98 103 108 112 117
45 51 54 57 60 64 67 71 75 79 83 87 92 96 101 105 110 114 119
-—
50 56 58 61 64 67 71 74 78 82 86 90 94 99 103 107 112 116 121
S 55 60 63 65 68 71 74 78 81 85 89 93 97 101 105 110 114 119 123
60 65 67 69 72 75 78 81 85 88 92 96 100 104 108 112 117 121 125
65 70 72 74 76 79 82 85 88 92 96 99 103 107 111 115 119 123 128
70 74 76 78 81 83 86 89 92 96 99 103 106 110 1 14 118 122 126 130
75 79 81 83 85 87 90 93 96 99 103 106 110 113 117 121 125 129 133

80 84 85 87 89 92 94 97 100 103 106 110 113 117 120 124 128 132 136
85 89 90 92 94 96 99 101 104 107 110 113 117 120 124 127 13! 135 139
Fig. 24-3-5 90 93 95 97 98 101 103 105 108 111 114 117 120 124 127 131 135 138 142
Staggered
fasteners.

STRUCTURAL DRAFTING 483

 are required to support this load. The
\E HOW --|

length of the connecting angles shown

for four bolts is W/i in. for which the
minimum and maximum depth recom-
mendations for beams are 15 and 24 in.
Since these limits bracket the actual
depth of the W18 beam, it is accept-
able.
Referring to the column Web Fram-
ing Leg with Welds, we find the max-
imum weld capacity of a four-bolt per
vertical line angle with a /i6 in. weld is
3

140 kips for a 3 in. angle width and 134

kips for a 2Vi in. angle width. Both are
Fig. 24-3-8 Indicating beam reactions on
drawings.
greater than the 60 kips allowable load
and thus are acceptable. Therefore,
Fig. 24-3-6 Gage and pitch layout.
the smaller angle width of 2Vi in. is
tion pertaining to this beam was cov- selected for the welded framing leg.
steel-framed floor system as viewed
ered in Unit 24-2. Therefore, this unit Practice dictates that the angle thick-
from above. With its notes, it contains
will deal only with the connection- ness should be V\t in. greater than the
all the necessary information required

by the shop detailer to detail the W18 angle detail. weld size; hence the minimum
x 60 beam. With the exception of the Solution The problem is to select a required angle thickness is 3/w + V\6 =
connection-angle detail, all informa- connection for the W18 beam which Va in.

will be able to carry the reaction val- Another check for the minimum
ues. Often the reaction values are cal- thickness of the angle and the mini-

© culated and given on the design

drawing, as shown in Fig. 24-3-8. If the
reaction values are not given, the con-
+ nection is designed to support half the
b total uniform load capacity. In this
t>
WI8 X 60 case, since the reaction values are not
given and there is no indication on the
design drawing to indicate other than a
uniformly distributed load when the
building is complete, we consult Fig.
24-3-9, which states the maximum
mum permissible web thickness for the
beam must be made. In order to deter-
mine the minimum angle thickness,
refer to the section Minimum Required
Web Thickness and Angles Where
Bolted of Fig. 24-3-10. Since connec-
tion angles are assumed to be material
which has a yield strength of 44 000 psi
(see note 1 located below the table),
the minimum web and angle thickness
specified is .34 in. Note 2 states that if

allowable load for a W18 x 60 beam the connection is used for outstanding
having a span of 25'-6 lies between the angle legs, then the value as specified
ELEVATION TOP OF STEEL SHOWN THUS (+98'-6)
can be halved. Therefore, the mini-
126 and 118 kip values (approximately
NOTES:
ALL HOLES 0jf
120 kips). One kip equals 1000 lb. Con- mum thickness of angle that can be
ALL CONNECTIONS TO DEVELOP FULL LENGTH nection design load is one-half of this used is .17 in. This is less than the Va in.
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED value or 60 kips. required for welding; and as such, the
BOLTS: | A325
CONNECTING ANGLES WELDED TO BEAM, Referring to Fig. 24-3-10 under the Va in. angle thickness is selected. The
BOLTED TO SUPPORT column Bolt Capacity in Kips Friction web thickness of the W18 x 60 beam is
7
Fig. 24-3-7 Partial design drawing. Connections, we find that four bolts /i6 in. which is acceptable.

BEAM LOAD TABLE IN KIPS (1000 lb) BEAM LOAD TABLE IN KILONEWTONS (kN)

W18 Beam Wl 2 Beam W460 Beam W3 10 Beam

Span Pounds per Foot Pounds per Foot Mass per Meter Mass per Meter
Span
Feet 60 55 50 45 40 36 31 27 mm 89 82 74 67 60 52 45 39
16 177 160 145 130 81 74 63 55 5000 864 782 708 631 395 361 308 266
18 161 146 132 118 74 67 57 50 5500 785 711 644 573 359 328 280 242
20 148 134 121 108 67 62 53 46 6000 720 652 590 526 329 301 257 222
22 136 123 112 100 62 57 49 42 6500 665 601 545 485 304 278 237 205
24 126 115 104 92 58 53 45 39 7000 617 559 506 451 282 258 220 190
26 118 106 97 86 54 50 42 36 7500 576 521 472 420 263 241 205 177
28 1 1 1 100 91 81 51 46 40 34 8000 540 489 443 394 247 226 193 166
30 104 94 85 76 48 44 37 32 8500 508 460 417 371 232 212 181 157

Fig. 24-3-9 Beam load tables.

484 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 —w—
G|
-ir
r-± 3.00in.
3.00 m. (80mm)
(80mm) 3.00 in.
L 3.00 in. (80mm)
I (50mm)

i_t W—
kw-4 |—

WEB FRAMING LEGS OUTSTANDING LEGS

EITHER LEG WITH WEB FRAMING LEG WITH EITHER LEG WITH WEB FRAMING LEG WITH
7
/a-A325 BOLTS E70XX WELDS M20-A325 BOLTS E-480XX WELDS
Bolt Weld Capacity In Kips Bolt Weld Capacity in Kilonewtons
Capacity Capacity in
Fillet Size. D |ln.| Fillet Size. (mm)
Angle Bolts In Kips Angle Kilonewtons
Width Per Friction Bearing Angle Width Per Friction Angle
and Vertical Connec- Connec- Width and Vertical Connec- Bearing Width
Gage Line tions tions ¥l* 1/4 5/16 |ln.| Gage line tions Connections 4 6 8 10 mm
2 38 47 81 108 135 2 169 210 324 484 646 808
3 54 70 114 152 190 3 240 314 452 678 904 1130
W = 3-/2 4 72 94 140 186 232 W = 90 4 320 419 551 826 1100 1380
G = 5VS 5 90 118 165 220 275 W = 3 G = 130 5 400 524 649 974 1300 1620 W= 75
G, = 2V> 6 108 142 190 252 315 G, = 60 6 480 629 748 1120 1500 1870
7 126 165 214 286 358 7 560 734 846 1270 1690 2120
8 144 188 240 320 400 8 640 839 945 1420 1890 2360
2 38 47 81 108 135 2 169 210 330 484 646 808
3 54 70 108 144 180 3 240 314 428 641 855 1070
W = 3 4 72 94 134 178 222 W = 75 4 320 419 526 789 1050 1320
G = 4 5 90 118 158 210 262 W = 2</2 G = 100 5 400 524 625 937 1250 1560 W= 65
g, = iv« 6 108 142 182 243 304 G, = 45 6 480 629 723 1080 1450 1810
7 126 165 207 276 345 7 560 734 822 1230 1640 2050
8 144 188 232 310 388 8 640 839 920 1380 1840 2300
Minimum Required Web Thickness and Angles Where Bolted (lnches| Minimum Required Web Thickness and Angles Where Bolted
34 .27 |
.40 |
54 |
68 FY = 300 B i 6.9 | 10.3 | 13.8 |
172

OUTSTANDING LEG WITH LENGTH OF CONNECTING OUTSTANDING LEG WITH LENGTH OF CONNECTING
E70XX WELDS ANGLES E480XX WELDS ANGLES
Weld Capacity In Kips Bolts Suggested Angle Weld Capacity In Kilonewtons Bolts Suggested Angle
Angle Per Beam Depth Length Angle Per Beam Depth Lenth
Fillet Size D |ln.) Fillet Size D (mm)
Width Limits (In.) L Width Vertical Limits |mm] L
(In.) Vit 1/4 Vl6 Line Mln. Max. (ln.| mm 4 6 8 10 Line Mln Max (mm)
24 32 40 2 8-12 516 98 141 186 232 2 200 - 300 150
56 74 92 3 12 - 18 8W 228 329 438 546 3 300 - 450 230
94 126 158 4 15 - 24 II 1/2 384 563 755 952 4 380 - 600 310
W = 3'/2 125 167 208 5 18 - 30 141/2 W = 90 490 743 1000 1263 5 450 - 800 390
150 200 250 6 22 - 36 17'/2 589 891 1200 1510 6 550 - 900 470
176 234 292 7 24 - 42 20'/> 687 1040 1400 1760 7 600-1100 550
200 268 335 8 28 - 48 23 '/2 786 1190 1590 2000 8 700 - 1200 630
30 40 50 2 8-12 5 '/> 125 180 238 297 2 200 - 300 150
68 91 114 3 12 - 18 8 '/2 276 405 544 681 3 300 - 450 230
98 130 162 4 15-24 II '/2 386 581 789 1004 4 380 - 600 310
W = 3 125 167 208 5 18 - 32 141/2 W = 75 490 743 1000 1263 5 450 - 800 390
150 200 250 6 22 - 36 171/2 589 891 1200 1510 6 550 - 900 470
176 234 292 7 24-44 20'/! 687 1040 1400 1760 7 600 - 1100 550
200 268 335 8 28 - 48 23 '/2 786 1190 1590 2000 8 700 - 1 200 630
Minimum Re quired Web or Flange Thickness*

FY = 300 3 4 | 5 2 [ 6.9 | 8 6 To be used for educational purposes only

"Thickness listed is for supporting matenal with beams

attached to one side only If beans are attached to both
sides of the supporting material, use double the minimum
thickness listed

Note I Connection angles are assumed to be material with minimum yieW strength of 44000 psi (300 Mpa).
Note 2. For connections with outstanding legs bolted, the minimum required thickness of the supporting matenal is one-
harf the thickness listed above, if beams are attached to one side of the supporting matenal

Fig. 24-3-10 Double angle beam connections for .75 in. |M20)-A3. Dolts and E 480xx fillet welds.

STRUCTURAL DRAFTING 485

 The ne\t slop is to select the gage these limits bracket the actual depth of
(distancebetween boll centers on the the W12 beam, it is acceptable.

two outstanding legs). The recom- Referring to the column Web Fram-
mended gage and angle widths shown ing Leg with Welds in Fig. 24-3-10, we
or 4 and 3, respec- find the maximum weld capacity of a

tively Both the 3

!

> and 3-in. wide three bolt per vertical line with a Vie in.
angles are acceptable as far as load weld is 114 kips for a 3-in. angle width.
capacities are concerned. The clear- Practice dictates that the angle thick-
ances show n in Fig. 24-3-11 would be a ness should be '/i6 in. greater than the
factor in deciding to use either the 3- or weld size; hence the minimum
3' :-in. w ide outstanding length. In this required angle thickness is 3/i6 + V\b =
problem, the 3-in. leg was chosen V* in.

because the use of universal joints is Another check for the minimum
now a widelj accepted practice. thickness of the angle and the mini-
ALL HOLES yg I N .

mum permissible web thickness for the

The G, distance of VA in. show n in BOLTS: 0-|lN.-ASTM A325
Fig. 24-3-1 should be used instead of CONNECTING ANGLES WELDED TO BEAM, beam must be made. In order to deter-
the actual l 2%2-in. dimension shown in BOLTED TO SUPPORT. mine the minimum angle thickness,
Fig. 24-3-11. since a hole clearance of Fig. 24-3-12 Partial design drawing. refer to the section Minimum Required
Me in.
lv
( in. diameter holes) is used
i».
Web Thickness and Angles Where
for the ?
/4 bolts. Bolted. Since connection angles are
assumed to be material which has a
EXAMPLE 3 With reference to Fig. ity in Kips Friction Connections, we yield strength of 44 000 lb/in. 2 (see
24-3-12 select a connection for the W12 find that three bolts are required to note 1 located below the table), the
beam which will be able to carry the support this load. The length of the minimum web and angle thickness
reaction value shown. connecting angles shown for three specified is .34 in. Note 2 states that if

Solution The reaction value for the bolts is which the minimum
8V2 in., for the connection used for outstanding
is

connection is 50 kips. Referring to Fig.
24-3-10 under the column Bolt Capac-
and maximum depth recommenda-
tions for beams are l'-O and l'-6. Since
angle legs, then the value specified can
be halved. Therefore the minimum
angle that can be used is .34 -r 2 = .17
in. This is less than the A in. required
X

for welding, and as such, the Va in.

angle thickness is selected. The web
thickness of the W12 x 36 beam is .31
in., which is acceptable.
The next step is to select the gage
(distance between bolt centers on the
two outstanding legs). The recom-
mended gage and angle widths shown
are 5 /: and V/i in., or 4 and 3 in.,
1

respectively. Both the 3 /:- and the 3-1

in. wide angle legs are acceptable as

far as load capacities are concerned.
Therefore the 3-in. wide leg is chosen.
The Gj distance of VA in. shown in
ERECTION CLEARANCE USING UNIVERSAL JOINT Fig. 24-3-1 and the gage distance of 4
in. are selected since a hole clearance
-TWO- L3X2J Xj of '/i6 in. ( 13/i6-in. diameter holes) is
used for the 3/i-in. diameter bolts.
FOR WRENCH SIZES AND CLEARANCES SEE FIG. 28-3-4
Some fabricators on occasion
choose to use high-strength bolts in the
shop to fasten the connection angles to
the web of the beam. The combination
of the shop and field high-strength
bolts in one connection presents other
problems, such as additional clearance
requirements for entering and tighten-
ing the high-strength bolts. These
requirements mean larger connection
"NOTE: INSUFFICIENT EDGE Dl = FIG. 24 3-3
angles, larger gages, and larger spread.
ERECTION CLEARANCE WITHOUT USING UNIVERSAL JOINT
An alternate solution to the increased
Fig. 24-3-11 How erection clearances control gage and connecting angle sizes. sizes would be to stagger the bolt cen-

486 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 2L-3 X 2jX ix mended gage for this leg size PA
in.
is
UNIT 24-4
4. The open holes, for connection to Sectioning
the web of the supporting beam, are
spaced 4 in. apart, center to center.
In many instances the cross-hatching
This distance is called the spread. It
x G, + web thickness of the of sections may be omitted on shop
is 2
W18 x 60 beam = 2 x P/4 + 7/i 6 = drawings because its use is not needed
3
15
/i6. Use 4 in.
to make the drawing any clearer. In
structural detailing, the practice is to
5. The pitch, or distance, bolt to bolt,
along any gage line is 3 in. omit all lines on a drawing that serve
Fig. 24-3-13 Detail of north end of W18 x 60 6. The end distance is equal to half of no significant purpose.
beam shown in Fig. 24-2-7.
the remainder left after subtracting
the sum of all bolt spaces from the BOTTOM VIEWS
length of the angles. In the case of
In shop detail drawings, the bottom
the four-row connection, it equals
ters of the outstanding leg. In order not flange or face of a shape is never
(ll'/2 3 - 3 - 3) -e- 2 = l3A in.
-
to overcomplicate the subject at this viewed from below; that is, the drafter
7. Instead of noting them on each indi-
point, all connections discussed in this does not stand below the object and
vidual detail, as in Fig. 24-3-14, it is
unit will be angles shop-welded to the look squarely up at it. Rather, she or
usual practice to call for the sizes of
web and field-bolted to the supporting he cuts a section such as A-A in Fig.
bolts and holes once on each sheet
members. 24-4-1 and views the bottom flange by
in a general note. Such a note cov-
The location of the connection looking squarely down on the top side
ers all the bolts and holes on the
angles on the horizontal beam must of it.
sheet, with exceptions noted on the
now be set. Practice is to set the dis-
individual details where they occur.
tance from the uppermost bolt hole to
the top of the beam equal to the pitch
Source Material
distance. From the detailer's sketch,
shown
• American Institute of Steel t J,
in Fig. 24-3-13, the complete
Construction
detail drawing of the beam (Fig.
24-3-14) is made. Note the following
points.

1 The end connection angles are com-

ASSIGNMENTS SECTION A-A - USED AS BOTTOM VIEW IN
STRUCTURAL DRAFTING. CUTTING PLANE LINE
pletely detailed. Following their See Assignments 4 and 5 for Unit 24-3 AND CROSSHATCHING NOT DRAWN
own individual shop standards, on page 497.
many shops could do this with less
information. Review for Assignment
2. The web leg is 2'/: in. Unit 24-1 Drawing
Structural
3. The outstanding leg of each connec- Practices NORMAL BOTTOM VIEW - NOT USED
tion angle is 3 in. and the recom- Unit 24-2 Assembly Clearances IN STRUCTURAL DRAFTING
Fig. 24-4-1 Bottom view in structural
drafting.

25-6
The reason for substituting a bottom
25'-5f section for a bottom view is to obtain a
better correlation between it and the
top view. For example, it will be more
4-
cinV , 2„ apparent whether a connection on one
side of the top flange and a connection
98-6
NORTH jz: on the bottom flange are on the same
side or opposite sides of the member.
Note that the cross-hatching is omit-
-2a ted, as previously mentioned.

ELIMINATION OF TOP AND

I-WI8X60X 25'-4| BOTTOM VIEWS
r 2L-3 X 2^ X^ X ll^a < | > A325 BOLTS (Jf) HOLES
examples, we found
In the preceding
TWO BEAMS- BI5 and bottom view were not
that a top
Fig. 24-3-14 Complete beam detail of W18 x 60 from partial design drawing. Fig. 24-3-7. necessary because no holes were

STRUCTURAL DRAFTING 487

 /<H R )

-4
rJy
t
nlool
CN -

CUT TOP BOTT.FLGS.

T"
TO 7^WIDE
3- si8
97' -»
I

—8 „ _
(A) RIGHT-HAND PIECE

f— GA

I
= 5

- WI8 X 105 X l9'-6

^T
0-J!
HOLES

ONE-BEAM- B90 OR
Fig. 24-4-3 Elimination of top and bottom
views.

-4
RIGHT- AND LEFT-HAND
9

: t.
DETAILS
ONE BEAM- 890 b 8
8
Fig. 24-4-2 Detail of beam. Very frequently detail material, such
OR
as connection anglesand other fittings.
is used under conditions where one
piece must be the exact opposite of • <H L )

required in either flange. Let us now another. In such cases, both the RH |l
Q
o-
look at an example where there are
holes in the bottom and top flanges
(right-hand) and the (left-hand)
pieces are fabricated from the same
LH B
- =8
and see if top and bottom views are sketch; that is, from the detail of the
RH
i

required. ;
5 l=
piece.
!

8 'l
— -*-
• »- i

In Fig. 24-4-2. the detailing shows a The piece which is made like the
top view and a picture of the bpttom LEFT DETAIL PIECES
drawing is identified by use of the let- (B)

flange, taken as a section looking ter R, added to its assembly mark, Fig. 24-4-4 Right and left detail^pieces.

down. Note that the dash line in the thus: HR for right. The one which is
top view and the solid lines in the bot- made opposite-hand has the letter L
tom view that depict the web are not added assembly mark, thus: H L
to its 24-3-14;can be turned upside down and
drawn continuously across the length for left. No assembly mark should be used on the right side of the beam web.
of the member. Neither is the cut sec- marked R unless there is an exact When rights and lefts of whole ship-
tion of the web blackened or cross- opposite, or LH detail piece, needed ping pieces are encountered, it is the
hatched. Yet, the drawings is com- on the sheet, because all detail pieces practice in some fabricating shops to
plete, readable, and understandable to are assumed to be RH as shown on the note the RH piece AS and SHOWN
the fabricator. Remember, use as few drawing unless otherwise noted. Like- the LH
piece OPPOSITE in HAND
lines as possible to describe the object wise, no assembly mark should be the required list. If two shipping pieces
and the shop fabrication. marked L unless there is also a corre- are involved, one the exact opposite of
Detailing in Fig. 24-4-3 eliminates sponding right. the other, the required listing under the
these views. In order to eliminate If a drawing is placed in front of a single sketch might read (Fig. 24-4-5):
views of the top and bottom flanges, mirror, the required RH detail would
instructions (including necessary di- appear as represented by the drawing, ONE BEAM A150 R — AS SHOWN
mensions) for cutting these flanges at and the required LH detail would ONE BEAM A150 L — OPPOSITE HAND
the right-hand end have been covered appear as reflected in the mirror.
in the note on the web view concern- If two shipping pieces are involved,
An understanding of rights and lefts,
ing cutting. The transverse distance if not innate, may be gotten from Fig.
one practically but not exactly the
between gage lines on the flanges is 24-4-4. Note that the two views of H L
opposite of the other, and they are
covered by the note GA = 5. In both detailed on the same sketch, the
to the right of the drawing, even in
cases, symmetry about the center line required listing under the single sketch
their rotated position, still picture a
would read:
of the beam web is understood. These fitting which opposite hand to H R
is .

notes must be explicit in showing what Pieces which in their assembled ONE BEAM A150— AS SHOWN AND
fabrication, if any. is required on each nay appear to be and
rights NOTED
flange. Both methods of presentation really are alike. Thus the ONE BEAM B150— OPPOSITE HAND
are common practice. m the left side of Fig. AND NOTED

488 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 '-) the example for the framed beam. Unit
24-3, the beam reactions must first be
n ^¥
K~- established. If they are not shown on
the drawing, they must be calculated.

ONECHANNEL-A 150" -AS SHOWN ONECHANNEL-A 150 AS SHOWN AND NOTED To do this, the length of the beam must
ONE do A 150 L - OPP HAND ONE- do B 150 - OPP HAND AND NOTED be known. This is found by subtracting
half of the nominal depth of each of the
(A) IF THESE ARE THE DRAWINGS THE SHOP GETS TO WORK FROM two supporting columns from the cen-
ter-to-center distance. The nominal
~ ::
depth of the columns can be found
from Fig. 24-1-8. In this example, the
-*i length of the span is 16'-0- 10= 15'-2

A 150" AS FABRICATED A 150 AS FABRICATED

in. From the beam
load tables in Fig.
24-3-9 for a W
12 x 27 beam having a
span of 16 ft, the total allowable uni-
form load is 55 kips. The reaction at

^+
a the end of the beam at each support is
half the total load, or 27.5 kips. The
A 150 L AS FABRICATED B 150 AS FABRICATED length of the seated beam is now deter-
mined. From Fig. 24-1-8, the flange
(B) THIS IS WHAT THE SHOP FURNISHES (MAKES) width b for the W
12 x 27 beam is 6V2
Fig. 24-4-5 Right and left shipping pieces. in. Note that Fig. 24-5-2 gives tables

for a supporting angle length L of 6 and

In the case of exact RH and LH
shipping pieces, the shipping mark
may be the same except for the R and
L notation in the case of combined but
;
different RH and LH shipping pieces,
8 in. Since the flange width of 6'/2 in. is
greater than the L (length) of 6 in., the
UNIT 24-5 angle length of L = 8 in. for the seat
angle will have to be used. The seat
Seated Beam angle thickness must now be calcu-
lated. The web thickness of the W12 x
Connections 27 beam is A in. Refer to Fig. 24-5-2,
X

the shipping marks are always differ-

under the heading Outstanding Leg
ent. In both cases only the RH or AS
SHOWN shipping piece is detailed. It
Seated beam connections are used to Capacity —
kips, L = 8 in., and Beam
connect beams to column webs or Web Thickness = A in. Read across
X

is the shop which does the reversing,
according to the notation OPPOSITE
HAND, in the required list.
Before an attempt is made to detail
pieces involving combinations of
rights and lefts, Fig. 24-4-5 should be
studied. If differences between pieces
are minor, it is common practice to
combine the details of two or more
different pieces in a single sketch, by
noting the differences, for example, in
the case of the two web holes required
in B150 but not required
Source Material
• American Institute of Steel
Construction
ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 6 and 7 for Unit 24-4
flanges. There are two types: un- until a leg capacity of 21Vi kips or
stiffened seat connections- and stiff- greater is found. This occurs at the kip
ened seat connections. Only the value of 34 where the angle thickness
unstiffened (angles) will be covered in is V» in.
this unit. It is preferable for most fabricators
The following procedure is sug- to shop-weld the seat angle to the col-
gested for choosing a seated beam con- umn, since the seat will provide sup-
nection. Assume that a W12 x 27 port for the beam during erection.
beam be placed between two col-
is to Under the heading Vertical Leg Weld
As
umns, as shown in Fig. 24-5-1. in Capacity, the angle thickness as pre-
viously determined was found to be 5A
in.; therefore the maximum permissi-
in A150.
ble weld size would be V% - Vi6, or 9/i6
in. (use Yi in.). From the table a Vi in.
fillet weld will resist a force of 31 kips
when a 4 x 4 angle size is used. To the
right of this column, the angle thick-
ness range of V» to 5A in. is specified.
The required angle thickness range as
determined previously was 5A in.;

on page 497. therefore the dimensions for the seat

angle are 4 x 4 x 5A x 8. The next step
Review for Assignments in the process is to make a sketch of

Unit 24-1 Structural Steel — Plain the detail, as shown in Fig. 24-5-3.

Material The beam be fastened to the seat

will
Unit 24-2 Beams and Assembly angles using 0-Vs —
A325 bolts. In order
Clearances to determine their gage, reference
Unit 24-3 Standard Connections Fig. 24-5-1 Partial design drawing. should be made to Fig. 24-3-1. The

STRUCTURAL DRAFTING 489

 0-«J, t— — j h- 2D recommended gage for a W12 x 27
SEATED BEAM CONNECTIONS* which has a flange width of 6 /: in. is VA
1

METRIC BOLTS E480XX FILLET WELDS** in. Also from Fig. 24-3-3. the minimum
U.S. Customary (in.)
distance for an 07s in. bolt to a rolled
Outstanding Leg Capacity— Kips
edge is 7s in. Therefore, the end dis-
[Based on 3v> or 4 in. Outstanding Leg)
8 in.
tance (center of bolt to end of beam) is
Angle Length L - 6 In.
4 - 7/s - Vj = 2 5/8 Use 2'/2 in.
.

Angle
Thickness Vi H % V* ¥* % 1 A top, or cap. angle is used to pro-
3' 35 39 22 23 35 39 44 vide lateral support at the top of the
20 25
Web - 2- 30 3S 43 46 27 34 42 47 53 beam. Since it is not required to resist
Thickness
29 36 44 52 57 32 40 5B 57 64 any calculated moment at the end of
M 26 33 43 54 61 65 38 -7 59 66 74 the beam, this angle can be relatively
Vu
h
—
—
37
42
46
52
56
66
66
74
73
32
4'

46
51

57
64
72
71

B1
80
90
U small. For the top angle 4 x 4 x A x 4
is recommended. In this example, no
l

»--50 IN. |l2mml

— 48 59 74 33 93 52 65 31 9 !
101 .:• ".-_
limitations have been specified by the
CLEARANCE

•To De used for educational purposes only.

design drawing as to the top angles,
••Welding resistances have been soft converted. and therefore the angle can be placed
as shown. However, if the top clear-
U.S. Customary (in.) ance had been critical, the angle could
have been placed in the optional posi-
Leg Weld Capacity (Kips)
H
; . i
Vertical .

IV
Fillet Weld Size D-E70XX Elettrodes
":= ANGLE t I; tion on either side of the web, which-
tAngle Angle
V* Vh % Vu 'A % Sizes Thickness ever provided the most convenient
OPTIONAL
LOCATION position for field erection purposes.
22 26 28 29 31 32 4 x 4 %-% AT TOP ANGLE'

34 40 43 45 48 50 5x3'/2 %-y< The top angleis welded to the col-

43 51 54 56 59 64 6x4 Vb-'/b
umn and bolted to the beam with two
72 88 95 99 103 113 8x4 '/>-! 07s bolts having a gage of 2V» in. as
recommended in Fig. 24-3-1. The
f Long vertical leg.
length of the beam required is equal to
the center-to-center distance of the
columns minus half of each of the col-
umn depths (or the column depth if
SEATED BEAM CONNECTIONS* both columns are the same) minus the
Vi-'m. nominal clearance at each end.
METRIC BOLTS E480XX FILLET WELDS**
Metric (mm| For this example, the length of the
Outstanding Leg Capacity (klM) beam is 16-0 - 10 - 2(Yi) or 15'-1 in.
(Based on 90 or 100 mm Outstanding Leg) The detail drawing of the W12 beam is
Angle Length L = 50 mm 1 L = 200 mm shown in Fig. 24-5-4.
Angle
Thickness
J
10 13 16 20 #25 ##30 j 10 13 16 20 #25 ##30
3ea~ 4 68.3 90.8 113 143 181 219
Web 5 70.4 93.7 117 148 187 226 79.4 105 131 166 209 252
Thickness 6 81.0 107 133 168 212 256 90.7 120 149 188 236 284
7 89.1 118 147 186 234 282 99.5 132 164 206 260 313
8 96.9 129 160 203 255 308 108 143 178 224 283 341 Source Material
9 106 141 175 221 278 335 118 156 194 244 307 370 1. American Institute of Steel
10 116 153 190 239 301 362 128 169 209 263 331 398 Construction
11 166 205 258 323 389 182 226 283 355 427
12 179 221 277 346 416 196 244 303 379 455

*To be used for educational purposes only. #100 mm Outstanding Leg Only.
•Welding resistances have been soft converted. ##125 mm Outstanding Leg Only.
ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 8 and 9 for Unit 24-5
on page 497.
i

Metric mm)
Vertical Leg Weld Capacity (kN)
Fillet Weld Size D- -E480XX Electrodes . An„,„ Angle Review Assignment
|

for
6 8 10 12 14 16 sizes Thickness
- -r Unit 24-1 Structural Steel— Plain
5 123 130 133 142 I 100 x 100 6:16
151 178 189 199 208 221 125 x 90 820 Material
192 228 241 255 266 282 150 x 100 825 Unit 24-2 Beams and Assembly
323 393 423 450 503 200 x 125 1030
|

Clearances
•Long vertical leg.
Unit 24-4 Elimination of Top and
Fig. 24-5-2 Seated beam connections. Bottom Views

490 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 person laying out the beam details who
first marks the locations of the center
WIOX 49 COLUMN line for a group of holes on the beam
and then centers a template at this
point, by which he or she can center-
punch the location of all the holes
required in the group.
gMINISEE FIG. 28-3-2)
-5CLEARANCE In the detail drawing (Fig. 24-6-1),
WI2 X 27 BEAM the fabricator preferred to dimension
to the center line of the channel webs
rather than the backs of the channels.
4 X4X|X8 (SEAT ANGLE] The direction in which the flanges of
these channels are to be placed has
been indicated on the drawing by the
0l BOLTS
channel symbol, which has been
drawn with the web parallel to the line
showing the members. When they are
installed, the flanges of these channels
must point in the same direction as the
Fig. 24-5-3 Sketch of seated beam connection for partial design drawing — Fig. 24-5-1. flanges of the symbol.

ONE- BEAM- A3
ONE -do B3

^GA = 3j
-WI2 X 27 X 15' -I 0I6HOLES

Fig. 24-5-4 Detail drawing of W12 beam

shown in Fig. 24-5-1.

2L s -3X2±x|x l'~5i(aJ
2LS (a)

I
- W24 X 94 X 20' -10-

Fig. 24-6-1 Dimensioning to center line of channel webs.

UNIT 24-6
Dimensioning 21' -0

ONE -BEAM -A3 3 3

ONE -do - B3 8 20' -\\\
8
I.
Dimensioning techniques were dis- A3 6' -II3 I3'-I|i 20' -111 \

cussedin Units 24-1 and 24-3. The fol- 6'-5| 13- -Hi 20'-l|i
B3 <j
LC <tC
lowing are additional items for
?* •4
consideration. -4
Note that longitudinal dimensions 4 ^/ 1 CUT
+99' -4
CUT. 6 5
along the beams shown in Fig. 24-6-1
are given to the center line of the t
*' 1f *
1 WEST
1_
Hi Ir
\
n 1 i

groups of open holes required for the i i

"|
1

4J
i
- L_
field connections. This practice can n 1

serve two useful purposes. First, it

i
|

i
& L_
simplifies the dimensioning work for i
»j f
1

«4 J
the drafter and later for the checker,
since the distances to the center lines
of the beams are the dimensions given
2L S -3 X 2^ X
JL
,%
lb
x r -s^W
Z.
. <t «- \\
\
2L? ^
on the design drawing and the erection V -W24X 94X20' -10 \

plan. Second, it is a convenience to the Fig. 24-6-2 Dimensioning from the left end of beam.

STRUCTURAL DRAFTING 491

 R , C |
D .1. E
_| ,
F ,i, G . 1. H_

^JUlS^^fi
=« — BEAM W42

^t &=^ m BEAM X42

PARTS NOT

SAME AS FOR W42

SHOWN

ONE- BEAM -A3 PARTS NOT SHOWN

ONE -do - B3
SAME AS FOR W42
Fig. 24-6-3 Dimensioning to the backs of channels.

BEAM Y42
Fig. 24-6-4 Partial view detailing.

In some shops, however,
to locating groups of holes, as noted
above, a method of using extension,
stub, or running dimensions is
employed. This consists of specifying
the overall dimension from the left end
in addition nels, the dimensions would be as Instead of completely redetailing
shown Dimensions and
in Fig. 24-6-3. each piece or trying to combine too
notes not shown are the same as in Fig. many dissimilar details on one sketch
24-6-1. except that no note is required by the use of notes indicating to which
to identify the dimension reference piece each detail applies, completely
lines locating the groups of open holes detail one piece first. Then, for the

of the beam to the center line of each
group of holes, as shown in Fig. 24-6-2.
Note that this practice was also fol-
lowed in Fig. 24-6-1, to the first line of
holes, but here it was done
ence only. In either case, it lessens the
shop layout person's work by eliminat-
ing the need for calculations and there-
fore reduces the possibility of an error
being made, especially in a shop that
uses automated punching equipment.
If the fabricator had preferred to
in the beam web. The dimensions 2Vs second piece, only the difference
in. and Tk in. to each side of the refer- between it and the first piece needs to
ence lines provide the clue that these be detailed. This partial view is supple-
open holes are to receive the connec- mented by a note stating that the parts
for refer- tion for a channel. It would be under- not THE SAME or possibly
shown are
stood that the back of the channel will OPPOSITE HAND TO the first piece
be located toward the smaller of these detailed. Figure 24-6-4 represents this
two dimensions. practice.
Another time-saving device com-
monly used in the drafting room when Billsof Materials
pieces are alike, except for some end From the bills of materials, or material
or intermediate detail, is partial view the workers in the yard, where the
bills,

dimension to the backs of the chan- detailing. structural shapes are stocked, cut the

DATE TO P.A. 26

FG'D BY DATE
BILL NO. M 3a
CHK'D BY DATE

INSP. AT MILLS LUMP SUM POUND PRICE COST PLUS

DESCRIPTION SPECN'S KIND OF MATL CHK'D BY DATE

BILL OF STRUCTURAL MATERIAL SHIPPING LIST

ITEM NO. ASSEMBLY DESCR SIZE LENGTH PBILL REFERENCE EST. WEIGHT NO. DESCRIPTION MARK ACTUAL SHIPPING
MARK P. A. WEIGHT
NO. PIECES PCS. RECORD
1 2 w W24 X 36 20-10 1 5 J 1 BEAM A3 783

2 8 8 L 3X2^X| r-si 6 6 1 BEAM B3 783

3 r
. 6 6

Fig. 24-6-5 Sample bill of material.

492 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

material to length, cut the number of Calculation of Weights steel bolts and common structural
pieces shown on the bills, and send the (Masses) steel shapes are found in the
material into the fabricating shop. After the billing operation, it may be Appendix.
From the bills of materials the shipping necessary to figure the weight or mass
department tallies the number of of the material on the bill of materials. Source Material
pieces to be shipped. Therefore, it is The weight (mass) of the materials is • American Institute of Steel
extremely important that the drafter very important in that the basis of pay- Construction
include in the bill of materials all the ment for the fabricated steel may be a
material that is shown on the drawing. price per pound (kilogram). For that
reason, the weight (mass) must be
ASSIGNMENTS
The sample shop bill of materials
(Fig. 24-6-5) shows a typical form that accurate to the nearest pound (kilo- See Assignments 10 and 11 for Unit
is used in billing the material on shop gram). Also, the shop uses the calcu- 24-6 on page 498.
drawings. The first items are the billing lated weight (mass) of a member to
for beam A3 and beam B3 that are avoid overloading the cranes or other Review for Assignment
shown detailed in Fig. 24-6-1. Note transporting machinery. The shipping Unit 24-1 Structural Steel— Plain
that beam A3 is different from B3 only department uses the calculated Material
in the longitudinal spacing of holes in weights (masses) for making up loads Unit 24-2 Beams and Assembly
the web, and that the material for the and as a basis of payment for shipping. Clearances
two beams is identical. When the The erection department is interested Unit 24-3 Standard Connections
material is the same, the billing of inweights (masses) of members to plan Unit 24-4 Elimination of Top and
members on a shop drawing is grouped erection procedure and equipment. Bottom Views
to avoid repetition. The weights (masses) of structural Unit 24-5 Seated Beam Connections

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 24

Assignment for Unit 24-1,
Structural Drafting of the beams shown in either Fig. 24- 1 -A, structural steel handbooks for sizes of
1 . Calculate the limits, tolerances, and sizes or Fig. 24- 1 -B. Refer to Fig. 24- -8 1 and structural steel shapes.

w SHAPES C SHAPES

DIM NOMINAL TOLERANCE MINIMUM MAXIMUM DIM NOMINAL TOLERANCE MINIMUM MAXIMUM

A * A +

B *
B *

C *
C *

S SHAPES W24 % 94 J=-

JOINED W SHAPES/

DIM NOMINAL TOLERANCE MINIMUM MAXIMUM DIM TOLERANCE MINIMUM MAXIMUM

A * A *

* B *
B

C * C

Fig. 24-1-A Beam sizes.

STRUCTURAL DRAFTING 493

 S5I0 X 141
S SHAPES (A)
W460 X 89 W SHAPES (A)

18 500 (C) (B) 10 300 (C) (B)

LIMITS DIM NOMINAL TOLERANCE MINIMUM MAXIMUM

DIM NOMINAL TOLERANCE MINIMUM MAXIMUM
A •
A

B *
B

C
C

C250 X 30 (A) W6I0 X 140 J=- J*- W6I0 X 140

C SHAPES
'JOINED W SHAPES

8 000 (C) (B) 7 600 (A) 10 600 (B)

(C)

DIM NOMINAL TOLERANCE MINIMUM MAXIMUM

DIM TOLERANCE MINIMUM MAXIMUM
A *

A
B *

B *
C *

Fig. 24-1 -B Beam sizes.

Assignments for Unit 24-2, On a B- or A3-size sheet, make sketches

Detail
Beams of the connections of both ends of the Connection Drawing
2. On make detail
a B- or A3-size sheet, center beam shown on either Fig. 24-2- Figure Sketches of Beam
drawings of the two connections shown C or Fig. 24-2-D. After the beam connec-
24-2-C 1:8 1.4
on either 24-2-A or Fig. 24-2-B.
Fig. tion sketches have been completed and
24-2-D 1:10 1:5
and structural steel
Refer to Fig. 24- -8 1 approved by your instructor, prepare a
manuals. The connection angles are working drawing of the beam from the
welded to the beam web, and the out- sketches and information shown on the
standing angles are bolted to the con- drawing. The bolt holes on the out-
necting beam. The bolts and holes need standing legs of the connection angles
not be shown on these drawings. Scale need not be shown. Use a conventional
is 1 :8 (U.S. Customary) or 1:10 (metric). break to shorten the length of the beam.

q_ W24 x 76 £ W24 x 94

jz: 3-

ELEVATION: ALL STEEL FLUSH. TOP AT ELEV. +33' -6

CONNECTIONS TWO ANGLES 4X3X^X8 ON DETAIL OF CONNECTION CONNECTIONS TWO ANGLES 4 X 3 X i ON SI2 X 50 DETAIL OF CONNECTION
BOTH SIDES OF WI6 BEAMS SCALE 8 I

SCALE
TWO ANGLES 4 X 3 X g ON SI8 X 70 I8 :

Fig. 24-2-A Beam and connection details.

494 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 C_ W6I0XII3

»I5 640

LEVATION: ALL STEEL FLUSH, TOP AT ELEV. -10 200

DNNECTIONS TWO ANGLES 100 x 75 x 6 x 200 ON BOTH DETAIL OF CONNECTION CONNECTIONS TWO ANGLES 100 x 75 x 6 x 140 ON S3I0 X 74 BEAM DETAIL OF CONNECTION
SIDES OF W4I0 X 114 BEAM SCALE 10
I TWO ANGLES 100 x 75 x 6 x 250 ON S460 X 104 BEAM SCALE 10 I

Fig. 24-2-B Beam and connection details.

<£ W 24 x 76
WI8
(^ i

CONNECTION ANGLES WEST END BEAM CONNECTION EAST END BEAM CONNECTION DETAIL OF SI2 x 50 BEAM
USE 2L -3 J
X 3 X | X 12 ^ BOTH ENDS SCALE 8 SCALE SCALE 4
I :
8 I : I

Fig. 24-2-C Beam and connection details.

//6I0 X 113 C_ W460 X 177

<l

WEST END BEAM CONNECTION EAST END BEAM CONNECTION

CONNECTION ANGLES DETAIL OF S380 X 74 BEAM
SCALE 10 SCALE 10
I

USE 2L-90 x 75 x 8 x 310-BOTH ENDS I

SCALE I 5

Fig. 24-2-D Beam and connection details.

STRUCTURAL DRAFTING 495

 q WI8 x 96 C_ W24 . 94
C_ WI8 x 96

\ 40 k

NORTH END CONNECTION SOUTH END CONNECTION WEST END CONNECTION

ELEVATION TOP OF STEEL TO BE 1-50 -3"l UNLESS OTHERWISE SHOWN OF BEAM E3 OF BEAM K3 OF BEAM N3
NOTES ALL HOLES 81 BOLTS 75
SCALE SCALE 8
I 8 I
SCALE 8I

Fig. 24-3-A Beam connections.

A2 W6I0 X 140
C_ W460 X 149

o>
3 3
„ S380 X 74 X X S380 X 74 X
G3 460 460 D3 a
X
o 5 3 s
T S380 X 74 S380 X 74
200 kN
£ M3
\
\
K3
!75kN
/
/S3I0 X
+15 164
74 ^y
in

x
2
< u E3 o ID
120 kN „
O) U) CD
X
B2 W6I0 x 140

1 500 2150

3 650 3 650 3 650

NORTH END CONNECTION SOUTH END CONNECTION WEST END CONNECTION

ELEVATIONS TOP OF STEEL TO BE 1+15 240) UNLESS OTHERWISE SHOWN OF BEAM E3 OF BEAM K3 OF BEAM N3
NOTES ALL HOLES 22 BOLTS M20 - A325 SCALE I : 10 SCALE I : 10 SCALE 10 I :

Fig. 24-3-B Beam connections.

A B c D E i

V i
w X
.1.
Y Z

lJI I
s
? —-ii ,
\k N -

, ,
~~ + .

L iJ
USING THE BEAM SHOWN ABOVE AND DIMENSIONS A-E CALCULATE DIMENSIONS L TO Z
AND COMPLETE THE CHART SHOWN BELOW.
USING THE BEAM SHOWN ABOVE AND DIMENSIONS A-E CALCULATE DIMENSIONS L TO Z
AND COMPLETE THE CHART SHOWN BELOW. PROBLEM

DIM 7 8 9
PROBLEM
A 3-6 j 4- -6 7' -7
DIM 1 2 3 4 5 6
B 6-ii 9-0i 13- -7 i
A 5-6| 3-6 4-,i 2-»| 8- -0 4 -10

4--7L -mi 8-9i C 8-4| 14- -2 I 19' "6

|
B 3-6§ 3 "5
I
3- 3' -Mi
D II' -4 18-3 27' -6 1
C T-l\ 3- -6 j 4' -1 4- -10 7-9| 2" -II
J-

13' -II 22' -6 31- -9

D 6-IOi 3 -6i
3- -91 5-91 8-7i 3' -II
E
|

E 3 -10
j
3-6 j 4' -II 5 6" -9 I 7-8 4 -II
L

V
L

X
W
X
Y

Y
Z

z
Fig. 24-3-C Calculation of dimensions.

496 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

Assignments for Unit 24-3, Assignments for Unit 24-4, Assignments for Unit 24-5,
Standard Connections Sectioning Seated Beam Connections
4. On a B- or A3-size sheet, sketch the 6. On a B- or A3-size sheet, prepare one 8. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make detail
following beam connections from the drawing for the two beams shown in sketches of the seated beam connec-
design sketch shown in Fig. 24-3-A or Fig. 24-4-A (W16 x 40) or 24-4-B tions at both ends of beam A shown in
Fig. 24-3-B. (W410 x 60). Eliminate the top and Fig. 24-5-A or 24-5-B. Scale is 1 :8 or 1:10.
(A) North end connection of beam E3. bottom views. Scale is :8 or 1:10. 1 9. On a B- or A3-size sheet,make a one-
(B) South end connection of beam K3. 7. On a B- or A3-size sheet, make a com- view detail drawing of beam A in assign-
(C) West end connection of beam N3. plete working drawing of beams B8 R , ment 8. Scale is to suit.

Scale is 1:8 or 1:10. B8 L and C6 R shown on Fig. 24-4-A or

, ,

5. On a B- or A3-size sheet, calculate the 24-4-B. Scale is 1:8 or 1:10.

missing dimensions from the charts and

drawings shown in Fig. 24-3-C

20 '-

4-0 5- -0 1 6-0 g
5' -0

3.00 3.00 .81 HOLES 3.00 3.00 22 HOLES

B8 R ,-i
T
i, WI6 x 40 t

\ 70k \ 40k 65k / SI

I o
CM 4
TOP Si
FLG CM o
BOTT
U 1 FLG
CO

O 5
cr L 1

to
B8 L u
/ -ii- „ (
WI6 x 40 /

4
La. JlHO _ES Ga 1.7 5 -0 22 HOLES Ga 45
BOTT FLG OF CI2 x 20.7 BOTT FLG OF C3I0 X 31
NOTES
NOTES
• TOP OF ALL MEMBERS AT ELEVATION +21 400
• TOP OF ALL MEMBERS AT ELEVATION +70-3
EXCEPT WHERE NOTED EXCEPT WHERE NOTED
• SHOP CONNECTIONS WELDED • SHOP CONNECTIONS WELDED
• FIELD CONNECTIONS 75-A325 FRICTION • FIELD CONNECTIONS M20-A325 FRICTION
TYPE BOLTS TYPE BOLTS
• USE DOUBLE-ANGLE BEAM CONNECTIONS • USE DOUBLE-ANGLE BEAM CONNECTIONS

Fig. 24-4-A One-view beam drawing. Fig. 24-4-B One-view beam drawing.

4=

J6 k

40 k ,

TOP OF BEAM AT ELEV. +27'-3

75 A325 FRICTION BOLTS

DETAIL OF WEST END OF WI8 x 60 BEAM CONNECTION

SCALE 8

rfi
I

Fig. 24-5-A Sketches of seated connection.

DETAIL OF EAST END OF WI8 x 60 BEAM CONNECTION
SCALE I 8:

lu
STRUCTURAL DRAFTING 497
 4-" r «t
i
<>
-i
x
W360x no o W3I0 x 74

C
ifi

% 71 kN 5 71 kN \^
/W460 a 89
\7I kN \7l_kN /"-
'i
^-BEAM "A"
a 180 kN /
x o

W250

1 500 1 500

4500

PLAN
TOP OF BEAMS AT ELEV. +28 000
20 A325 FRICTION BOLTS

DETAIL OF WEST END OF W460 X 89 BEAM CONNECTION

SCALE 110

DETAIL OF EAST END OF W460 X 89 BEAM CONNECTION

SCALE 10 I ; LU
Fig. 24-5-B Sketches of seated connections.

tion angles are welded to the beams,

Assignments for Unit 24-6, and the outstanding angles are bolted to
Dimensioning the connecting beams. Make sketches of
10. On a B- or A3-size sheet, prepare a com- the beam connections. Scale is 1 :8 or
plete detail drawing of beams D3, E3, 1:10.
G3. K3, M3. N3, C3, and F3 shown on 11 On a B- or A3-size sheet, prepare a bill of
Fig. 24-6-A or 24-6-B. Dimension to the materials and a shipping list for the
center line of channel webs. The connec- beams in assignment ]0.

A2 W6I0 X 140

o
to
l75kN \300kN l75kN
CN
5 ?
SI2x 50 / S3I0 X 74
X *
/ S3I0 X 74 x
G3 D3 o G3 D3 a
o o X 1
200 kN
o in o 1 s
SI2x 50 m
CO
S3I0 X 74 S 200 kN / S3I0 X 74
S 12x50 1 S
K.3 M3 \ K3
34
M3
o ./-im v 7J +l5164
40 K
m
CM
\ l75kN
Z !20kN
27 K " n E3 o
o
S200x
n
s <
62
(J

W6I0 X
en F3
/ m

.5-0 . 7-0
N
300 /
kN/
140
1 500 2150

3 650 3 650 3 650

ELEVATION: TOP OF STEEL TO BE (+50-3 UNLESS OTHERWISE

I SHOWN ELEVATIONS: TOP OF STEEL TO BE + 15240) UNLESS OTHERWISE ( SHOWN
NOTES: ALL HOLES .81 BOLTS 75-A325 NOTES: ALL HOLES 22 BOLTS M20 - A325
MAKE A FULLY DIMENSIONED DETAIL DRAWING OF
s^O^C
MAKE A FULLY DIMENSIONED DETAIL DRAWING OF
BEAM C3 SHOWN ON THE FLOOR PLAN ABOVE BEAM C3 SHOWN ON THE FLOOR PLAN ABOVE.

Fig. 24-6-A Detail drawings. Fig. 24-6-B Detail drawings.

498 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

CHAPTER 25
Electrical and
Electronics
Drawings

UNIT 25-1 PICTORIAL DRAWINGS ings (plan, isometric, oblique, and

perspective) may be used, the method
Pictorial Drawings Pictorial drawings, as the name which best illustrates the subject being
implies, are drawings of pictures of recommended. Additional information
parts or components, showing how such as notes, color coding, and
Mechanical drafters and technicians they are electrically and mechanically arrows are added whenever the clarity
can no longer be isolated from electri- connected. See Fig. 25-1-1. They are of the drawing can be improved. The
cal and electronics drawings. With the
prepared mainly for the use of persons addition of shading and screens usu-
steady increase in automation and who are not trained in reading techni- allymakes the drawing more realistic
electronics equipment, they are now and easier to read.
cal drawings, and as such, the parts
required to either produce or under- drawn should be as realistic as possi- Examples of pictorial drawings used
stand electrical and electronics draw- ble. Photographs as well as line draw- by assembly workers of electrical
ings.
In addition to the standard detail and
assembly drawings used to manufac-
ture and assemble electrical compo-
nents, electrical diagrams are also
used to show how to connect the wires
and to explain how the circuits
operate.
Although there are many types of
electricaland electronics drawings and
diagrams, only the most widely used
will be covered in this chapter. These
are

1. Pictorial drawings
2. Connection diagrams
3. Elementary (schematic) diagrams
4. Printed circuit (PC) drawings
5. Block and logic diagrams

Although electrical drawings for res-

identialand commercial buildings are BATTERY-

also widely used, the authors feel that

STARTER MOTOR RELAY
this type of drafting should be dealt
with in architectural texts. Fig. 25-1-1 Pictorial drawing of a charging system. [Ford Motor Company)

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DRAWINGS 499

 TV RECEIVER
5-FT 300 S! CABLE

Fig. 25-1-2 Pictorial drawings. (Heath Companyl

INSET

B equipment and by companies supply-

ing assembly instructions for do-it-
yourself kits are

ASSIGNMENTS
shown in Fig. 25-1-2.

USING SCREENS, ARROWS, AND NOTES See Assignments 1 and 2 for Unit 25-1
(D)
on page 514.

500 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 BOW
UNIT 25-2 LIGHT
-GRAY/RED-
Connection
Diagrams
In this era of mass production of elec-
I
BLACK .

tronics equipment by nontechnical

<jj

L-ORANGE/WHITE— i

personnel and with the publication of

an increased number of repair manuals INSTRUMENT PANEL
and building kits for the do-it-yourself NAVIGATIONAL (REAR VIEW)
AND GRAY/RED
enthusiast, a connection diagram is ANCHOR
LIGHT
required to show the proper electrical SWITCH SPEEDOMETER
connections. This connection dia- ORANGE/

gram, formerly known as a wiring dia-

gram, simply shows the external con-
O *
nections of the various components in -J <
to -i

the electrical system. The internal con-

nections of the components are usually
omitted to avoid confusion.
As electrical and electronic symbols
would be meaningless to the persons
connecting the components, the com-
ponents are represented pictorially COURTESY COURTESY
and the connection points are shown LIGHT LIGHT
L-BLUE— L-BLUE-I
clearly. However, symbols may be BLACK 1 '
Rl AfK
used in diagrams specifically intended
for professional assemblers or re-
pairers. Connection diagrams may or
ma> not be drawn to scale, but the in-
dividual parts are placed in their rela- FUEL FILL
tive positions and are drawn with DECK PLATE FUSE
1

(TOP VIEW) 1 HOLDER

either solid or broken lines. (REAR VIEW)

The connecting wires are drawn as

straight horizontal or vertical solid
lines, except when several lines are
joined at one connection or the line
will interfere with a component. In
these instances the lines may be angled
to improve the clarity of the con-
nection.
FUEL TANK BATTERY
In order to reduce assembly and
repair time and lessen the chance of STERN
LIGHT
error when there are many connecting
wires, color coding is often used. Each Fig. 25-2-1 Point-to-point connection diagram of a boat's electrical system.

wire is covered with a different color

of insulation, and the color name is point connection diagram. See Fig.
placed beside or on the wire on the 25-2-1.
drawing. Alternately a color code list- Often when there are several wires
ing the color of insulation and its desig- close together, as in a conduit, or held
nation may be placed on the drawing: together by a harness, one thick line,
the color designation appears at each called a highway, is used instead of the
terminal, both on the drawing and the several separate lines. When clarity
actual part. required to show the direction a wire
When the position of the wire is not takes when it enters the highway, an
a factor, the lines representing the arc or a 45° line is used to indicate the
wires are spaced to provide a clear and direction of travel. Several highways
well-balanced layout. The ends of the may be desirable on a drawing because
wires terminate at components. This of electrical, physical, or otherfactors.
type of drawing is known as a point-to- This type of drawing is called a high-
way-type connection diagram. See
Fig. 25-2-2.
To minimize the cost of an electrical
assembly, many of the wires arejoined
together prior to the final assembly.
Each wire is cut to the required length,
is positioned on a board or jig and taped
together to form a wiring harness. See
Fig. 25-2-3. The length of each wire
extending beyond the harness, its
breakout point, and its color must be
known. A pictorial drawing showing a
wiring harness installation is shown in
Fig. 25-2-4.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DRAWINGS 501

 HEAT
TIMER /- SELECTOR SWITCH
MOTOR/ *~
N
B~ViTJ
,1
DIAL pk A TIMER '

LAMP i—=* __R-Wi

_W|J
•
Bl
IW *M|

R wf ~W|P]Y
"1
f5^ CONSOLE
* ; , CABINET
12*
' 3 H
J 4 u
5 6,cONNECTOR
"JU 1

COLOR
BLACK
SYMBOL
B.B-I
1
WHITE W.W-I.W-2
RED R.R-I
GREEN G (GROUND) I <o)R ^>W^B
YELLOW Y \LIMITER INTERIOR |BU a>
BLUE BU T/THERMOSTAT LAMP
I

BROWN BR ^-R
PURPLE HEATER
ORANGE
P
OR ® -nj-LrLrLruTj- -4) DOOR SWITCH
WHITE-BLACK W-B
BLACK-WHITE 3-;.
RED-WHITE R-W

«-* TERMINAL CONTROL /BU^-X-W-lZZI

» CONNECTOR BLACK WIRING AS VIEWED FROM REAR SERVICE POSITION THERMOSTAT W\VaW-2
SPLICE
SPLICE CONNECTOR WHITE
I

V
V P? K OR
C£>
MOTOR \
Fig. 25-2-2 Highway-type connection diagram of a clothes dryer. (Frigidaire)

COLOR ON WIRE INSULATION

WIRE
EXTENSION PAST HARNESS
>f-ARROWLESS
COLOR SYMBOL LENGTH ^/ DIMENSIONING
s 5
YELLOW Y 91
I

—r
PURPLE P 80

BROWN BR 65

BLACK HARNESS-
B 91
.OR-6
"BR-6
ORANGE O 54

WHITE W 59
BREAKOUT POINT-
STRIP ENDS OF WIRE FOR .50

NOTE: DIMENSIONS SHOWN ARE IN INCHES

Fig. 25-2-3 Harness drawing.

502 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 TO ENGINE WIRING
HARNESS CONNECTORS.
TO WINDSHIELD STARTER MOTOR RELAY.
WIPER MOTOR WIRING HARNESS HEAD LAMP. COOLING FAN
14290

Fig. 25-2-4 Dash panel-to-engine wiring harness. |General Motors Corp.)

R B
240V
ASSIGNMENTS
120V 120V
-n_n_rLn_ru-
See Assignments 3 to 6 for Unit 25-2 on HEATER LIMITER
page 515. THERMOSTAT

/"~N INTERIOR
mj LAMP
UNIT 25-3
Elementary
(Schematic) Diagrams DOOR SWITCH

Elementary diagrams, formerly called

DIAL
schematic diagrams, show the connec- CONTROL LAMP
tion and function of a circuit in its sim-
plest form, using graphical symbols.
They do not show the physical rela- U T
R
R
\
W
S W-2
THERMOSTA
\ Lo—— * • i
SI
I •
@1 ' «

tionship of the components, nor

mechanical connections as shown in juuuuuJ /

Fig. 25-2-2. The components may be N /

repositioned or inverted to simplify MOTOR
and improve the clarity of the drawing.
The elementary diagram for the
clothes dryer (Fig. 25-2-2) is shown in
Fig. 25-3-1. The elementary diagram is
the drawing most frequently used by
engineers, designers, and electronics
personnel as they are interested NOTE- JUNCTION TERMINAL "W" AND TIMER MOTER NOT SHOWN WITH TIMER. WIRES
mostly in the design and function of "B"AND "B-l" FROM TERMINAL CONNECTOR (NOT SHOWN) ARE SHOWN AS ONE WIRE
the equipment. See Fig. 25-3-2 for an ON ELEMENTARY DIAGRAM AS THEY ARE CONNECTED IN PARALLEL.
example. Fig. 25-3-1 Elementary diagram for the clothes dryer shown in Fig. 25-2-2. (Frigidaire)

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DRAWINGS 503

Fig. 25-3-2 Partial elementary diagram of a receiver.

The connecting wires are drawn as horizontal and the symbol tapers
straight horizontal or vertical lines. towards the bottom of the drawing.
Unlike connection diagrams, wire con- The following points should be used
nections may be made at any conve- as a guide when laying out an elemen-
nient location on the diagram and the tary diagram:
connection normally is shown as a
small solid circle. This symbol must be 1. Keep lines to a minimum.
clearly visible, otherwise a connection 2. Avoid crossovers where possible.
could be mistaken for a crossover. 3. Components may be rotated.
Ground symbols are used frequently 4. Maintain a uniform symbol size.
on schematic diagrams instead of wire 5. Parts may be repositioned for
connections. The ground symbol is clarity.
usually drawn so that the lines are 6. Allow space for component
EMITTER
COLLECTOR
identification.
The diagram does not need to be to
scale.
Alignment of similar components
where feasible makes a more pleas-
ing and professional looking
drawing.
The use of a grid background on the
drawing eliminates the scaling of
many components and their spac-
ing, thus saving many hours of draft-
ing time.

OUTPUT
€>
O
OUTPUT

1
® P"
-o
JTPUT

1
6
INPUT INPUT
Q O

J
(A) COMMON BASE (B) COMMON EMITTER (C) COMMON COLLECTOR

NOTE: IF PNP TRANSISTORS ARE USED, THE BATTERY POLARITIES SHOULD BE REVERSED
Fig. 25-3-3 Three methods of connecting bipolar NPN transistors as amplifiers.

504 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 SYMBOLS FOR ELEMENTARY Integrated Circuit Symbols
5 4 DIAGRAMS One of the most recent far-reaching
developments in the field of elec-
6 3 Standard symbols, as shown in the tronics is that of microelectronics,
NE 555
TIMER Appendix, have been prepared for use which started with the transistor and
7 2
on electrical and electronics diagrams. has evolved at a very rapid pace.
3 1
Although symbols may be drawn to The symbols already discussed for
any convenient size, electrical and elementary diagrams have been for
electronic symbol templates are avail- individual parts. Integrated circuits
able for use by drafters and engineers. (IC), which may contain hundreds of
In conjunction with the graphical sym-
components, may be used as a part of a
bol replaceable parts should be ref-
all
larger circuit.
erenced with a number and letter to Two symbols are presently used to
14 13 12 II 10 9 indicate the value and type of the com-
depict an integrated circuit, the rectan-
4001 ponent represented by the symbol. gle and the equilateral triangle, as
QUAD NOR GATE The reference may be placed above, shown in Fig. 25-3-4. The triangle sym-
below, or on either side of the part. bol used for ICs that are amplifiers.
is
Numbering of the components (Rl. The symbol normally lists the manu-
R2, R3, etc.) is normally done from left facturer's number and function, and
RECTANGLE to right.
(A) the pin numbers. Simplification of the
overall diagram normally dictates the
Transistor and Other orientation of the rectangle.
Semiconductors Although there are no particular
The symbols for transistors and other sizes or rules governing thedrawing of
more commonly used semiconductors these symbols, generally they should
are shown in the Appendix. The line be of one size, with a maximum of two
with an arrow pointing in the direction sizes for one drawing.
of the conventional current flow is the A typical elementary diagram incor-
emitter, and the line without the arrow porating ICs is shown in Fig. 25-3-5.
is the collector. The emitter and collec-
tor lines touch the base line.
(B) TRIANGLE
Three common methods of connect-
ASSIGNMENTS
Fig. 25-3-4 Symbols for integrated circuits ing bipolar NPN transistors as ampli- See Assignments 7 through 11 for Unit
(composite assemblies).
fiers are shown in Fig. 25-3-3. 25-3 on page 516.

9 V

POTENTIOMETER
R9 Rio
Rl ioo k a10KU
500 n
R4 > R5 R6
rW/\ -
POTENTIOMETER '

4.7 Kil >4.7 Kil '4.7 K(!

. C4
500 fiF , 10 V

R2
8
ICI
VOLTAGE
8038
3 —C2 4.7

1(
m F 10 V

SPECIAL
CALIBRATING
POTENTIOMETER
CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR
10 II 3
2
— It
t
M- F
" °
^n J2
[J
Hl-Z
EARPHON
J4
MSPEAKER
'fl

R7

82 Kfi
R3 0.022
^F
CI

f
10 Kil
—— -n J3
RECORDER
NC R8 [J
390 12

Fig. 25-3-5 Elementary diagram for a melody organ.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DRAWINGS 505

 are thin ribbons of copper or other computer graphics and photoplotting.
UNIT 25 4 metals placed on a plastic board and Both techniques have proved efficient
Printed Circuits shaped to replace the wire leads for- and cost-effective.
merly used to connect the compo- A printed circuit is made from an
nents. See Figs. 25-4-1 and 25-4-2. drawn layout. The layout is
accurately
Practically all mass-produced elec- There are three types of PC boards: normally drawn on a grid to an
tronics equipment (radios, televisions, single-sided, with conductors on one enlarged scale. A polyester Film is laid
etc.) are now using printed circuits side; double-sided, with conductors on over the layout and traced using pres-
sure sensitive symbols and tapes. The
-

(PC) instead of wire-lead connections.
The advantages are many: uniformity
in production, elimination of prac-
tically all assembly wiring errors,
reduced cost, and miniaturization are a
few Printed circuits or etched circuits
.
both sides; and multilayer, with con-
ductors at different levels. Only single-
sided PC boards will be discussed in
this unit.
For many applications, manual PC
is still used but the trend is to
drafting
symbols center the pads and holes in
the layout, and are connected with
tapes to form circuit paths. The draw-
ing is then photographically reduced to
the desired size onto a copper foil

Fig. 25-4-1 Printed circuit used on the amplifier shown in Fig. 25-4-2. (General ElectricJ

LEFT VOLUME RIGHT VOLUME

I
^~f ^B"^
TR3 TR5 A4 Asi N TR6
^ ' ^ TO SECONDARY WINDING OF CHANGER MOTOR
(A) ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS WITH PRINTED CIRCUIT.
Fig. 25-4-2 Electrical drawings for a simple amplifier. |General Electric)

506 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 (B) ELEMENTARY DIAGRAM

LEFT CHANNEL

RIGHT CHANNEL

UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED:

All voltagesshown are typical voltages with no signal applied to circuit-
Measurements shown may deviate ilO%.
A denotes ampere connectors.
-

Resistors shown are 1/2 W K = 1000 Ml! = 000 000 I

Capacitor values less than I in microfarad, capacitor values

more than I in mmf.
Arrows on controls indicate clockwise rotation.
DC voltages measured from B-(gnd) with 20 000 !!/V meter.
Line voltage maintained at 120 VAC. 60 cycles.
-^ Bowties indicate cut points on conductor pattern . . REFER T0 SERVICE MANUAL COVERING SPECIFIC MODEL.
for circuit testing with ohmmeter. .. .REFEB to RECORD CHANGER SERVICE MANUAL

Fig. 25-4-2 (Cont'd) Electrical drawings for a simple amplifier. (General Electric)

which is bonded
to a plastic board. See
Fig. 25-4-3.Holes are drilled at various
locations in the board and leads from
the components are inserted into cir-
cular conductors, called lands, located

r on the
all
circuit side of the board. When
of the components to be connected
are in position, the circuit side of the
board is then dipped into molten sol-
der, making all of the soldered connec-

5 k!! tions at one time.

(A) ELEMENTARY (SCHEMATIC) DIAGRAM

CONDUCTOR

uJ i>
X ± 'vi '

. i.i I ^ ij

r I

J
I
l

L OJCLT
Z-KEY
CONNECTOR TAB
(B) TOP VIEW OF PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (C) BOTTOM VIEW OF PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD
(COMPONENT SIDE) (CIRCUIT SIDE)
Fig. 25-4-3 Layout of a simple printed circuit board.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DRAWINGS 507

 JUMPER
/— JUIV1

/
1 ( /
' T l

4q>
A
1
t'
A ,
u
,

t' CI r CI 7 CI

ZA Rl

^T i X
Rl

A
tf;
Rl

(A) RUNNING CONDUCTOR (B) REPOSITIONING COMPONENT (C) USING AN INSULATED

AROUND COMPONENT JUMPER (CROSSOVER)
BATTERY

THE PROBLEM:
BOTTOM VIEW TOP VIEW
TO JOIN TOP OF CI
TO BASE (TERMINAL B)
OF TRANSISTOR (TRI)

Fig. 25-4-4 Crossovers.

EMITTER COLLECTOR

Crossovers should be avoided TAB TAB

whenever possible. Running the con-
(A) METAL - CASE TYPE
ductor around the land of the interfer-
ing component, or repositioning the
component, as shown in Figs. 25-4-4A
CASE COLLECTOR
and B. should be given priority over
crossovers. If however, a crossover
cannot be avoided when laying out a
printed circuit, then a jumper wire
(crossover) may be used, as shown in
Fig. 25-4-4C. The jumper wire is BOTTOM VIEW TOP VIEW BOTTOM VIEW TOP VIEW
treated in the same manner as other (B) METAL - CASE TYPE (C) PLASTIC CASE TYPE
components and placed on the compo- Fig. 25-4-5 Location of leads on typical transistors.
nent side of the circuit board.

Printed Circuit Drawings The following

2. Study the elementary drawing. spaced a minimum of .04 in. (1 mm)
points are a guide for the preparation
What components have common apart.
of printed circuit drawings:
connections? 7. The minimum center-to-center
1. Establish the physical size of each 3. Prepare a rough trial wiring dia- spacing for component holes
component and where the leads are gram, with the components drawn should be component length plus
located. Physical requirements may to scale, prior to starting the final .12 in. (3 mm).
determine the position of the com- diagram. Remember, in most cases, 8. Long leads, such as grounds, are
ponents on the board. Transistor an enlarged scale is desirable. best located near or around the edge
leads are shown in reverse when 4. Locate the parts on the wiring of the circuit board.
viewed from the component side of layout avoiding crossovers where 9. When using integrated circuits on
the circuit board. In most cases the possible. PC boards, such as shown in Fig.
emitter (E) is close to the tab on the 5. All holes should be located at an 25-4-8, a socket base to hold the IC
transistor. Fig. 25-4-5. Check the intersection of the grid lines. Stan- is connected to the circuit board.
orientation of components such as dard grid spacing should be used. Typical base sizes are shown in Fig.
diodes and capacitors, Fig. 25-4-6. 6. Conductors should be kept to a min- 25-4-9.
Some capacitors are reversible, imum length (See Fig. 25-4-7), be at
while others are not. The polarity is least .10 in. (2.5 mm) from the edge
ASSIGNMENTS
shown when the capacitor is not of the circuit board, have a mini- See Assignments 12 through 15 for Unit
reversible. mum width of .04 in. (1 mm), and be 25-4 on page 518.

508 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 /-LANDS
ELEMENTARY PHYSICAL
/ ^-CONDUCTOR
SYMBOL APPEARANCE

")P-

CORRECT INCORRECT

CAPACITOR
/
IDENTIFICATION
SJ
CAPACITORS

CATHODE END

CATHODE

/
DIODE
M

IDENTIFICATION
ANODE

tite CORRECT
Fig. 25-4-7 Joining lands with conductors.
INCORRECT

Fig. 25-4-6 Orientation of capacitors and diodes.

Fig. 25-4-8 A PC board with IC's. (Quadram Corp.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DRAWINGS 509

 -8 TERMINALS The identities of the respective units
are placed inside or adjacent to the
.784- -14 TERMINALS blocks, in abbreviated form where
necessary.
-16 TERMINALS Each block in the diagram repre-
sents a stage or subcircuit within a cir-
cuit. These blocks are usually drawn
as squares, rectangles, or triangles and
are uniform in size, shape, and spac-

oooooooeN
ing, regardless of the physical size they
represent. Certain components such
as antennas, speakers, and micro-
7 6 5 4 phones are shown by means of a sym-
.30 .49
c bol rather than a block. See Fig. 25-5-1.
9 10

o o oo o o
II 12 13 14

oo
15 16 Block diagrams for alternative or
futurecomponents are indicated by a
broken line, the broken line being the
same weight as the lines showing the
Fig. 25-4-9 IC socket bases. solid blocks.

UNIT 25 5
Block and Logic
Diagrams
BLOCK DIAGRAMS
Block diagrams in electrical and elec-
tronics drafting are used to simplify the
understanding of circuits. Their utter (A) DISTINCTIVE SHAPE
simplicity enables you to tell at a
glance the relative position and func- /\ &> ^SYMBOL
IDENTI FICATION
tion of each part of the circuit. Block
diagrams are used by designers in the
early stages of planning a project. You OR D>
0-
should note that a block diagram
shows only the relationship between &
the components, and does not show > -\
the electrical connections. D <
j
A block diagram, as its name sug-
gests, consists of a series of blocks (or (B) RECTANGULAR SHAPES
boxes), connected by straight lines. Fig. 25-5-2 Logic flow diagram.

VANTENNA

RADIO
FREQUENCY DETECTOR
STAGES
LOUDSPEAKER
FIRST The blocks are joined by a single
AUDIO POWER
which indicates the
PHONOQ
FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
OUTPUT
STAGE A line,
from block to block. The
normally shown from left to right and
signal path
signal path is

the connecting line may be lighter or

CRYSTAL
PICK-UP darker than the blocks, depending on
PICK-UP
which is being emphasized. When
NEEDLE arrows are used on the connecting line
to show the signal path, it is referred to
Fig. 25-5-1 Block diagram of a radio-phonograph combination.
as a flow diagram.

510 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

LOGIC DIAGRAMS
A logic diagram is a diagram represent-
elements and their im-
ing the logic
plementations without necessarily R.75
expressing construction or engineer-
ing details. A logic symbol is the
graphic representation of a logic
function.
Computer design has been largely
responsible for the steady growth of
logic functions which can be per-
formed bv basic circuits. See Fig. -I hs
+<.
1.50

25-5-2.

Graphic Symbols EXCLUSIVE OR SYMBOL

AMPLIFIER SYMBOL
The symbols representing logic func- -2 .75-
tions shown in Fig. 25-5-2 are the -.12
0.12
symbols approved by ANSI/Y32.14
(IEEE 91) — Graphic Symbols for
T-gzr £3r
Logic Diagrams. The distinctive sym-
bols shown in Fig. 25-5-3. being easier
to understand, are the symbols more
commonly used. DELAY SYMBOL
V R.38
NEGATION
INDICATOR
SYMBOL
POLARITY
INDICATOR
SYMBOL
DYNAMIC
INDICATOR
SYMBOL
The following guidelines should be Fig. 25-5-4 Recommended symbol proportions for distinctive-shape logic symbols
observed when using graphical sym-
bols on logic diagrams.
facilitate the inclusion of additional Graphic symbols may be drawn to
1. In most cases, the meaning of a information. any proportional size that suits a
symbol is defined by its form. The 2. Logic symbol size should be gov- particular diagram, provided that
size and line thickness does not erned by the space necessary for the selection of size takes into
affect the meaning of a symbol. In internal annotations and the length account the anticipated reduction
some cases, it may be desirable to of the side needed to accommodate or enlargement. Standard propor-
use different sizes of symbols: (a) to input and output lines and pin num- tions for these symbols are shown
emphasize certain aspects, or (b) to bers at an acceptable spacing. in Fig. 25-5-4.

Fig. 25-5-3 Partial layout of shift right, shift

left logic diagram. (Heath Co.)

(»L2 «>L4

S D- 1

CLOCK

SERIAL INPUT
FOR SHIFT

SWI

-H>-L>- =
,MODE CONTROL -•-SERIAL INPUT
FOR SHIFT LEFT
SW2

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DRAWINGS 511

 INPUT LINES

(A) ADDING INPUTS AND OUTPUTS (B) SYMBOL EXTENSION TO ACCOMODATE INPUTS

Al-
A2- Dl -NEGATION INDICATOR SYMBOL
A3-

AI-3-
Al- LOGIC
A2-3- DI-3 MEANS A2- D2 SYMBOL
A3-
A3-3-
Al-
A2-
^)_03 INPUT OUTPUT
A3-
SIDE SIDE

(C) ONE SYMBOL MAY BE USED TO REPRESENT

SEVERAL IDENTICAL LOGIC SYMBOLS (D) NEGATION NDICATOR SYMBOL
I

DYNAMIC NONLOGIC INDICATOR SYMBOL

POLARITY INDICATOR SYMBOL INDICATOR
SYMBOL

LOGIC
LOGIC
SYMBOL SYMBOL *
INPUT
OUTPUT SIDE OUTPUT
SIDE SIDE

(F) ADDING, DYNAMIC

INDICATOR SYMBOL, (G) ADDING NONLOGIC
(E) POLARITY INDICATOR SYMBOL TO INPUT LINE INDICATOR SYMBOL

-EXTENSION INDICATOR SYMBOL INHIBITING - INPUT -OUTPUT DELAY

INDICATOR SYMBOL INDICATOR SYMBOL

LOGIC LOGIC
SYMBOL SYMBOL

INPUT OUTPUT
SIDE SIDE

(H) EXTENDER - CONNECTION (J) INHIBITING - INPUT (K) OUTPUT - DELAY

INDICATOR SYMBOL INDICATOR SYMBOL INDICATOR SYMBOL
Fig. 25-5-5 Adding additional logic symbols to basic symbol.

512 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

4. It is preferred that all text be read- The logic diagram should use a Lines should be drawn horizontally
able from the bottom, that is, right layout which follows the circuit, or vertically except in those cases
side up. signal, or transmission path either where oblique lines aid in the clarity
5. Input and output lines are prefera- from input to output, source to of the digram.
bly placed on opposite sides of the load, or in order of functional Highways can be used to simplify
symbol and should join the outline sequence. logic diagrams where groups of sim-
of the symbol at right angles. Input The layout should be such that the ilar signals are encountered.
lines are normally shown on the left principal flow of information is
side, output lines on the right side. from left to right of the diagram, or
See Fig. 25-5-5. from top to bottom.
Functionally related symbols
ASSIGNMENTS
6. Pin numbers, when used, are shown
outside the graphic symbol. See should be grouped and placed close See Assignments 16 to 18 for Unit 25-5
Fig. 25-5-6. to one another. on page 520.
7. Recommended arrangements of
internal information are shown in
Fig. 25-5-7.

Diagram Preparation The following

guidelines should be observed when
preparing a logic diagram:

1. The parts should be spaced to pro-

vide an even balance between blank LOGIC SYMBOL FUNCTION
spaces and lines.

REFERENCE DESIGNATION

•LOGICELEMENT PHYSICAL (TYPE

DESIGNATION, REFERENCE NUMBER,
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM NUMBER)

-LOCATION OF LOGIC SYMBOL

ON DIAGRAM
2 - DRAWING SHEET NUMBER
C2 - DRAWING ZONE
A - DRAWING SUB-ZONE
STOP-RUN

-WORD FUNCTION. FUNCTION OF

LOGIC ELEMENT IN PARTICULAR
CIRCUIT

EXAMPLE I

(A) DISTINCTIVE SHAPED SYMBOLS

PE a b c d

& TU BINARY COUNTER CARRY

UI7
ABIOE
7330288
H4.2 TD 3E9
BORROW

R Qa Qb Qc Qd

(B) RECTANGULAR SHAPED SYMBOLS EXAMPLE 2

Fig. 25-5-6 Adding pin numbers to basic symbols. Fig. 25-5-7 Recommended arrangement of internal information.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DRAWINGS 513

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 25
-0.06 HOLES SPACED .25 IN. CENTER TO CENTER
Assignments for Unit 25-1, 0.10
Pictorial Drawings
1 Prepare a pictorial (oblique) drawing of
the transformer shown in Fig. 25-1 -A
T i • o • o e o oo
showing the following set of instruc-
tions with reference to the transformer [--.25-*]
leads: 0.38A FUSE

Black lead to extend 6.5 in. beyond side

1
r 0.IO
A of transformer.
.25
Red lead to extend 5.25 in. beyond side
A of transformer. 1
Black-red lead to extend 3.5 in. beyond
side A of transformer.
r*-25H
.25
Black-green lead to extend 5.5 in.
CIRCUIT BOARD (LENGTH AND WIDTH TO SUIT) DO-41
beyond side A of transformer. 4 REQUIRED
.25 in. of insulation to be removed from M 3.00
the end of all leads.
0.90
2. Figure 25-1 -B
gram and the
shows a schematic dia-
components for
electrical
-2.25- 38

J
part of a power On a B- or A3-
supply.
size sheet prepare a pictorial drawing
showing the layout and connection of
-G>
E
the parts. The leads from the compo- •LEADS 1.90
3.00
nents pass through the holes on the cir- CAPACITOR 2000 mF
cuit board and are connected by wires
•Ar
on the back side. The holes, which can
be enlarged to suit, serve as mounting
holes for the bolt-down components. 'I .38
£ 0.25

.75-

2.50- TRANSFORMER CAPACITOR 10 jx F

2.25-

^ TO GROUND
6-32UNC
y-O-JZl
EX
3.25 1 r^rV^"NUTS
2.50

f .38
80

Si? ^J
CIRCUIT BOARD-
TERMINAL CONNECTOR
ICII INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

(A) COMPONENTS
NOTE: LEADS ON COMPONENTS MAY BE BENT TO SUIT

3 BLACK
D BLACK-RED TRANSFORMER
DO-41
V
117 TERMINAL
AC 0+ 15

CAPACITOR
2000 ixF.50 V
I ;
CAPACITOR
10 nF,50V

0,38a
FUSE

Fig. 25-1-A
^
Transformer.
H BLACK-GREEN
3 RED
Fig. 25-1-B Part of a power
(B)

supply.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

514 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 TIMER
Assignments for Unit 25-2, COLOB SYMBOL

Connection Diagrams
Black
WHITE
B
W W-l 2
ELEMEnTaBy DiaCBam
rt-i~ il
TIMER TOP PANEL
3. On a B- or A3-size sheet make YELLOW f f ,

a high- Y

way-type connection diagram of the DOOR LATCH SWITCH BROWN

ORANGE
BR
OR
rfrr-
,H\~PU I timehl
outboard electrical system shown in Fig. PURPLE
GRAY
PU
ft
4.
25-2-1.
On a B- or A3-size sheet make a point-
rr Blue
BLACK-WHITE
GY
BL
8-w wt
••>
RED- WHITE R-W I
OR BR'
TIMER
to-point connection diagram of the
,

GREEN LOWER
( GROUND) G G-l I.J
!

PANEL
clothes dryer shown in Fig. 25-2-2. iiLl
5. On a B- or A3-size sheet make a point-
to-point connection diagram of one of
the appliances shown in Figs. 25-2-A or .V|R|\G AS VIEWED from FRONT SERVICE POSITION
25-2-B.
6. On a B- or A3-size sheet prepare harness
drawings for one of the appliances
MOTOR COMPARTMENT
shown in Figs. 25-2-2, 25-2-A or 25-2-B. HEATER
Use the scale of :4 (U.S. Customary) or
1
rLTLTLn
1 :5 (metric) to measure the cable lengths

and positions, rounding off the measure-

CONTROL BOX
ments to the nearest .50 in. or 10 mm.
Strip the ends of wires for .50 in. (U.S.
Customary) or 5 mm (metric). Use rec-
1
I

I
r^-
I

I
• • •
I
ir
tangular coordinate dimensioning. Scale i i_!_l*J i
_~Iline
MOTOR _ <Cy ITERMII
is half size (1:2). _¥j BtOCK
?R
Lit Tr-w ^^^5w^™
rt r-oT PRESSURE/
PU» ^^
SWITCH V
Bl#_^J

Fig. 25-2-A Connection diagram for dishwasher. (Frigidaire)

TRANSFORMER WIRING AS VIEWED FROM FRONT SERVICE POSITION

Fig. 25-2-B Connection diagram

COLOR SYMBOL
for a wall oven. (Frigidaire) [

RED 1
R Hi
WHITE 1

W W-l
black B B-I B2
Blue BU BU-I 7 14
YELLOW t-.Y-I.Y-2
BROWN BR BR-l
GREEN G
PURPLE P

SPLICE CONNECTOR
SLEEVE CONNECTOR
THERMOSTAT

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DRAWINGS 515

Assignments for Unit 25-3,
Elementary (Schematic)
Diagrams
7. On a B- or A3-size sheet make an ele-
mentary diagram from one of the con-
nection diagrams shown in Fig. 25-2-A
or 25-2-B. For electrical symbols not
shown in the Appendix, use the symbols
shown on the assignment drawings.
8. On a B- or A3-size sheet make an ele- PART
2-V battery 5 741 operational
mentary diagram of one of the circuits 1

amplifier |IC)
27 000-!! resistor
shown in Figs. 25-3-A to 25-3-C. Refer 6 2-V photo diode Light-emitting diode
100 000-!! potentiometer 1000-!! resistor
to the Appendix for symbols. (adjustable contact resistor)

Fig. 25-3-A Low battery indicator.

PART
Phototransistor 6 100 000-!! resistor

2 terminal |NPN-type| 7 100 000-!! resistor

100 000-U resistor 8 555 timer IC
50 000-n variable 9 0.1 -m-F capacitor
resistor (rheostatl 10 01 -m-F capacitor
741 operational amplifier IC © Ground
I-nF capacitor

Fig. 25-3-B Fiber optic receiver.

PART PART
1 l-Mfl potentiometer 12 0. -jjlF Mylar capacitor
1

2 Amplifier 4069 IC 13 100 000-n potentiometer

3 Amplifier 4069 IC 14 amplifier LM386 IC4
4 l-(iF capacitor 15 -(iF Mylar capacitor
1

5 0.47-jiF capacitor 1 047-nF Mylar capacitor

6 0. 1 m-F capacitor 17 1 0-f! resistor
7 05-p.F capacitor 18 1000-!! resistor
8 500-piF capacitor 19 Light-emitting diode
9 100-m.F capacitor 20 250-m-F capacitor
10 TL507C IC (integrated circuitl 21 8-!! speaker
11 100 000-fi potentiometer © Ground

Fig. 25-3-C Sound-effects generator.

516 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 9. On a C- or A2-size sheet make an ele- ™rt PART
to 000 fi Adjustable Contact CI 8 (iF IK/IK C.T transformer with magnetic core
mentary diagram of the audio amplifier 150 000 fi 10 000 fi C2 50 tiF 100 C.T/VC- transformer with magnetic core
shown in Fig. 25-3-D. Refer to the 6800 fi Taper Audio VC C3 02 (iF
Adjustable Contact 220 000 fi C4 .20 (iF TRI. TR2. TR3 GE2N323
Appendix for symbols. 50 000 fi 2200 fi C5 .005 (iF
Bass Linear P!2 4700 fi C6 .10 (iF
TR4. TR5 GE2N32I |with clip-on heatsink)
10. In a B- or A3-size sheet make an ele- 1000 fi R13 33 000 fi C7 10 (iF
SI speaker
mentary diagram of the mailbox sentry 10 000 fi R14 47 000 fi C8 10 (iF
100 000 fi R15 1500 fi C9 50 (iF SW switch
shown in Fig. Add the values to
25-3-E. Adjustable Contact RI6 330 fi C10 50 (iF
50 000 RI7 220 C1I 50 (iF 6V
the symbols. Note: Parts may be reposi- Treble Linear
fi
pic 1200
fi
fi
Bl battery.

tioned and similar numbers are elec- P!9 33 fi © ground

trically joined together.

®— TR2 TR3

1® Tir RI9> T2

C7

RI2 Rl6

TR5
-i „
^3)
(R4^-H —i^ra) (R9)

RI5

CIO) (CM]
©
Fig. 25-3-D 5-transistor audio amplifier.
©

C6
1
T
V*
r
V R8
S3
h
—|(->ArVSr
6 7 6 7 3
MAILBOX
<

ri ?

Li 1
±
— Bl
9 V
14

4001
13 12

QUAD NOR GATE

II 10 9 8 8
NE 555
7
TIMER
6

.' T I 2 3 4 5 6 7 I 2 3

2 2

f
RI R3 SPEAKER

PARTS LIST PARTS LIST PARTS LIST

Bl 9-V battery LEDI — Red light-emitting diode SI Normally open microswitch. magnetic
CI I0-m.F 25-V electrolytic Q I 2N2222 NPN silicon transistor reed switch
C2, C3 I - 1
0-m.F 25-V electrolytic The following are V*-\U. 10% resistors: S2 through S4 Normally open pushbutton
C4 00 1 nF 25-V ceramic disc RI R2 22 kfi
.
switch, panel mount
capacitor R3 kfi
1 SPKR 8-fi, 2-in speaker
I

C5 1 -tiF 25-V ceramic disc R4 4 7 kfi

capacitor R5 10 kfi
C6.C7.C8 01 -(iF 25-V ceramic disc R6 47 kfi
capacitor R7 100 kfi
IC 4001 quad NOR gate R8 2.2 Mfi
IC 555 timer

Fig. 25-3-E Mailbox sentry.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DRAWINGS 51

 2-} I — 39
10 n F, 16 V 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25
ALL 1 1 1 1 1

'-M- 46
1 1 1

IK 9 4
8 16 7 15 12
—
1

II
12 12— 17 -/\ZW-25
— 13 13- 18 -*\/\/>v-26 IC3 TIL 360
10
19 -/\/^\_27 C -DIGIT DISPLAY
14—
14 21 -VVV-28
15 15— 22 - VV^- 29
/
8 3
16— 23 -VVV 30 14 13 5 II 6

24 -VVV
16
IC2 31
1 1 1 1 1 1

7
MM 42 43 44 45
74C9I2
25 -VVV-32
ICI
1

DECODER 14 -33
MM
2 74C922 13 -34
KEY 17—
—9 ENCODER
(SE1EB 3

Han
18— -35
— 10 4
19— •36
KEYBOARD 5 6-DIGIT
BCD
DISPLAY
CONTROLLER 9 | 38
7 I 16 15 8 ALL 2N2222

— 22
22 7805
VOLTAGE
— 23 REG.
23
IC4
4024 9 V 0.01 MF ,0.01 fj.F 5 V
9 1—24 2 4-[>o-i:
UNREGULATED REGULATED

-0- NOT USED

Fig. 25-3-F Keyboard/display circuit using IC's.

11. On a C- or A2-size sheet make an

mentary diagram of the keyboard
ele-
dis-
AC
IN
4

\CR3
— —^W/—
f f O

play circuit shown in Fig. 25-3-F Show /^CR2 + +

DC
the values with the symbols. Note: Parts OU
may be numbers
repositioned, similar
are electrically joined together, number
2 is ground, and identify each compo-
— It <> o
(A) ELEMENTARY DIAGRAM
nent,i.e.,RI - ]000il,R2- 1000ft

Assignments for Unit 25-4, *#1 /.l.

Printed Circuits
12. On a B- or A3-size sheet draw the top
and bottom views of the circuit board
shown in either Fig. 25-4-A or 25-4-B.
Complete the conductor connections in
the top view from the information AC DC
shown in the elementary diagram. The IN OUT
grid lines shown on the printed circuit
board are 25 in. or 4 mm on centers.
. 1

Conductor size and minimum clearance

to be .06 in. or .5 mm. Land diameter is
1

. 1 2 in. or 3 mm. Scale is twice size (2:1 ).

13. On a B- or A3-size sheet make an

—©
ele-
mentary diagram from the printed circuit
and the component location diagram for 39
one of the circuits shown in either Fig.
25-4-C or 25-4-D. Include on the draw-
ing a bill of material calling for the capac- (B) PARTIALLY COMPLETED TOP VIEW (COMPONENT SIDE)
itors, resistors, and transistors. Fig. 25-4-A Printed circuit board 1.

518 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 < 1 i 0+12
C V RIGHT CHANNEL INPUT TO AMPLIFIER

6 4 8
c Rl
2 ICI 3

7 |
5
PREAMPLIFIER
> R2
^C2 DC VOLTAGE
CI -20 V DC
L * i

LEFT CHANNEL
INPUT TO
(A) ELEMENTARY DIAGRAM AMPLIFIER

(LEFT \ RIGHT
CARTRIDGE CARTRIDGE > CARTRIDGE
GROUND INPUT INPUT
(A) COMPONENT LOCATION DIAGRAM
CAPACITORS RESISTORS
r- -H CI 0.05 aiF Rl 10m U
C2 0.01 jjF R2 I0m!>
R3 22k !>
TRANSISTORS R4 22k!!

TRANSISTOR STEREO CARTRIDGE

L_
-\ J TRI NPN
TR2 NPN
R5 8.2k<»
R6 8.2k!>
R7 ItnlJ

(Bl ELEMENTARY DIAGRAMS (C) COMPONENTS FOR AMPLIFIER

Fig. 25-4-C Preamplifier. (General Electric)

VOLUME
1
RI7 * I
Ft.
<VW—f—

(Bl PARTIALLY COMPLETED TOP VIEW (COMPONENT SIDE)

JC 8
Fig. 25-4-B Printed circuit board 2.
T
r

\bj RI0| VS/

TR2
.
CRYSTAL
ti BLACK RED
R3
BLACK BROWN
I I

MONAURAL
CARTRIDGE CHANGER MOTOR 1 TOV v TO tf TO
V
CARTRIDGE SPEAKER CARTRIDGE TO
~l GROUND SPEAKER
(A) COMPONENT LOCATION DIAGRAM
LSI <

TO CHANGER
MOTOR
22 U

I I

SPEAKER 4-WAY RECTIFIER

(B) ELEMENTARY DIAGRAMS FOR CAPACITORS TRANSISTORS RESISTORS
CONNECTING COMPONENTS CI 400 (iF 25 V TRI 2N2716 R2 680 n RIO 56 n
L2 1 50 tiR 1 5 V TR2 2N527 R3 1200!! R14 100 kf)
C5 10nF20V TR3 2N27I3 R5 68 kf! RI5 56 n
005 (iF TR4 2N525 R6 56 k!! RI6 M VAR
C8 330 |J.F R8 lOOkf! RI7 1 M VAR.
FUSES R9 180 n RI8 4.7 n
Fl P/4 A R30 10!!

(C) COMPONENTS FOR PHONOGRAPH AMPLIFIER

Fig. 25-4-D Phonograph amplifier.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DRAWINGS 519

14. The three amplifiers in the elementary
diagram shown in Fig. 25-4-E are to be
replaced by the LM348 IC. Amplifier 4
(leads 12, 13, and 14) is not used. On a
B- or A3-size sheet redraw the elemen-
tary diagram.
15. On a B- or A3-size sheet design a printed
circuitboard for the redesigned circuit in
problem 4. Draw the top and bottom
1

views. Use 0. 2 in. or 03 mm lands and

1

.06 in. or :5 mm conductor widths.

1

Scale is twice size (2:1).

PARTS LIST PARTS LIST
Rl lOkil R8 50 kf!
R2 ^0 kf! R9 10-kfl trimming pot
R3. R4. R5 20 kfl. I % RIO 100 kfl
R6 10 ka 1% CI 68-iif; 15-V electrolytic
R7 30 kfl C2. C3 4 7-p.f; 15-V electrolytic
C4 10-mlE 5-V
1 electrolytic
Dl. D2 IN914

REPLACEMENT PART
FOR THE THREE AMPLIFIERS
Fig. 25-4-E Partial layout for an AC/ DC converter.

Assignments for Unit 25-5, Block 2. TV tuner/mixer connects to a Audio IF filter connects to
and Logic Diagrams broadband IF amplifier mixer/detector
1 6. Prepare a block diagram of a home inter- 3. Broadband IF amplifier connects to Mixer/detector connects the two
com system from Fig. 25-5-A and the two units: video bandpass filter and amplifiers 5.5 MHz.
following information: audio IF filter. Each amplifier connects to an FM
4. Video bandpass filter connects to detector
1 Four intercoms (located at the front detector One FM detector connects to chan-
door, the back door, the work shop, 5. Detector connects to video nel 1

and the recreation room) connect to amplifier Other FM detector connects to

a multiplexer which in turn connects 6. Video amplifier connects to CRT channel 2
to two units, a speech synthesizer,
and speech recognition hardware.
2. The last two units in connect ( 1
)

(two-way flow) to the CPU module.

3. Two sensors, one indoor and one
outdoor, feed into the CPU module.
4. The power to operate the system
feeds into a line voltage monitor and
battery backup system, which in SPEECH
turn, is connected to the CPU SYNTHESIZER
module. INTERCOMS
5. The voltage monitor and backup
line 16-CHANNEL CPU
system also connects to an RCT unit, REMOTE MODULE
which connected (two-way
in turn, is
CONTROL
flow) to the CPU module.
TRANSMITTER
6. A 16-channel ac remote control SPEECH
transmitter links the power control
RECOGNITION
receivers located throughout the MULTIPLEXER
HARDWARE
house to the CPU module.

17. On a B- or A3-size sheet prepare a block LINEVOLTAGE

diagram with arrows showing direction MONITOR AND I J
flow of a hybrid TV set from the follow-
BATTERY
ing information: RCT BACKUP

1. Antenna connects to a TV L 1

tuner/mixer Fig. 25-5-A Home intercom system.

520 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

18. On a B- or A3-size sheet prepare a logic +5 v
diagram from the information shown in
Fig. 25-5-B. Convert to distinctive-shape

logic symbols and add the missing con-

nections listed on the drawing.

BUS

A7

A6

A5

A4

A3

A2
PORT
I/O
SELECT

+5 V
I
14

IC3 6 9
AMP IC4
8
IC5 IC 14
IC2 I0_
PORT
I/O PIN 16
SELECTOR
< IC 15
PIN I

2
46
3
IC8 O— 1
IC6 IC 14
78 PINS
PIT 4, 16

+5 V
I
14

IC9 — ICIO o— +5 V
J4j_
icn —
77 ICI3 - IC 14
PIN 23

ICI2
45

LOGIC
ICs
SYMBOL

AMPLIFIER IC2, IC7, IC9, ICIO CONNECTIONS TO BE MADE:

ICI TERM 9TOIC3. TERM 12
IC3 TERM I ITO IC4 TERM. 4 AND ICI TERM 12 I

IC4 TERM. 5 TO IC8 TERM. 6

IC3, IC4, IC5, IC6
OR ICII, ICI3
IC5TERM I0TOIC7TERM. I. ICIO TERM. 0. AND IC 1 1 2 TERM 9
IC6 TERM I TO IC7 TERM. 2
IC9 TERM 1 2 TO IC1 TERM. I I

ICII TERM II TO ICI3TERM. 10

ICI 2 TERM. 8 TO ICI 3 TERM 9
AND IC8, ICI2 GROUND TERM. 7 ON ICI. IC3. IC9. AND ICI
GROUND TERM. 8 ON ICI
IC2 PORT 8 ICIO PORT 10
NEGATION IC7 PORT 2 IC 12 PORT 8
INDICATOR IC8 PORT 6

Fig. 25-5-B Partial logic diagram for a remote control house wiring.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS DRAWINGS 521

CHAPTER 26
Jigs and Fixtures

ping, and boring operations. See Fig.

UNIT 26-1 26-1-2.The size of the jig in this case is
Jig and Fixture limited by the proportions of the
machine and the handling characteris-
Design ticrequired of the jig. This type of jig is
normally moved about frequently and
With mass production and inter- is stored when not in use.

changeable assembly being used When a jig is used for assembly pur-
imperative poses, its function is to locate separate
extensively in industry, it is

that components be machined and component parts and hold them rigidly
in their correct relative positions to
sized to identical standards. To do
this, devices caUedjigs and fixtures are
each other while they are being con-
employed to hold and locate the work nected. These parts usually form large
or to guide the tools while machining structural frameworks from which
operations are being performed. Jigs accurate locators are taken.
and fixtures also cut down machining
time, thus lowering production costs.
A jig is a device which holds the The Design of Jigs
work and locates the path of the tool. The design of a jig is governed by five
See Fig. 26-1-1. Generally, a jig may major factors
readily be moved about or reposi-
1. The machining operation or opera-
tioned. An example of this would be a
tions involved
drill jig which may reposition the work
Fig. 26-1-1 Drill jig. (Ex-Cell-O Corp. Ltd. 2. The number of parts to be produced
several times when many holes are
3. The degree of accuracy of the
required in the workpiece. the drill
component
being located each time by a drill bush-
JIGS 4. The state of the component
ing located on the jig. Jigs are used
5. Any other relevant factors such as
extensively for drilling, reaming, tap- There are two main types of jigs: those
portability requirements and exter-
ping, and counterboring operations. A used for machining purposes and those
nal locations
fixture, as the name implies, is fixed to used for assembly purposes.
the worktable of the machine and When a jig is used in conjunction
locates the work in an exact position with a machine tool, its function is to Machining Operation(s) Involved As
relative to the cutting tool. The fixture locate the component, hold it firmly, stated earlier, the term jig usually
does not guide the tool. Fixtures are and guide the cutting tool during its refers to a drilling, reaming, tapping,
often employed when milling, grind- operation. The jig need not be secured or boring device. More often than not,
ing, welding, and honing operations to the machine. The term thus used a jig may perform a combination of
are required. usually refers to drilling, reaming, tap- these functions — such as drill and

522 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING


(A) LOADING THE WORKPIECE
TAPPING THE WORKPIECE
(B)
Fig. 26-1-2 Drilling and tapping jig.
(Northwestern Tools)
ream, drill and tap, drill, ream and
counterbore, etc. Drilling, reaming,
and tapping jigs and their combina-
tions are usually similar in construc-
tion since all these operations are
performed on the one machine, the
drill press.
Number of Parts to Be Produced The
number of parts to be produced has an
important effect on design. For exam-
ple, in very large quantity production,
the cost of an expensive
device may be recovered many times
over, as a result of time saved through
its use. Of course, in small quantity
production, the cost of the device
might not be recovered; thus a cheaper
device should be used.
Degree of Accuracy of the Component It
is logical, of course, that if a compo-
nent is required to be very accurate,
the tool producing it will
even more accurate.
Stage of the Component The designer
must know the stage of manufacturing
of the component so that he or she can
use any available machined faces for
location purposes.
Any Other Relevant Factors Sometimes 6. Are locations clear of flash or
it necessary to bolt a jig to the table
is burrs?
of the machine. For example, when a 7. Will the locating devices permit a
large hole is being drilled or reamed, commercial variation in the ma-
the designer must know what facilities chining of the component without
for clamping may be available on the affecting the accuracy of location
machine. or causing it to bind in the jig?
Before designing a jig, the designer 8. Can the jig be easily cleared of
must have or be able to find all infor- metal shavings and grit, particu-
mation such as that given above. The larly on the locating faces?
information is given to the designer in 9. Are all the clamps strong enough?
the form of a working drawing of the 10. Will any clamp-operating lever or
component, a process sheet showing nut be in a dangerous position,
the sequence of operations on the com- i.e., near the cutter?
ponent, and general information usu- 11. Are all clamps and clamping
ally available in the department. screws in the most accessible and
Having progressed this far. there are natural positions?
several principles that must also be 1 2. Can wrenches be eliminated by the
considered before the designer can use of ball or eccentric levers?
finally decide on the design of the jig. 13. Will one wrench fit all clamp-oper-
The designer must consider ating bolts and nuts?
14. Is the component well supported
1. The machine on which the opera-
against the actions of pressure of
tion is to be performed
the cutter?
2. Loading and unloading of the com-
15. Is the jig foolproof? That is, can
ponent: (a) clearances necessary
the component, tools, or bush-
for locating the part: (b) methods of
ings, etc.. be wrongly inserted or
guarding against improper loading
used?
3. Rapid methods of clamping the
16. Has the operator an unobstructed
work
view of the component, particu-
4. Chip clearance and chip removal
larly at the points of location,
5. Allowance for observation of oper-
clamping, and cut?
ation where possible
17. Is the jig as light as possible, con-
6. Safety in operation
sistent with the desired strength?
There are many other considerations, 18. Can coolant, if used, reach the
of course, but these are the major point of cut?
ones. 19. Have loose parts been eliminated
If the following questions are asked wherever possible?
and answered before the jig design is 20. Have standard parts been used
started, much time and money (time is where circumstances allow?
money) will be saved and trouble will 21. Can the jig be designed to hold RH
be avoided. and LH or other similar or comple-
mentary components which may
clamping be required?
Jigs in General
22. Where will burrs be formed, and is
1. Can a component be inserted and clearance for them arranged?
withdrawn without difficulty? 23. Are all corners and sharp edges
2. Should the component be located that are likely to cut the operator
to ensure symmetry or balance, shown well radiused on the draw-
i.e., optical balance or material ing?
balance? 24. Are locating and other working
3. Have the best points of location faces and holes protected as far as
been chosen with regard to the possible from dirt and cuttings?
accuracy of location and the func- 25. Will the jig as designed produce
have to be
component?
tion of the components within the required
4. Are hardened location points pro- degree of accuracy?
vided where necessary?
5. Can the locating points be adjusted
Drilling and Boring Jigs
where required to make allowance
for wear of forging dies or pat- 26. Do drills, tools, etc.. enter the
terns ? component at the face which
JIGS AND FIXTURES 523
 directly adjoins the face of the A variety of bushings have been
component to which it fits? developed for a wide range of portable
27. Have all slip bushings necessars or machine drilling, reaming, and tap-
for reaming, spotfacing, tapping. ping operations. They include head-
counterboring, seating, etc.. been less and head press-fit bushings, slip
arranged'.' and fixed renewable bushings, head-
less and head liners, thin-wall bush-
Milling Jigs ings, and a number of embedment
bushings for plastic or castable tool-
28. Have clamps, etc., been designed THE WORKPIECE
(A) ing, soft materials, and special appli-
to permit the use of the smallest
cations.
possible diameter of cutter(s).' SHARP CORNERS REMOVED
TO PREVENT INJURY TO Each type of bushing has its pre-
29. Will the cutter mandrel clear all DRILL PRESS OPERATOR-
ferred use. Only proper selection can
parts of the jig when it passes
give the service that the manufacturer
DOWEL PINS HEADLESS BUSHING
over?
has built into the product.
30. Have means for setting the cut-
To select the proper bushing, it is
ter! s) in the correct position been
necessary to consider not only the
provided?
function of the jig but also the quantity
of production. Life of the average
Drill Jigs
bushing is no more than 5000 to 10 000
Drill jigs are of two general types: open
pieces.
jigs and closed or box-type jigs. Open
jigs are often referred to as plate or Press-Fit Bushings Press-fit bushings
template jigs. Closed jigs will be dis- are available in two basic styles: head-
cussed in Unit 26-5. less (type P) and headed (type H). See
WORKPIECE DRAWN IN COLOR Fig. 26-1-4. These bushings are perma-
Open Jigs The simplest tool used to AND SHOWN WITH SOLID LINES"
nently pressed into the jig plate or fix-
locate holes for drilling is the plate jig
or drill template. It consists of a plate
with holes to guide the drills, and it has
locating pins that locate the workpiece
on the jig; or. the workpiece may be
nested on the jig and then both are
n_L
J IiT U
m L
PLATE (JIG

U
BODY!

in
'

ill
ture. Press-fit bushings are recom-
mended for use in limited production
runs where replacement due to wear is
not anticipated during the life of the
tooling, and where a single operation,
such as drilling only or reaming only is .
turned over for the drilling operation.
Jigs of this type are generally without WOOD
7" performed. Headless press-fit bush-
BASE PLATE OR PIECE OF
ings offer two advantages: they can be
clamping devices. They are used
(B) PLACING JIG OVER WORKPIECE installed flush with the jig plate with-
where the cost of more elaborate tools AND DRILLING FIRST HOLE
would not be justified.
out counterboring the mounting hole,
A separate base is often used with
and they can be mounted closer
the template or top plate, thus forming
together than headed bushings. How-
thesandwich type of jig. The base may ever, where space permits, the use of
JIG BUSHING
have holes or grooves to provide clear- headed press-fit bushings is preferable
DRILL JIG
in any application where heavy axial
ance for the end of the drill as it breaks LOCKING PIN

through the work. loads may eventually force a headless

LOCATING PIN
In the drill jig shown in Fig. 26-1-3,
bushing out of the jig plate. Typical
the component is not clamped into or
onto the jig. The jig rests upon the
component. Since the center-to-center
distance between the holes is probably
more critical and held to closer toler-
ances than the distance between the BASE PLATE CR PIECE OF WOOD —
holes and the edge of the part, a lock-
IC) DRILLING SECOND HOLE AFTER PLACING
ing pin is used to ensure the center-to- LOCKING PIN IN HOLE
center hole accuracy. After the first Fig. 26-1-3 A simple plate jig.
hole is drilled, the locking pin is
inserted into the drill jig and work-
piece.
Assembled or fixture, drill
in a jig
1 rr
Drill Bushings bushings are capable of producing ^
These are precision tools that guide duplicate parts to extremely close tol- (A) HEADLESS IB) HEAD TYPE
cutting tools such as drills and reamers erances in regard to location and hole Fig. 26-1-4 Press-fit drillbushings.
into precise locations in a workpiece. size. (American Drill Bushing Co.

524 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 CUTTING TOOL WITH NORMAL BACK TAPER
GUIDING EFFECTOF BUSHING REDUCED

IAl BUTTON (Bl PRESS FIT ICISCREWTYPE

CYLINDRICAL CYLINDRICAL HEXAGONAL

EQUAL TO ONE HALF

IF) SCREW TYPE
OF DRILL DIA (SMALL SECONDARY BURR CYLINDRICAL
CHIPSI
ONE TO ONE AND EXCESSIVE CHIP CLEARANCE Fig. 26-2-2 Typical jig feet.
ONE HALF OF DRILL
10CLEARANCE DIA ILONG STRINGY
CHIPSI EXCESSIVE CHIP CLEARANCE
MAXIMUM PRECISION
3RILLING ONLYi
NORMAL CHIP CLEARANCE Dowel pins provide the necessary
(A) RECOMMENDED CLEARANCE BETWEEN WORKPIECE AND BUSHING (B) BURR CLEARANCE alignment between the parts, a mini-
Fig. 26-1-5 Chip and burr clearance. mum of two being recommended. See
Fig. 26-2-3. Wherever possible, cap
screws should be recessed and have
socket fillister heads. This type of cap
bush-
sizes of standard press-fit drill jig screw can be tightened, with a greater
ings are shownappendix.
in the
UNIT 26-2 amount of pressure providing better
Renewable bushings are covered in Drill Jig Components holding power. When thin stock is to
Unit 26-3. be fastened together and counterbor-
ing is not possible, a hexagon-head cap
Installation
Jig Body screw is used.
The frame which holds the various
Chip Control See Fig. 26-1-5. Sufficient
Dowel pins may be tapered or
parts of a jig assembly is called the jig
straight, the latter being used more fre-
clearance should be provided between body. It may be in one piece or bolted
quently. A press fit into the two parts
the bushing and the workpiece to per- or welded together. Rigid construction
ensures the proper alignment required
mit the removal of chips. The excep- is necessary because of the accuracy
in jig design.
tion to this rule occurs in drilling required, yet the jig should be light
operations requiring maximum preci- enough to provide ease in handling.
DOWEL PINS-HARDENED AND GROUND.
sion where the bushings should be in Sharp edges or burrs which may harm CLOSE SLIP FIT IN "A", FORCE FIT IN "B"-

direct contact with the workpiece. the operator should be removed. Sup-
However, suitable chip clearance porting legs —
a minimum of four being
should be provided in most applica- —
recommended should be provided
tions because the abrasive action of on the opposite side of each drilling
metal particles will accelerate bushing surface. Standard shapes have been
wear. designed for jig bodies and are gener-
ally more economical than fabricating
Burr Clearance See Fig. 26-1-5B. Burr DOWEL PINS-USED TO ALIGN PARTS. 2 MINIMUM
units in the shop. See Figs. 26-2-1 and SOCKET SCREWS USED TO HOLD PARTS TOGETHER
clearance should be provided between
26-2-2. Dowel and cap screws.
the bushing and the workpiece when Fig. 26-2-3 pins

wiry metals such as copper are drilled.

Metals of this type tend to produce
Cap Screws and Dowel Pins
The purpose of cap screws in jig design Locating Devices
secondary burrs around the top of the
is to hold together fabricated parts. The shape of the object determines the
drilled holes; the burrs act to lift the jig
type of location best suited for the
from the workpiece and to cause diffi-
part. Pins, pads, and recesses are the
culty in the removal of workpieces
more common methods used to locate
from side-loaded jigs. The recom- the workpiece on the jig.
mended burr clearance is one-half the
bushing ID. Internal Locating Devices A machined
recess in the jig plate (Fig. 26-2-4A),
Reference and a nesting ring (Fig. 26-2-4B).
1. American Drill Bushing Co. attached to the plate are two methods
used to locate a part having a circu-
lar projection. The latter method is
ASSIGNMENT preferred because the part can be
See Assignment 1 for Unit 26-1 on page machined more readily and can be
536. replaced when worn. Dowel pins

Fig. 26-2-1 Machined cast iron and

normally two —
position the ring while
Review for Assignment aluminum sections for construction of jigs fastening screws (the number being
Unit 7-5 Assemblies in Sections and fixtures. (Standard Parts Co.) determined by the size of the ring)

JIGS AND FIXTURES 525

 Stops When the workpiece cannot be
located by recesses or projections as
outlined above, locating stops are
used. They are classified as either
fixed or adjustable. See Fig. 26-2-6.
The commonest types of fixed stops
IAI MACHINED RECESS IN JIG BODY (Bl NESTING RING (CI HEADLESS BUSHING are the stop pin, flattened shoulder
INTERNAL LOCATING DEVICES plug, crowned shoulder plug, and stop
pads. While stop pins (dowels) are the
most economical, their main disadvan-
tages are rapidwear and marring of the
finished surface of the workpiece.
Shoulder plugs, with one side of the
head flattened, provide a greater bear-
WORKPIECE WORKPIECE
ing surface and will not wear as
IDI STRAIGHT STUD- PRESS FIT SHANK IEI STRAIGHT STUD-THREADED SHANK IF) DISK LOCATOR
readily.
EXTERNAL LOCATING DEVICES
Fig. 26-2-4 Common locating devices. Centralizers Circularworkpieces, or
flatworkpieces with rounded or angled
ends, may be located or centered by
secure it to the plate. For small cylin- clamp the workpiece to the stud, the
centralizers, as shown in Figs. 26-2-7
drical extensions, a headless bushing stud should be lengthened and fas-
and 26-2-8.
mounted flush with the locating sur- tened in place by a nut and washer
face may be
used, provided that the (Fig. 26-2-4E). This secures the stud to Workpiece Supports The workpiece
shoulder of the workpiece rests on the the jig body and also provides for the must be supported so as to avoid dis-
locating surface, as shown in Fig. interchanging of studs when neces- tortion caused by either clamping or
26-2-4C. An example of a drilling jig sary. Disk-type locators (Fig. 26-2-4F) machining. See Fig. 26-2-9. The sur-
that has an internal locating device is are used when the locating diameter is faces supporting the workpiece are
shown in Fig. 26-2-5. over 2 in. (50 mm). Dowels and fasten- called workpiece supports and are
ing screws, the number determined by classified as either fixed or adjustable.
External Locating Devices Locating
the size of the disk, locate and secure They should be located, as nearly as
studs (Fig. 26-2-4D) provides an excel-
the disk to the plate. possible, directly opposite the clamp-
lent means of locating workpieces with
ing force. It is recommended that four
circular holes. When it is desirable to

-BURR RELIEF

STOP PIN FLATTENED SHOULDER PLUG

(A) INTERNAL V-TYPE

HARDENED
DOWEL /Bi ^WORKPIECE
NOTE: A LOCKING PIN TO BE INSERTED PINS-
IN FIRST DRILLED HOLE TO INSURE
PROPER ALIGNMENTOF HOLES

CROWNED SHOULDER PLUG CAST PADS

(A| FIXED STOPS IB) DOWEL PINS

SIDE LOCKING WITH JAM NUT TOP LOCKING WITH SETSCREW

Fig. 26-2-5 Plate drill jig for drilling holes in (B) ADJUSTABLE STOPS IC) EXTERNAL V-TYPE
flange. Fig. 26-2-6 Fixed and adjustable stops. Fig. 26-2-7 Centralizers.

526 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 RAPID MOVEMENT— , .-LOCKING MOVEMENT 8°'» VARIATION
1
WORKPIECE -MS
f^ —
1

(B) TOGGLE SCREW CLAMP

(A) LONG-TRAVEL CAM-LOCK CLAMP

Fig. 26-2-8 V-bushing drill jig. (Acme

Industrial Co.)

small work support areas be used in

lieu of one large area, because the lat- (D) CONICAL POINT SETSCREW CLAMP
ter may produce a rocking condition.
The jig body with metal cut away
and steel blocks, called rest buttons,
are the more common types of fixed
supports used. (C) SPRING-LOADED HOOK CLAMP

LEVER ARM
PIVOTED

(II JIG

(A)
BODY 121

FIXED WORKPIECE SUPPORTS

REST BUTTON
WORKPIECE m
W ON PIN

3 OPEN POSITION

1 I

(E) TWO-DIRECTION CLAMP (F) HINGED CAM ASSEMBLY CLAMP

Fig. 26-2-10 Common clamping devices.

The toggle-head type clamp provides a

Clamping Devices
The clamping components must be
designed to securely hold the work-
III SIDE LOCK 12) TOP LOCK piece but not distort it, to be quickly
and easily locked and unlocked, and to
(B) ADJUSTABLE WORKPIECE SUPPORTS
UACK SCREWS) swing out of the way during loading
and unloading. Some of the more com-
mon types of clamps are shown in Fig.
26-2-10.
Screw clamps are commonly used
because they do not tend to loosen
under vibration and they provide ade-
quate clamping force. One of the sim-
plest types of screw clamps is the
cone-point setscrew. The incline on
the screw tends to push the workpiece
against the locating pads as well as
against the stops. It is
(C! ADJUSTABLE WORKPIECE SUPPORT clamping unfinished surfaces such as
(JACK PIN) castings because the point of the set-
Fig. 26-2-9 Workpiece supports. screw will mar the workpiece surface.
larger contact surface with the work-
piece, thereby reducing the possibility
of marring. It is also ideally suited for
clamping workpieces having side
drafts. Where only moderate clamping
pressures are required, a knurled
knob, lever nuts, or a thumbscrew may
be used.
The two-direction clamp provides
both side and top clamping. As pres-
sure is exerted on the end of the screw
thread, the clamp is pivoted about the
pivot pin, producing a downward pres-
sure at the top of the workpiece.
Since screw-thread-type clamps are
relatively slow, they are often used in
combination with other devices to
best suited for speed up the clamping and unclamping
operations. The travel cam lock
assembly and the hinged cam assem-
bly clamps are two such devices.

JIGS AND FIXTURES 527

 ^^^' Hkk m
^MU4w J' , %>>
"l
KNURLED-HEAD SCREW
I ADJUSTABLE FIXED STOP C
I
WASHER
<5»
FLANGED NUT
T-SLOT NUTS

J
f+
QUARTER-TURN SCREW LOCATING PIN SWING C WASHER

SWING BOLT

HAND KNOB SCREW SHOULDER SCREW SPHERICAL WASHER

<FIXTURE KEY
40
SURE-LOCK Fl XTUR E KEY

HAND KNOB SCREW

WITH SWIVEL TOGGLE

TORQUE SCREW 9 BALL-HANDLE KNOB SWING CLAMP ADJUSTABLE GOOSE-NECK CLAMP

Fig. 26-2-11 Standard jig and fixture parts. (Standard Parts Co.

Locking Pins shown in Fig. 26-2-12. This jig employs locating pins. This jig not only locates
A locking pin used in jig design to
is a lever arm and a knurled head screw but also holds the workpiece in posi-
lock or hold the workpiece securely to which applies pressure on two sides of tion.
the jig plate while the second or subse- the workpiece, forcing it against the
EXAMPLE 2 For drilling a series of bolt
quent holes are being drilled. After the
holes in a flange, a drill jig, as shown in
first hole is drilled, the locking pin is
Fig. 26-2-5, may be
used. The base
inserted through the drill bushing into
the drilled hole in the workpiece, lock-
LIK'" surface of the flange and the diameter

ing the drill jig and workpiece together.

A of the workpiece, which were pre-
When more than two holes are drilled,
^ viously machined, are used as locating

a second locking pin is used to main- artr € m surfaces. The workpiece slips
stud and rests on the jig plate. The C-
over the
tain proper alignment. The use of a uu washer is then inserted over the work-
locking pin is illustrated in Fig.
26-1-3C. JIG FEET (MINIMUM 41. THE TOP OF THE SHOULDER SCREW piece, and the locking nut is screwed
ISGROUNO FLUSH WITH THE OTHER THREE FEET TO ACT
AS THE FOURTH FOOT down to securely clamp the parts

Miscellaneous Standard Parts together. The size of the locknut is

Figure 26-2-11 shows some of the more selected to clear diameter A . The body
common standard jig components. of the jig is designed to protect the
The designer should, wherever possi-
threads on the stud from being
ble,use standard parts in the design in damaged. The position shown is the
order to simplify the work and reduce loading and unloading position. For
drilling, the jig must be inverted and
the manufacturing cost. SHOULDER
SCREW
(PIVOT PINI the side walls which act as feet must be
Design Examples machined to level and true-up the jig.
LEVER ARM Notice that part of the sides has been
EXAMPLE 1 An alternative drill jig for Fig. 26-2-12Alternative plate jig for machined away, leaving only the four
the workpiece shown in Fig. 26-1-3 is workpiece shown in Figure 26-1-3. small surfaces to act as jig feet.

528 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 -STANDARD CAST-IRON SECTION
example, suppose you wish to produce
a hole in a part between .5000 and
-0
.5003 in. in diameter. Sin^e a drill
alone cannot come that close, the hole

SWING PLATE
must be reamed. First, drill through a
.4844-in. ID slip renewable bushing.
After drilling the hole, remove the
bushing and replace it with a .5000-in.
slip renewable bushing for the reaming
operation. Both bushings fit perfectly
in thesame .75-in. ID jig hole liner.
Typical installations of fixed and slip
renewable bushings are shown in Fig.
26-3-2.
*=? -FEET

Fig. 26-2-13 Screw latch clamp jig.

LINERS
Liners are permanently pressed into
the jig plate or fixture both to provide
EXAMPLE 3 The screw latch clamp jig, in light-dutyapplications. For heavier-
precision mounting holes or correct
similar to the one shown in Fig. duty applications, clamps provide a
slip fit for renewable bushings and to
26-2-13. is frequently used because of better means of locking the bushing
prevent wear of soft jig plates caused
itssimple design and fast clamping against the effects of vibration and
by frequent replacement of renewable
action. All the partsshown, with the torque produced by drill rotation.
bushings. Liners are available in two
exception of the clamp plate, are stan- Replacement of a fixed renewable
basic styles: headless (type L) and
dard items which can be purchased. bushing can be accomplished simply
headed (type HL). Headless and
by removing its lock screw or clamp,
headed liners are similar to headless
without removing the jig from the pro-
ASSIGNMENTS duction line. Slip renewable bushings
and headed bushings in their advan-
tages and limitations. See the appen-
See Assignments 2 and 3 for Unit 26-2 are recommended for production runs
dix.
on page 536. of any length where more than one
operation is performed in a hole, such
Installation
Review for Assignment as drilling and then reaming or coun-
Unit 7-5 Assemblies in Section terboring. This type is especially Multiple Operations See Fig. 26-3-3A.
Unit 26-1 The Design of Jigs designed for fast change by merely In performing multiple operations
turning and lifting the bushing. Slip such as drilling and reaming, slip
renewable bushings may be inter- renewable bushings of different
changed in the same liner without lengths may be used to obtain the com-
affecting the centering accuracy. For bined advantages of adequate chip

UNIT 26-3
«•»
Renewable Bushings
Renewable bushings are designed to
be easily replaced and are available in

and
—
two styles fixed renewable (type F)
renewable (type S). See Fig.
slip
UN-A-LOK LINERS PROVIDE
HEAD LINER AND SHOULDER
LOCK IN ONE. THEY ARE USED
WITH SLIP-RENEWABLE
SLIP-RENEWABLE BUSHINGS
ADD FLEXIBILITY, PERMIT
MULTIPLE OPERATIONS
AND CAN BE CHANGED
n
FIXED-RENEWABLE BUSHINGS
ARE FOR LONG PRODUCTION
RUNS. THEY ARE HELD IN
PLACE BY LOCK SCREW.
26-3-1. Both types are installed as slip BUSHINGS, QUICKLY.
SLIP RENEWABLE FIXED RENEWABLE
fits in liners, are designed for long pro-
(A) LINER (B) BUSHINGS
duction runs, and are intended to
remain fixed in the jig or fixture until
LOCK SCREW
worn out. In most applications, the FIXED RENEWABLE
liners (head or headless types) are
mounted flush with the jig plate: how-
ever, projected mounting is sometimes
used for head liners when the jig plate
is too thin to accept a suitable counter-

bore.
Lock screws are suitable only for (C) INSTALLATION
use with flush-mounted liners, usually Fig. 26-3-1 Renewable bushings. (American Drill Bushing Co.

JIGS AND FIXTURES 529

 SLIP RENEWABLE BUSHINGS
Irregular Work Surfaces See Fig.
FIXED RENEWABLE BUSHINGS
26-3-3C. When bushings are adapted
FLUSH MOUNTED (HEAD OR HEADLESS LINERS) to suit applications involving irregular
work surfaces, the ends of the bush-
LOCK SCREW ROUND CLAMP LOCK SCREW
• RECOMMENOED • PROVIDES BETTER • RECOMMENOED
ings should be formed to the contour of
SECURITY THAN LOCK FOR LIGHT
FOR LIGHT
DRILLING AP SCREW IN HEAVIER DRILLING the workpiece. In many applications of
PLICATIONS DUTY APPLICATIONS OPERATIONS
• SMALL HEAD • DIAMETER SAME AS • SMALL HEAO this nature, the drill point does not
DIAMETER PER LOCK SCREW HEAD DIAMETER PER
MITS CLOSE FOR CLOSE BUSHING
PLACEMENT
MITS CLOSE
BUSHING
enter perpendicular to the work sur-
BUSHING PLACE
MENT PLACEMENT
face and has a tendency to skid or
ROUND END CLAMP
wander. For this reason, the distance
ROUND END CLAMP FLAT CLAMP
• FOR LOCKING • FOR TYPE FX • FOR HEAVY DUTY between the bushing and the work-
STANDARD BUSHINGS ONLY APPLICATIONS
FIXED-RENEW
ABLE BUSHINGS
• PROVIDES MAXIMUM • PROVIDES LARGE piece must be held to a minimum so
SECURITY AGAINST 8EARING SURFACE
. PROVIDES LARGE VIBRATION AND AGAINST JIG PLATE that the full guiding effect of the bush-
BEARING SUR TORQUE
FACE AGAINST
JIG PLATE ing can be obtained.

PROJECTED MOUNTED (HEAD LINERS ONLY) Design Example

ROUND END CLAMP FLAT CLAMP ROUND END CLAMP The jig shown in Fig. 26-3-4 is similar
• FOR LOCKING
STANDARD
• FOR TYPE FX
BUSHINGS ONLY
• FOR ANY APPLICATION in design to the one shown in Fig.
FIXED RENEW USING SLIP-RENEWABLE
• PROVIDES MAXIMUM 26-2-5 except for the feet and bushings.
ABLE BUSHINGS SECURITY AGAINST BUSHINGS INSTALLED IN
IN PROJECTED VIBRATION AND PROJECTED MOUNTED
MOUNTED TORQUE HEAD LINERS Holes in the jig plate are provided for
LINERS
the feet,which are purchased items.
The bushings are the fixed renewable
Fig. 26-3-2 Typical installations of renewal bushings. (American Drill Bushing Co.| type, designed for long production
runs.

removal and precise accuracy. The Close-Hole Patterns See Fig. 26-3-3B. Reference
slip renewable bushing should be short For many applications requiring close 1. American Drill Bushing Co.
enough to provide proper chip clear- center-to-center placement of bush-
ance during the drilling operation, ings, thin-wall and miniature head
while the reamer bushing may be long series will prove helpful; however, for
ASSIGNMENT
enough to contact or closely approach especially difficult close-hole patterns, See Assignment 4 for Unit 26-3 on
the workpiece. thus providing max- it may be necessary to grind flats on page 536.
imum guiding effect during the ream- the bushing ODs and/or heads to
ing operation. achieve minimum spacing.

PHANTOM VIEW
SHOWS SLIP RENEWABLE
REAMER BUSHING

IA) MULTIPLE OPERATIONS

fes
ff=T3

EXTRA-THIN WALL BUSHINGS

F^W.T i I « ,
nw^ Li NOTE: A LOCKING PIN TO BE INSERTED IN FIRST DRILLED
WITH ODS LESS THAN THOSE RE HEAD FIXED-RENEWABLE BUSHINGS STANDARD HEADLESS OR HOLE TO INSURE PROPER ALIGNMENT OF HOLES
OF ANSI BUSHINGS OF SAME ID
O
DIAMETERS ONLY 06 IN LARGER HEADED BUSHINGS WITH
THAN BODY ODS IHEAD PROJECTS ONLY 03 IN
BEYOND BODY) GROUND FLATS ON OD SLIP-RENEWABLE BUSHINGS
IN HEADLESS LINERS
IB) CLOSE-HOLE PATTERNS
FIXED RENEWABLE BUSHING
j HEADLESS-PRESS FIT LOCK SCREW
BUSHING. USED FOR SHORT
PRODUCTION RUN -

" END OF BUSHING FORMED END OF BUSHING CHAMFEREO

TO WORKPIECE CONTOUR TO CONFORM TO SLOPE OF
WORKPIECE

(CI IRREGULAR WORK SURFACES

STANDARD JIG LEGS
Fig. 26-3-3 Installation considerations.
Fig. 26-3-4 Open jig. (Standard Parts Co.)

530 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

UNIT 26-4
Dimensioning Jig
Drawings
The finished detail drawing for the sim-
ple plate jig (Fig. 26-1-3) is shown in
0.328
Fig. 26-4-1 . A brief explanation of why 2 HOLES
the various dimensions were chosen is

as follows.
TOLERANCE ON DIMENSIONS t 005
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED

1. Distance between Holes. The

dimension between the 0.328-in.
001 TO .003 CLEARANCE ON
holes on the workpiece is 1.498-
1.502 in. Therefore, the tolerance
allowed on this dimension is .004
in. The distance between the drill
MAXIMUM WIDTH OF WORKPIECE

L_^
WORKPIECE
bushings on the jig plate must be
kept to a closer tolerance because
of bushing wear. A .002-in. toler-
ance was chosen for the center dis-
O O 1.505
1.495
1.508
1.506
1.758
1.756

tance between the bushings, and

the limits were placed midway
between the workpiece limits. Thus 2.505
2.495 25 DOWEL PINS
the center-to-center distance was
established at 1.499-1.501 in.
TO .003 CLEARANCE ON
.001
MAXIMUM LENGTH OF WORKPIECE
2. Size of Bushing Holes. In tool
2.508
design it general practice to show
is 2.506-

on the drawing only a note listing

the nominal diameter of the hole
-$
25 DOWELS PINS
and the part number of the mating 2758
2.756
part. It is the job of the machinist
to select the proper diameters to (A) CALCULATING DISTANCES BETWEEN DOWEL PINS
ensure a press fit.

3. Size of Dowel Pinholes.

Dowels are
commercially available, at low
cost, in a wide range of standard REMOVE ALL SHARP EDGES
sizes. Standard commercial dowels
are finished to .0002 in. (0.006 mm)
larger than the nominal diameter
with a tolerance of ± .0001 in.
(0.003 mm). The size of the dowel
pins used 0.25 (0.25O1-.25O3) x
is

.75 in. long. One end of the dowel

pin has a chamfer to facilitate press-
ingit into the jig plate and to permit

easy loading onto the workpiece.

As mentioned above, a note call-
ing for the nominal diameter and the
part number of the mating part cov-
ers all the information required.

4. Center Distance between Dowels.

Since the width and length of the
-0 25 PRESS FIT FOR LOCATING PIN, PT HOLES
workpiece are shown in nominal 3. 5

dimensions, the tolerance permit-

*
— 0.625 PRESS FIT FOR DRILL BUSHING. PT 2. 2 HOLES

ted on these dimensions is ±.005

(B) DIMENSIONING JIG PLATE SHOWN IN FIGURE 26-1 3
in. Thus the size of the largest work-

piece which would be permissible is Fig. 26-4-1 Dimensioning jig drawings.

JIGS AND FIXTURES 531

 "POPUP LEAF-
1.505 x 2.505 in." These are the
workpiece sizes which are used in
CASTING ONE-HAND OPERATION. THUMB
calculating the center-to-center dis- SCREW RELEASES LEAF INSTANTLY.
AN INTEGRAL CASTING OF ALUMINUM LEAF IS MADE OF STEEL. THE SOLID
tance between dowel pins. clear- A THAT FLOWS THROUGH THE CAST INTERLOCKING HINGE PIN GOES ALL THE WAY
ance o\' was decided
.001 to .003 in. IRON LEGS. ALL WALLS OF THE CASTING. LEG JOINT THROUGH. PRECISION FITTED TO
INCLUDING THE LEAF. ARE ENGINEERED CAST-IRON LEGS. NO FERROUS
on between the maximum work- TO TAKE STANDARD DRILL JIG BUSH- METAL MOVING PARTS RUB
INGS. ALL SIX SIDES CAN BE USED FOR AGAINST ALUMINUM-THEREFORE
piece size and the largest dowel pin. NO GALLING.
DRILLING. THE UNIQUE CONSTRUCTION
Thus the center-to-center distances OF THIS JIG ALLOWS MACHINING OUT
FOR CHIP CLEARANCE WITHOUT
between dowels were calculated to DANGER OF DISTORTION.
be 1.7563-1.7583 and 2.7563-2.7583
in.

5. Center Distance. Bushing and

Dowel. The maximum limits were
calculated by taking half the dif-
ference between the maximum lim-
its of 2.758 and 1.501 in. for length

and half the limit 1.758 in. for width.

An allowance of -.001 in. was
given to these dimensions.

ASSIGNMENT ONE-HAND OPERATION LEGS ARE CAST IRON. ENTIRE UNIT

IS SQUARED TO TOLERANCE ±001.
See Assignment 5 for Unit 26-4 on WHERE BOTTOM OF JIG IS NOT
SPRING PLUNGER ACTION CAUSES LEAF
page 536. TO "POP-UP" INSTANTLY. ALL OF WALL USED FOR BUSHINGS. LEGS MAY
BE CUTOFF AT THE TOP FOR LESS
OF JIG MAY BE USED FOR BUSHINGS
OPERATING INTERFERENCE.
EXCEPT .50 in DEPTH ILLUSTRATED.
Review for Assignment
Fig. 26-5-1 Tumble box-type jig body. (Standard Parts Co.
Unit 26-1 The Design of Jigs
Unit 26-2 Drill Jig Components
Unit 26-3 Renewable Bushings
HEAD-TYPE PRESS FIT BUSHING

UNIT 26-5
Closed Jigs
The closed or box type of drill jig,
within which the work is clamped, is
usually used when holes have to be •THUMB SCREW
HOLDS DOWN
POP-UP LEAF
drilled in several directions. To firmly
support the of supporting legs
jig, sets
or feet must be provided on the side of
the box opposite each of the drilling
faces. The jig is normally opened by
swinging back a leaf or cover. The part
to be drilled is placed within the box
and accurately located and clamped
with devices which are, as a rule, per-
manently attached to the jig body. The
jig body frame, shown in Figs. 26-5-1
and 26-5-2, is typical of the type of jig
body readily purchased.

Design Example -REST BUTTONS

The box-type jig shown in Fig. 26-5-2 -ADJUSTABLE FIXED STOP
is designed to permit drilling from two Fig. 26-5-2 Closed or box-type drill jig.

S32 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

sides. The complete designis made up
of standard parts, and the job of the
toolroom is assembling rather than
manufacturing and assembling. The
use of adjustable stops reduces
machining time and permits adjust-
ment and reuse at a later date.
ASSIGNMENT
See Assignment 6 for Unit 26-5 on
page 537.
the table must be known. Most draft-
ing officeshave this information tabu-
lated in the form of a chart, and the
designer may select the most suitable
milling machine.
In laying out a fixture, the drawing
should be checked to see that no part
of the fixture will interfere with the
1
milling arbor or arbor supports. The
standard practice of many designers is Fig. 26-6-3 Milling fixture base. (Standard
to show the cutter and arbor on the Parts Co.)
assembly drawing.

Review for Assignment

FIXTURE COMPONENTS .38 — ]
\f~y
— .18 X .25 SLOT
Unit 26-1 The Design of Jigs
Unit 26-2 Drill Jig Components
Unit 26-3 Renewable Bushings
Fixture Base
Fixture components and the work-
piece are usually located on a base,
which is securely fastened to the mill-
ing machine table with clamping lugs
or slots. See Fig. 26-6-3. The size of
the lug opening corresponds to the T
UNIT 26-6 slot width on the milling machine
base is usually
table. In addition, the
Fixtures provided with keys or tongues which
HIGH BAR

sit on the table T slots, aligning the

A. is a device which supports,
fixture fixture so that the workpiece is perpen- 25-1 .06
locates, and holds a workpiece se- dicular to the cutter arbor axis and par-
curely in position while machining allel to the sides of the cutter. Standard
01.00
operations are being performed. It fixture bases in a wide variety of sizes
should be noted that the accuracy of are at the disposal of the designer and
the machining depends on the quality are shown in the appendix.
of the machine and tools used.
Clamps
Milling Fixtures In milling fixture design, forces result-
The most common type of fixture used ing from the feed of the table and the
is the milling fixture. See Figs. 26-6-1 rotation of the cutter are encountered.
and 26-6-2. It may be clamped to the These forces are normally coun-
milling machine table or held in the teracted by the clamp forces. For this
milling machine vise. Before a milling reason, fixture clamps must be of
fixture is designed, information such heavier design than jig clamps and Fig. 26-6-4 Toggle clamps.
as the sizeand spacing of the T slots, must hje properly located. See Figs.
crossfeed, and horizontal traverse of 26-6-4 and 26-6-5.

Fig. 26-6-1 Vertical milling fixture for slotting a hole clamped in a

milling vise. (Ex-Cell-O Corp. Ltd.) Fig. 26-6-2 Typical milling fixture. [Standard Parts Co.)

JIGS AND FIXTURES 533

 Clamp
Assembly A B C
Thread
D E F
Travel

G H
Capacity
J
1
•

20005M 10 16 50 M6 24 7 12 25 22

200 10M 12 25 82 M8 32 9 46 38 28

20020M 16 32 ! 00 M 1 48 1 1 25 58 42

20030M 16 32 125 Ml 2 48 13 38 58 42

20040M 22 38 125 M16 50 17 38 64 45

U~- ...,-,,
20050M 25 45 165 M20 66 21 45 82 50

Fig. 26-6-5 Strap clamp assemblies. (American Drill Bushing Co.)

Set Blocks
Cutter set blocks are mounted on the
fixture to properly position the milling
cutter in relation to the workpiece. See
Figs. 26-6-6 and 26-6-7. The locating
surfaces of the set blocks are offset
from the finished surfaces on the work-
piece that are to be machined. Feeler
gages the same thickness as the offset
are placed on the located surfaces of
the set block, and the position of the
milling fixture is adjusted until the cut-
ter touches the feeler gage. The space
between the cutter and set block
ensures clearance between the cutter
and set block during the machining
operation. Set blocks are normally fas-
tened to the fixture body with cap
screws and dowel pins.

USE SINGLY TO SUPPORT

STEP CLAMP STRAP.

USEIN PAIRS TO SUPPORT PLAIN

CLAMP STRAP.

MATCHED SERRATIONS ON ALL

STEP BLOCKS PERMIT USE OF
MIXEDSIZES.

Fig. 26-6-6 Application of holding components. (American Drill Bushing Co.)

STEP BLOCK
-C (BOLT SIZE)

£ U.S. Customary (in.)

Height Capacity
Width B A
i .75-1.50
1.00 1.18
i
1.38 1.75 1.25-2.50

T 1.75 3.50 2.50-6.00

* F

CLAMP STRAPS
U.S. Customary in.) Metric mm) Metric (mm

Part C D E F Part C D E F Height Capacity

A-930 38 to .50 1.00 .50 2.50 A-930M 10 to 12 25 12 60 Width B

A-940 .50 1.19 .75 6.00 A-940M 12 30 20 150
25 30 20-40
A-950 .62 1 19 1.00 6.00 A-950M 18 30 25 150
35 45 30-60
A-960 .75 1.19 1.19 8.00 A-960M 20 30 30 200
45 90 60- 50
1
A-970 1.00 2.00 1 38 10.00 A-970M 25 50 35 250

Fig. 26-6-7 Holding components. (American Drill Bushing C(

534 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 (A) DRAW 3 VIEWS OF THE WORKPIECE AND ADD SUITABLE LOCATING DEVICES
Fixture Design Considerations
1. Is the fixture foolproof? Does the
design permit only one way of
loading?
2. Does the fixture permit rapid load- NOTE POSITION OF DIAMOND LOCATING PIN
ing and unloading?
3. Is ample chip clearance provided? SLOT TO 8E MILLED

4. Is the fixture kept as low as possible

r
to avoid chatter and springing of the
i -LOCATING PIN
u
work?
5. Are the cutting forces taken on the x 'bj fci
base rather than on the clamp?
6. Does any part of the fixture inter-
fere with the milling arbor or sup- ADD CLAMPS AND SHOW LOCATION OF CUTTER AND ARBOR
(8)
ports during the machining oper-
ation?
7. Are the clamps located in front of
the workpiece?

Sequence in Laying Out a

Fixture
See Fig. 26-6-8. The following ADJUSTING HEEL-CLAMP ASSEMBLY

sequence is recommended in laying

out a fixture.

I. Draw the necessary views of the

workpiece. Leave sufficient room
for drawing in the fixture details.
2. Draw the locating devices.
3. Draw the cutter and arbor.
4. Draw the clamping arrangement.
5. Draw the set blocks, if required.
6. Draw the fixture base and keying
arrangement.

CLAMPING LUGS PROVIDED TO CLAMP

FIXTURE TO MILLING MACHINE TABLE

-STANDARD FIXTURE BASE

ASSIGNMEMT
See Assignment 7 for Unit 26-6 on
page 537.

-STANDARD FIXTURE KEYS SET

Review for Assignment IN TABLE TSLOTS

Unit 7-5 Assemblies in Section Fig. 26-6-8 Sequence in drawing a simple milling fixture.

JIGS AND FIXTURES 535

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 26
01.002
Assignments for Unit 26-1,
Jig and Fixture Design

1 . On a B- or A3 -size sheet, design a simple

platejig for drilling the holes in one of the
parts shown in Figs. 26- 1 -A to 26- -D. 1

Scale is full [1:1). State the sequence of

operations and the time at which locking
pins are employed.

SAE 1020
Assignments for Unit 26-2, .25THK
Drill Jig Components Fig. 26-1-A Connector.
MATL -SAE 1050

2. On a B- or A3 -size sheet, design a jig for Fig. 26-2-A Plate.

drilling the small holes in the part in either

Fig. 26-2-A or Fig. 26-2-B. The large cen-

ter hole and finished base should be the 08
features used for locating the part in the 6HOLES EVENLY SPACED ON
v 068 BOLT CIRCLE
jig. A locking pin is recommended for -044-
alignment after the first hole is drilled.
Standard components should be used
wherever possible.
3. On a B- or A3-size sheet, design a drill jig

for the smaller of the two holes shown in

Fig.26-2-C or 26-2-D. The hole in the hub

of the part and the finished surfaces MATL- BRASS 20THK
should be the features used for locating MATL - MALLEABLE IRON
the part in the jig. A locking pin for the Fig. 26-1-B Spacer. Fig. 26-2-B Flanged bracket.
part shown in Fig. 26-2-D is optional,
depending on the design. Standard com-
ponents should be used wherever possi-
-01.50
ble. Scale is full (1:1). 0.62

Assignments for Unit 26-3,

Renewable Bushings
4. On a B- or A3-size sheet, design a jig using
slip renewable bushings for one of the
parts shown in Fig. 26-3-A or 26-3-B. For
the jig for Fig. 26-3-B, only two drilling
operations are required — a tap drill hole
and a clearance hole for the shank of the
cap screw. The clearance hole for the head
MATL -SAE 1050
of the cap screw and the threading of the
holes will each be done as a separate Fig. 26-1 -C Washer.
ROUN DS AND FILLETS R.I0
operation. Show the drill bushing for the
MATL - MALLEABLE IRON
largest hole in the assembly, and show a
Fig 26-2-C Link.
detail drawing of the slip bushings used
forthe smallest or smaller holes. Only
nominal sizes need to be shown. Scale is SAE 1050
full (1:1). 15 THICK ^.6^4
MATL -SAE 1050

Assignments for Unit 26-4,

Dimensioning Jig Drawings
5. On a B- or A3-size sheet, design a simple
platejig for drilling the holes in one of the
parts shown in Fig. 26-4-A or 26-4-B. The
size of the dowel pins used
in the design is
.2502 ± .0001 in. or 6.006 ± 0.003 mm.
After your overall design has been
approved by your instructor, dimension
the jig plate as per procedures outlined in
this unit. Scale is full (1:1). Fig. 26-1-D Cover Connector.
plate. Fig. 26-2-D

536 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 0.34
CBORE 0.50 X .31 DEEP
4HOLES EVENLY SPACED ON
BOLT CIRCLE
,02.38

.750- 12 UNC-

— LU
-T
w ww
t-h
I
i

fL
'

^w
+-
.62

02.00

-03.50- MATL - BRASS .38 THICK

MATL-SAE 1110 TOLERANCE ON DIMENSIONS +.005
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED
Fig. 26-3-A End plate.
Fig. 26-4-A Locking plate.

MATL- MALLEABLE IRON

Fig. 26-5-B Swivel hanger.

06
2 HOLES
0.750

8-32UNC-2B
2 HOLES
MATL-SAE 1110

Fig. 26-3-B Coupling.

X 6THK

TOLERANCE ON DIMENSIONS
±0.1 UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED

Fig. 26-4-B Spacer.

Assignments for Unit 26-5, 01.38 — MATL - SAE 1020

Closed Jigs Fig. 26-6-A Drive link.

6. On a B- or A3-size sheet, design a box-
type jig for drilling all the holes in one of 020.5
the parts shown in Fig. 26-5-A or 26-5-B.
Select a suitable tumble-box jig from the
appendix. Use standard components
wherever possible. Scale is full (1:1).

Assignments for Unit 26-6,

Fixtures
7. On a B- or A3-size sheet, design a simple 05.1

milling fixture to millout the two outside

portions on the top of the part in Fig.
26-6-A or the slot in Fig. 26-6-B. Use stan-
dard components and refer to manufac-
turers' catalogs wherever possible. Draw
MATL -SAE 1030
^V^-
the workpiece in red. Scale is half size
(1:2). Fig. 26-5-A Link Fig. 26-6-B Sleeve

JIGS AND FIXTURES S37

CHAPTER 27
Die Design

-^tss
UNIT 27-1 PUNCH
Die Design
muUu^M ^^^^^^^',^s 1SS\\\^,S\SS^
Because of the wide use of sheet metal
in the construction of many products,
die design and its associated tooling
have become indispensable to the
engineering industry.
t-v" .
^^
tt tit
A casual examination of the goods
on sale in any hardware store will PUNCHED EXTRUDED PIERCED
make it clear that presswork or stamp-
Fig. 27-1-1 Methods of producing holes.
ing is the foundation of the mass-pro-
duction industry. Also, designers will
often seek to replace expensive cast- Stamping may be divided into two
ings and forgings w ith parts of equal general classifications: forming and
strength constructed from sheet metal shearing.
for one or more of the following
Forming Forming includes stampings
reasons:
made by forming sheet metal to the
1. Faster production, because of the shape desired without cutting or shear-
speed at which the presses can ing the metal.
operate.
Shearing Shearing includes stampings
2. Cheaper costs, since many press
operations can be carried out by
made by shearing the sheet metal
either to change the outline or to cut Fig. 27-1-2 Punch press used to punch and
unskilled labor.
holes in the interior of the part. form metal. (Whitney Metal Tool Co.)
3. Lighter construction by skillful
arrangement of the sheet-metal Blanking is the process of shearing
components. or cutting out the size and shape of a
flat piece necessary to produce the
Piece Part A piece part is the product
desired finish part.
of a die.
STAMPING Punching forms a hole or opening in
the part. Stock Material Thisis the general term
Stamping is the art of pressworking
forany of the various materials from
sheet metal to change its shape by the
which the piece part is made.
use of punches and dies. It may
involve punching out a hole or the
PRINCIPLES OF
Die The word die has several defini-
product itself from a sheet of metal. It
BLANKING DIES tions. This book utilizes two: (1) a
may also involve bending or forming, Before beginning the study of die complete production tool, the purpose
drawing, and coining. See Figs. 27-1-1 design,you must have a clear under- of which is to produce piece parts con-
and 27-1-2. standing of the following terms. sistently to required specifications.

538 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

and (2) the female part of a complete
die.
Punch A punch is the male member of
a complete die which mates, or acts in
conjunction with, the female die to
produce a desired effect upon the
material being worked.
Parts Produced by Blanking
The piece part in Fig. 27-1-3 is pro-
duced by blanking. It is shown in
relation to the stock material from
which it was blanked. The terms used
to describe the various aspects
work are indicated. The stock strip is
stock material of the required thick-
ness (D which has been cut to strips of
suitable width for the particular job.
The stock strip is fed through the die
from by the
right to left, as indicated
feed direction arrow. The advance is
the distance the stock must be fed
(advanced) to allow a clean blanking
operation at each press stroke. The
scrap bridge is the scrap remaining
FRONT SCRAP
SCRAP 8RIDGE
DIE SHOE BOLTED
TO PRESS BED OF
PUNCH PRESS
(B)
Fig. 27-1-3 Simple blanking die.
between the openings in the stock strip
after blanking. The advance distance is
equal to the width of the piece part plus
the scrap bridge. The back scrap is so
called because it is located toward the
back of the press (away from the oper-
ator). The front scrap is on the side
toward the front of the press (toward
the operator). The lead end of the
stock strip is the end that is fed into the
die first. The opposite end of the strip
is called the tail.
The piece part shown in Fig. 27-1-4
is called a blank because further
required to complete it. The slug is
work
of the is
the material that is cut out of the blank
or piece part by a punching operation.
Whether a die is a blanking die or a
punching die depends solely upon its
intended use. It is called a blanking die
if it is meant to produce blanks (B), as
shown in Fig. 27-1-3, or a desired con-
tour and size by cutting them out of the
required type of material, called the
stock strip. The blanks are the desired
product (piece parts) made by the die.
PIECE PART (BLANK)
(Al RELATIONSHIP OF PIECE
PART AND STOCK STRIP
PUNCH AND DIE ASSEMBLY
STOCK STRIP
£
PIECE PART (BLANK)
-PUNCH OPENING
WT^ ^y PIECE PART (BLANK)
SLUG
Fig. 27-1-4 Relationship of stock material,
piece part, and slug.
Description of Blanking Die
Figures 27-1-3 and 27-1-5 show the
basic elements of a standard parts
blanking die. These elements are the
die block, in which the proper female
die opening has been made, an adaptor
(may or may not be required depend-
ing on the size of hole being made), the
punch, and the stripper. In addition,
guide and stopping devices are re-
quired to control the stock. The die
block and stripper are secured to the
die shoe, which in turn is fastened to
the press bed of the punch press. The
punch is locked into the punch holder,
which in turn is secured to the press
ram which moves up and down. Stan-
dard punch and die parts are shown in
Fig. 27-1-6.
Press Cycle during Blanking See Fig.
27-1-5A. The at-rest position of the
press ram is at the top of the stroke.
The ram is then at its greatest distance
from the bed of the press. When the
press is tripped, the clutch allows
engagement of the crankshaft with the
press flywheel. The crankshaft then
rotates through 360°, or one full turn.
During the first half of the cycle, the
ram is driven toward the press bed.
During the last half of the cycle, the
ram moves away from the press bed.
The distance traveled by the ram dur-
ing the half cycle (top of stroke to bot-
tom of stroke) is called the press
stroke.
DIE DESIGN 539
 STOCK STRIP (A)

OOWNWARD FORCE
OF PUNCH
(PRESS RAMI

7 PRESS BED DIE ADAPTOR- 1

»— DIE BLOCK *-DIE SHOE IC) STRIPPER PREVENTS STOCK FROM
(Bl PUNCH SHEARS THROUGH STOCK RISING WITH PUNCH ON RETURN
(Al PUNCH IN "AT REST" POSITION AND BLANKS OUT PIECE PART STROKE

Fig. 27-1-5 Simple blanking operation using standard components shown in Fig. 27-1-6

-0 .25 SET SCREW

10.00- -5.00-

c 6.24-

.38

T
4.24 --.38

1.25

/+\
2.1b- 5.50
1.75
2.50
^
ii h-,
0.25
.36 —
RADIAL
-4.28 ->4 _i\LOCK:ing PIN
-8.00

qr 2TT
"LTLT| — I

*TSIS
_L_L
1.25 .25
j'

QjiJZJ
;
; .25 \

50

1.00

-H U-0I.7E
n 2.50

[--.60—
ADJUSTABLE
01.00
GUIDE BLOCK

PT — DIE SHOE WITH T SLOTS

I

PT 2- DIE SHOE WITHOUT T SLOTS

[-•-02.75—
T .54

3.12 3.12 .75

I. lb
--.62 -J
SLOT DETAIL r _1
—0I.56H
— J0.75[*-
PUNCH
SIZE -m — 02.94 •

2.00
PUNCHES DIE ADAPTOR

4.12 PUNCH SHAPE AVAILABLE SIZES

02.94- .12TO 1.00 in. IN^L in

CIRCLES

r HOLE
(SEE
SIZE AND SHAPE
PUNCHES)
INCREMENTS
.64
U&LUa iA
3fZM 5
SQUARES .12 TO .75 in. IN ^x in.

INCREMENTS
X 101.001-,L L— HOLE SIZE + .03 in.
CLEARANCE PER SIDE
RECTANGLES
.12
.25
X
X
.75
.75
.16
.31
X
X
.75
.75
.19
.38
X .75
X .75 .50 X .75
PUNCH HOLDER DIE BLOCK .12 X 1.00 .16X 1.00
OVALS .19 X 1.00 .25 X 1.00
.31 X 1.00 .38 X 1.00 .50 X 1.00

Fig. 27-1-6 Standard punch and die parts. (Whitney Metal Too! Co.

540 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

Action of Blanking or Punching a Die tion. The stock material has been of percentages for various materials is
Refer to Fig. 27-1-5B. The stock mate- placed on the die, the press has been given in Fig. 27-1-9.
rial (A) is fed or loaded in the proper tripped, and the punch is being driven There is another result of the neces-
position on the top surface of the die toward the die. The punch contacts the sity for cutting clearance that must be
block. When the press is tripped, the stock material and exerts pressure studied and thoroughly understood by
ram drives the punch through the stock upon it. When the elastic limit of the the tool and die maker. This is the
strip (A) into the die opening, thereby stock material is exceeded, plastic effect of cutting clearance on the
producing an opening in the stock deformation takes place. actual dimensions of the piece part, as
material by cutting out the blank or Second Stage: Penetration. As shown in Fig. 27-1-10.
slug(B). ram continues,
the driving force of the
the punch is forced to penetrate the
Stripping After the blanking has taken
stock material, and the blank or slug is
CUTTING CLEARANCE PER SIDE
place, the punch is returned to the (Percentage of Stock Thickness)
displaced into the die, which opens a
open or at-rest position by the press Irregular
corresponding amount. This is the true Contours Round
ram as it completes its cycle. The shearing portion of the cutting cycle, Aluminum
stock material clings to the punch and
from which the term shearing action is Soft, less than .06 in.
will remain on the punch unless some- (1.5 mm) thick 3% 2%
derived.
thing is done to prevent it. This is the Soft, more than .06 in.
Third Stage: Fracture. Further [1.5 mm) thick 5% 3%
function of the stripper: it keeps the Hard 5-8% 4-6%
continuation of the punching pressure
stock material from traveling with the
then causes fractures to start at the Brass & Copper
punch on the return stroke (Fig. Soft 3% 2%
cutting edges of the punch and the die.
27-1-5C). Half Hard 4% 3%
These three stages of shear action Hard 5-6% 4%
are responsible for the characteristic Steel
Reaction of the Stock
Material —
Shearing Action
appearance of piece parts produced by
blanking.
Low Carbon
Half Hard'
Hard
Soft 3%
4%
5%
2%
2%
3%
The result of the forces imposed on the
Silicon Steel 4-5% 3%
stock material by the working of the 5-8% 4-6%
Cutting Clearance Stainless Steel

blanking die is a shearing action. This

Proper cutting clearance is necessary Fig. 27-1-9 Cutting clearances.
shearing action may be considered to the life of the die and the quality of
in which are important
three stages,
the piece part. Excessive cutting clear-
to the die maker because of their di-
ance results in objectionable piece- DIE OPENING-; ,— PUNCH
rect relationship to the dimensional
part characteristics; insufficient cut-
qualities and appearance of piece
causes undue stress and
ting clearance
parts. They are also related to the
wear on the cutting members of the CUTTING
CLEARANCE
effectiveworking and life of the die. EQUAL
tool because of the greater punching ALL AROUND
These stages showing the reaction of CONTOUR —-
effort required.
the stock material are illustrated pro-
gressively in Fig. 27-1-7. Determining Cutting Clearance The
physical properties and the thickness
Critical Stages of Shearing Action of
of the stock material are the factors
Metal First Stage: Plastic Deforma- that determine the amount of cutting
clearance. The thickness is easily mea-
sured, but the physical properties in
relation to cutting clearance are not.
^DIE OPENING
See Fig. 27-1-8.
Cutting clearance should be ex- 1

Fig. 27-1-10 Piece part sizes in relation to

ns FIRST STAGE-PLASTIC DEFORMATION pressed in terms of percentage of stock punch and die size.
material thickness per side.
The percentage varies with the prop-
erties of the material. A suggested list
RELATIONSHIP OF
CUTTING
PIECE-PART SIZES TO PUNCH
IB) SECOND STAGE-PENETRATION ISHEAR)
clearance
stock material EDGE RADIUS
AND DIE SIZES
t :—^CUT BAND When blanked piece parts are mea-
sured, themeasurement is made at the
cut band. The blank or slug measures
larger than the opening in the stock
material from which it was punched.
.—-CUT BAND
IC] THIRD STAGE-FRACTURE EDGE RADIUS The reasons for this are obvious upon
Fig. 27-1-7 Critical stages of shearing action examination of Fig. 27-1-10. The actual
on metal. Fig. 27-1-8 Optimum cutting clearance. cutting of the blank or slug is done by

DIE DESIGN 541

 •>ER
A careful dimensional check of a
blank or slug will often reveal that its
overall dimensions are slightly larger
than the die opening that produced it.
This is because the cutting action
caused it to be compressed in the die
(Al PL-'-
opening. After it passed through the
die, the pressure was released; there-
fore, it expanded a slight amount. Con-
versely, a punched opening will often
ZflD Lffi be slightly smaller than the punch
10EDPIN which produced it. When the punch
Fig. 27-1-11 Solid pin stops. was withdrawn from the stock material
during the stripping stage, the opening
closed slightly. Most materials react
this way. Satisfactory compensation
for this condition is usually achieved
the cutting edge of the die opening. by making the punch .0005 to
Therefore, the die opening determines (0.01 to 0.02 mm) larger overall than
DIE STOPS
In the majority of applications, stops
are installed on dies for the purpose of
arresting the feeding movement of the
stock strip.
Figure 27-1-11 illustrates three types
of solid stop pins. A mounting hole is
provided at the desired location in the
required die component. The stop pin
shown in view A is mounted in a die
block. The pin is a light drive fit in the
mounting hole. The mounting hole is
generally made to suit the stop pin so
that a standard pin size can be used. A
clearance hole for the pin should be
provided in the die shoe.
.001 in. The stock strip shown in Fig. 27-1-12
is located by a simple stop pin pressed

the size of a blank or slug. The actual the desired opening to be punched. If into the die shown. In operation, the
cutting of the opening in the stock the blank is the desired product, the edge of the hole in the stock strip butts
material done by the punch. There-
is die opening is then made .0005 to .001 against the stop pin. holding the stock
fore, the size of a punched opening is in. (0.01 to 0.02 mm) smaller overall strip at this position until the piece part
determined by the punch. than the desired blank. is punched out. The stock strip is then

UIDE LOCK ASSEMBLIES 4 GUIDE PINS

GUIDE BLOCK
RUNNING FIT
IN T-SLOT
LOCKED IN
POSITION BY
SETSCREW

STOCK STRIP STOCK STRIP

IAI 4 GUIDE PINS LOCATE STOCK STRIP

ROUND-HEAD SCREW WITH SQUARE NUT

^DIE SHOE WITH T SLOTS

ADJUSTABLE GUIDE STRIP
IAI USING STOP PIN (BACK GAGEI

-4 GUIDE PINS (RADIAL LOCKING PINS-SOLID

OR HOLLOW SPRINGI
RADIAL LOCKING PIN USED AS A STOP PIN

RESTING BAR ATTACHED

DIE SHOWN WITHOUT T SLOTS TO GUIDE STRIP
(Bl USING RADIAL PIN IB) GUIDE STRIP AND PINS
Fig. 27-1-12 Stopping the stock strip. Fig. 27-1-13 Guiding the stock strip.

542 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 -SHEET OR STRIP
raised and moved along so that the -NESTED PARTS
next hole drops over the stop pin. Two
simple ways of stopping the stock strip
=£ / \ / \ / -.

are shown. The operator should be

* / \ /
able to see the stop action. As such it
.

may be necessary to cut away part of

the stripper plate so that the stop pin -

may be seen. See Fig. 27-1-13. CE SLOT

FOR LOADING
OADING
-

""fr"- GAGING CLEARANCE

Guide Strip and Pins
The stock strip must be guided into the L- STRAIGHT

die. This is accomplished by guide pins

and guide strips. The two shown in
Fig. 27-1-13 are standard parts, adjust- Fig. 27-1-15 Typical fixed-pin nest gage.
able, and. as such, can be used on
(Bl SINGLE ROW- RUNI

more than one stock strip size. The

same screws which hold the stripper
plate can be used for the guide strip.
If four guide pins are used, such as
shown in Fig. 27-1-13A. then a spacer
vide suitable nest gaging: accuracy,
loading ease, unloading ease, and
foolproofing.
^3U^3U' ^
^^ '
^
ICl SINGLE ROW - DOUBLE RUN
or shim will be required under the Reference
stripper plate in order that the stock I. From Basic Diemaking by the
strip may be raised sufficiently to clear National Tool, Die, and Precision
the stop or radial locking pin. Other Machining Association. Copyright.
forms of stops, such as automatic or 1963. McGraw-Hill Book Com-
spring stops, are also used but will not pany. Used by permission. (D) DOUBLE ROW - DOUBLE RUN
be covered at this time. See Fig.
27-1-14.
ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 1 and 2 for Unit 27-1
s
(E) SINGLE ROW - DOUBLE RUN
on page 552.
Fig. 27-2-1 Nesting of blanks.
Review for Assignment
Unit 6-4 Assembly Drawings
Appendix Bolt and Nut Sizes

To reduce the amount of scrap, it

may be desirable to alternate or

reverse the position of every other
blank. However, with this layout
method the strip must be fed through
the die twice, which involves addi-
tional handling costs to produce the

UNIT 27-2 same number of parts. Figure 27-2-2

shows how, by modifying the original
Nesting of Blanks design slightly, a stock saving could be
Fig. 27-1-14 Cutting notch in stripper plate
achieved.
so operator may see stop action.
In die design, one of the first consid-
erations is the layout of the piece parts
on the stock strip. Since over 50 per-
NEST GAGES cent of the cost of a stamping is for
Nest gages are commonly used on dies material, the designer must take care
which perform secondary operations, to utilize the raw stock to full advan-
such as piercing, forming, etc. A typi- tage. The blanks must be positioned so
cal fixed-pin nest gage is shown in Fig. as to utilize the maximum area of the
27-1-15. stock strip. See Fig. 27-2-1. STOCK SAVING
The purpose of a nest gage is to To accomplish this, a layout of the
locate and position the workpiece stock strip is made showing the exact
^-ORIGINAL SIZE
properly in the die. location of each blank. Only a portion
There are four important conditions of the strip need be drawn if the CORNERS REMOVED- 1
\— NEWSIZE

which must be satisfied in order to pro- remaining part of the strip is repetitive. Fig. 27-2-2 Stock saving.

DIE DESIGN 543

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
In designing parts which are to be
stamped, certain design considera-
3
tions should t^e adhered to. Some of
kL^J
the more basic design rules follow. WMIN = 1.5 THICKNESS
L MIN = 5W
Specifying Cutoffs There are several Fig. 27-2-5 Minimum practical sections.
correct cutoffs that can be used for
economical stampings once the mate-
rial has been sheared to the correct
width. If sharp corners are permissi-
ble, the square corner is most eco-
nomical. Corners along the edge of the
strip should be sharp, and those not
'—GRAIN DIRECTION
adjacent to the edge should be round.
See Figs. 27-2-3 and 27-2-4.

\
^=
50
Fig. 27-2-6 Specifying grain direction.

(A) BEST CHOICE Fig. 27-2-8 Specifying hole opening near

blank edge.
stressed parts, the direction of the

(. H grain of the metal should be considered

and, when necessary, specified on the
drawing. See Fig. 27-2-6. AS LARGE

Hole Sizes and Tolerances For general rr" AS PRACTICAL

irACCEPTABLE
IB)
) \ economy, a hole diameter should not
be less than the thickness of the mate- &\ 7t~
rial. If the hole is less than the material tpTLLJ A
thickness or less than .04 in. (1 mm),

{-'
i
I the hole should be drilled and the burr
50 A
) removed at added cost.
(CI NOT RECOMMENDED Unless specified, tolerances shown
Fig. 27-2-3 Specifying cutoffs. on hole diameters are considered to METAL THICKNESS
"A" MINIMUM
apply to the punch side only. See Fig. INCHES MILLIMETERS
27-2-7.
UP TO .06 INC. UP TO 1 6 INC. 12 13]
^REFERRED
NOT RECOMMENDED- OVER TWO TIMES METAL
.06 OVER 1.6
THICKNESS
-*-| |-*-HOLE DIA METER
I
.
I
PUNCH SllDE
Fig. 27-2-9 Distance between holes.
W&///////,..
\I—-BREAKAGE
Notches with Vertices Notches in highly
Fig. 27-2-7 Punched holes
PREFERRED NOT RECOMMENDED stressed parts should be specified with
Fig. 27-2-4 Corner design. a radius at the vertex because a sharp
vee might provide the starting point of
Holes near Blank Edge A hole can be
a tear. The radius should be a mini-
punched without causing a bulge if the
Minimum Sections Tabs or slots should web is a minimum of the stock thick-
mum of twice the metal thickness. A
never be less than 1.5 to 2 times mate- sharp vertex is allowed on lower stress
ness. See Fig. 27-2-8. A bulge will
rial thickness in width and never less parts when it will aid in lowering
result whenever the web isless than
than .04 in. (1.0 mm). Its length should the stock thickness.
design costs. See Fig. 27-2-10.
not be greater than 5 times its width.
See Fig. 27-2-5.
Distance between Holes The distance Reference
between holes or between a hole and General Motors Drafting Standards
Grain Direction If the metal grain runs the edge of a part should be large
in a direction contrary to the strength enough to prevent tearing of metal and
requirement of the part, the strength of excessive die wear. Recommended ASSIGNENT
a stamping may be reduced consider- minimum distances are shown in Fig. See Assignment 3 for Unit 27-2 on
ably. Therefore, in designing highly 27-2-9. page 552.

544 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 -MINIMUM RADIUS = 2 X METAL THICKNESS.
PREFERRED FOR HIGHLY STRESSED PARTS. the guideposts and bushings by which
the shoes are aligned.
The following terms are either
Xf directly pertinent or closely related to
die sets.
Die Shoe The die-set base
die shoe (or die holder).
VERTEX PERMITTED
r SHARPLOW-STRESSED
\ FOR PARTS. Punch Holder The die-set top member
iscalled the punch holder (or punch
shoe).
Shank Most punch holders
smaller sizes are made with a shank
POOR which fits the clamping hole in the
lower end of the punch press ram. The
Fig. 27-2-10 Notches with vertices.
shank is used to center the die set in
the press and to secure the punch
holder to the ram.
Guideposts Guideposts (also called
UNIT 27-3 leader pins or guide pins) are cylindri-
Die Sets and cal pins which provide a means of
alignment for the die set.
Components Guidepost Bushings These are installed
in the opposing shoe and engage the
The punches and dies discussed in guideposts with a close sliding fit. The
Unit 27-1 are relatively simple and guideposts and bushings, acting to-
inexpensive and have limited use. gether, align the die set.
Many parts produced by punches and
dies are more complicated than those
Flange This a ledge which is flush
is
with the bottom surface of a die shoe
already discussed and, as such,
or the top surface of a punch holder.
require custom-designed die parts.
PUNCH PLATE
DIE SETS
A die set (Fig. 27-3-1) can be defined as
a subpress unit consisting of a lower
shoe and an upper shoe, together with
PUNCH HOLDER
SHANK
Fig. 27-3-2 Headless punch.
The ledge extends beyond the die area
to provide a means for clamping the
shoe member to the bolster plate or
press ram, whichever is appropriate.
Die Area This is the area available on
is called the the top surface of the die shoe and the
lower surface of the punch holder for
the mounting of punch and die compo-
nents.
Shut Height of Die This is the distance
from the bottom of the die shoe to the
in the
top of the punch holder when the die is
in its closed working position.
PUNCHES
As previously defined, a punch is a
male member of a complete die. It sup-
plements or complements the female
die in order to produce a desired effect
upon the material being worked.
Punches Mounted in
Punch Plates
A punch plate is so called because its
function is to retain and/or position a
punch or punches. Punches assembled
into punch plates are, for many ap-
plications, themost practical method
of punch mounting.
One method of assembling a punch
and punch plate combination is shown
in Fig. 27-3-2.
Perforator-Type Punches
A perforator-type punch can be
described as a cutting punch 1.00 in.
(25 mm) or less in diameter, if it is
round. If it is not round, then its con-
tour may be circumscribed by a circle
whose diameter is 1.00 in. (25 mm) or
less.
For the sake of convenience, these
punches are commonly called per-
forators whether or not their function

GUIDE POST BUSHING

DIE SHOE
^.j^ .001-002 in. .00I-.002 in.
FLANGE CLEARANCE -HK iK,?':^, ,CL£ARANCE-j|*
r (0.025-0.05C | Hi (0.025-0.050mm) (0.025-0.050 mm I
-Jf"
BOLT SLOT

(A) OPEN SLOT (B) POCKET-TYPE (C) SEPARATE

KEYSEAT KEYSEAT KEYSEAT
Fig. 27-3-1 Components of typical die set. Fig. 27-3-3 Typical key arrangement for punches.

DIE DESIGN 545

is strictl) one of perforating. As a rule, moving punch, the stripper acts to
perforators are mounted in punch arrest the stock material, permitting
plates. Common t\pes of ke\ arrange- the punch to withdraw from it. This
ments are shown in Fig. 27-3-3. action is depicted in Figs. 27-3-7 and
27-3-8. Figure 27-3-7 illustrates the
Step-Head Perforators For general arresting action of a fixed stripper.
application, the step-head perforator
shown in Fig. 27-3-4 is probably the View A The die is in a closed position,
t\pe most widely used. with the punch entered, at the bottom
of the press stroke.

-SHANK DIAMETER NORMALLY MADE

0002 TO 0005 in LARGER THAN
STANDARD REAMER
r LEAD DIA = SHANK Dl A -.001

RELIEVE SHARP
CORNERS
MOUNTING SCREW

Fig. 27-3-5 One-piece die ring — dowel

mounted.

opening. For rings with minimal cross

POINT DIA = 001 LARGER THAN SIZE OF section W, this usually requires that
OPENING IT IS INTENDED TO PUNCH-
dimension F be somewhat larger than
Fig. 27-3-4 Step-head perforator.
E. For rings with wider cross sections
W, the bolt circle diameter may be
made to divide W
equally, that is,
MOUNTING SCREWS E = F.

AND DOWELS Note that one dowel pin B is offset.

This is a foolproofing procedure; if the
Any construction method that se- dowel were not offset, it would be pos-
curely holds a die component in as- sible to mount this ring upside down.
sembly and simultaneously ensures Another common construction for
accurate positioning of the component round work is shown in Fig. 27-3-6.
may be
throughout the life of the die
said to be satisfactory.
It is common
procedure to use a
Here, the die ring is set in the die shoe.
K\\\v| _J^
combination of screws and dowels to STRIPPERS
provide for proper mounting (assem- Strippingis the act of removing the
bling) of the various components that work from the punch or punches. A
make up a die. The function of the stripper is a device for stripping.
dowels is to provide and maintain There are two basic stripping ac-
accurate positioning of the compo- tions, depending upon whether the
nent. The function of the screws is to punch is moving or stationary. With a
retain the component securely in the
doweled position.

DIE BLOCKS t^^LJ^

The term die block refers to the
com-
plete unit component which mates
with the punch or punches in the man-
ner required to produce the desired
effect upon the stock material.
Amongthe simplest of die block
constructions is the one-piece ring
shown in Fig. 27-3-5. Dowel pins are
used to locate and position the die ring.
The screw and dowel locations shown
are conventionally typical for smaller
rings of this kind. Bolt circle diameter
C should be such that the screw and
^^_JS
dowel positions w ill not be too close to
the wall of the die-shoe clearance
Fig. 27-3-7 Stripping action — fixed stripper,
Fig. 27-3-6 One-piece die ring— set in. punch moving with ram.

546 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 still in the position shown in view A. made with a cutting land contiguous to
The springs have maintained this strip- the cutting edge and extending into the
per position, forcing the ascending die opening. The height of the cutting
punch to withdraw from the stock land should be equal to the thickness
material, as shown. Stripper travel M of the stock material, but should not be
relative to the punch is noted. less than .08 mm). A height of .16
in. (2

View C The working cycle is com-

in. (4 mm) considered good average
is

practice for cutting material less than

pleted at the top of the press stroke.
.16 in. thick.
The punch holder has carried the
punch and stripper assembly with it to
View B shows the angular clearance
beginning at the cutting edge. This
the up position. The workpiece has
method is used when it is necessary or
been left behind, lying on the die sur-
desirable to relieve the compression
face to be retrieved or ejected as
stored within the blanked part as soon
required.
as possible.

Fig. 27-3-8 Stripping action
stripper, punch moving with ram.
View B The punch is ascending on the
return stroke. The stock material
(work) clings to the punch, moving
upward with it until it contacts the
intervening stripper.
View C The punch, as it continues
upward, is withdrawn from the stock
material, permitting the stock material
to drop toward the die surface.
View D The working cycle is com-
ANGULAR CLEARANCE
Angular clearance a draft or taper
STRIPPER SCREW
is
applied to the sidewalls of a die open-
PUNCH HOLDER
ing (Fig. 27-3-9) in order to relieve the
SPRING internal pressure of the blank or slug as
SPRING PILOT it passes through the opening.
Specifying Angular Clearance
— WORK clearance should be expressed in
(STOCK MATERIAL!
terms of the amount of clearance per
side, not as an overall or included-
angle figure.
Maximum and Minimum Angular
— pressure-pad
ance With few exceptions, an angle of
2° per side can be considered a max-
imum desirable clearance angle.
practical minimum clearance angle
0.13° per side (1:250 taper).
Methods of Providing Angular Clear-
ance Figure 27-3-9 illustrates the
application of angular clearance to die
openings. In view A, the opening is
CUTTING LAND
BLANK AND SLUG OPENINGS
IN DIE SHOES
After a blank or slug has passed
through its die opening, it falls through
the clearance opening in the die shoe.
The following requirements must be
Angular met: (1) the blanks or slugs must fall
freely, without interference; (2) the
contour of the clearance opening in the
die shoe should be made as simple as
possible; (3) the opening should not
weaken the die shoe any more than
Clear-
necessary; and (4) the contour of the
die shoe opening must be such that it
A provides adequate support for the die
is block.
Various typical die-shoe clearance
openings are shown in Fig. 27-3-10.
Straight and Tapered Die-Shoe Open-
ings At times it is difficult to decide
whether die-shoe clearance openings
should be made straight or tapered
(Fig. 27-3-10C and D).
The tapered opening is unquestion-
ably the safest.The straight opening,
however, often easier to make,
is

pleted. The punch has returned to its ^q especially when the die shoe is large
up position. The workpiece has and/or thick.
dropped back to the die face and is ANGULAR CLEARANCE -
Amount of Taper The amount of taper
ready to be removed. DIE BLOCK'
on the sidewalls of the drop-through
Figure 27-3-8 depicts the arresting (A) WITH CUTTING LAND opening in a die shoe is not critical. An
action of a pressure-pad-type stripper.
angle of 0.5 to 2° will satisfy most
The stripper shown is spring-actuated.
cases.
Gages, spring pins, etc., have been
omitted for purposes of clarification. Amount of Offset The top edge of the
die-shoe opening is offset from the bot-
View A The diea closed position,

^
is in
tom edge of the die opening. The
punch entered, bottom of the
at the
amount of offset is not critical.
press stroke. The potential stripper
travel for the stripper action is indi- ULAR CLEARANCE-' J^ T

cated at M. DIE BLOCK-/ ARRANGEMENT OF VIEWS

View B The punch assembly is ascend- (81 WITHOUT CUTTING LAND In laying out the design of a punch and
ing on the return stroke The stripper is
. Fig. 27-3-9 Angular clearance. die, an approved arrangement of views

DIE DESIGN 547

 is recommended over the theoretical process is repeated at every press

@®§@ @ arrangement of views, as illustrated in

Fig. 27-3-11. The stock strip is nor-
mally drawn in red or shown by phan-
stroke until each strip is used up.

Fixed Stop If a plain pin (no head) type

BUTTONS
DIE
of fixed stop were used, it would have
tom or broken lines on the assembly
to be installed at a safe distance from
drawing. Standard die sets are shown
the cut edge in order to avoid weaken-
in Table 86 of the Appendix.
(Al ROUND OPENINGS FOR BLANK OR SLUG ing the die block. As a result, the scrap
PASSAGE THROUGH DIE SHOE bridge would be wider than necessary,
BLANKING AND which would mean, of course, that
stock material was being wasted. In
u DIEOPENING
PLAN VIEW (
cr~
PUNCHING DIES
order to minimize the amount of scrap
while still maintaining adequate die-
l-CLEARANCE OPENING
IN DIE SHOE
Blanking Dies
Figure 27-3-12 is an assembly drawing block strength, the die shown has a
of the die which produces the blank for headed fixed-pin stop. The diameter of
the piece part illustrated. This die does the head is made rather large in pro-
DIE-SHOE CLEARANCE OPENING CONTOURED portion to the shank diameter, which
(8)
TO PROVIDE SUPPORT FOR DIE-OPENING CONTOUR the blanking operation only. The holes
in the piece part are punched in a sub- enables the mounting hole to be
sequent punching die. located a safe distance from the edge
Each component of the die is identi- of the die opening. The thickness or
DIEOPENING
1

PLAN VIEW fied by number and name. The

detail height of the stop head should be held
1

) 1 L
j number required of each component or to a practical minimum in order to
CLEA RANCE OPENING
IN DIE SHOE
f
1

detailis also shown. Socket-head cap

make the feeding of the stock strip as
[s^^ DIE OPENING pTD,«. t OCK screws are indicated by the abbrevia- easy as possible. The stop is shown in
)
'

'
k-OFFSET
DIE-SHOE OPENING M8h- tion SHCS. detail in Fig. 27-3-13.

(CI STRAIGHT WALL BLANK OR SLUG CLEARANCE Operation of Die The stock material is StrippingA gap-type fixed stripper is
OPENING IN DIE SHOE furnished in strip form 2.69 in. wide. It used. The gap is made relatively high
is fed across the die face from right to for ease of feeding. The height of the
left until the lead end contacts the gap and the open front provide vis-
DIE OPENING
PLAN VIEW stop, at detail 6. The press is then ibility and accessibility for the press
tripped, causing the first piece to be operator.
ZT J
blanked out. After the blanking, the
scrap bridge is lifted over the stop. As Blanking Die Details
soon as the bridge passes over the The die details are shown in Fig.

(LARGER AT BOTTOM!
stop, the strip dropped back to the
is 27-3-13. For the sake of clarity, only
(Dl TAPERED BLANK OR SLUG CLEARANCE OPENING die face. The head of the stop is now the overall dimensions and the dimen-
IN DIE SHOE
within the previously blanked-out sions pertinent to producing the piece
Fig. 27-3-10 Die-shoe openings. opening. The stock then ad-
strip is part are shown. Abbreviations used
vanced until the edge of the blanked- are OHTS for oil-hardening tool steel.
out opening contacts the stop. This CRS for cold-rolled steel, and RC60 to

^ T
fflB
Cl
TOP VIEW OF

J±T
DIE

mmw TOP VIEW OF DIE 80TTOM VIEW OF PUNCH

s. b4 p
ii
FRONT VIEW
S- i- x
j$

BOTTOM VIEW OF PUNCH

(A) THEORETICAL ARRANGEMENT OF VIEWS (B) APPROVED ARRANGEMENT OF VIEWS
Fig. 27-3-11 Arrangement of views for punch and die drawings.

548 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

Fig. 27-3-12 Blank- 3 ? DO EL
1
.'.
62 to indicate the hardness of the hard-
12 2 S.H.C.S.
through die assembly. STOCK REST ened two-steel components as mea-
LJ^*™\™ 10
9
3
1
S.H.C.S.
DOWEL sured on the C scale of a Rockwell
8 2 S.H.C.S.
? 2 DOWEL tester.
-K" 6
5
4
1

l
STOP
PUNCH
STRIPPER Die Block The die block, part 2, is for a
3 BACK RAIL
2 , DIE BLOCK blanking die. Therefore, the piece
:
DIE SET
parts produced will be sized by the die
1

THE PIECE PART DET PEQ DESCRIPTION

18 (.048) U.S. GAGE opening. The piece part specifies a

width of 1.500 +.000, -.005 in. The
tolerance is negative (minus). This
gives the width dimension a range of
1.495 to 1.500 in. The mean dimension
is 1.4975 in. With this in mind, a figure

of 1.4975 in. was chosen for the die

opening width.
The length of the piece part is 2.500
+ .005 -.000 in. This tolerance is
positive (plus). The range is 2.500 to
2.505 in., and the mean dimension is,
obviously, 2.5025. The die opening fig-
ure selected for this dimension is 2.502
in.

The chosen give a die open-

figures
ing size of 1.497 x 2.502 in. These
figures are the optimum die opening
sizes for the given conditions. A die
opening made to these figures will
yield a blank (or piece part) that will
measure very nearly the exact mean of
the dimensions specified on the piece-
part drawing.
Tolerances are specified on the
The purpose of the
piece-part drawing.
B A ft B tolerances is to specify a range of
o o oo 1.16 o o oo acceptable sizes: all piece parts pro-
"j
^R 12
duced within the range are acceptable.
|
4 12 This does not mean that the die open-
2.56
ing can be made to the same tolerance

i l l ill +-+ range as the piece part.

«,
—-I.56--

4 00 m
—J
\

II)
m
STOCK REST
A good choice for a minimum
acceptable die opening size is 1.4955 x
2.5005 in. The maximum acceptable
©STRIPPER REQD MATL-CRS
BACK GAGE
I

die opening should be 1.498 x 2.503 in.

I REQD MATL-CRS IREQD MATL-CRS

"3 Punch The punch sizes shown on part

E3 ^R.23 5 are 1.493 x 2.498 in., with a corner
O O '§> o o radius of .123 in. These cutting figures

<C7
4> 7
2.12
are the result of deducting the cutting
clearance from the optimum die open-
_.:r^. ^ TAPER 0.5°
© A ing dimensions. It is standard die
design procedure to show punch and
-«4.47 -n.497-*-

-I die dimensions in this manner.

@
C
j
A
O
C
Co;
J
- i9
fi n 75

51 F Back Gage The back gage, part 3, is

s T \fV
LT| 09
1.09 in. wide. This dimension is deter-
J
25—J I— mined as follows. The stock material
(?) DIE BLOCK REQD
width is specified as 2.69 in. One-half
I

^^ STOP REQD
MATL-OHTS RC60-62
© PUNCH REQD
I

(V) MATL-CRS
MATL-OHTS RC60-62 of this stock width is 1.345 in. The
CYANIDE HDN
"A" HOLES-REAM FOR DOWELS 13)
NOTE ONLY DIMENSIONS PERTINENT TO DIE
distance from the center line of the die
"B" HOLES-CLEARANCE FOR CAP SCREWS (21
"C" HOLES-TAPPED FOR MOUNTING SCREWS 13) DESIGN SHOWN ON DETAIL DRAWINGS opening to the back of the die block is
Fig. 27-3-13 Details of blank-through die. 2.44 in.

DIE DESIGN 549

 Subtracting 1.345 from 2.44 leaves a
difference of 1.095 in. from the edge of
the stock strip to the back of the die
block. Using 1.09-in. as the dimension
for the width of the back gage aids the
mounting of the gage of the die block.
Stripper The stripper opening, part 4.
measures 1.56 x 2.56 in.
sions give a clearance space of approx-
imately .03 in. on each side between
the punch and the stripper.
Punch Die
Figure 27-3-14 is an assembly drawing
of a die to punch two holes in the piece
part illustrated. This die performs the
punching of the holes only; the blank
was produced by the blank-through die
shown in Fig. 27-3-12. For conve-
nience, the piece part has been shown
on each die assembly drawing.
The punch dieup in the same
is set
manner as the blank-through die
assembly (Fig. 27-3-12).
Spring Stripper This die has a moving side of the blank and the burr side of
stripper actuated by springs. The the pierced holes will agree, as
designer elected to use this type of specified.
stripper for reasons of accessibility for
Locating and Feeding Proper location of
the press operator. Using a spring
the pierced holes in the piece part is
stripper for this die also ensures a flat-
achieved by a nest area created by the
ter piece part after piercing, because
nest pins, part 9. When the blank is
the stripper pressure holds the part
These dimen- placed in the nest area, it is confined
against the face of the die block while
between the nest pins, which are cor-
the cutting action is taking place.
rectly located with respect to the die
Instruction PlateNote that the drawing openings and punches.
calls for an instruction plate. The
Cutting Clearance When the cutting
plate, which reads LOAD PART
clearance for the blank-through die
BURR SIDE DOWN, must be clearly was determined, the clearance was
lettered and located at the front of the
found to be .002 in. per side. However,
die where it can be easily seen by the
for the punching die. owing to the fact
operator. The reason for the plate is
that the punchings are round, a cutting
that the piece-part drawing specifies a
clearance of .0015 in. per side was
burr side, and because the blank is
chosen.
symmetrical, there is no way to
foolproof the loading of the blank in
the die. As a result, the press operator
Punch Die Details
Figure 27-3-15 is the detail sheet for
must be instructed to feed the part into
the punch die. Major overall sizes
the die in such a manner that the burr
and dimensions associated directly
with the piece-part requirements are
shown.
: s-ee-er pin
12 : S MC.S Punches Refer to Fig. 27-3-15, parts 7
DOWEL
8. One of the openings in the piece
-
II

3 S.H.C.S
and
9 5 NEST PIN part is dimensioned .502 + .003. - .000
8 PUNCH
7 PUNCH in.diameter. For this opening, a punch
6 PUNCi- Pl-TE
2 B8S i 90S
5 4 SPRING diameter of .504 in. was decided upon.
4
3
- S.H.S.S
= " :
- = E - A punch which has a point or working
: : e e_ : :-
diameter of .504 in. will produce an
THE PIECE PART DIE SET
DET BEQC DESCRIPTION opening in the piece part of .5035 to
MATL- 18 1.0481 HARD BRASS
.504 in. . which is optimum for this par-
ticular opening.
The other opening is specified as
.688 ± .005 in. diameter. Since the
mean dimension for this figure is .688
in., a punch diameter of .688 in. is

used.
It is an accepted practice to make

the shank diameters of round punches

in .062-in. increments up to .50-in.
diameter and in .125 in. increments for
diameters larger than .50 in. Using
diameters of these size increments
means that the punch-plate openings
can be sized by reamers that are com-
mon toolroom equipment. Following
this practice led to a choice of .625-
and .750-in. diameters for the respec-
tive punch shanks.
The punch shanks are fitted to the
punch plate The proper fit is a light tap
.

fit. not a press fit.

Die Block Since this die block, part 2,

is for a punching die, the size of the die
Fig. 27-3-14 Punch die assembly.
openings is derived from the punches.

550 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 rLUW
-LOCATE FROM
2

D
f CO)
D O
o
fS-
3.50
i//^PTI3 o
gTS f SHREDDER
6d qPE. pin

H 97
f-
'0781-

,.2-T

LOADING STEP
"iTtTi Li i
0.750 J u — 0.625

TAPER REAM
\^-TAPFR RFAIV
0.750- J U U 9
0.562 PT 6 PUNCH PLATE
REQD CRS
PT3 STRIPPER I REQD CRS
I

PT 2 DIE BLOCK IREQD

O.H.T.S. RC60-62
94

HOLE DATA: 1 t-0.750

A-REAM FOR NEST PINS (5)
B-REAM FOR DOWELS (2) a±t-
C-TAP FOR MOUNTING SCREWS (3)
D-CLEARANCE HOLES FOR NEST PINS (5)
E-CLEARANCE HOLE FOR TOP OF SHREDDER PIN II)

-«-|
Pi*h»-0.688
PT7 PUNCH IREQD
O.H.T.S. RC60-62
PT8 PUNCH
O.H.T.S.
I

RC60-62
REQD

Fig. 27-3-15 Punch die details.

The punch diameters are .688 and .504
in. A cutting clearance of .0015 in. per
side is used. The die opening diameters
are, therefore, .691and .507 in.
The center-to-center distance
between the die openings is taken
directly from the piece-part specifica-
tions, which give 1.000 +.005, -000
in. Thus the dimensional range is 1.000
to 1.005 in. For this range the exact
mean dimension is 1.0025 in.
After the optimum die opening size
and location are decided, the next con-
sideration is to ensure proper location
of the pierced openings in relation to
the contour of the piece part. This is
the function of the nest pins, part 9. In
order to serve their purpose, the nest
pins must be accurately located. The
nest must fit the blank closely enough
to ensure the required accuracy of
location. Some clearance, however,
should exist between the nest pins and
the blank to permit ease of loading and
unloading. The amount of clearance to
allow, of course, depends upon the
accuracy requirements of the piece
part. In this particular case, a clear-
ance of .0005 to .001 in. between the
edges of the blank and the 0.250 in.
nest pins is Thus the
satisfactory.
center-to-center distances between
the nest pins are 1.751 (1.500
+ .001) and 2.756 (2.505 + .250 + .001) permissible because of the stock mate-
in. rial thickness and is desirable from the
die maker's viewpoint because it elimi-
Punch Plate Refer to Fig. 27-3-15-part
nates the need for precise location and
6. The .750- and .625 in. diameters are
sizing of the stripper openings.
chosen because a light tap fit is used.
Spring strippers such as this one
The center-to-center distance is
must have shedder pins to prevent the
picked up or transferred from the hard-
possibility of a piece part adhering to
ened die block. This procedure is fol-
the stripper. In this stripper, the shed-
lowed to eliminate the possibility of
der pin, part 13, is a standard pur-
minor alignment discrepancies which
chased item. It contains a pin which is
might result from slight dimensional
spring-loaded. A suitable tapped hole
changes caused by the die-block heat
is provided in the stripper to receive
treatment.
this unit, which is shown in assembly
The counterbores which receive the
with the stripper.
heads of the punches are made larger
than the punch heads. Clearing for the
Reference
heads in this way eliminates the pos-
1. From Basic Diemaking by the
sibility of misalignment resulting from
National Tool, Die, and Precision
contact between the head of the punch
Machining Association. Copyright,
and the side wall of the counterbore.
1963. McGraw-Hill Book Com-
Foolproofing is accomplished by
pany. Used by permission.
using dowels of differing diameters.
A shedder or spring pin, part 13, is
provided in the stripper. It is a stan-
dard purchased item, the length of ASSIGNMENTS
which cannot be altered.
See Assignments 4 through 6 for Unit
Stripper The diameters of
the stripper 27-3 on page 552.
openings (Fig. 27-3-15, part 3) are .562
and .750 in., respectively. These fig- Review for Assignments
ures give a clearance of approximately Unit 8-3 Cap Screws
.03 in. per side between the punches Unit 9-2 Pin Fasteners
+.250 and the stripper. So much clearance is Unit 9-4 Springs

DIE DESIGN 551

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 27

Assignments for Unit 27-1,

01.000
Die Design
1. On a B- or A3 -size sheet, lay out a stan-
dard die assembly for the part shown in
03.125
Fig. 27- -A or 27- -B. Wherever it is prac-
1 1

tical, use standard parts as shown in Fig.

27-1-6 Select suitable stops and guides.

The punch need not be shown. Show the
stock strip slug and piece part in a second
Fig. 27-1-A Stop.
color. Scale is half size 1 1 2).

2. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out a stan-

Fig. 27-1-C Nest gage.
dard punch and die assembly for the piece
part shown in Fig. 27-1 -C. The piece part
has already been punched out of the
stock strip, and the part must be posi-
tioned for the hole to be punched. A nest
gage similar to the type shown in Fig.
27- - 5 is recommended. Show the piece
1 1

part in a second color. Scale is full (1:1).

Assignment for Unit 27-2,

Nesting of Blanks
3. On a B- or A3-size sheet, design stock
strips for the parts shown on
Fig. 27-2-A Fig. 27-1-B Guide.
or 27-2-B. Dimension the width of the
stock strip. Scale is full (1:1).

Assignments for Unit 27-3,

Die Sets and Components
4. On a B- or A3-size sheet, design suitable R .25 .18

punches and the punch-

for the blanking
ing for the two parts shown in Fig. 27-3-A — 25
-0 .50
?& 2 HOLES

or 27-3-B. The die set to be used is B -36 1

or B -36 M, as shown in Table 86 in the

1 1

Appendix. Draw only the front and bot-

\\ .30
tom views of the punch. Scale is full (1:1). /45° J
1.18
5. On a B- or A3-size sheet, design a suitable
die
parts
die
as
and stripper plate for one of the two
shown in Fig. 27-3-C or 27-3-D. The
set to be used is B -36 or B -36 M,
shown in Table 86 in the Appendix.
Draw the front, top, and side views of the
1 1 1 1
f

.15
»50~
2.00

THICK .12 THICK .10

^THICK
Fig. 27-2-A Nesting of blanks.
die and stripper plate. Scale is full (1:1).
6. On a B- or A3-size sheet, draw the details
for theblank-through die in assignment 5.
Show all the details, but only those

dimensions pertinent to the blanking

design need be shown on the detail draw-
ings. Scale is to suit. 38
— 16- -R 6

1
A\ 8
Cc V-
v\\ A°?
R< J -« 4? •»

3.04 THICK 2.66 THICK

Fig. 27-2-B Nesting of blanks.

552 SPECIAL FIELDS OF DRAFTING

 .40

Fig. 27-3-A Punch and blank designs. Fig. 27-3-C Die and stripper plate design.

-0 10

Fig. 27-3-B Punch and blank designs. Fig. 27-3-D Die and stripper plate design.

DIE DESIGN 553

PART 6 Advanced
Drafting
Design
CHAPTER 28
Applied
Mechanics

UNIT 28-1 The force of gravity, pulling down- A line is drawn to a given length to
wards, acts on each mass on the Earth. represent the magnitude of the force.
Forces This "mass" and the "force of gravity," The direction of this line is parallel to
while having entirely different char- the direction of the force. The sense of
acteristics, are linked. The word the force is indicated by an arrow on
Weight (mass) and density have many "weight" in the metric system is the line indicating whether it is acting
applications in industry and construc- avoided, since it is ambiguous; it toward or away from the point of
tion. A few examples are sometimes means "mass" and some- application. The graphical representa-
• Defining quantities of materials, times "force of gravity," depending on tion of the force is called a vector.
such as bags of mortar and tons of the context. Thus a pull of 6 tons (T) acting at a
steel. Force is newtons. The
measured in point A at 45° to the horizontal would
• Defining physical characteristics of preferred units are newtons (N) for be represented by the vector AB, as
materials like steel beams (W24 x small forces, kilonewtons (kN) for shown in Fig. 28-1-1. Using the scale
94). 210-lb asphalt shingles, and 3.5- intermediate forces and meganewtons .25 in. = 1 T, the length of the vector
lb density board. (MN) for large forces. One newton is would be 1.50 in.
• Defining load capacity for supports, approximately one-quarter of a one-
bridges, cranes, and elevators. pound force.
Using a spring scale, it would take
A force is that which changes, or about 10 N to lift a 1-kg stone, perhaps
tends to change, the state of rest or 4 N to pull it along the floor, and
uniform motion of a body. maybe 6.5 N to pull it up a ramp.
In this chapter, the force of gravity
acting on the part, rather than the mass
U.S. Customary Units of the part is given in the examples and
In the U.S. Customary System, the problems. Fig. 28-1-1 A vector.
force values are given in pounds, kips,
and tons. The methods for solving
problems in either metric or U.S. Cus- GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION A body is said to be in equilibrium if

tomary units are identical. OF FORCES the forces acting at a point balance one
another. If two equal and opposite
The graphical method of solving forces act at a point in a straight line,
mechanical problems involving forces the body is in equilibrium. Examples
Metric Units
isoften used because it is quick and aretie bars, which are bars under pull
The term mass (not weight) is used to
accurate. The force is shown graphi- or tension, and struts or columns,
refer to the quantity of matter in an
cally. To describe completely the which are bars under push or compres-
object (rather than to the force of grav-
force, the following particu+ars must sion (Fig. 28-1-2).
ity acting on it). Mass is always mea-
be given
sured in terms of the kilogram, gram,
or some related unit; that is. a multiple 1. Its magnitude TWO FORCES ACTING
or submultiple of the gram. Whenever point of application
a quantity is specified in such a unit,
2.

3.
Its
Its direction
AT A POINT
mass, not force, is the quantity under 4. Its sense, i.e.. whether it is pushing Two or more forces acting at a point
consideration. or pulling may be replaced by one force that will

APPLIED MECHANICS 555

Fig. 28-1-2 Types of forces acting on FORCE FORCE arrows representing the direction of
supports. the forces are pointing the same way
around the triangle.

REACTION OF MORE THAN TWO FORCES

SUPPORTS ARE
EQUAL BUT OPPOSITE
ACTING AT A POINT
IN DIRECTION TOFORCEj
Resultants or equilibrants may be
found for any number of forces acting
FORCE at a point and in one plane. Let A, B. C,
and D represent forces acting at a point
TIE BAR STRUT COLUMN O, shown in Fig. 28-1-6A.
(TENSION) (COMPRESSION) (COMPRESSION)
Using the parallelogram of forces
method shown in Fig. 28-1-6B, we find
produce the same effect. This force is direction of the resultant force is in the the resultant R for forces A and B and
]

called the resultant of the forces. If combined direction of the other two resultant R2 for forces C and D. Using
5 T act at a
two opposite forces of 8 and forces. resultants /?, and R2
28-1-6C in Fig.
point O in a straight line, as in Fig. If a force equal to the resultant of instead of the forces A, B, C, and D.
28-1-3. a resultant force of 3 T acting in forces F, and F2 but acting in the
,
we find the resultant R of the four
the same direction as the 8 T force opposite direction, was to act at O, as forces. The equilibrant or force
could replace the two original forces. shown in Fig. 28-1-5B, the object required to keep the forces A, B, C.
would be in equilibrium, since the and D in equilibrium would be equal to
forces acting at point O tend to balance R but would act in the opposite
one another. This force balancing the direction.
other forces is known as the equil-
ibrant.
The equilibrant is found in a similar
POLYGON OF FORCES
manner to the resultant, by using the Using the polygon of forces method
triangle of force method. Note that the shown in Fig. 28-1-7, which is the

-EQUILIBRANT EQUAL TO RESULTANT

Fig. 28-1-3 Resultant when two forces act in
BUT OPPOSITE IN DIRECTION EQUILIBRANT OF TWO
RESULTANT OF TWO
a straight line. FORCES F| AND F 2 FORCES F| AND F 2

If two opposite forces F, and F2 act

at point O at angles of 120° to each
other, as in Fig. 28-1-4, the resultant
force R may be found by drawing the
two forces to scale and completing the
(A) TRIANGLE OF FORCE (B) FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM (C) TRIANGLE OF FORCE
parallelogram. The diagonal would OC METHOD FOR FINDING METHOD FOR FINDING
be the resultant, and the magnitude of RESULTANT EQUILIBRANT
the force could be measured. This Fig. 28-1-5 Resultant and equilibrant of two forces acting at a point using the triangle of force
method is called the parallelogram of method.
forces. Accuracy of direction and dis-
tance is important in laying out forces.
Another way of Finding the resultant
is the triangle of force method. The

known force vectors are laid end to

end with the forces traveling in the
same direction. The resultant R is
found by joining the beginning of the
first vector to the end of the last vec-
tor, as shown in Fig. 28-1-5A, and the

c
A, ^^RESULTANT OF
\TWO FORCES F| AND F2

\
*
(A) SPACE DIAGRAM FORCE DIAGRAMS
Fig. 28-1-6 Parallelogram of forces method of finding resultant of R for more than two forces
Fig. 28-1-4 Parallelogram of forces. acting at a point.

556 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 EQUILIBRANT-E

(A) SPACE DIAGRAM (B) FORCE DIAGRAP

Fig. 28-1-7 Polygon of forces method for finding the equilibrant for more than two forces
acting at a point.

extension of the triangle method, join EXAMPLE 2 In Fig. 28-1-9, a simple

FORCE DIAGRAM
the forces A, B, C, and D
end to end to wall crane has a 400 lb load applied at
Fig. 28-1-10 Solution to Example 3 by the
form a polygon. Be careful to keep the the end of the jib. Neglecting the force diagram method.
arrows pointing the same way around. weight of the crane parts, calculate the
The line joining the beginning of the forces acting on the tie and jib.

first force and the end of the last force Solution A space diagram is drawn mass exerts a force of 12 x 9806.65 N
is the equilibrant. first to find the direction of the force = 117 700 N or 117.7 kN on the chain.
The following examples illustrate acting on the tie. With the direction of A space diagram is drawn first to find
how vector diagrams are applied to the three forces and the magnitude of on the
the direction of the forces acting
practical problems. one force W known, a force diagram is tie, jib.and chain connected to the
then drawn to a suitable scale. The winch. With the direction of the four
EXAMPLE A crane lifts a steel boiler
1
length of lines F, and F2 can now be forces and the magnitude of two forces
by means of a chain sling. The sling
measured to find the magnitude of the known, a force diagram is then drawn
makes angles of 30 and 45° with the
forces acting on the jib and tie. to a suitable scale. The length of lines
boiler. Find the forces acting on the
F, and F2 can now be measured to find
sling if the weight of the boiler is 8 EXAMPLE 3 In Fig. 28-1-10, a machine
the magnitude of the forces acting on
tons. having a mass of 12 tonnes (t) is lifted
the jib and tie.
Solution The force on the crane's by a jib crane. The length of the jib is
chain supporting the sling is equal to 5500 mm and an 8500-mm tie is fas- EXAMPLE 4 In Fig. 28-1-11, a simple
the force created by the weight of the tened to a point 4300 mm
behind the roof truss has a force W
applied at the
boiler. The angles on the sling indicate base of the jib. The chain that lifts the top. Find the forces acting on the raf-
the direction of the sling forces F, and machine passes over a pulley at the top ters, tie bar, and walls.
F-,, shown in the space diagram in
as of the jib and connects to a winch Solution A space diagram is drawn
Fig. 28-1-8. The force diagram is then located 1800 mm
behind the base of the first to find the direction of the force
drawn to a suitable scale and the jib. Find the forces acting on the jib acting on the rafters. A force diagram
lengths of lines F, and F2 are measured and tie.
to find the magnitude of the forces act- Solution A 1-t mass creates a gravita-
ing on the sling. tional force of 9806.65 N. The 12-t

12 SPACE DIAGRAMS

SPACE DIAGRAMS SPACE DIAGRAMS

nW = 400
BA
* W
AC*-

SPACE AND FORCE DIAGRAMS - TOP OF TRUSS

F| = 530

8T

FORCE DIAGRAM FORCE DIAGRAM

Solution to Example 2
W = 400

by the
^
SPACE AND FORCE DIAGRAMS AT TOP OF WALL
Example 4 by the
Fig. 28-1-8 Soluiton to Example 1 by the Fig. 28-1-9 Fig. 28-1-11 Solution to
force diagram method. force diagram method. force diagram method.

APPLIED MECHANICS 557

 68 83 FORCE DIAGRAM BECOMES
taken at point A is drawn as the rafters A STRAIGHT LINE WHEN
IB and AC support the load W. The FORCES ARE PARALLEL'S
forces acting on rafters AB and AC
may be found by making a force dia-
gram taken at point A, drawing W to
f
scale, and measuring the values of AB
(A) SPACE DIAGRAM
and AC.
Since the force acting on the wall is
equal to W72 (the roof design and load NOTE: THE FORCES SHOWN MAY BE U. S. CUSTOMARY R-272
OR METRIC UNITS SUCH AS POUNDS, TONS, NEWTONS,
being symmetrical) and the forces act- KILONEWTONS, ETC.
ing at points B and C being equal, only
one force diagram need be drawn to RESULTANT PASSES THROUGH
find the force acting on the tie. INTERSECTION OF LINES oa AND of

-EQUILIBRIUM POLYGON
ASSIGNMENTS _L
finding MAGNITUDE AND
See Assignments 1 through 3 for Unit DIRECTION OF RESULTANT
28-1 on page 566.
(B) FORCE DIAGRAM

FINDING POSITION OF RESULTANT

(C) SPACE DIAGRAM
UNIT 28-2 REPEATED FOR CLARITY
SCALE LINES ag AND gf TO
Beams (I) FINDING RESULTANT FIND MAGNITUDE OF REACTIONS-

BOW'S NOTATION
In the previous illustrations, the forces
-equilibrium polygon
have been identified as F,, F2 R, etc. .

Another system of identifying forces, o* 'go-

called Bow's notation, is helpful in

solving force problems. In the space og
diagram (Fig. 28-2-1), a boldface capi-
tal letter,A. B. C. etc. is placed in the
.

space between two forces and the DRAW LINE og AFTER

force is referred to by the two boldface FINDING ITS DIRECTION
capital letters in the adjoining spaces. ON THE EQUILIBRIUM
POLYGON
The force AB space diagram is
in the
represented by the vector ab in the
force diagram, the letters a and b being FINDING DIRECTION OF LINE og
placed at the beginning and end, (D) SPACE DIAGRAM (E) FORCE DIAGRAM
respectively, of the vector. The letters
in the space diagram are usually given
(II) FINDING REACTIONS
in alphabetical order and in a clock- Fig. 28-2-2 Graphic method of finding resultant and reactions of vertical forces acting on a
beam.
wise direction.

EQUILIBRIUM POLYGON ing the magnitude, direction, and point
of application of resultants, equil-
Equilibrium or funicular polygons are ibrants. and reactions. They are also
used in the graphical solutions for find- used to check whether or not a number
of forces are in equilibrium.
Graphic Method of Finding
Resultant and Reactions
of Vertical Forces Acting
on a Beam
EXAMPLE 1 A number
forces are acting on a beam as shown
(A) SPACE DIAGRAM (B) FORCE DIAGRAM in Fig. 28-2-2A. It is required to find,
Fig. 28-2-1 Bow's notation. graphically, the magnitude and point
of application of the resultant and the
magnitude of the reactions.
Solution First draw a space and force
diagram using Bow's notation. Note
that the force diagram is a straight line
and not a polygon when all the forces
are parallel. The magnitude of the
resultant is found by measuring the
distance from a to /on the force dia-
gram. The direction of the resultant is
also established, but its position with
of parallel respect to the six forces is still
unknown. To find its position, locate a
point o anywhere on the force diagram
and join o to each letter with a line.

558 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 78 89
5
67 a point o anywhere on the force dia-
1
^4 B
\ C
1 D
M^ NOTE: THE FORCES SHOWN MAY
BE U S. CUSTOMARY OR METRIC
gram and join o to each letter with a
line. Draw a line ob anywhere in space
T UNITS SUCH AS POUNDS. TONS,
NEWTONS. KILONEWTONS, ETC B of the space diagram (Fig. 28-2-3C),
parallel to line ob in the force diagram.
(A) SPACE DIAGRAM
Next draw a line parallel to oc in space
C but starting where line ob intersects
RESULTANT PASSES THROUGH
INTERSECTION OF LINES 03 AND oe force BC. This is continued until the
equilibrium polygen is completed. The
resultant R is then drawn through the
-EQUILIBRIUM POLYGON intersection of lines oa and oe, thus
determining its position.

FINDING MAGNITUDE AND ASSIGNMENTS

DIRECTION OF RESULTANT

(B) F0RCE DIAGRAM See Assignments 4 through 7 for Unit

FINDING POSITION OF RESULTANT
28-2 on page 566.
(C) SPACE DIAGRAM
(REPEATED FOR CLARITY)
Fig. 28-2-3 Graphic method of finding resultant of nonparallel forces acting on a beam.
UNIT 28-3
Truss Reactions
Draw anywhere in space B of
a line Graphic Method of Finding
the space diagram (Fig. 28-2-2C) paral- Resultant of Nonparallel When Loads Are
lel to line ob in the force diagram, until Forces Acting on a Beam
it intersects forces AB and BC. Next
Parallel
draw a line parallel to oc in space C but EXAMPLE 2 A number of nonparallel
forces are acting on a beam as shown
starting where line ob intersects force
in Fig. 28-2-3A. It is required to find,
BRIDGE AND ROOF TRUSSES
BC. This is continued until the equi-
librium polygon is completed. The graphically, the magnitude and the The graphical solution offers a quick

resultant R passes through the inter- point of application of the resultant. and convenient method of checking or
section of lines oa and of, thus deter- Solution To find the resultant, first determining truss calculations. Some
mining its position. The polygon con- draw a space and force diagram and of the more common types of roof and
label the forces, using Bow's notation. bridge trusses are shown in Fig. 28-3-1.
structed in the space diagram is called
an equilibrium or funicular polygon. The magnitude and the direction of the The loads that the truss and abutments
resultant are shown by line ae on the support are combinations of the mass
The magnitude of the reaction forces
isd found by making an equilibrium
force diagram (Fig. 28-2-3B). The loca- of the truss and the mass of the mate-
tion of the resultant with respect to the rials placed on the roof or truss, for
polygon (see Fig. 28-2-2D). which
includes reaction forces and FG. AG four forces must now be found. Locate example, snow, wind, and live loads
These forces were not needed to find
the resultant. To construct the equi-
librium polygon, draw a line oa any-
where in space A and parallel to line oa
in the force diagram, as shown in Fig.
28-2-2E. Repeat for lines ob. oc, od,
and oe. having each of these lines' (I) HOWE TRUSS (2) WARREN TRUSS (3) PRATT TRUSS
touch each other as shown.
Line o/will not have any length on
the equilibrium polygon since forces
EF and FG act in the same line. Draw
line og in the space diagram by joining
oa to of. Now draw line
the start of line
og on the force diagram parallel to line HOWE TRUSS FINKTRUSS
(4) (5) (6) CRESCENT TRUSS
og in the space diagram. The magni-
tude of the reactions (two vertical
upward forces supporting the beam)
GA of 122 units and FG of 150 units
may be found by measuring lines ag
and gfox\ the force diagram. Note, the
units for the forces may be U.S. Cus-
tomary or metric such as pounds, tons, (7) FAN TRUSS (8) CAMBERED FINK TRUSS (9) BOWSTRING HOWE TRUSS
newtons. kilonewtons. etc. Fig. 28-3-1 Common types of trusses.

APPLIED MECHANICS 559

 UPPER CHORD zontal components of the reactions are
EXTERNAL FORCE
equal, since the truss is assumed to be
rigidand rigidly held to the supports.
Consider the truss shown in Fig.
END POST 28-3-4A. The forces acting on the truss
are inclined downward forces, while
HINGED SUPPORT ROLLER SUPPORT the reaction forces are inclined upward
forces. The lines of action and direc-
ABUTMENTS, PIERS OR WALL tion of all the downward forces are
known and only the magnitude and
REACTION IUPWARD FORCE)
direction of the reactions need to be
Fig. 28-3-2 Truss terminology.
computed. Draw a space diagram and
Bow's notation.
label the forces using
Next draw the force diagram as shown
such as cars and trains. The upward allel to the line og on the space dia-
in Fig. 28-3-4C. The resultant of the
forces of the abutments or walls are gram. The values of the reactions GA downward forces, line ae on the force
called the reactions. Rollers are often of 625 units and FG of 475 units may be
diagram, is equal but opposite to the
used at one support of the truss to found by measuring lines ga and fg on
resultant of the reaction forces.
allow for expansion and contraction. the force diagram.
The magnitude and direction of the
Truss terminology is shown in Fig. reactions EF and FA are not yet
28-3-2.
GRAPHIC METHOD OF known, but the magnitude of their
FINDING TRUSS resultant is equal to 950 units. Locate a
GRAPHIC METHOD OF REACTIONS WHEN LOADS point o anywhere on the force diagram
and join o to points a and e with a line.
FINDING TRUSS REACTIONS ARE NOT VERTICAL Draw a line ob parallel to line ob on the
WHEN LOADS ARE VERTICAL When the direction of the resultant of force diagram anywhere
space in B of
Consider the truss in Fig. 28-3-3A. The the roof and wind load is not vertical, the space diagram (Fig. 28-3-4D) until
forces acting on the truss are vertical the reactions are not normally parallel. it intersects forces AB and BC.
downward forces, while the reaction The solution for finding the magni- Drawa line parallel to oc in space C
forces are vertical upward forces, tude and direction of the reactions starting where line ob intersects force
since they must be equal and opposite when the truss has fixed supports is BC. Repeat for lines od and oe. Line
to the truss forces. The lines of action based on the assumption that the hori- oa will not have any length on the equi-
and directions of all forces are known,
and only the magnitude of the reac-
tions must be computed. Draw a space
diagram and label the forces using NOTE THE FORCES SHOWN MAY BE U. S.
CUSTOMARY OR METRIC UNITS SUCH AS
Bow's notation. Next draw the force POUNDS. TONS. NEWTONS. KILONEWTONS.
ETC
diagram. Note that the force diagram
becomes a straight line when all the
forces are parallel. The magnitudes of
the reactions FG and GA are not yet FORCE DIAGRAM BECOMES
known, but their combined magnitude (A) TO FIND MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION OF TRUSS REACTION A STRAIGHT LINE WHEN
FORCES ARE PARALLEL
is equal to 1100 units, the length of line 300

af on the force diagram. Locate a point

o anywhere on the force diagram and
join o to points a and /with a broken
line. REACTION
Drawa line ob parallel to line ob in FORCE
UNKNOWN
the force diagram, anywhere in space
B of the space diagram (Fig. 28-3-3D)
IB) SPACE DIAGRAM SHOWING ALL THE EXTERNAL FORCES
untilit intersects forces AB
and BC.
Draw a line parallel to oc in space C,
but start where the line ob intersects
EQUILIBRIUM POLYGON
force BC. Repeat for lines od and oe.
Line oa will not have any length on the DRAW LINE og AFTER FINDING
ITS DIRECTION ON THE
equilibrium polygen since forces AB EQUILIBRIUM POLYGON
and GA act in the same line. The same FINDING MAGNITUDE OF REACTIONS
is of since forces EF and
true for line FINDING DIRECTION OF LINE og

FG act in the same line. Close the poly- (D) SPACE DIAGRAM (C) FORCE DIAGRAM
gon by joining oa to o/with line og. REPEATED FOR CLARITY
Draw line og on the force diagram par- Fig. 28-3-3 Graphic method of finding truss reactions when loads are vertical

560 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN


WIND LOADS 325
325
(A) TO FIND MAGNITUDE AND
DIRECTION OF TRUSS REACTIONS
REACTION -MAGNITUDE UNKNOWN. BUT
FORCE
ASSUME DIRECTION OPPOSITE
UNKNOWN TO WIND LOADS
(B) SPACE DIAGRAM SHOWING ALL THE EXTERNAL FORCES
Fig. 28-3-4 Graphic method of finding truss reactions
librium polygon since forces
FA act in the same line. Close the equi-
librium polygon by joining oa and oe
with line of. Draw line of on the force
diagram parallel to line 6>/on the space
diagram. The values of 625 units and
325 units may be found by measuring
lines fa and ef on the force diagram.
These values are the individual resul-
tants of reactions EF and FA. Since
the horizontal components of the reac-
tions are assumed to be equal, the
magnitude and direction of reactions
FA and EF can be found by completing
the force diagram as shown
28-3-4E.
Distanced represents the horizontal
component of the combined reaction
forces. Since the truss is rigidly held to
the supports, we may assume that each
support will take half the horizontal
force. Therefore A72 represents the
horizontal component of each reac-
tion. From point/on line ae extend a ,
horizontal line until it intersects the
vertical line bisecting distance
at
point/,. The values of the reactions
FA of 590 units and EF of 375 units
may be found by measuring
and ef on the force diagram. The
directions of the reaction forces will be
parallel to lines fa and ef.
REACTION OF HINGED-PIN
AND ROLLER SUPPORTS
Normally in bridge and roof truss
design, one end of the truss is sup-
ported by a hinged pin and the other
FORCE DIAGRAM BECOMES
A STRAIGHT LINE WHEN
FORCES ARE PARALLEL S<\
EQUILIBRIUM POLYGON
FINDING DIRECTION OF LINE of
(D) SPACE DIAGRAM
(REPEATED FOR CLARITY)
DRAW LINE of AFTER
FINDING ITS DIRECTION
ON THE EQUILIBRIUM POLYGON
FINDING RESULTANT OF REACTIONS
(C) FORCE DIAGRAM
REACTION
FORCE
UNKNOWN NOTE THE FORCES SHOWN MAY BE
U. S. CUSTOMARY OR METRIC UNITS
SUCH AS POUNDS. TONS. NEWTONS.
KILONEWTONS. ETC.
when loads are not vertical.
AB and end rests on a roller. This provides for
changes in the length of the truss
because of temperature changes. The
reaction of the roller support is taken
FINDING MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION
through the roller and is usually per- OF REACTIONS ASSUMING HORIZONTAL
pendicular to the path of the roller. COMPONENTS OF REACTIONS TO BE EQUAL
The reaction of the hinged-pin support (E) FORCE DIAGRAM
is equal to the direction and size of (REPEATED FOR CLARITY)
force required to keep the structure in
equilibrium. If the forces acting on the
bridge or roof are vertical, then we can Bow's notation. Draw wind forces
assume that the reactions of the hinge AB. BC. CD, and DE on the force
and rollers are also vertical. If the diagram. Since the direction of reac-
resultant of the forces acting on the tion force EF is known, its direction
in Fig. bridge or roof is inclined due to wind can be drawn on the force diagram. Its
loads and the reaction at the roller sup- length or magnitude is not known.
port is vertical, then the reaction at the Reaction force FA cannot be drawn
hinged-pin support must be inclined. since both its magnitude and direction
are not known, but its line of action
passes through the point of support.
Thus the equilibrium polygon is
GRAPHIC METHOD OF started at the pin support. Locate a
FINDING TRUSS REACTIONS point o anywhere on the force diagram
WHEN LOADS ARE PARALLEL and join o to points a and e. Draw a line
X FOR HINGED-PIN AND ob parallel to line ob on the force dia-
gram in space B of the space diagram
ROLLER SUPPORT (Fig. 28-3-5D) starting at the pin sup-
Consider the truss shown in Fig. port until it intersects force BC. Draw
lines fa 28-3-5A. The forces acting on the truss a line parallel to oc in space C but
are inclined downward forces caused starting where line ob intersects force
by wind loads, a vertical upward force BC. Repeat for lines od and oe. Line
through the center of the roller, and an oa not have any length on the equi-
will
inclined upward force
at the hinged- librium polygon since forces and AB
pin support. required to find the
It is FA act at the same point. Close the
magnitude of the reactions and the equilibrium polygon by joining oa to oe
direction of the reaction at the hinged- with line of. Draw line of on the force
pin support. diagram parallel to line of on the space
Draw a space diagram (Fig. diagram until it intersects reaction
28-3-5B), and label all the forces using force c/at point/. Close the force poly-
APPUED MECHANICS 561
 LINE af IS DETERMINED
NOTE THE FORCES SHOWN MAY BE AFTER LINE of IS PLACED the direction of the reaction at the
WIND LOADS 300 U S CUSTOMARY OR METRIC UNITS ON FORCE DIAGRAM hinged support can be found. The lines
SUCH AS POUNDS. TONS, NEWTONS.
300 KILONEWTONS ETC of action of the resultant wind loads
and the vertical reaction force are
extended until they intersect at point O
(Fig. 28-3-6B). Since the lines of action
ROLLER
of all three forces must pass through
point O. a line joining point O to the
(A) TO FIND MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION point of intersection at the hinged sup-
OF TRUSS REACTIONS
port determines the direction of the left
reaction.
MAGNITUDE UNKNOWN BUT
DIRECTION OF REACTION PASSES DRAW L|NE ° f AFTER Knowing the direction of the three
THROUGH THE POINT OF SUPPORT ™™£
Q 1TS D(RECT|0N forces and the magnitude of the resul-
ON THE EQUILIBRIUM POLYGON tant, themagnitudes of the truss reac-
FINDING MAGNITUDE OF REACTIONS found by making a
tions can readily be
(C) FORCE DIAGRAM force diagram and measuring lines ca
and be.
DIRECTION AND MAGNITUDE
OF REACTION UNKNOWN EQUILIBRIUM
SPACE DIAGRAM SHOWING ALL POLYGON
(B)
EXTERNAL FORCES
ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 8 and 9 for Unit 28-3
on page 567.

Fig. 28-3-5 Graphic method of finding truss

FINDING DIRECTION OF LINE of
reaction when loads are parallel for hinged-
pin and roller support. (D) SPACE DIAGRAM (REPEATED FOR CLARITY)

Fig. 28-3-6 Alternative graphic method of

finding truss reactions when loads are
WIND LOADS parallel for hinged-pin and roller support.
gon with line/a. The direction of the 300
hinged reaction force FA is parallel to 150
line /a. The values of the reactions EF
of 255 units and FA of 690 units may be ROLLER
PIN
found by measuring lines ef and fa on NOTE: THE FORCES SHOWN MAY BE
CUSTOMARY OR METRIC UNITS
U. S.
the force diagram.
SUCH AS POUNDS, TONS, NEWTONS,
(A) TO FIND MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION KILONEWTONS, ETC.
OF TRUSS REACTIONS
ALTERNATIVE GRAPHIC
RESULTANT OF WIND LOADS MAGNITUDE UNKNOWN, BUT
METHOD OF FINDING DIRECTION OF REACTION PASSES
TRUSS REACTIONS WHEN THROUGH THE POINT OF SUPPORT
LOADS ARE PARALLEL
FORHINGED-PINAND
ROLLER SUPPORT
An alternative method can be em-
ployed for finding the truss reactions
when the reaction forces at the pin
and roller and the load force are not
parallel. Consider the forces acting in MAGNITUDE AND
Fig. 28-3-6A. The four wind forces of DIRECTION OF
REACTION UNKNOWN
150, 300, 300. and 150 units can be
replaced by a resultant force of 900
units acting midway on the truss since
FINDING MAGNITUDE OF TRUSS
the loads are symmetrical. The direc- REACTIONS AFTER FINDING
tion of the reaction at the hinge sup- DIRECTION OF FORCE oa
port is not known, but the direction of (C) FORCE DIAGRAM
LINES OF ACTION OF ALL
the reaction at the roller support will THREE FORCES INTERSECT
be vertical. Since the lines of action of AT A COMMON POINT
any three nonparallel forces in equi- O
librium intersect at a common point, (B) FINDING DIRECTION OF TRUSS REACTIONS

562 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 upward forces and normally do not act units. Locate a point o anywhere on
UNIT 28-4 in the same direction. Since the truss is the force diagram and join o to points
Truss Reactions rigid and rigidly held to the supports, a, b, and c with a line, as shown in Fig.
we may assume that the horizontal 28-4-1D. Draw a line oa parallel to line
When Loads Are components of the reactions are equal. oa on the force diagram anywhere in
space A of the space diagram (Fig.
Not Parallel The lines of action and direction of
the downward forces are known, and 28-4-1C) until it intersects forces DA
only the magnitude and direction of the and AB. Draw a line parallel to ob in
GRAPHIC METHOD OF reactions need be computed. Draw a space B
but start where line oa inter-
FINDING TRUSS REACTIONS space diagram and label the forces sects force AB. Repeat for line oc.

WHEN WIND AND TRUSS using Bow's notation. Next draw a Close the equilibrium polygon with
force diagram (Fig. 28-4-1B). The com- line od.
LOADS ARE NOT PARALLEL bined resultant of the two reaction Draw line od on the force diagram
Consider the truss shown in Fig. forces is equal to ac. The individual (Fig. 28-4-1D) parallel to line od on the
28-4-1A. The forces acting on the truss magnitudes and directions of the reac- equilibrium polygon. The values of 560
are a vertical downward force, an tion forces CD and DA
are not yet unitb and 410 units may be found by
inclined downward force, and the known, but the magnitude of their measuring lines ad and dc on the force
reaction forces, which are inclined combined resultant is equal to 970 diagram.
RESULTANT OF TRUSS LOADS
These values are the individual
RESULTANT OF resultants of reactions CD and DA.
WIND LOADS
Since the horizontal components of
NOTE THE FORCES SHOWN MAY BE
U S CUSTOMARY OR METRIC UNITS the reactions are assumed to be equal,
SUCH AS POUNDS, TONS. NEWTONS.
KILONEWTONS. ETC
the magnitude and direction of reac-
tions CD and DA
can be found by
drawing the force diagram as shown in
Fig. 28-4-1 F. Distance A' represents the
horizontal component of the combined
reaction forces, therefore X/2 repre-
TO FIND MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION OF TRUSS REACTIONS
sents the horizontal component of
FINDING COMBINED RESULTANTS
(A) SPACE DIAGRAM OF REACTION FORCES c each reaction. From point d on line ac,
extend a horizontal line until it inter-
(B) FORCE DIAGRAM
sects the vertical line bisecting dis-
DRAW LINE od AFTER tance X at point d v The values of the
FINDING ITS DIRECTION ON
THE EQUILIBRIUM POLYGON / reactions CD of 425 units and DA
of
/ 550 units may be found by measuring
lines cd and d a on the force diagram.
x ]

The directions of the reaction forces

will be parallel to lines cd and d a.
x }

(O SPACE DIAGRAM SHOWING DIRECTION OF ALL

GRAPHIC METHOD OF
EXTERNAL FORCES. MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION FINDING TRUSS REACTIONS,
OF REACTIONS UNKNOWN
FINDING INDIVIDUAL ROLLER AT ONE END, WHEN
ID)
RESULTANTS OF REACTION FORCES
FORCE DIAGRAM (REPEATED FOR CLARITY)
WIND AND TRUSS LOADS
,-EQUILIBRIUM
ARE NOT PARALLEL
POLYGON Consider the truss shown in Fig.
28-4-2A. The forces acting on the truss
are a vertical downward force, an
inclined downward force, a vertical
upward force through the center of the
roller, and an inclined upward force at
the hinged-pin support. Draw a space
diagram and label all the forces using
FINDING DIRECTION OF LINE od
Bow's notation. Next, partially draw
(E) SPACE DIAGRAM
the force diagram showing the known
(REPEATED FOR CLARITY)
forces AB and BC. Force CD is a ver-
tical upward force, but its magnitude is
not known. Locate a point o anywhere
Fig. 28-4-1 Graphic method of finding truss FINDING MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION OF REACTIONS
reactions when wind and mass loads are not on the force diagram and join o to
parallel. (F) FORCE DIAGRAM (REPEATED FOR CLARITY) points «, b, and c. Draw a line oa paral-

APPLIED MECHANICS 563

 RESULTANT OF RESULTANT OF TRUSS LOADS end of vector bh, has not yet been
WIND LOADS 560
NOTE: THE FORCES SHOWN MAY BE established. Draw a line parallel to the
U S CUSTOMARY OR METRIC UNITS
SUCH AS POUNDS. TONS. NEWTONS.
last force HG through point g. Since
KILONEWTONS. ETC point h in on this line as well as on line
bh, h must be their point of intersec-
tion.The arrows must travel in the
same direction around the polygon,
thus indicating the direction of the
TO FIND MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION OF TRUSS REACTIONS forces acting at the joint. We find that
DRAW LINE od AFTER FINDING truss member BH is under compres-
SPACE DIAGRAM DIRECTION ON THE
(A) ITS
EQUILIBRIUM POLYGON sion and truss member HG is under
FINDING MAGNITUDES OF REACTIONS
tension. Next, consider joint BCJH in
Fig. 28-5-1D. There are two known
(C) FORCE DIAGRAM forces, BC of 2000 units and HB which
MAGNITUDE UNKNOWN, BUT
DIRECTION OF REACTION PASSES was found to be 6000 units and under
THROUGH THE POINT OF SUPPORT compression. The directions of forces
CJ and JH are known, but their magni-
tude is not. The member CJ is under
EQUILIBRIUM compression, but we do not know
POLYGON whether member JH is a tie or a strut.
Draw the force diagram ( Fig. 28-5-1H).
(B) SPACE DIAGRAM SHOWING to a convenient scale by first drawing
ALL EXTERNAL FORCES the vectors hb and be. Draw
a line
parallel to CJ through Point J,
point c.
which is one end of the vector, has not
yet been established. Draw a line par-
Fig. 28-4-2 Graphic method of finding truss FINDING DIRECTION OF LINE od
one end, when wind and
reactions, roller at allel to the last force JH through point
mass loads are not parallel. (D) SPACE DIAGRAM (REPEATED FOR CLARITY) h. Since point j is on this line as well as
on line cj,j must be their point of inter-
The arrows must travel in the
section.
to line oa on the force diagram any- same direction around the polygon,
lei

where in space A of the space diagram

UNIT 28-5 thus indicating the direction of the
(Fig. 28-4-2D). until it intersects forces Internal Forces or force acting at the joint. We find that
DA and AB. Draw a line parallel to ob both truss members CJ and JH are
in space B but start where line oa inter- Stresses in a Truss under compression. Because of this,
sects force AB. Repeat for line oc. they are struts. Next consider joint
Close the equilibrium polygon by join- GRAPHIC METHOD OF CDLKJ (Fig. 28-5-1E). The magnitude
ing oa and oc with line od. Draw line of three of the five forces is known and
FINDING INTERNAL FORCES
od on the force diagram parallel to line the magnitude of the two unknown
od on the space diagram until it inter-
IN A ROOF TRUSS forces is equal since the loads are sym-
sects line be at point d. Join a to d with The previous examples relating to roof metrical about the center of the truss.
a line which represents the direction of trusses have been confined to finding Draw the force diagram (Fig. 28-5-1J)
force DA. The values of the reactions the external forces acting on the roof to a convenient scale by first drawing
CD of 360 units and DA
of 510 units and walls. Once the external forces the vectors jc, cd and dl. The next
may be found by measuring lines cd have been calculated, the forces acting force in order is LK. Draw a line paral-
and da on the force diagram. in the truss members can be deter- lel to LK through point L. Point k,

ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments
28-4 on page 567.
mined graphically by two methods.
Consider the truss shown in Fig.
28-5-1A. Since the forces are sym-
10 and 11 for Unit metrical, the reaction forces will be
equal; namely 4000 units each. Using
Bow's notation and stating
forces, draw a space diagram to scale,
as in Fig. 28-5-1B. Consider joint
ABHG, the left support. Two of the
four forces are known (Fig. 28-5-1C).
Draw the force diagram (Fig. 28-5-1G)
to a convenient scale, starting with
vectors ga and ab. The next force in
which is one end of the vector, has not
yet been established. Draw a line par-
allel to the last force KL through point
j. Since point k is also on this line as
well as on line jk, it must be at their
all the point of intersection. The arrows must
travel around the polygon in the same
direction, thus indicating the direction
of the forces acting at the joint. We
find that trussmembers LK and KJ are
under tension and are tie bars. Only
one member remains to be calculated.
It is not known whether the truss mem-

order is BH. Draw a line parallel to BH ber GK is under compression or ten-

through point b. Point /?, which is one sion, nor is its magnitude known.

564 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 2000
NOTE: THE FORCES SHOWN MAY BE
CUSTOMARY OR METRIC UNITS
U. S.
2000
SUCH AS POUNDS, TONS, NEWTONS,
KILONEWTONS, ETC. 1000
1000

4000 4000
PROBLEM- TO FIND FORCES ACTING
ON TRUSS MEMBERS USE OF BOW'S NOTATION TO IDENTIFY MEMBERS
NOTE - DIRECTION OF FORCES HJ, JK. GK UNKNOWN
REACTIONS EQUAL AS LOADS ARE
SPACE DIAGRAMS SYMMETRICAL
1000 2000
2000
1700
ire

4000
6000 5000 5000 5200
$6. G
(C) (D) (E) iF)
SPACE DIAGRAMS OF JOINTS
b

^2000
5200
k
4000
1700 \^I700

bh = 6000 jk = 1700 gk = 3500

ki = 1700
hg = 5200

(G) (H) (J) (K)

FORCE DIAGRAMS - USING POLYGON OF FORCES TAKEN AT EACH JOINT

- e

(L) (M) (N) (O) (P)

CONSTRUCTION OF A LOADING DIAGRAM
Fig. 28-5-1 Graphic method of finding internal forces in a roof truss.

From the space diagram shown in
28-5-1E, draw the force diagram in
28-5-1K. GK
is found to have a magni-
tude of 3500 units and is under tension.
The second method for finding the
forces in the truss members is much
faster. A single diagram, called a load-
'ingdiagram, that combines all the sep-
arate force polygons is used. The first
step in constructing a loading diagram
is to draw the force diagram of the
external forces, as in Fig. 28-5-1L.
Fig. Now consider a joint where only one tions of the external forces are shown
Fig. or two forces are unknown, such as on the loading diagram, since the
joint ABHG. The force diagram ab, bh, directions of the other forces would
hg, ga can be drawn on the stress dia- alternate at the different joints.
gram a similar manner to that pre-
in
viously explained. Next, a force dia-
gram similar to Fig. 28-5-1H for joint
ASSIGNMENTS
BCJH is constructed on the loading See Assignments 12 through 14 for Unit
diagram, adding vectors jh and cj. The 28-5 on page 568.
same procedure is used for joints
CDLKJ and GHJK until the loading
diagram is complete. Only the direc-

APPLIED MECHANICS 565

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 28
"60°

30°

A B

Fig. 28-1-A Finding resultants.

v6
\ J<£>£ ^x 30°

^7
A B

Fig. 28-1-B Finding equilibrants.

/s?. m> 8 . vyy

A B

Fig. 28-1-C Finding forces acting on the tie and jib.

89 kN
Assignments for Unit 28-1,
677kN 96kN
Forces 55— 2b— 35 =
1 On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the six
»6 *\ 4' I 4 -*-6 4« 8-» 4' U*-
-»4ooo ^- 2000-»L»-2000-«ilO<
problems shown in Fig. 28- -A, and find
1

to suit. The values

their resultant. Scale
shown may be
tons.
is

either pounds or new-

^ BEAM I

^ T BEAM I

67 kN 38 kN
2. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the six
67 = 58 = '8 kN 55 kN 45 kN
47 =
I
problems shown in Fig. 28- 1 -B, and find 75=
tneir equilibrants. Scale is to The
suit. -H 4 \-— 8 »
|
« 6 -»j 2 ["— 8 •-» |a|a| a|a|b
values shown may be either pounds or

3.
newtons.
On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the four
problems shown in Fig. 28- -C, and find J A =
BEAM
500
2
B = 250
T
1
BEAM 2
the forces acting on each member. Scale
on a
Fig. 28-2-A Vertical forces acting on a Fig. 28-2-B Vertical forces acting
is to suit.
beam. beam.

Assignments for Unit 28-2, 5. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the two tne graphic method, find the resultant of
Beams beams shown in Fig. 28-2-B, and using the nonparallel forces. Scale is to suit.
4. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the two the graphic method, find the resultant 7. OnaB-orA3-sizesr\eet, lay out the two
beams shown 28-2-A, and using
in Fig. and reactions of the vertical forces. Scale beams shown in Fig. 28-2-D, and using
the graphic method, find the resultant is to suit. the graphic method, find the resultant of
and reactions of the vertical forces. Scale 6. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the two the nonparallel forces. Scale is to suit.
is to suit. beams shown in Fig. 28-2-C, and using

566 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 49= _

60° V ±L 75° ^%o° ^y^

2 .

' 30°
j,i,X.J
BEAM I
9000
130']
FINK TRUSS FINK TRUSS
75= 60= 88 = MILLIMETER
3750 MILLIMETER

-+\ 4' H 8' *\ 4' h*-6'-»-|

BEAM 2

Fig. 28-2-C Angular forces acting on a

beam. [50']

FAN TRUSS
WARREN TRUSS NOTE:
-FORCE VALUES ARE lb (U.S.
-FORCE VALUES ARE lb (U.S. CUSTOMARY) OR kN (METRIC).
CUSTOMARYIOR kN (METRIC). -LINEAR VALUES ARE ft (U.S.
51 kN 63 kN CUSTOMARY) OR mm (METRIC).
-LINEAR VALUES ARE ft (U.S.
5kN \ / 76.k CUSTOMARY) OR mm (METRIC).

X
45° X* 60°^
X U / A 60° tf 45 c
Fig. 28-3-A Vertical loads on truss.
Fig.
truss.
28-4-A IMonparallel loads acting on

Ul500*jl000h*l500*-|
3150 kN

l860kN X ROLLER-^

w .30° /
S* \/ [5 ]
\\j
=
A II 500 1
[52'] [l4 ')

HH500-4*-2000-»| HOWE TRUSS 1 1

1-300
[!'] M1
MILLIMETER CAMBERED FINK TRUSS
BEAM 2
850 3890
MILLIMETER
Fig. 28-2-D Angular forces acting on a
FOOT
beam.
2780 ^ f

~T
3600
N. [12']

K II II II
X,
it y\
t
n 14 000
[44']

CAMBERED FINK TRUSS ROLLER-^

HOWE TRUSS
NOTE: TE:
-FORCE VALUES ARE lb (U.S. -FORCE VALUES ARE lb (U.S.
CUSTOMARY) OR kN (METRIC). CUSTOMARY) OR kN (METRIC).
-LINEAR VALUES ARE ft (U.S. -LINEAR VAUES ARE ft (U.S.
CUSTOMARY) OR mm (METRIC). CUSTOMAR Y) OR mm (METRIC).

Fig. 28-3-B Parallel but not vertical loads Fig. 28-4-B Nonparallel loads acting on
on truss-hinged and roller supports. truss — roller at one end.
Assignments for Unit 28-3,
Truss Reactions when Loads
are Parallel
8. On a B- or A3 -size sheet, lay out the two

trusses shown in Fig. 28-3-A, and by the Assignments for Unit 28-4,
graphic method find the magnitude of Truss Reactions when Loads are
the reactions. Scale is to suit. not Parallel
9. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the two 10. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the two 11. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the two
trusses shown in Fig. 28-3-B, and by the trusses shown 28-4-A, and by the
in Fig. trusses shown in Fig. 28-4-B, and by the
graphic method find the magnitude and graphic method find the magnitude and graphic method find the magnitude and
direction of the reactions. Scale is to suit. direction of the reactions. Scale is to suit. direction of the reactions. Scale is to suit.

APPLIED MECHANICS 567

Assignments for Unit 28-5, 13. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the fan 14. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the

Internal Forces or Stresses truss shown in Fig. 28-5-B, and by the crescent truss shown in Fig. 28-5-C, and
graphic method find the magnitude of by the graphic method find the magni-
In a Truss
the reactions and the internal forces act- tude and direction of the reactions and
12. On a B- or A3-size sheet, lay out the fink
28-5-A, and by the ing on each member. Scale is to suit. the internal forces acting on each mem-
truss shown in Fig.
ber. Scale is to suit.
graphic method find the magnitude of
the reactions and the internal forces act-
ing on each member. Scale is to suit.

ROLLER-
MILLIMETER FINK TRUSS MILLIMETER
FAN TRUSS
FOOT FOOT
NOTE: NOTE:
-FORCE VALUES ARE tons (U.S. -FORCE VALUES ARE tons (U.S.
CUSTOMARY) OR kN (METRIC). CUSTOMARY) OR kN (METRIC). MILLIMETER
CRESCENT TRUSS
-LINEAR DIMENSIONS ARE ft (U.S. -LINEAR DIMENSIONS ARE ft (U.S. FOOT
CUSTOMARY) OR mm (METRIC). CUSTOMARY) OR mm (METRIC) .

NOTE:
Fig. 28-5-A Internal roof forces — fink truss. Fig. 28-5-B Internal roof forces — fan truss. -FORCE VALUES ARE kN (METRIC) OR
tons (U.S. CUSTOMARY).
-LINEAR DIMENSIONS ARE mm (METRIC) OR
ft (U.S. CUSTOMARY).

Fig. 28-5-C Internal roof forces — crescent

truss.

568 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

CHAPTER 29
Strength
of Materials

sured ounce-force, pound-force, problems the

UNIT 29-1 in
ton-force and kip-force (U.S. Custom-
In solving stress fol-
lowing formulas can be used
Stresses and Strain ary) or in newtons (N) for light forces,
force force
kilonewtons (kN) for intermediate Stress or area
area stress
forces, and meganewtons (MN) for Force stress x area
Relationship Between Mass heavy forces (metric).
and Force Forces related to the design and con- There are three kinds of stresses:
Mass is the quantity of matter in a struction processes are numerous: tension, compression, and shear. Ten-
body. The mass of an object remains bearing capacity, applied weight (mass sion, or tensile stress, is caused by an
constant, regardless of its location on under the influence of gravity) of live, external force that tends to pull apart
earth. Mass is measured in ounces, dead, and mobile loads, connection or stretch the material. Tie bars sup-
pounds, and tons (U.S. Customary), load. etc. Force may be concentrated porting heating units or fans from ceil-
or grams, kilograms,and metric tons on a tiny spot or applied over an ing members are examples of parts
(metric). immense area. subject to tensile stress. See Fig.
Some examples of the use of these To convert kilograms to a force 29-1-1.
units of measurement are in value, multiply the mass value (in kilo-

• Defining quantities of material, grams) by 9.806 65 to obtain the force

in newtons.
packaged in bulk, such as bags of
mortar and tons of sand „ BAR BEING
PULLED APART RIVET
• Defining physical characteristics of STRESSES BEING
material such as 210-lb asphalt shin- SHEARED-
COLUMN BEING
gles and 18-oz. 24-oz. or 32-oz glass When a force acts on a piece of mate- CRUSHED-^
• Defining load capacities for building rial, internal resistance or forces are

elements, elevator cranes, hoists, set up in the material to resist the

bridges, roads, supports, and bear- external force. The resisting forces are p

ing surfaces called stresses and are measured in

pounds per square inch or square foot (A) TENSILE (B)COMPRESSIVE (C) SHEAR
• Specifying application of materials
(U.S. Customary) or pascals (metric). ^THESE FIBERSARE BEING
such as 20-lb roofing asphalt per / CRUSHED AND ARE UNDER
mopping per 100 ft 2 (U.S. Custom- A pascal (Pa) is a pressure or stress / COMPRESSION
produced when a force of one newton NORMAL LENGTH
ary) or 10-kg roofing asphalt per OF FIBERS
(N) is applied to an area of one square
mopping per 100 m 2
(metric)
• Establishing costs for materials, unit meter (m 2 ).
prices, and rates on an ounce, _N
Pa
pound, or ton (U.S. Customary) or m- -SHEAR
STRESS --THESE FIBERSARE
gram, kilogram, or metric ton basis BEING PULLED APART
The pascal is a very small unit of AT SUPPORT AND ARE UNDER TENSION
(metric)
measure. It is used for very low-stress

Force is the external agent which applications. In most instances the (D) COMBINATION STRESSES FOUND
changes or tends to change the condi- kilopascal (kPa) and megapascal IN A WOODEN BEAM

tion of rest of a body. Force is mea- (MPa) are used. Fig. 29-1-1 Stresses.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 569

 Compression, or compressive material since the addition of any Safe working stress (S) =
stress, caused by external forces
is shock or unforeseen load would cause ultimate strength (Su)

that tend to crash or push the material breaking. factor of safety (FS)

together. Basement posts and walls Therefore, when parts are designed, Other common terms and formulas
are parts subject to compressive another stress known as the safe work- shown in Fig. 29-1-2. The number
are
stress ing stress (allowable unit stress) is
used for the factor of safety varies
Shear stress is caused by external used. This stress is obtained by divid-
according to the material, the pro-
forces that tend to cause the particles ing the ultimate strength of the mate-
posed location of the part, and the type
within the material to slide past one rial by a number called the factor of
of force that it must withstand. For
another. Rivets holding metal plates safety. Hence example, a wooden part that is sub-
together are subject to shear stress jected to a shock force would have a
These stresses often appear in com- greater factor of safety than a steel part
bination. In a simple beam supporting
Term Symbol Formula that is subjected to a dead load. Fac-
a load, all three stresses occur. There tors of safety are not used as fre-
is a tensile stress along the bottom of
Force or Load F F = A x S
quently as they were in the past since
the beam, a compressive stress along
the top of the beam, and a shear stress
Area A *-! many of today's codes for structures
and machines list the allowable unit or
at each side at the abutments.
The ultimate strength of a material is
Stress S »-* working stresses to be used. However,
in certain applications, such as aircraft
the highest unit of stress that the mate- Ultimate Strength Su Su = S x FS
design, the ultimate strength and fac-
rial can withstand without breaking.
Factor of Safety FS B -ai tors of safety are often used. Allow-
able unit stresses for steel will be cov-
LOADS
Deformation
(Unit Strain)
Du »-?-! ered in greater detail later in the
chapter.
The external forces acting on a body, Deformation Dt Dt = Du x L
Figure 29-1-3 shows the average val-
called loads and measured in pounds, (Total Strain)
ues of the ultimate strengths of various
tons, and kips (U.S. Customary) or Coefficients of N materials.
newtons, kilonewtons, and mega- Linear Expansion

newtons (metric), are classified Modulus of EXAMPLE A

2-ton weight is sus-
according to the manner in which they Elasticity
E *-£ pended from a
1

x 2.00 in. steel bar.

1.25
are applied. Length of Part
|_ L--^
L
What is the unit stress in pounds per
being Deformed Du
A static loadone that is applied
is square inch (psi)?
gradually to a part and that remains Fig. 29-1-2 Common terms, symbols, and Solution The unit stress will be the
practically constant once the max- formulas. force divided by the area
imum load is reached. The weight
(mass) of a building acting on its foun-
dation is an example of a static load.
Static loads are also referred to as
dead loads.
An impact or shock load is one that Modulus
Ultimate Strength Allowable Unit Stress
of
is applied suddenly on an object for a
Com- Com- Elasticity
short time. When struck by a
a nail is Material Tension pression Shear Tension pression Shear Tension
hammer or a train passes over a por-
Aluminum 10 3 lb/in. 2 IS 12 12 11 000
tion of track, the loads resulting from
MPa 103 83 83 78 500
these actions are known as impact
Brass 10 3 lb/in. 2 21 30 36 9 000
loads.
MPa 145 207 248 62 000
Repeated loads are loads that are
Copper 10 3 lb/in. 2 34 32 36 15 000
and removed many
alternately applied
MPa 235 220 248 103 500
times. An example of a part that is
subjected to this type of load is a con- Cast Iron 10 3 lb/in. 2 21 90 24 15 4 14 000

necting rod in an automobile engine.

Gray MPa 145 620 165 103 28 96 500

Only static and impact loads will be Cast Iron 10 3 lb/in. 2 31 46 40 5.2 7.5 6.6 25 000
dealt with in this text. Malleable MPa 214 317 275 35 52 45 1 72 000
Cast Iron 10 3 lb/in. 2 48 48 40 12 12 10 28 000
Wrought MPa 330 330 275 83 83 69 193 000
TYPES OF STRESS
Steel

Since there are three types of stresses, A572-50 10 3 lb/in. 2 65 65 50 30 30 20 29 000

have three different ulti-
a material will A572M-350 MPa 450 450 345 210 210 140 200 000
mate strengths. When machine parts (See Fig. 29-1 -8)

are designed, not feasible to work

it is Bold figures denote U.S. Customary system values.

precisely to the ultimate strength of the Fig. 29-1-3 Physical properties of common materials.

570 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

Stress
force 450
= 90 MPa EXAMPLE 5 What force is required to
area
punch a 1.50 in. diameter hole in a no.
F 12 USS gage sheet?
Therefore, maximum allowable load
A Solution The sheared area will be
= S x A = working stress x area =
x 2000 equal to the circumference of the circle
2 (90 x 10&) p a x (300 x 10-&) = 27 kN.
x 2.00 multiplied by the thickness of the
1.25
EXAMPLE 4 A 10" x 10" x 8'-0 West- sheet. Circumference of a 1.50 in.
1600 psi
ern hemlock construction-grade post diameter hole = 4.71 in. Thickness of a
EXAMPLE 2 What tensile force would supports a weight of 75 000 lb. Does no. 12 USS plate (see Appendix) =
cause a 02.00 A572-50 steel rod to fail? this meet the minimum requirements .109 in. Sheared area = 4.71 x .109 =
Solution The cross-sectional area of as recommended by the Institute of .513 in. 2 . Ultimate shear strength of
the rod is equal to txR 2 = 3.1416 x 1.00 Timber Construction (ITC)? steel (see Fig. 29-1-3) is 50 000 psi.
x 1.00 = 3.1416 in. 2 From the table . Solution From the table shown in Fig. Therefore the force required to punch
shown in Fig. 29-1-3, A572-50 steel has 29-1-4 under the headings Carrying the hole = A x S = .513 x 50 000 =
an ultimate strength of 65 000 psi. Load Independently, Compression, 25 650 lb.
Therefore, the tensile force that would and Parallel to Grain, we find the
cause the rod to fail is allowable unit stress for Western
Area x ultimate strength =
hemlock, construction grade, is 1100 DEFORMATION
psi. Therefore
3.1416 x 65 000 204 204 lb. When an object is subjected to a load
Maximum allowable load = or force, the shape of the material is
EXAMPLE 3 What is the maximum per-
A x S = 10 x 10 x 1100 changed slightly. This change in length
missible tensile load an A572M-350 = 110 000 1b is called strain, or deformation. See
structural steel column having a cross-
Fig. 29-1-5. The length of an object is
sectional area of 300 mm 2
can carry
, if The load is acceptable.
shortened by a compressive force or
the factor of safety is given as 5?
Next check for buckling, using the lengthened by a tensile force. The
Solution From the table shown in Fig.
formula \ld =£ 10, where L = length in change in size is called total elongation
29-1-3. A572M-350 structural steel has
inches and d = least dimension of and is normally measured in inches
an ultimate tensile strength of 450
compression member in inches. \ld = (U.S. Customary) or millimeters (met-
MPa.
(8 x 12) -r 10 = 9.6. Therefore, the ric) while the change in length per inch
ultimate strength post carrying this load would meet ITC or millimeter is called unit elongation
Working stress
factor of safety requirements. and is normally measured in inches per

Carrying Load Independently

Working Stress

Bending Compression
DEFORMATION
Stress Parallel Perpen- Tension DEFORMATION
at Longi- to dicular Parallel 4 P
Grade of Extreme tudinal Grain to to
Group Lumber Fiber Shear 1/dg 10 Grain Grain
lb/in. 2 1500 120 1200 415 1500
Construction
Douglas MPa 10 0.8 8 2.9 10 LENGTH LENGTH LENGTH LENGTH
Fir lb/in. 2 1200 95 1000 390 1200 BEFORE AFTER BEFORE AFTER
Standard LOAD LOAD LOAD LOAD
MPa 8 0.7 7 2.7 8 APPLIED APPLIED APPLIED APPLIED
lb/in. 2 1500 100 1100 365 1500
Construction
Western MPa 10 0.7 8 2.5 10
Hemlock lb/in. 2 1200 80 1000 365 1200
Standard T
MPa 8 0.6 7 2.5 8
lb/in. 2 1050 90 750 300 1050
Structural
Spruce MPa 7 0.6 6 2.1 9 (A) TENSILE LOAD (B) COMPRESSIVE LOAD
(All) lb/in. 2 840 70 600 300 840
Construction
MPa 6 0.5 4 2.1 6
lb/in. 2 900 80 750 260 900 DEFLECTION
Structural
Red Cedar & MPa 6 0.6 5 1.8 8
Pine
Construction
lb/in. 2

MPa
720
5 0.5
65 600
4
260
1.8
720
5
fe^. ABUTMENT
Note Values shown are for teaching purposes only Consult your local building codes for exact values.
Bold figures denote U.S. Customary system values. (C) LOAD ON BEAM
Fig. 29-1-4 Allowable unit stresses for sawn timber members. Fig. 29-1-5 Deformation due to loads.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 571

 -ULTIMATE STRENGTH EXAMPLE 6 A steel bar 10 ft long elon-
gates .075 in. under a tensile force.
Calculate the unit deformation.
B Solution

Unit elongation (Du)

total strain or deformation (Dt)

length of part (L)
BREAKING POM .075
.000 63 in. per in.
10 x 12

A ^s YIELDPOINT EXAMPLE 7 Find the unit deformation

20
\\— ELASTIC LIMIT
on a piece of steel produced by a stress
of 45 000 psi.
From Fig. 29-1-3 we
Solution find the
modulus of elasticity for steel is
29 000 000. Therefore,
.05 .20 .25 .30

U " _ ES _
45 000
ELONGATION IN INCHES
29 000 000
.001 552 in. per in.

Fig. 29-1-6 Stress-strain diagram for A572-42 carbon steel.

EXAMPLE 8 A .25 x 1.00 in. steel bar
15 ft in length supports a tensile load of
5000 lb. Find the total deformation.
inch (U.S. Customary), or millimeters the same way. An example of this
Solution
per millimeter (metric). Normally the would be a cast-iron part. Since the
ultimate strength and the breaking 5000
deformation is so small that it cannot = 20 000 psi
point would be the same, the part A .25 x 1.00
be detected by the naked eye. The
deformation or sag that occurs on a would break at the maximum load. The modulus of elasticity for steel (see
beam when a load is applied is called If a force acting on an object is not Fig. 29-1-3) = 29 000 000. Du = S/E
deflection. great, the material will return to its = 20 000 29 000 000
h- = .000 69 in.
original shape when the force is per in. Therefore.
removed. This tendency to return to
Dt = Du x .000 69 x 15 x 12
Stress-Strain Diagram the original shape after being deformed
.1242 in.
The relationship between and
stress is called elasticity and varies greatly in
strain for any material is best shown by different materials. For example, lead Temperature Stresses When the tem-
a diagram: see Fig. 29-1-6. A piece of is said to or no elasticity,
have little perature of a piece of metal is changed,
carbon steel 1.00 in. x 1.00 in. having while spring steel has a great amount. the length of the metal will be either
an area of 1.00 in. 2 was subjected to a If. however, the material does not decreased or increased, depending on
tensile load which was increased each return to its original shape after it has whether the temperature of the metal
time by 5000 lb, and the results were been subjected to a force, it is said to is lowered or raised. If. however, the

recorded. Up to point A on the graph,
the elongation of the bar was propor-
tional to the stress. Point A. which was
recorded at 29 000 lb, was the elastic
limit for that steel. After point A, the
elongation increased at a faster rate.
At a stress slightly higher than the elas-
tic limit, deformation occurred with-
out an increase in stress. This is known
as the yield point of the material. As
the tension increased, the bar elon-
gated until point B was reached. This
was the largest load applied, which
was recorded at 65 000 lb. Beyond this
point the bar continued to stretch or
elongate with less tension. Point B was
the ultimate strength of the material.
The breaking point of the bar was point
C. which was recorded at 48 000 lb.
The strength of any material may be
plotted and calculated in a similar man-
ner, although not all materials act in
be stressed beyond its elastic limit.
to this elastic limit the deformation
proportional to the load; that is. the
unit stress is proportional to the unit
strain at any point in a material up to its
elastic limit. This is known as Hooke's
law. Beyond the elastic limit, the
deformation ceases to be proportional
to the load. The elastic limit of a mate-
rial is difficult to determine accurately.
The modulus of elasticity of a mate-
rial is defined as the ratio of unit stress
to unit deformation (the stress in
divided by the deformation in 1 in ) and . change
is denoted by the letter E. It may be
used for finding the elongation per inch
or millimeter caused by any given
load.
modulus of
In the metric system, the
elasticity is the stress in pascals
divided by the deformation in one
millimeter.
Up part is rigidly held and is restrained
is from changing its length, stresses
known as temperature stresses will
result. The main factors concerning
temperature stress are (1) amount of
heat involved. (2) material undergoing
temperature change (aluminum, iron,
etc.). and (3) length of part. In order to
avoid these stresses, trusses or girders
of long spans frequently have one end
placed on a roller or a sliding plate.
The linear change per inch or milli-
1 in. meter of length of a part for a degree of
in temperature is called the
coefficient of linear expansion or con-
traction. The coefficients of common
materials are shown in Fig. 29-1-7.
Thus, the total deformation resulting
from temperature change can be found
as follows. Let total strain or deforma-
tion be Dt, the coefficient of linear
expansion Ce, temperature change

572 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 Ce U.S. CUSTOMARY METRIC
Coefficient of ~ Allowable Unit Allowable Unit
c 2 MPa
Linear Expansion Stress— -kips/in. Stress
°- c
Inches per inch ;;
c c
c -* o
o
per °F » |
Q.
ll 5.
s OI
[Millimeters per c £ 0) c 2 c
% Si 1
c 1
o a
a. TJ
Material millimeter per °C] 2 c TJ <5 2 c E C
Steel II i'o c E c
V Steel la H o c o
u
V £
Aluminum .000 012 8 Description Standard 33 >- a. fi u a> Standard 35 >- e. iS CO

[0.000 023 0] A36 58 36 22 22 24 14.5 A36 400 250 150 150 165 100
A572 -60 75 60 36 36 40 24 A572M -410 520 410 245 245 270 165
Brass .000 010 4 General -55 70 55 33 33 36 22 -380 480 380 230 230 250 150
[0.000 018 7] Construction -50 65 50 30 30 33 20 -350 450 350 210 210 230 140
-45 60 45 27 27 30 18 -310 410 310 185 185 205 125
Bronze .000 010 1
-42 60 42 25 25 28 16 8 -290 410 290 175 175 190 115
[0.000 018 2]
Notes 1 Metric designations and values were not available at time of printing They are soft converted
Copper .000 009 3 2 Values shown are for steel having a maximum thickness of 50 mm
(2.00 in).

[0.000 016 7]
Fig. 29-1-8 Allowable working stress for steel.
Iron — Cast .000 006 2
[0.000 011 2]

Iron — Wrought .000 006 8

[0.000 012 2]

Steel— Hard .000 007 4

[0.000 013 3]

Steel — Medium .000 006 7

[0.000 012 1]
Therefore
Steel— Soft .000 006 I
UNIT 29-2
[0.000 011 0] Load = x area
stress
Bracketed figures denote metric values. = 19 430 x 2.00 x 2.00 Bolted and
= 77 720 lb
Fig. 29-1-7 Coefficients of expansion. Riveted Joints
(°F)7\ and length of part (in.) L. Then UNIT STRESSES FOR STEEL It isassumed that the reader has a full
Dt = Ce x T x L. In the metric sys-
The increasing use of high-strength understanding of the many advantages
tem, degrees Celsius (°C) is used.
steels no longer permits the continua- of bolted and riveted construction and
EXAMPLE 9 A medium steel bar 100 in. tion of a standard design specification possesses a knowledge of this type of
long is raised from 70 to 170° F. How based on the exclusive use of one working drawing and terminology.
much does it expand? grade of steel. These high-strength The factors of safety for fasteners
Solution The coefficient of linear steels afford as much as a 50 percent used in tension are preferably based
expansion for medium steel (see Fig. increase in strength as compared to upon ultimate strength rather than
29-1-7) is .000 006 7. Therefore common structural carbon steel. yield point since ultimate strength is of

= Ce x T x L To simplify matters, permissible much greater significance for fas-

Total deformation (Dt)
= x 100 x 100 = .067 in. unit stresses for the various grades of teners. The permissible working
.000 006 7
steel are given in terms of a percentage stresses as shown in Fig. 29-2-1 repre-
EXAMPLE 10 If the steel bar in Exam- of a specified minimum yield point. sent working loads which are approx-
ple 9 is restrained and is 2 in. square, These unit stresses are not to exceed imately one-third to one-half of the
what compressive stress is placed on 61 percent of the yield point. For steel value of the ultimate loads observed in
the barand what load is placed on the having a yield point of 36 kips/in. 2 the ,
tests.
restraining members? permissible unit stress would be 22 For greater convenience in the pro-
Solution kips/in. 2 which provides for a factor
,
portioning of the bolted connections,
Total strain = .067 in. of safety of 1.64. Figure 29-1-8 lists the permissible stresses for bolts are now
various grades of steels and their given in terms applicable to their nor-
067 mal body area, i.e., the area of the
Unit strain allowable unit stresses. In keeping
100 unthreaded shank.
with the inclusion of steels of several
000 67 in. per in.
strength grades, a number of corre- The tensile stress permitted for
= — sponding specifications for cast-steel A307 bolts and threaded parts of A36
Du (unit strain)
t forgings and other materials such as steel is equivalent to 22 000 psi
rivets, welding electrodes, and high- (pounds per square inch) or 150 MPa
where 5 = stress
strength bolts have been introduced. (metric) applied at the root area of the
E = modulus of elasticity.
threads. See Fig. 29-1-8.
See Fig. 29-1-3.
Permissible stresses for rivets are
Therefore ASSIGNMENTS given in terms applicable to the nomi-
S = Du x E
= .000 67 x 29 000 000 See Assignments 1 through 32 for Unit nal cross-sectional area of the rivet
= 19 430 psi 29-1 on page 596. before driving. See Fig. 29-2-1.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS S73

 The most common methods of bolt-
TENSION
ing or riveting plates together are by
20 kips/In.* 140 MPa
lapping or butting the plates, as shown
Rivet Size In Inches Rivet Size In Millimeters
in Fig. 29-2-2. There are many areas
Rivet Dia. in. (mm) 625 .75 .875 1.00 12 16 20 22 25 where a failure may occur in this type
Area in.
2 (mm 2 )
.196 .307 .442 .601 .785 113 201 314 380 491 of connection (Fig. 29-2-3). In the lap
Load kips (kN) 3.93 6.14 8.84 12.03 15.71 15.82 28.14 43.96 53.2 68.74 joint the rivet may
shear between the
two would shear
plates. Since the rivet
in only one plate, it is said to be in
SHEAR single shear. The area that would
Check Below to Ensure that the Allowable Load is Not shear would be the cross-sectional
Governed by Bearing area of the rivet.
MPa There is a possibility that the plate
15 klps/ln. 2 100
Rivet Size In Inches Rivet Size in Millimeters may fail by tearing away at its weakest
point, the section through the rivet or
Rivet Dia. in. (mm) .50 .625 75 .875 1.00 12 16 20 22 25
bolt hole. This would be a tension
Single Shear kips (kN) 2.94 4.60 6.63 9.02 11.78 11.3 20.1 31.4 38 49.1
failure. The area thatwould fail would
Double Shear be the area of the plate at the center of
kips (kN) 5.89 9.20 13.25 18.04 23.56 22.6 40.2 62.8 76 98.2
the hole less the area of the hole.
A third type of failure would be for
the rivet or bolt to rip through or crush
BEARING the plate directly beneath it. This is
and Multiple Shear Single
called a bearing failure, and the area
Check to Ensure that the Allowable Load is Not Governed by Shear
that would fail in the plate would be
Thickness of 45 kips/In. 2 310 MPa equal to the diameter of the fastener
Material Rivet Size In Inches Rivet Size in Millimeters times the plate thickness. If more than
in. mm .50 .625 .75 .875 1.00 12 16 20 22 25 one bolt or rivet were used, the load
would be divided equally on the fas-
.188 5 4.22 5.27 6.33 7.38 18.6 24.8 31 34.1 38.8
teners. Since only two pieces of metal
.250 6 5.62 7.03 8.44 9.84 11.25 22.3 29.8 37.2 40.9 46.5 are joined, they are said to be in single
.312 8 7.03 8.79 10.55 12.31 14.06 29.8 39.7 49.6 54.6 62 bearing.
.375 10 10.55 12.66 14.77 16.88 49.6 62 68.2 77.5 In the butt joint shown in Fig.
.500 12 19.69 22.50 81.4 93 29-2-3, the rivet would have to be
1.000 25 22.50 28.13 33.75 39.38 45.00 3.72 4.96 6.2 6.82 7.75 sliced into two sections if the joint
were by shear. The rivet is said
to fail
For material thickness other than those shown, the bearing value is the value for 1 .00 in. (U.S. Customary) or I mm |metric) to be in double shear, and twice the
multiplied by the actual thickness. Use values shown in bottom line.
area of the rivet is used in the shear
Fig. 29-2-1 Allowable load in kips per square inch (U.S. Customary) and kilonewtons (metric)
calculations.
for structural steel.

BOLT OR RIVET- STRESS STRESS STRESS AREA= STRESS AREA=

AREA= AREA= D xT (W-D) xT
ttd2 7TD 2

4 4
4

44
2

! —— — -"
J
*H
(A) LAP JOINT

-COVER PLATE

1 F
d H<=^~n~
^y77^^ ~~1
SINGLE DOUBLE
(Bl BUTT JOINT (A) SHEAR STRESS (B) BEARING STRESS
Fig. 29-2-2 Plate connections. Fig. 29-2-3 Stress areas in lap and butt joints.

574 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 by tension, that is,
If the joint fails
pulls or tearsaway, it will do so at its
—
weakest point the section through
the hole. Since the two outside plates
are pulling in one direction and the
center plate in the other, the smaller of
the two areas must be used in calculat-
ing the tensile strength of the joint.
In calculating for bearing failure, a
greater allowable working stress is
permissible for rivets and high-
strength bolts over ordinary bolts.
Rivet Holes
In calculating the stresses in riveted
and bolted joints, a distinction must be
made between structural joints and
joints in boilers, pipes, and tanks. In
structural work, the steel members are
The maximum pitch of rivets or Allowable load = S x A
bolts in line with the stress of compres- = 22 000 x .565 = 12 430 lb
sion members composed of plates and
Area2 Rivet shearing. See Fig. 29-2-1.
shapes does not exceed 16 times the
thickness of the thinnest outside plate Single shear for 0.75 rivet = 6.63 kips or
or shape or 20 times the thickness of 6 630 lb
the thinnest enclosed plate or shape, Area 3 Bearing on plate below rivet. A
with a maximum of 12 in. (300 mm). 0.75 rivet is bearing on .50-in. thick
When two or more gage center lines steel. Allowable load = (33.75 x .50)
are used with rivets and bolts stag- = 16 875 lb (see note at bottom of
gered, the maximum pitch of rivets or bearing table, Fig. 29-2-1).
bolts in the line of stress in each gage The weakest area would be the shear
line shall not exceed 24 times the thick- on the rivet. Therefore, allowable ten-
ness of the thinnest plate or shape, sile load that joint could support =
with a maximum of 18 in. (450 mm). 6 630 lb.
The distance between lines of rivets
or bolts measured at right angles to the EXAMPLE 2 Single-riveted butt joint
line of stress shall not exceed 32 times (Fig. 29-2-5). A boiler has a single-
the thickness of the thinnest plate or riveted butt joint. The boiler plate is

generally punched and drilled .06 in. shape. The minimum distance from the .44 in. and the two cover plates are .31
,

in. thick. The rivets are 0.75 in. and are

(1.5mm) larger than the rivet in the center of any punched hole to any edge
shop and then taken to the site for shall be that given in Fig. 29-2-4. spaced 3.00 in. apart. Calculate the
assembly. In calculating the tensile main stresses that could safely be
EXAMPLE 1 Lap joint. Two steel bars, applied to this joint. Plate material is
stress in the joint, the size of the hole is
.50 x 2.00 in. are lapped and joined by A36 steel.
taken as .12 in. (3 mm) greater than the
a .75-in. rivet. What
is the allowable
Solution Since the pitch of the rivets is
nominal diameter of the rivet. This is
could be applied to the
tensile load that
to allow for any unseen damage that
3.00 in., it is assumed that the width of
joint? The holes for rivets are to be the section taken for calculation pur-
may occur around the hole when it is punched. Plate material is A36 steel.
punched and assembled. Areas for poses is 3.00 in. As in Example 1, there
Solution There are three areas that are three areas to be checked
shear and bearing are based on the
must be checked
nominal rivet diameter.
In the construction of boilers, etc., 1 The bars failing under a tensile load
where leakage may be a problem, it is at the holes
essential that the rivet holes line up. 2. The rivet shearing
These holes are often reamed at as- 3. The bearing on the bars directly
sembly. As the finished rivet fills the below the rivet
hole (which is larger than the rivet)
As the holes are punched, the diam-
completely, the diameter of the hole is
eter of the hole will be taken as .12 in.
used for computing all the stresses.
larger than the rivet diameter for cal-
culating tensile loads.
Spacing of Rivets or Bolts
The minimum distance between the Area Bars failing under a tensile
1
centers of fastener holes is 3 times the load. Area of plate at center line of
diameter of the fastener, but when pos- hole = .50 x (2.00 - .87) = .565 in. 2 .

sible, the distance shall be not less

than shown in Fig. 29-2-4.
Allowable unit stress = 22 kips/in. 2
See Fig. 29-1-8. Therefore
.

ES^Mfe^
(A)

In Rolled Minimum
In Rolled Edge of Spacing
Fastener In Sheared Edge of Structural of Rivets
Diameter Edge Plates Shapes or Bolts
Inches mm Inches mm Inches mm Inches mm Inches mm
.50 12 1.00 25 .90 23 .75 20 2.00 50
.625 16 1.10 28 1.00 25 .90 23 2.25 58
75 20 1.25 32 1.10 28 1.00 25 2.50 65
.875 22 1.50 38 1.25 32 1.10 28 3.00 75
1.00 25 1.75 45 1.50 38 1.25 32 3.50 90
1.125 30 2.00 50 1.75 45 1.50 38 4.00 100
1.25 32 2.25 60 2.00 50 1.75 45 4.50 115
Fig. 29-2-5 Single-riveted butt joint on a
Fig. 29-2-4 Minimum edge distances and spacings for rivets and bolts. boiler.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 575

1. The section failing under a tensile 2 L s 4.00 X 3.00 X .31

load
2. The rivet shearing .38 THICK
3. The bearing on the steel plate below
L s 3.50 X 2.50 X .31
the rivet.

As previously mentioned, for boiler-

plate construction, the finished rivet is

assumed be the same size as the

to
drilled hole, namely. .81 in. VIEW "A" ROOF TRUSS
Fig. 29-2-6 Roof truss.
Area Plate failing under a tensile
1

load. Since the area of the two outside

plates is greater than the area of the The length of the repeated
the .38-in. -thick gusset. Since the Solution
middle plate, the middle plate will fail problem is one of determining the section 6.00 in. Since both sides of
is
first. Diameter of rivet hole = .81 in.
number of rivets required to carry the the joint are the same, only one side of
Area of middle plate = (3.00 - .81) x load, it can be assumed that the size of the joint (shown in Fig. 29-2-7B) is
.44 = .959 in. 2 Allowable unit stress
.
the steel is satisfactory for the applied used in computing the stresses. There
= 22 kips. See Fig. 29-1-8. Therefore
loads. Refer to Fig. 29-2-1. are two rivets in double shear and one
Allowable load = S x A rivet in single shear. The rivets are .75
= = 1. Number of 0.75-in. rivets in double
22 000 x .959 21 1001b in. in diameter and are placed in .81-in.
shear required for
As mentioned earlier in
drilled holes.
Area 2 Rivet shear. Since the rivet
Upper chord = 75 h- 13.25 = 6 rivets boiler work, finished rivets are
would have to shear in two places, it is Lower chord = 64 13.25 = 5 rivets
h-
assumed to be the same size as the
considered to be in double shear.
drilled holes; thus for calculation pur-
2. Number of 0.75-in. rivets bearing
Shear area = poses the rivets will be .81 in. in diame-
on .38-in. plate required for
ir x .81 2 The total force exerted on the
x 2 = 1.03 in. 2 ter.
Upper chord = 75 -h 12.66 = 6 rivets repeated section is
Lower chord = 64 h- 12.66 = 5 rivets
Allowable shear stress = 14.5 kips.
F = S x A
Therefore Therefore, the minimum allowable = 6000 x 6.00 x .38 = 13 680 lb
rivets required for the upper and lower
Allowable load = S x A
chords are 6 and 5 rivets, respectively. There are two rivets in double shear
= 14 500 x 1.03 14 935 lb
and one rivet in single shear, compris-
Area 3 Bearing on plates. Middle plate
EXAMPLE 4 Double-riveted butt joint
ing shear areas. It will be assumed that
(double shear) area = .44 x .31 = .356
(Fig. 29-2-7). A
boiler has a double-
each shear area will carry one-fifth of
riveted butt joint. The boiler plate is
in.
2
Outside plates (single shear) have
. the load. Shear force on each rivet =
.38 in. thick, and the two cover plates
an area equal to 13 680 -i- 5 = 2736 lb. Therefore the
are .25 in. The rivets are 0.75 in. A unit shear stress on rivets is
Area = 2 x .31 x .31 = .502 in. 2 section of the riveted joint is shown.
Calculate the main stresses in the joint >736 2736
The weaker area would be the mid- 3
when the boiler plate is subject to a A [(it x .81 2 ) + 4] .515
under bearing. Allowa-
dle plate failing
ble unit stress = 45 kips per in. 2 tensile strength of 6000 psi. = 5313 psi
.

Allowable load = S x A = 45 000 x

.356 = 16 020 lb.
Therefore, the weakest area of the •SECTION A
three areas checked would be the rivet
SECTION B
shearing. Allowable load on joint =
14 935 lb.
o
EXAMPLE 3 Roof truss (Fig. 29-2-6). A PITCH I
O
roof truss has loads of 75 and 64 kips o 6.00

acting on the upper and lower chord

members. Calculate the number of
PITCH = 6.00
k)
0.75-in. rivets required to safely carry
these loads.
Solution Since the .38 in. gusset
enclosed by two .31-in. -thick angles,
the rivets are in double shear. In cal-
culating the bearing stress, it will be
noted that the two outer angles having
is

zzs^spm^
SECTION C-C
'-

0.75
4^0^
Rl VETS y
SECTION D-D
^
a combined thickness of .62 in. (two (A) (B)
.31-in. -thick angles) are stronger than Fig. 29-2-7 Double-riveted butt joint on a boiler.

576 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

The upper cover plate transmits two- CIRCUMFERENTIAL
JOINT
fifthsof the load. Therefore F, = .4 x
13 680 = 5472 lb.
The lower cover plate transmits
three-fifths of the load. Therefore F,
= .6 x 13 680 = 8208 lb. Stress on 48.00

boiler plate taken at section A RIVET PITCH

F_
= 13 680 SHELL
A (6.00 - .81) x .38

13 680
6944 psi
1.97
72.00
LONGITUDINAL JOINT
Since one-fifth of the total load has
been transmitted to the lower cover (A) TERMINOLOGY (B) HALF SECTION
plate at section A, the load on the Fig. 29-2-8 Thin-wall cylinder.
boiler plate at section B is .8 x 13 680
= 10 944 lb. Stress on .38-in. boiler
plate taken at section B is welded joints is in the construction of or load acting on each rivet. As pre-
boilers and tanks. The pressure of viously mentioned, in boiler construc-
10 944 10 944
S = gases or liquids upon the walls of a tion the diameter of the rivet hole,
(6.00 - 1.62) x .38 1.664
tank acts outwardly in all directions which is .06 in. larger than the diame-
6577 psi
and uniformly. Therefore, the cylinder ter of the rivet, is used in computing all
shell on a thin-wall vessel is designed the stresses. Refer to Fig. 29-2-1. The
Since the lower cover plate trans-
with the assumption that the stress is allowable stress in single shear is 15
mits three-fifths of the total load, the
uniform throughout the wall thickness. kips per in. 2 The chart shows values
.

largest stress on the two cover plates

The tensile stress in the ends of the of 9.02 and 1 1 .78 kips for rivet sizes of
will occur on the lower cover plate at
cylinder, caused by the pressure 0.875 and 01. 00 in., respectively. Since
section B. Stress on the bottom cover
inside, is called longitudinal stress, or the finished size of the .875-in. diame-
plate at section B is
tension. The tensile stress acting in the ter rivet will be .938 in. in diameter, the

8208
circumferential direction is called allowable load will be computed on the
A (6.00 - 1.62) x .25
hoop stress, or tension. final size. Therefore the allowable load
for a .938-in. diameter rivet will be
8208
= 7496
EXAMPLE 5 A tank of 48.00-in. diame-
psi
1 .095 teris made of .25-in. steel plate. The

internal pressure is 150 psi. Calculate Area x stress =

(it x .938 2 + 4) in. 2 x 15 kips =
In calculating the bearing stresses, the size of rivets required if the pitch
.69 in. 2 x 15 000 = 10 365 lb
the bearing area for the rivet in single on the longitudinal and circumferential
shear is the rivet diameter times the joints is 3.00 in.
Since this is less than the load acting
thickness of the thinner plate con- Solution
nected (the cover plate). The bearing
on the rivet, the next size larger rivet
1.Calculate rivet size for longitudi-
area for the rivet in double shear is the
must be used, and therefore the 01.00-
nal seam. Figure 29-2-8 shows a half-
in. rivet is required. The allowable
rivet diameter times the thickness of section of the tank. The internal pres-
load in bearing for a 01.00-in. rivet on
the boiler plate. The rivets in double sure of 150 psi acts on the shell surface
.25-in. steel plate is 11 250 lb. There-
shear are subjected to twice the bear- at every point. The total force acting
fore the size of rivet required along the
ing load of those in single shear. Bear- on the half of the tank shown would be
ing stress at a rivet in single shear
longitudinal seam is 01.00 in.
equal to the area of the tank taken at its
Calculate rivet size for circum-
2.
(section A) is center times the pressure, or (48.00 x
ferential joint. Number of pitches or
72.00)in. 2 x 150 psi = 518 400 lb. The
L repeated sections on circumference
S = = ?736 = 2736 combined equal pressures of F, and F,
A .81 x .25 .20 equals
acting on the tank wall are equal in
= 13 680 psi magnitude to P but act in opposite
it x diameter -it x 48.00
directions. = 50.3
Bearing stress at a rivet in double pitch 3.00
Only the pitch distance of 3.00 in.
shear (section B) is the repeated section, need be used in
Use 51 rivets.
calculating the size of the rivet along
5472 = 5472 Pressure exerted on head of tank =
A .81 x .38 .308 the joint. Therefore
pressure x area = 150 psi x (-rr x
= 17 766 psi F, for repeated section = 24.00 2 in. 2 = 271 434 lb. Therefore
)

48.00 x 3.00 x 150

Stresses in Thin-Wall Cylinders An 2

Load per =
271 4^4
'
rivet e = 5322 lb
important application of riveted and = 10 8001b
,

51

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 577

 .V, tte: When the pitches on the longi- Solution The design load for each rod Therefore, mass that can be supported
000 2 = 80001b. Allowable unit - 73 250 x 0.102 =
tudinal and the circumferential joints is 16 -s-

are equal, then the load per pitch on stress (see Fig. 29-1-8) = 22 000 lb per 7472 kg
the circumferential joint is one-half of in.-.

the load per pitch on the longitudinal

References and Source Material
8000 = 1. American Institute of Steel
joint. .364 in.2
22 000 Construction
Refer to Fig. 29-2-1. The allowable
load in single shear for a 0.62-in. rivet Note that in example 6 the shear area
(use .69 in. for calculations) is 5609 lb
for a 1.000 in. threaded nut is 2.33 in.
2
. ASSIGNMENTS
and the allowable load in bearing for a
Therefore, a smaller threaded nut is
0.62-in. rivet (use .69 in. for calcula-
See Assignments 33 and 34 for Unit
required. Try a .375 style 1 hex UNC 29-2 on page 596.
tions) on .25-in. steel isThere- 7762 lb.
nut (see Appendix and use tap drill size
fore the size of rivet required along
for root diameter).
circumferential joint 0.62 in. Review for Assignments
is
Area = circumference of root diam-
Unit 29-1 Stresses
eter x height of nut = (tt x .312) x
BOLTS, SCREWS, AND STUDS .328 = .321 in. 2 . A greater root area is
required. A style 2 hex nut which is
As mentioned beginning of this
at the
thicker or a .438 in. nut will be needed.
unit, the tensile stress permitted for
Area of a .375 style 2 hex nut =
UNC
A307 bolts and threaded parts of A36 (it x .312) x .406 = .398 in.
2
There- .

steel is equivalent to 22 000 psi applied

at the root area of the threads.
EXAMPLE 6 What
force is required to
strip the threads on a 1.000-8 reg-
ular hex nut and bolt?
Solution The sheared area will be
equal to the circumference of the root
circle multipliedby the height of the
nut. Root diameter of 1.000-8 UNC
thread = .847 in., circumference =
2.66 in. Height of 1.000 in. regular hex
nut (see Appendix) = .875 in. Shear
area - 2.66 x .875 = 2.33 in. 2 Ulti-
mate tensile strength of A36 steel (see
Fig. 29-1-8) = 58 kips.
Therefore
Force required to strip threads =
S x A = 58 000 x 2.33 = 135 140 lb
EXAMPLE 7 A platform is supported
by four A36 steel rods which are sus-
pended from the ceiling. The end of the
rods are threaded, and plate washers
and nuts are attached. The platform is
to support a load of 16 000 lb and any
two of the four rods must be capable of
supporting the entire load.
fore, 0.375 rods with UNC threads and UNIT 29-3
hex nuts meet the design
style 2
requirements.
Welded Joints
UNC As explained in Chap. 8, metric
threaded fasteners are defined by In addition to riveting, welding is also
property class numbers which desig- employed in the joining of structural
nate their strength. The first number of steel. Fabricated steel construction
a two-digit symbol or the first two has also replaced many parts formerly
numbers of a three-digit symbol made by casting because of the lower
approximates 1 percent of the mini- cost and the greater strength at a con-
mum tensile stress in megapascals. siderable reduction in size and weight,
The last numeral approximates one- or mass.
. tenth of the ratio expressed as a per- The two types of welds most fre-
centage between minimum yield stress quently used are fillet and butt welds.
and minimum tensile stress. Thus only these types will be covered
in this unit.
EXAMPLE 8 What mass can be
sup-
ported by an M24 x 3 stud, property
FILLET WELDS
class 8.8, if a factor of safety of 4 is
added to the requirements? The fillet used to join two parts
weld is
Solution Refer to Fig. 29-2-9. Under an angle,
that either overlap or join at
the 8.8 column, an M24 x 3 thread has normally perpendicular, to each other.
a tensile strength (the maximum force In the calculations of strength of fillet
permitted) of 293 kN. Adding a factor welds, the effective area is considered
of safety to this value we find the per- as the effective length of weld times
missible force is 293 * 4 = 73.25 kN. the effective throat thickness, as illus-
IN = 0.102 kg trated in Fig. 29-3-1.

Tensile Thread
Stress Shear
Area Area Strength jkNJ for Property Class
S.8 ! 8.8 9.8 10.9 12.9 -EFFECTIVE THROAT
THICKNESS = 707 X LEG SIZE
M10 x 1.5 58 15.6 Zd.Z Z^T.^T 30.2 52.2 60.3 70.8
M12 x 1.75 84 19 33.7 35.4 43.8 75.9 87.7 103 EFFECTIVE
WELD LENGTH
M14 x 2 115 22.4 46 48.3 59.8 104 120 140
M16 x 2 157 26.1 62.8 65.9 81.6 130 141 163 192
M20 x 2.5 245 33.3 98 127 203 255 299
M24 x 3 353 40.5 141 184 293 367 431
M30 x 3.5 561 51.6 224 466 583 684
M36 x 4 817 63.1 327 678 850 997 -»- —-LEG SIZE= SIZE OF WELD

Fig. 29-2-9 Load capacities of threaded fasteners. Fig. 29-3-1 Fillet weld nomenclature.

578 ADVANCED DRAFTING DKIGN

 ...

Electrodes Allowable Load per Inch With a weld running the entire
U.S. Customary Metric Length in Kips length of 4.00 in., a weld having the
Base Metal Metal Electrodes
E60XX E70XX 1 E410XX E480XX strength of 20 -r 4 or 5 kips per inch of
Fillet
13 500 lb' in.
2 15 700lb/in. 2 185 MPa 216 MPa length is required.
|

Weld A36 1
A572
Size E60XX E70XX 2 Refer to Fig. 29-3-3: a .50 in. fillet
Fig. 29-3-2 Shear stress for electrodes.
inches Electrode
weld is selected. With a .62 in. weld, a
18 18 2 1

weld length of 20 + 7.0 = 2.85 in. (use

.25 2.4 2.8
.31 3.0 3.5 3.00 in.) would be required.
.38 3.6 4.2
.44 4.2 4.9 EXAMPLE A
250 x 10
3 A572M- mm
For example, a .38 in. weld
fillet .50 4.8 56 380 steel plate connected by a pair of
is
6.00 in. long (effective length) has an .62 6.0 7.0
.75 7.2 8.4
fillet welds to the bottom flange of a
effective area of .38 x .7 x 6.00, or
beam, as shown in Fig. 29-3-5. The
1.596 in. 2
.
1 Based on shear resistance factor of 0.131 kfM per mm of
weld for mm of weld length (185 MPa shear stress).
1
plate subjected to a tensile load of
is
For purposes of calculating the 2. Based on shear resistance factor of 0. 53 kN per mm of 1
450 kN. What are the minimum size
strength of welds in this unit, the shear weld for I mm of weld length (216 MPa shear stress).
and length of weld recommended for
stresses shown in Fig. 29-3-2 will be
this connection, if the maximum stress
used. The strength of the previous Allowable Load per mm
1

on the plate is 220 MPa?

weld would be stress times effective Length In kN
Base Metal Electrodes
area.
Fillet
With E60xx electrodes the weld A36 3
Weld A572M*
strength is Size E410XX E480XX
mm Electrode Electrode
13 500 x 1.596 = 215461b
4 0.5 0.6
6 0.8 0.9
Using E70xx elecrodes, the weld
8 1 1.2
strength is 10 1.3 15
12 1.6 1.8
15 700 x 1.596 = 25 057 lb 16 2 1 2.4
20 2.6 3
Another method of calculating the 3. Based on 600 lb per .062 in. of weld thickness ( 1 3 500
strength of welds is to multiply the leg lb/in.
2
shear stress).

size of the weld by effective length. 4. Based on 700 lb per .062 in. of weld thickness ( 1 5 800
lb/in. 2 shear stress).
The shear resistance factors (SRF)
shown in Fig. 29-3-3 are based on the Fig. 29-3-3 Strength of fillet welds.

shear stresses shown in Fig. 29-3-2. 450 kN

The strength of the previous weld Fig. 29-3-5 Bar fillet welded both sides.
using E70xx electrodes would be 4.2
Solution
x 6 = 25.2 kips or 25 200 lb.
The strength value for specified load
Weld size
weld sizes is the more convenient length x SRF Solution Before the weld size is
method to use. 30 chosen, the minimum plate area at the
The following recommendations SRF 2.5 weld should be established. The mini-
2 x 6.00
should be adhered to when welded mum plate area, for calculating pur-
joints are designed.
Refer to Fig. 29-3-3. poses, at the welded area (see Fig.
A .25 in. fillet weld is required. 29-3-6) is width times plate thickness.
• Even-number-mm-size welds, such
EXAMPLE 2 A .75 x 4.00 in. A572-50 Load = stress x area.
shown in Fig. 29-3-3, should be
as
used whenever possible. bar welded to a column. What are
is
Therefore
• For metric length of welds use the size and length of the fillet welds

lengths evenly divisible by 5, such as

required if a tensile load of 40 kips is Minimum width of plate
applied? _ load
40, 50, 60, etc.
Solution Since two fillet welds will be stress x plate thickness in meters
• Fillet welds should be at least .06 in.
(2 mm) less than the thickness of the used, one on each side of the bar, each
= 450 000 N
part being welded.
fillet weld will be designed to resist a (220 x 106) pa x 0.01 m
force of 40 kips -s- 2 = 20 kips. = m mm
• Welds should be located on both 0.2045 or 204.5
sides of T joints evenly spaced
around the line of action of the
Thus, the plate width of 250 is mm
acceptable. If the minimum weld
applied load.
length is 210 mm
per side (min. plate
EXAMPLE 1 Two
x 6.00 in. steel .38 width), the load per of weld is 450 mm
bars are welded with F70 electrodes as r(2x 210) = 1.07 kN.
shown in Fig. 29-3-4. What size weld is Refer to Fig. 29-3-3. An 8-mm fillet
required if a tensile load of 30 kips is weld is required. If the fillet weld were
applied? Fig. 29-3-4 Lap Joint. to run the entire length of the plate,

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 579

 Load per inch length of weld Minimum permissible length of weld

= ]80 4.09 kips. = |^ = 15.43 in. (use 15.50 in.)

44

Refer to Fig. 29-3-3. Size of fillet weld Referring to the Appendix, we find the
required is .38 in. back of the short leg of the angle is 1.70
AREA OF in. from the centroidal axis.
STRESS Consider the 54 kip load being trans-
CONCENTRATION Fillet Welds for Angle Iron
ferred to the plate by loads P and P2
When tension or compression mem- where P = 3.5 x L,, P 2 = 3.5 x L 2
x

bers are connected by two side fillet

x

and P, and P 2 both equal 54 kips. Tak-

welds as shown in the previous exam- ing moments about a point on length L 2

— 250 «4P 450 kN

ples, the weld should be placed in the
same line of action as the force being
(refer to Fig. 29-4-3 for calculation of
moments), we have
transmitted by the weld. For members
Fig. 29-3-6 Plate area at weld.
having symmetrical cross sections, the
P x 5.00 = 54 x 1.70
length of weld on each side of the x

P, = 54 x 1.70 4- 5.00
member should be equal. For mem- = = x L,
mm of weld = 450 *
18.3 3.5
then the load per bers having unsymmetrical cross sec-
(2 x 250) = 0.9 kN. This would permit tions, as shown in Fig. 29-3-8 where an
a 6-mm weld to be used, which is more angle iron is welded to a steel plate, the Therefore
economical. lengths of welds are so proportioned L, = 5.23 in. (use 5.25 in.)
that the line of action of the force L, + L, = 15.50 in.
Intermittent Fillet Welds transmitted by the weld will be along L-, = 15.50 - 5.25 = 10.25 in.
Intermittent fillet welds may be used to the axes of the two members. This is
transfer calculated stress across a joint accomplished by assuming that the
when the strength required less than Therefore weld lengths of 5.25 (L,) and
is
line of action on the angle member is
10.25 in. (L 2 are selected.
that developed by a continuous fillet
on the centroidal axis (center of grav-
)

weld of the smallest permitted size, ity) and by making the lengths of welds
and to join components of built-up EXAMPLE 6 Use the same members
such that L, x A = L 2 x B.
members. The effective length of any and load as in the previous example,
segment of intermittent fillet welding EXAMPLE 5 A 5.00 x 3.00 x .38 in. except that the fillet weld is welded on
should be not less than 4 times the A572-45 angle welded to a steel plate three sides, as shown in Fig. 29-3-9.

weld size, with a minimum of 1.50 in. transmits a load of 54 kips. Calculate Solution The design calls for 15.50 in.
(40 mm). the length of welds on each side of the of weld to be used: 5.00 in. of the weld
angle so that the load acts along the lies along the back of the angle so that
EXAMPLE 4 Calculate the size of the
centroidal axis of the angle. See Fig. the remaining 10.25 in. of weld is equal
intermittent weld shown in Fig. 29-3-7 29-3-8. to the combined length of welds L x
to safely carry a tensile load of 180
Solution The maximum fillet weld for and L 2 .

kips. Use F70xx electrodes. .38-in. -thick material is .31 in. The The 15.50 in. of weld should be
Solution
allowable load per inch length of a .31- located so that the line of action of the
Total length of welds in. weld is 3.5 kips. See Fig. 29-3-3. force transmitted by the weld is along
= 11 x 2.00 x 2 44.00 in. Therefore the centroidal axis of the angle.

-2.00

P| - 5.00 —
A P3
-•—5.00—
-^l.70|—
— 250

CENTROiDAL t
CENTROIDAL
AXIS
-•-1.70} -
AXIS 54 KIPS
54 KIPS
MOMENTS ABOUT A MOMENTS ABOUT A
POINT ON WELD POINT ON WELD
LENGTH L2 LENGTH L2

Fig. 29-3-8 Fillet weld on both sides of Fig. 29-3-9 Fillet weld on sides and end of
Fig. 29-3-7 Intermittent weld. angle iron. angle iron.

580 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 For calculation purposes, assume
TYPE OF PARTIAL PENETRATION COMPLETE PENETRATION
there are three welds, P P 2 and P3 x
, , , BUTT WELD WELDED ONE SIDE WELDED BOTH SIDES
whose combined loads equal 54 kips,
and the allowable load per inch length (MAX
of a .06 in. weld is 3.5 kips. P lies {
CT (MAX 3
.12 in.)

mm]
along distance L, and is equal to 3.5L t FLUSH 2
kips. P 2 lies along distance L 2 and is f EFFECTIVE THROAT
equal to 3.5L 2 kips. P 3 lies midway
THICKNESS = 0.5T
along the 5.00-in. width, or 2.50 in. SQUARE -T (MAX .31 in.)
from Pv and is equal to 5.00 x 3.5 = (MAX 8mm)
17.5 kips. At a point on line L 2 T (MAX .25 in.)

Clockwise moments
= (/>,x 5.00) + (P3 x 2.50)
OPEN ^Wt^^ (MAX 6 mm]

= (L, x 3.5 x 5.00) + (17.5 x 2.50) EFFECTIVE THROAT

EFFECTIVE THROAT
= 17.5L, + 43.75 in. kips THICKNESS = 0.75T THICKNESS = T

Counterclockwise moments -T (UNLIMITED) -T(UNLIMITED)

= 1.70 x 54 = 91.8 in. kips

Clockwise moments = counterclockwise

moments
BEVEL ZMM
SINGLE BEVEL
17. 5L, + 43.75 in. =kips 91.8 in. kips
17.5L, = 48.05 in. kips V AND U T(UNLIMITED)
L = 2.75 in. I
wm:
x

L, + L 2 = 10.50 in.

L2 = 10.50 - 2.75
= 7.75 in.
DOUBLE BEVEL
EFFECTIVE THROAT
THICKNESS = T
Therefore weld lengths of 2.75 in. (L,) EFFECTIVE THROAT
THICKNESS - T- 25 in (6 mm)
and 7.75 in. (L 2 ) are used on the sides
of the angle. Strength of butt welds.
Fig. 29-3-10

Safe load =
area x unit stress psi acting in all directions on the cylin-
= x x 22 000 der wall. It will be assumed that for
BUTT WELDS =
(.188 10.00)
141.36 kips thin-walled cylinders the resultant
The butt weld is used to join two pieces force P will equal the diameter of the
EXAMPLE 8 A 036 in. boiler, made of
of metal that lie on the same plane. In cylinder in inches times the length of
A36 steel, has to withstand a steam
the calculations of strength of butt the cylinder in inches times the pres-
joints, the effective area of butt welds
pressure of 350 psi. A single- V butt
joint, welded one side, is to be used. sure acting within the cylinder.
shall be considered as the effective The total force P is resisted by two
What is the thickness of boiler plate
length of weld times the effective equal forces F, and F2 Taking a sec-
required? .

throat thickness. The effective throat tion of the tank 1 in. in length and cal-
Solution Figure 29-3-11 shows a half-
thickness depends on the metal thick- culating the forces P, F v and F2 we
section of the boiler. The total force P ,

ness, the gap between the adjoining have

acting on the cylinder is the resultant
parts, the type of butt weld, and
pressure of the internal pressure of 350 P = S x A
whether the weld is on one or both
= 350 x 1.00 x 36.00
sides. See Fig. 29-3-10. = 12 600 lb
EXAMPLE 7 An open-square butt 12 600 6300 lb

weld, welded one side, is used to join The single-V butt weld will have to
two A36 steel plates .25 x 10.00 in.
withstand a force of 6300 lb for every
Compute the safe tensile load that can inch of weld. Allowable unit stress for
be applied to the joint. A36 steel is 22 000 psi. Weld stress
Solution Refer to Fig. 29-3-10. The equals plate stress. Therefore
effective throat thickness for an open-
Effective throat thickness of weld
square butt weld = 0.75 T = 0.75 x
= F, h- (5 x length of section)
.25 = .188 in. Next (refer to Fig.
= 6300 -r (22 000 x 1.00)
29-1-8), the allowable unit tensile = .28 in.
stress for A36 steel is 22 kips.
Therefore Fig. 29-3-11 Welded boiler section. Refer to Fig. 29-3-10; note that the

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS S81

effective throat thickness of a single-
butt weld, welded one side, under ten-
sion equal to 7 - .25 in., where / is
is
equal to the thickness of plate. There-
fore, minimum plate thickness must be
.25 + .28 = .53 in. to safely carry the
load. With a welded-both-sides joint,
the plate thickness could be reduced to
.28 in., which would be a considerable
sa\ing.
Reference and Source Material
I. American Institute of Steel
Construction.
ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 35 through 58 for
Unit 29-3 on page 597.
UNIT 29-4
Beams
A beam is a structural member
machine part which supports trans-
verse (i.e.. perpendicular) loads and
reactions. Most beams are placed in a
horizontal position with vertical forces
acting on them. Examples are floor
and ceiling joists, lintels, and floor
beams. This unit covers the design of
simple beams only w here buckling and
twisting are not factors and where the
beams are of uniform size and shape
for the entire length. Forces acting on
the beams are assumed to be in the
same plane.
Types of Beams Beams are classified
according to the manner in which they
are supported. Some of the more com-
mon types of beams are shown in Fig.
29-4-1. They are
1. Cantilever beam: a beam that has
one fixed end
2. Simple beam: a beam that is sup-
ported at each end
3. Overhanging beam: a beam that has
one or both ends projecting beyond
its supports
4. Beams with both ends fixed
5. Beams fixed at one end and sup-
ported at the other end
6. Continuous beam: a beam sup-
ported at more than two points
582 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN
(A) CANTILEVER BEAM
BEAM-
(B) SIMPLE
SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS
n
R|
(C) OVERHANGING BEAM
(D) BEAM WITH FIXED ENDS
or
(E)BEAM FIXED ATONE END,
SUPPORTED AT OTHER END
R;
(F) CONTINUOUS BEAM
Fig. 29-4-1 Common types of beams.
KINDS OF LOADS
Two types of loads commonly occur
on beams: concentrated and uniformly
distributed loads. A concentrated load
extends over a short length of the
beam and for calculation purposes is
considered as acting at one point. It is
usually represented by a line with an
arrow indicating its direction of force
and the letter P as shown in Fig.
29-4-2A. Concentrated loads are gen-
erally expressed in pounds or kips
(U.S. Customary), or kilonewtons or
meganewtons (metric). One kip equals
1000 pounds. A uniformly distributed
(A) THREE METHODS OF INDICATING
CONCENTRATED LOADS
(TOTAL LOAD)
60 LB/ FT 900 LB
R2
R| «2
UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS
(B)
R2
R2
(C) COMBINATION OF CONCENTRATED
AND UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOADS
Fig. 29-4-2 Representation of loads on
beam drawings.
load one which the load
is in
tributed uniformly over a given length
is dis-
or over the entire length of the beam.
The weight or mass of the beam is an
example of a uniformly distributed
load. This type of load is generally
expressed in pounds or kips per foot
(U.S. Customary), or newtons per
meter or kilonewtons per meter (met-
ric). The load is represented in the fig-
ure by a rectangular block resting on
the beam, as shown in Fig. 29-4-2B.
P2
The upward forces, or supports, that
hold the beam in a state of equilibrium
R3 are called the reactions and are desig-
nated by the letters R (left side) and
{
R 2 (right side). The sum of the reac-
tions /?, + R 2 known as the forces
,
acting upward, are equal and opposite
to the downward forces or loads.
MOMENTS
When a force acts upon an object at a
distance from the object, as through a
beam, the force is called a moment.
See Fig. 29-4-3. A moment is the ten-
dency of a force to cause rotation
about a given point or axis. The magni-
tude of a moment is equal to the magni-
tude of the force times the perpendicu-
lar distance to the point. Since the
force is measured in pounds and the
distance in feet or inches, moments are
measured in foot-pounds ( ft • 1 b ) or
 multiplying the force times the dis-
tance: 20 x 12 = 240 in.-lb.

EXAMPLE 2 A cantilever beam sup-

ports a concentrated load of 500 lb
located 12 ft from the support.
I5' ^
R2
(I) WRENCH MOMENT AT C=LxF R| (A)
Neglecting the mass of the beam, cal- /-CONCENTRATED LOAD
REPLACING UNIFORMLY
culate the moment at the wall. DISTRIBUTED LOAD
Solution The moment taken at the wall OF 40 LB FT
Kl. 1-2- '200 LB 600 LB
or support may be found by multiply-
5' 7-6
.'i
W2 ing the force times the distance: 500 x
12 = 600 fflb.
R2
(2) LEVER MOMENT AT EXAMPLE 3 A beam
long has a 15 ft
Ri
(B)

F=W| x L|=W2x L2 concentrated load of 1200 lb acting 5 ft

away from the left reaction. Neglect-
ing the mass of the beam, calculate the 7-6—
reaction forces. See Fig. 29-4-4.

I200 LB 600 LB

1200 LB Ri 4p
(3) CRANK MOMENT AT C=WxL m — E •
-I
:

r R| R2
(C)

Fig. 29-4-5
MOMENT DIAGRAM ABOUT
Simple beam with uniformly
R

~ distributed and concentrated loads.

1200 LB

tributed, a concentrated load of 600 lb

(4) CANTILEVER BEAM
MOMENT AT WALL=WxL R|
located midway on the beam, as shown
R2 in Fig. 29-4-5B, would have the same
MOMENT DIAGRAM ABOUT R| effect on the reactions R and R 2 i
.

- Therefore by substituting the 600-lb

r • L2 - Fig. 29-4-4
load.
Simple beam with concentrated
concentrated load 7'-6 from the reac-
tions for the uniformly distributed
load, the reaction forces can now be
(5) SIMPLE BEAM MOMENT found.
AT W=R|x L|=R2xL2 Taking moments about reaction /?,
Solution Taking moments about reac-
Fig. 29-4-3 Application of moments. tions R and R 2 we have
(Fig. 29-4-5C), we have
{

Clockwise moments using

Clockwise moments using pounds and
= 5 x 1200 = 6000 fflb. pounds and feet
inch-pounds (in. -lb). In the metric sys- feet

tem the moments are measured in new- = 1200 x 5 + 600 x 7.5

Counterclockwise moments = 15 x /?,
ton-meters (N-m). = 6000 + 4500
Clockwise = Counterclockwise = 10 500 ft-lb
If a number of forces acting on a moments moments
Clockwise = Counterclockwise
point are in equilibrium, the sum of the 6000 = 15 x R2
ft-lb moments moments
moments of all the forces about that
Therefore 10 500 ft-lb = 15 x R 2
point is zero. Therefore, the
of the sum
moments of all forces that tend to pro- 6000 Therefore
R, 400 1b
duce clockwise moments about a given 15
R, = 10 500 - 15 = 700 lb
point is equal and opposite to the sum R - R~2 = 1800 1b
]

of all the forces that tend to produce

Thu> Thus
counterclockwise moments at that
/?,
= 1800 - 700 = 1100 1b
given point. This law of equilibrium is R, 1200 - 400 = 800 lb
very helpful in solving beam reaction.
EXAMPLE 4 Use the same data given in
EXAMPLE 1 A force of 20 lb
applied is Example but include the force of
3,
at the end of a wrench 12 in. from the gravity acting on the beam, which is 40
center of the bolt which is being held lb/ft. See Fig. 29-4-5.
ASSIGNMENTS
by the wrench. Calculate the moment. Solution Since the force of gravity act- See Assignments 59 and 60 for Unit
Solution The moment may be found by ing on the beam is uniformly dis- 29-4 on page 598.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 583

 drawn to the same horizontal scale to the shear force at a section 4 fttaken
UNIT 29-5 is

as the loading diagram, and the posi- away from reaction (R ) of a

the left x

Shear Diagrams
When a beam supports a load, there
a tendency for the beam to tail b\
shear. In design work, it is essential to
know what shear force a beam must
resist at any section. The vertical
shear force at a section of a beam is the
algebraic sum of all the external forces
acting on either side of the section.
This can be further simplified by stat-
ing that the vertical shear at any sec-
tion is equal to the product of the
reaction minus the loads. The section
is the name given to the cross section
tive shear is shown above
while the negative shear is drawn
below it. The magnitude of the shear at
is
each section is shown by vertical lines
drawn to a convenient scale.
In order to identify the section at
which the shear is taken, a symbol (the
letter \ followed by a number) is used.
The letter V refers to the magnitude of
the vertical shear, and the number
refers to the horizontal distance from
the left end of the beam. Thus V4 refers
this line simple beam, or 4 ft away from the
free end of a cantilever beam. The
mass of the beam will not be consid-
ered unless specified in the examples
or problems.
CANTILEVER BEAMS
Cantilever beams should be drawn
w ith the support show n at the RH side.
EXAMPLE
1 Figure 29-5-2A represents
a cantilever beam w ith a concentrated

of the beam where the calculations are

V/
made. For simplification, only the
forces acting to the left of the section
III LOADING DIAGRAM III LOADING DIAGRAM
willbe calculated in this text.
Shear is designated as either positive
shear or negative shear. When the sum
of the vertical forces to the left of the
section is upward, the shear is posi- ^
tive. When the sum of the vertical •
SHEAR SECTION -SHEAR SECTION
°—«mrrrjj"
forces to the left of the section is dow n- SHEAR FORCE
-SHEAR FORCE AT SECTION
ward. the shear is negative. See Fig. -300 LB
^— AT SECTION
29-5-1. 121 SECTION TAKEN 3' FROM LOAD 121 SECTION TAKEN 9' FROM WALL
This information is represented in a
shear force diagram which is normally
drawn below the loading diagram of
the beam. A horizontal zero base line
w,
SHEAR SECTION SHEAR SECTION-
—*uuimu]jj|jjjj
SHEAR FORCE SHEAR FORCE
4300 LB AT SECTION
-SHEAR SECTION -300 LB AT SECTION

(3) SECTION TAKEN 6 FROM LOAD (31 SECTION TAKEN 6 FROM WALL

300 LB FT
c
FORCE TO THE LEFT OF
SECTION ACTING UPWARDS >< SHEAR SECTION—^
^
SHEAR SECTION
(A) POSITIVE SHEAR
o
u
^ -SHEAR FORCE
-300LB^ AT SECTION
~Tr f i]J!
-^-7200
F
AT SECTION
i

LB
°

141 SECTION TAKEN 9 FROM LOAD (4) SECTION TAKEN 3 FROM WALL
V
FORCE TO THE LEFT OF
SECTION ACTING DOWNWARDS
10 LB V
LB FT
-SHEAR SECTION

SHEAR DIAGRAM

-SHEAR FORCE
00 LB AT SECTION SHEAR FORCE
ATSECTION-— -9600LB
(B) NEGATIVE SHEAR 151 SECTION TAKEN AT WALL (51 SECTION TAKEN AT WALL

Fig. 29-5-1 Designation of positive and (A) WITH CONCENTRATED LOAD (B) WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
negative shear. Fig. 29-5-2 Construction of shear diagram for cantilever beams.

584 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

load at the free end. Construct the EXAMPLE Figure 29-5-2B illustrates
2 -(8 x 80) = -12901b
shear diagram. a cantilever beam with
a uniformly dis-
-(12 x 80) = -16101b
Solution Taking sections at various tributed load. Construct the shear
points along the beam and calculating diagram. -(18 x 80) = -2090 1b

V the vertical shear to the left of the

. Solution Taking sections at various
section, we have points along the beam, starting at the

= - 300 = -300 free end, we have

V 1b

V3 = - 300 = - 300 lb
SIMPLE BEAMS
V6 = - 300 = - 300 lb V3 = - (800 x 3) 2400 lb In constructing the shear diagram for a

- = - 4800 simple beam, the magnitude of the

V9 = - 300 = - 300 lb (800 x 6) lb
reactions must be calculated first. The
V l2 = - 300 = -300 1b V„ = - (800 x 9) 7200 lb shear diagram is constructed in the
Vn = - (800 x 12) = -96001b same manner as for a cantilever beam.
Since there is no reaction to the left
For calculation purposes V will be
of the section, the shear values are all
EXAMPLE Figure 29-5-3A illustrates
3 considered as the section where the
negative and are drawn below the base
a cantilever beam with
a uniformly dis- beam leaves the reaction R and the {
.

line.
tributed load at the end of the beam. shear section taken at R 2 will be con-
Construct the shear diagram. sidered as the section where the beam
2.5 m Solution Taking sections at various leaves the reaction R^.

300 N I n V points along the beam, starting at the

free end. we have
4 m
V V' = - = N EXAMPLE 6 Figure 29-5-4A illustrates
a simple beam with a concentrated
load of 800 lb at the center of the span.
V2 = - 800 x 2 = - 1600 N Construct the shear diagram.
Solution From the figure it is apparent
V25 = - 800 x 2.5 = -2000N
that the reactions are 400 lb each,
2000 K V3 = - 800 x 2.5 = -2000N because of the symmetrical loading.
(A) UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
AT END OF BEAM V
4
= - 800 x 2.5 = -2000N As previously mentioned, only the
forces acting to the left of the section

300 LE
9 L EXAMPLE 4 Figure 29-5-3B shows a will be used for calculating the shear

60 LB cantilever beam with a concentrated diagram. At the left end of the beam,
load at the free end of the beam and a the only force acting on the beam is the
uniformly distributed load at the fixed upward force of the reaction /?,.
end. Construct the shear diagram. Therefore the shear force at VQ = 1400
Solution Taking sections at various — = +400 lb. Taking sections along
points along the beam, starting at the the beam, we find that
free end. we have
-500 LB V4 400 - = +400 lb

V = -500 = -500 1b
- 040 LB V7 400 - = + 400 lb
COMBINATION CONCENTRATED V4 = -500 = -500 1b
AND A PARTIAL UNIFORMLY Up and including the section just to
to
DISTRIBUTED LOAD V8 = -500 - (1 x 60) the of the center of the beam, no
left
= -560 1b new forces are encountered: therefore
650 LB
Vl2 = -500 - (5 x 60) from V to V 7 99 the shear force is
V - 800 lb + 400 lb. At the center of the beam the
30 LB FT downward force of 800 lb occurs: thus
-500
1040 lb Vg = 400 - 800 = -400 1b

NEGATIVE SHEAR AS FORCE TO THE Since no new loads are encountered

LEFT OF SECTION ACTING DOWNWARD EXAMPLE Figure 29-5-3C shows a
5
for the remainder of the beam unitl /?-,
cantilever beam with a uniformly dis-
is reached.
tributed load and a concentrated load
acting in the middle section of the V n = 400 - 800 = -400 1b
-640 LB
beam. Construct the shear diagram. V u = 400 - 800 = -400 1b

-2090 LB Solution Taking sections at various

points along the beam, starting at the Just before R 2 is reached, the shear
(C) COMBINATION CONCENTRATED force from Vs to V l6 is -400 lb.
AND UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED free end. we have
LOAD Note that the shear diagram passes
VQ = - = 01b
through zero, from + 400 lb to - 400 lb
Fig. 29-5-3 Shear diagrams for cantilever
beams. V, = () (4 x 80) = -320 1b at the 800 lb load.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS S85

 8'
800 LB
8 .
8- 250 LB FT
I 1

20
R l (I) LOADING DIAGRAM R2 R l (I) LOADING DIAGRAM R2
Ri R2
LOADING DIAGRAM

800 LB

c 250 LB FT
f= H
400 LB 400 LB 1200 N 1200 N 20'
>f ,f
+400 LB —-SHEAR FORCE 600 LB 400 LB
r\ATSECTION CALCULATING REACTION
^m,^600N
LSHEAR FORCE AT R|
+ 1600 LB
(21 SECTION TAKEN 4' FROM R| 12) SECTION TAKEN 1.5 m FROM R|

800 LB
400 Nm -400 LB
C

400 LB
8
'

%
400 LB 1200 N 1200 N Fig. 29-5-5
SHEAR DIAGRAM
Simple beam with partial,
+400 LB —-SHEAR FORCE JUST H200N ^SHEAR FORCE uniformly distributed load.
BEFORE SECTION / AT SECTION
Solution The values of reactions R l
^^SHEAR FORCE and R2 must
be found. For cal-
first
-400 LB AT SECTION
SECTION TAKEN m FROM culation purposes, a concentrated load
(3) SECTION TAKEN 8' FROM R, (3) 3 R,
of 250 x 8, or 2000 lb. acting at the
center of the uniformly distributed
load will be used in place of the uni-
400 N/m formly distributed load. Taking
1 1

moments about /?,, we have

400 LB 400 LB Clockwise moments
SHEAR FORCE
= 4 x (8 x 250) = 8000 ft-lb
ATSECTION-
;

-0 1
fcniTTmTTTT^ 7- Counterclockwise moments = 20 x R2
-SHEAR -600 N
FORCE R2 = 8000 + 20 = 400 lb
-400 LB AT SECTION
(4) SECTION TAKEN 12' FROM R| (4) SECTION TAKEN 4.5 m FROM R| Ri = 2000 - 400 = 1600 lb

Taking sections at intervals along

the beam starting at reaction /?,. we
400 N 'm have

6 m V = 1600 - = +1600 lb

1200 N V4 = 1600 - (4 x 250) = +600 lb

H200N
V8 = 1600 - (8 x 250) = -4001b

SHEAR FORCE
— COMPLETED
T
^^^°^^^M |0
1600 - (8 x 250) = -400 1b
SHEAR DIAGRAM SHEAR FORCE AT R 2- |||

AT SECTION *- -400 LB -1200 N

V20 1600 - (8 x 250) = -4001b
(51 SECTION TAKEN AT R 2 (5) SECTION TAKEN AT R 2
(A) WITH CONCENTRATED LOAD (B) WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
From the shear diagram
it can be

Fig. 29-5-4 Construction of shear diagram for simple beams.

seen that the shear passes from
positive shear to negative shear
between V4 and Vg How to locate the .

EXAMPLE Figure 29-5-4B illustrates

7 V, = 1200 - 3 x 400 = +0N position of zero shear will be discussed
a simple beam with a uniformly dis-
1200 - 4.5 x 400 -600N in Unit 29-6.
tributed load. Construct the shear
diagram. 1200 - 6 x 400 = 1200 N EXAMPLE 9 Figure 29-5-6 illustrates a
Solution Taking sections at intervals simple beam with two concentrated
along the beam, we have EXAMPLE 8 Figure 29-5-5 illustrates a loads. Construct the shear diagram.
simple beam with a partial, uniformly Solution The reactions must first be
V = 1200 - = + 1200 N distributed load starting at reaction /?,. calculated. Taking moments about
V, 5
= 1200 - 1.5 x 400 = +600 N Construct the shear diagram. reaction /?,. we have

586 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 750 LB 600 LB 1200 LB 24 kN 35 kN 30
1.4 m 2.2 m
1

m 2m
18' 150 LB FT 4 5

R|
R| R2

LOADING DIAGRAM LOADING DIAGRAM

R2
750 LB 600 LB LOADING DIAGRAM
24 kN 35 kN 30 kN
1200 LB
8'
1.4 m 2.2 m
3'
-f
850 LB 500 LB 150 LB FT
15.08 kN 73.92 kN
CALCULATING REACTIONS
CALCULATING REACTIONS
1700 LB 1300 LB
^850 LB
CALCULATING REACTIONS -30 kN

1700 LB

rm° ni00 LB
-8.92 kN

-500 LB

Fig. 29-5-6
SHEAR DIAGRAM
Simple beam with two
-100 LB
^ -43.92 kN

concentrated loads. 1300 LB SHEAR DIAGRAM

SHEAR DIAGRAM
Fig. 29-5-7 Simple beam with uniformly
Fig. 29-5-8 Overhanging beam.
Clockwise moments distributed load and concentrated load.
= (4 x 750) + (10 x 600)
= 3000 + 6000 = 9000 fflb Clockwise moments Clockwise moments
= = (4 x 1200) + (6 x 1800) = 1.4 x 24 + 3.6 x 35 + 7 x 30
Counterclockwise moments 18 x R2
= 4800 + 10 800 = 15 600 fflb
= 33.6 + 126 + 210
= Counterclockwise
Clockwise
moments moments Clockwise = Counterclockwise = 369.6 kN-m
moments moments
18 x R2 = 9000 fflb Counterclockwise moments = 5 x R2
12 x R2 = 15 600 fflb
9000 Clockwise _ Counterclockwise
R- = 500 lb R2 = 15 600 -=- 12 = 13001b
18 moments moments
/?, + R2 = 1200 + 1800 = 3000 lb
/?,+/?, = 750 + 600 = 1350 lb 5 x /?, = 369.6 kN-m
Therefore
Therefore R2 = 369.6 - 5 = 73.92 kN
R, 1350 - 500 = 8501b /?,+/?, = 24 + 35 + 30 = 89 kN
Taking sections at intervals along the
Taking sections at intervals along the beam gives us Therefore
beam, we have
-17001b R = ]
89 - 73.92 = 15.08 kN
Taking sections at intervals along the
V4 = 850 - 750 = + 100 lb beam gives us
V4 = 1700 - (4 x 150)- 1200 =
V 10 = 850 - 750 - 600 = - 500 lb - 100 lb V = 15.08 - = + 15.08 kN
850 - 750 - 600 500 lb V8 = 1700 - (8 x 150) - 1200 = V, = 15.08 - 24 = -8.92 kN
4

EXAMPLE -7001b - 24 = -8.92 kN

10 Figure 29-5-7 illustrates a V3 = 15.08
simple beam with
a uniformly dis- V 10 = 1700 - (10 x 150) - 1200 =
V36 = 15.08 - 24 - 35 43.92 kN
tributed load and a concentrated load - 1000 lb
acting on it. Construct the shear dia- V5 = 15.08 - 24 - 35 + 73.92
Vp = 1700 - (12 x 150) - 1200 =
gram. = +30 kN
- 1300 lb
Solution The reactions must be calcu- V7 = 15.08 - 24 - 35 + 73.92
For calculation purposes, a
lated first. EXAMPLE 11 Figure 29-5-8 illustrates = - 30 kN
concentrated load of 12 x 150, or 1800 an overhanging beam. Construct the
lb, acting at the center of the beam, shear diagram. Conclusion
willbe used in place of the uniformly Solution First the reactions must be From the examples given, the follow-
distributed load. Taking moments calculated. Taking moments about /?,, ing conclusions can be draw n for shear
about /?,. we have we have diagrams.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 587

• Where there are concentrated loads, Vs
the shear lines are straight horizon- Ut
tal
loads.
lines changing in value at the
V LOADING DIAGRAM
V,
• Where there are uniformly dis- Ill LOADING DIAGRAM (II

tributed loads, the shear lines are

straight inclined lines, the slope of
the line being proportional to the
load.
K
• At each concentrated load, includ- LOADING DIAGRAM
LOADING DIAGRAM
ing reactions, the shear line rises or
drops vertically by an amount equal
to the load at that section. -300 LB
^^^^rnm^^^
SHEAR DIAGRAM SHEAR DIAGRAM

ASSIGNMENTS ^^^U-900 FT-LB

n
-900 FT-LB
1 1
ij^m

BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

See Assignments 61 and 62 for Unit (21 SECTION TAKEN 3' FROM LOAD (2) SECTION TAKEN 3' FROM R|

29-5on page 598.

V
I
;

%>
UNIT 29-6
LOADING DIAGRAM LOADING DIAGRAM
Bending Moment
^s^ *^^ 1

Diagrams -300 LB
SHEAR DIAGRAM SHEAR DIAGRAM

As previously mentioned, when a load

acts on a beam, the force tends to -1800 FT-LB
shear the beam. In addition to produc- BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM -2700 FT-LB^
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
ing this shearing action, the load tends (3) SECTION TAKEN 6' FROM LOAD
131 SECTION TAKEN 9' FROM R,
to deflect or bend the beam. To deter-
300 LB
mine this deflection, which varies
SOO I R/FT ' /
along the beam, the bending stresses
must be calculated. Just as the shear
diagram shows the shear at any section LOADING DIAGRAM
^ LOADING DIAGRAM
£
along the beam, a bending moment dia-
gram is similarly constructed to show
the bending moment at any point along
—-niniinnjn^^
-300 LB
the beam and also to indicate where SHEAR DIAGRAM -9600 LB

the maximum bending occurs.

The bending moment at any section
along the beam is equal to the sum of
all the moments of the forces acting to
-3600 FT-LB -57.600 FT-LB^
the right or left of the beam. In drawing
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
bending moment diagrams, the follow-
(4) SECTION TAKEN AT WALL 141 SECTION TAKEN AT WALL (12' FROM R|l
ing points should be noted
(A) WITH CONCENTRATED LOAD (B) WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
1. Forces are taken to the left of the
Fig. 29-6-1 Construction of bending moment diagram for cantilever beams.
section.
2. Upward moments are considered
positive and are shown above the 6. Bending moments are equal to reac- EXAMPLE 1 Figure 29-6-1A shows a
base line on the bending moment tion moments minus load moments. cantilever beam with a concentrated
diagram. 7. In calculating the bending moments load applied to the free end. Figure
3. Downward moments are consid- at any given section along the beam, 29-5-2A shows the shear diagram
ered negative and are shown below the capital letter M
is used to desig- development for this beam. Construct
the base line. nate the bending moments. It is fol- the bending moment diagram.
4. The bending moment diagram is lowed by a subscript which indi- Solution Taking moments at intervals
drawn directly below the shear dia- cates the distance from the LH end along the beam starting at the LH end.
gram and to the same scale. of the beam. Thus. M
4 indicates the we find the moments will be negative
5. Shear is equal to reaction minus bending moments 4 ft from the LH as the force is acting downward. Thus
loads. end of the beam. we have

588 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 M = M 9
= -(500 x 9) - (60 x 2 x 1)
= -4620 ft-lb
M 3
-300 x 3 900 ft-lb M, 800 x 1 x 0.5 = -400 N-m
300 x 6 = - 1800 ft-lb M, 800 x 2 x = -1600 N-m Mp = -(500 x 12) (60 x 5 x 2.5)
1
= -6750 ft-lb
M, = -800 x 2.5 x 1.25
5
M, (500 x 16) (60 x 9 x 4.5)
= -2500 N-m
Af„ 300 x 12 3600 ft-lb 10 430 ft-lb

My = -800 x 2.5 x (3 - 1.25)

EXAMPLE Figure 29-6-1 B shows a
2 = - 3500 N-m EXAMPLE 5 Figure 29-6-4 shows a can-
cantilever beam with a uniformly dis- tilever beam with a concentrated and
tributed load. Figure 29-5-2B shows Note that at A/ 3 the distance from the uniformly distributed load. The shear
the shear diagram development for this section to the center of gravity of the diagram development was explained in
beam. Construct the bending moment load is 3 - 1.25 = 1.75 m, since the Unit 29-5, Example 5, Fig. 29-5-3C.
diagram. center of gravity is .25 from the 1 m LH Construct the bending moment
Solution The bending moment at is M end. diagram.
zero. The 3 ft section to the right of R x M 800 x 2.5 x (4 - 1.25)
SolutionThe bending moments from
weighs 3 x 800 or 2400 lb. The force of
4
5500 N-m A/ to M
8 are calculated in the same
any uniform load can be considered as manner as in Example 2.
acting at its center of gravity. Thus the
Note that from 2 5 to M
4 the line on M
2400 lbload can be considered as act-
the bending moment diagram is M =0
ing 1.5 ft away from /?,. Therefore, we
straight. M = -80 x 2 x = - 160
2
1 ft-lb

have EXAMPLE 4 Figure 29-6-3 shows a can- M =-80x4x2 = -640

4 ft-lb

My = -(800 x = -3600 beam with a combination con-

tilever
3) x 1.5 ft-lb
centrated and a partial, uniformly
M = -(80 x 8 x 4) - (650
8
- x 0)

M = - (800 x 6) x 3 = - 14 400 ft-lb

= -2560 ft-lb
6 distributed load. The shear diagram
M 9
= -(800 x 9) x 4.5 = -32 400 development was explained in Unit Mw = -(80 x 10 x 5) - (650 x 2
= -5300 ft-lb
ft-lb 29-5, Example 4, Fig. 29-5-3B. Con-
(800 x 12) x 6 57 600 ft-lb
struct the bending moment diagram. Mn "
= -(80 x 12 x 6) - (650 x 4)
SolutionThe bending moments from = - 8360 ft-lb
EXAMPLE 3 Figure 29-6-2 shows a can- M to M
16 are calculated in the same M, (80 x 14 x 7) (650 x 6)
tilever beam with a uniformly dis- manner as in Example 1. 11 740 ft-lb
end of the beam.
tributed load at the
The shear diagram development was
M 500 x = M, 8 = -(80 x 16 x 8) (650 x 6)
explained in Unit 29-5, Example 3, M, 500 x 1 = - 500 ft-lb
= - 14 140 ft-lb

Fig. 29-5-3A. Construct the bending

M 4
= -
500 x 4 = - 2000 ft-lb
moment diagram.
Solution Taking moments at intervals
M 7
= 500 x 7 = -3500 ft-lb
650 LB
along the beam starting from the LH
end, we have
8
'

||||||||[l||[[|
^
IIHiinmimijmMmfn
8
V >
500 LB 80 LB/FT
60 LB/ FT

800 N/m Vs
LOADING DIAGRAM
H LOADING DIAGRAM g
4 m

LOADING DIAGRAM
-640 LB]
-1290 LB
-500 LB
-2090 LB
-1040 LB SHEAR DIAGRAM
SHEAR DIAGRAM

-STRAIGHT LINE
CURVED LINE- -10 430 FT-LE -14.140 FT-LB
STRAIGHT LINE 5500 N-m
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM Fig. 29-6-3 Cantilever beam with Fig. 29-6-4 Cantilever beam with
Fig. 29-6-2 Cantilever beam with uniformly concentrated load and partial, uniformly concentrated and uniformly distributed
distributed load at end of beam. distributed loads. loads.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 589

EXAMPLE 6 Figure 29-6-5 show s a sim- For calculating the moments for the EXAMPLE 7 Figure 29-6-6A shows a
ple beam with a partial, uniformly remaining sections, the uniformly dis- simple beam with a concentrated load
distributed load. The development of tributed load will be considered as a acting in the center of the beam. The
the shear diagram was explained in 2000 lb concentrated load acting 4 ft development of the shear diagram was
from explained in Unit 29-5. Example 6.
Unit 29-5. Example 8. Fig. 29-5-5. /?,.

Construct the bending moment dia- Fig.29-5-4A. Construct the bending

2000 x 8
gram. = +3200 fflb
moment diagram.
Solution Taking moments at intervals

along the beam, starting at reaction/?,.

M = + 1600 x 16 2000 x 12
Solution Taking moments at intervals
+ 1600 fflb
along the beam, starting at reaction
gives us /?,

M, + 1600 x 20 - 2000 x 16 = which is acting upward, we have

MQ = - 1600 x =
\/ 4 = - 1600 x 4 250 x 4 x 2
= + 3400 fflb 400 N'm
1

250 x 6 x 3 6m
= -5100 ft-lb "2 "2
LOADING DIAGRAM (II LOADING DIAGRAM
Af 8 = + 1600 x 8 - 250 x 8 x 4 (II

800 LB
= - 4800 fflb
400 N m
From the bending moment calcula- 1

2m
1

tions it can be seen that the maximum * *

1200 N 1200 N
LOADING DIAGRAM
bending moment occurs somewhere -400 LB + 1200 N LOADING DIAGRAM
between b and sMwhere the zero M
[lilrrmTrrn^
shear takes place. . 1

The distance between R and zero {

-400 LB
""^^uillllllllll
(EAR DIAGRAM ^"-UlU

shear can be found as follows. Let the SHEAR DIAGRAM

distance from R to the point at zero
l
-600 FT-LB

shear be X. Thus, we have

W + 1600 - 250 x X =
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
X = 1600 + 250 = 6.4 ft i2) SECTION TAKEN 4' FROMR| (21 SECTION TAKEN 2 m FROM R|
300 LB
Maximum bending moment occurs at

A*6.4
* 3
^ * 4m *
M64 = +1600 x 6.4 - 250 x 6.4 x 3.2 400 LB L0ADING DIAGRAM 4 °° LB 1200 N 1200 N
= +5120 fflb -400 LB 1200 N LOADING DIAGRAM

[TITlTrrrmrr^o,

-400 LB
DIAGRAM ^^UJJ
250 LB FT SHEAR DIAGRAM
3200 FT-LB.
20'

-600 LB 400 LB
LOADING DIAGRAM
- 1600 LB BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
131 SECTION TAKEN 8' FROM R, 131 SECTION TAKEN 4 m FROM R|

800 LB

LB LOADING DIAGRAM 400 LB 1200 N LOADING DIAGRAM 1200 N

-400 LB
SHEAR DIAGRAM ^o^^
^fllTFTTTTTTTTTTrTrrr °
Izin
iniiiai]W|
-400 LB SHEAR DIAGRAM
SHEAR DIAGRAM NOTE-MAXIMUM BENDING
+5120 r-T-LB^, 4800 FT-LB MOMENT OCCURS AT THE
STRAIGHT POINT WHERE SHEAR
PASSES THROUGH ZERO

.Li
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
(4) SECTION TAKEN AT R 2 141 SECTION TAKEN AT R2
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
Simple beam with partial,
(A) WITH CONCENTRATED LOAD (B) WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
Fig. 29-6-5
uniformly distributed load. Fig. 29-6-6 Construction of bending moment diagram for simple beam.

590 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 750 LB 600 LE
6'
M 2
= +400 x 2 = + 800 ft-lb
LB FT
+ 150
'

M 4
= +400 x 4 = +1600fflb 850 LB
l8
* z
500LB
LOADING DIAGRAM
M s
= +400 x 8 - 800 x 700 LB 300 LB
= +3200fMb +850 LB LOADING DIAGRAM
Mu = +400 x 12 - 800 x 4
= + 1600 ft-lb
00 LB
M, + 400 x 14 - 800 x 6 llllllllllllllll
Q
= +800fMb
M tl
= +400 x 16 - 800 x 8 =
Note: The maximum bending SHEAR DIAGRAM
moment occurs at the point where SHEAR DIAGRAM
shear passes through zero. 10 I I -LB

EXAMPLE 8 Fig. 29-6-6B shows a sim-

ple beam with a uniformly distributed
load. The development of the shear
diagram was explained in Unit 29-5,
Bf NOINC, MOM! Nl l)IA(,RAM
Example 7. Fig. 29-5-4B. Construct
Fig. 29-6-7 Simple beam with two
the bending moment diagram.
concentrated loads.
Solution The bending moment at is M
zero. The 1-m section to the right of/?, BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
creates a force of 400 N. The force of M 5
= +850 x 5 - 750 x 1 Fig. 29-6-8 Simple beam with uniformly
= +3500 ft-lb distributed and concentrated loads.
any uniform load can be considered as
acting at its center of gravity. Thus, M 8
= +850 x 8 - 750 x 4
the 400-N load can be considered as = +3800 ft-lb
acting 0.5 m away from /?,. Therefore, 150 x 12 x 6
we have
M 10
= +850 x 10 - 750 x 6 - 1200 x 8 =
-600 x = +4000 ft-lb
400 x x 0.5 EXAMPLE 11 Figure 29-6-9 shows an
= - 1000 N-m
1

Mv = +850 x 12 - 750 x 8
overhanging beam with three concen-
-600 x 2 = +3000 ft-lb
\L = - 1200 x 2 400 x 2 x I
trated loads. The development of the
750 x 10 shear diagram was explained in Unit
= -^ 1600 N-m
600 x 4 = +2000 ft-lb
Example
29-5. 11, Fig. 29-5-8. Con-
M 3
= +1200 x 3 - 400 x 3 x 1.5
750 x 14 struct thebending moment diagram.
= +1800 N-m
600 x 8 = Solution Taking moments at intervals
M 4
= + 1200 x 4 400 x 4 x 2
EXAMPLE 10 Figure 29-6-8 shows a
along the beam, starting at reaction /?,.
= +1600 N-m we have
simple beam with a uniformly dis-
M s
= +1200 x 5 - 400 x 5 x 2.5 tributed load and a concentrated load. Mn = +15.08 x =
= +1000 N-m
The development of the shear diagram
Mh = + 1200 x 6 - 400 x 6 x 3 = was explained in Unit 29-5. Example
10. Fig. 29-5-7. Construct the bending A/ l4 = +15.08 x 1.4 - 24 x
Note that the maximum bending moment diagram. = +21.1 kN-m
moment of + 1800 N-m occurs at zero
shear.
Solution Taking moments at intervals M 2
= + 15.08 x 2 - 24 x 0.6
along the beam, starting at reaction/?,, "
= +16.12 kN-m
EXAMPLE 9 Figure 29-6-7 shows a sim- we have - 24 x
M, = +15.08 x 3 1.6
ple beam with two concentrated loads.
M = + 1700 x = = = +6.84 kN-m
The development of the shear diagram
was explained in Unit 29-5. Example 9, M 2
= + 1700 x 2 - 150 x 2 x 1 My, + 15.08 x 3.6 - 24 x 2.2
= +3100 ft-lb - 35 x = +1.39 kN-m
Fig. 29-5-6. Construct the bending
moment diagram. M A
= + 1700 x 4 - 150 x 4 x 2 M A
= + 15.08 x 4 - 24 x 2.6 - 35 x
Solution Taking moments at intervals - 1200 x = + 5600 ft-lb 0.4 = - 16.08 kN-m
along the beam, starting at reaction/?,,
M6 = + 1700 x 6 - 150 x 6 x 3 M 5
= + 15.08x 5 - 24 x 3.6 - 35 x
gives us - 1200 x 2 = + 5100 ft-lb 1.4 + 73.92 x = -60 kN-m
Wn + 850 x =
M g
= +1700 x 8 - 150 x 8 x 4 24 4.6 - 35 x
M, = +850 x 2 = + 1700 ft-lb -1200 x 4 = + 4000 ft-lb 2.4 - 73.92 x 1 = -30 kN-m

M 4 + 850 x 4 - 750 x M l0
= +1700 x 10 -150 x 10 x 5 M 7
= + 15.08 x 7 - 24 x 5.6 35 x
+ 3400 ft-lb - 1200 x 6 = + 2300 ft-lb 3.4 + 73.92 x 2 =

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 591

 24 kN 35 kN 30 kN zero or 2.415 m from /?,. Thus the max-
14m 2 2m imum bending moment is

2m 5 m M2415 = 4.83 x 2.415 - 2 x 2.415

>f -f
73.92 kN Ri R2 x 1.2075 = 5.83 kN-m
!5 08kN LOADING DIAGRAM
LOADING DIAGRAM
EXAMPLE 13 A simple beam 8 m long
»30kN 2.5 carries a3600-N concentrated load 2 m
2 kN/m from the left abutment. Calculate the
•15 08 kN
3 maximum bending moment and shear.
5m *
>f Solution The maximum bending mo-
4.83 kN 3.17 kN
ment for a simple beam with a concen-
CALCULATING REACTIONS
trated load at any point (see Fig.
29-6-11) is
+4.83 kN
FAB 3600 x 2 x 6
5400 N-m
-43.92 kN L

SHEAR DIAGRAM Maximum shear

FB 3600 x 6
2700 N

Conclusion
From the examples given, the follow-
ing conclusions can be drawn from
bending moment diagrams.
1. Where there are no loads on a part
of a beam, the bending moment line
is a straight, sloping line.
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM 2. Where there is a uniformly dis-
Fig. 29-6-10 Simple beam with a partial, tributed load, the bending moment
BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM uniformly distributed load and a
line is a curve.
Fig. 29-6-9 Overhanging beam. concentrated load.
3. The maximum bending moment
occurs at a section on the beam at
which the shear passes through
From the bending moment diagram it Counterclockwise moments = 5 x /?.,
zero.
can be seen that zero bending moment
R, = 15.85 3.17 kN
occ irs to the right of the 35-kN load. = x + - = kN Standard beam formulas are shown
/?, 2.5 2 3 3.17 4.83
Its exact location can be found as in Fig. 29-6-11.
follows. Next construct the shear diagram,
Let the distance between R^ and the taking sections at intervals along the
beam, starting at reaction /?,
ASSIGNMENTS
point where zero takes place be *.
Then See Assignments 63 and 64 for Unit
Mx = 29-6 on page 598.
V, = 4.83 -1x2= +2.83 kN
Mx = + 15.08 x - 24(* - 1.4)
*
-2x2=
-35(*- 3.6) = V2 = 4.83 +0.83 kN
+ 15.08* - 24* + 33.6 V25 = 4.83 - 2.5 x = -0.17 kN
-35* + 126
2
UNIT 29-7
43.92* = 159.6 VX2 = 4.83 - 2.5 x 2 - 3 = -3.17 kN
Vs = - - = -3.17 kN
Beam Design
* = 3.63mm 4.83 2.5 x 2 3

EXAMPLE 12 Figure 29-6-10 shows a From the shear diagram, it is noted It has been found from experience that
simple beam with a partial, uniformly that the section having zero shear lies beams normally fail at the section
distributed load and a concentrated somewhere between ./?, and the end of where the bending moment is max-
load. Find the position and magnitude the 2.5-m uniformly distributed load. imum, rather than by shearing at the
of the maximum bending moment. Itsexact position.* distance from/?,, supports. Therefore, in beam design, it

Solution Reactions /?, and R-, must be may be found by taking the shear at is customary first to select a suitable
calculated first. Taking moments Vx which is zero. Thus, Vx = 4.83 -
, beam size to withstand the bending
about /?,. we have * x 2 = 0. Therefore,* = 4.83 + 2 = forces and then to check it for shear
Clockwise moments 2.415m. and deflection. The ability of a beam to
= 1.25 x 2 x 2.5 + 3.2 x 3 The maximum bending moment will resist bending depends on such factors
= 15.85 kN-m occur where the shear passes through as the material used, the shape of its

592 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 pascals (metric), respectively. The
MAXIMUM MAXIMUM MAXIMUM
BEAM AND LOADING BENDING stress in pascals is divided by 10 6 to
L IN METERS MOMENTS SHEAR DEFLECTION obtain the stress per square millimeter.
The section modulus for certain reg-

Fl
ular sections can be found from the
r^ formulas given in Fig. 29-7-1. The val-

^ FL F FL3
3EI
ues of Z for structural-steel shapes and
many common circular and rec-
tangular sizes are tabulated in most
engineers' handbooks.
The letter 5 is frequently used in
I I
| 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 I 1 1

lb/in. OR N/mm NL2 NL4 textbooks to designate section modu-

NL
OR Kn/m ^ 2 8EI lus. However, to avoid confusion with
the letter 5 for stress, the letter
be used to designate section modulus
Z will
L f L
2 2 throughout this chapter.
FL F FL3 Structural shapes may be placed in
4 2 48EI two general positions, as shown in Fig.
> t > k 29-7-2. Since the resistance to bending
willdepend on the position of the beam
WHEN B IS
GREATER with regard to its neutral axis, two sec-
F THAN A tion modulus values are generally
FAB FA2B2
FB
shown in engineering tables. One
> L 3EIL
> value is used when the beam is in the
I * R2 L
upright position, as shown in Fig.
29-7-2C(l) where the X-X axis is the
rmiii
lb/in. OR N/mm neutral axis the other is used when the
:

NL2 NL 5NL3
beam is in the flat position, as shown in
8 2 384EI
* ^ Fig. 29-7-2Q2), where the Y-Y axis is
f the neutral axis. The neutral axis is
E = MODULUS OF ELASTICITY I
= MOMENT OF INERTIA defined as the axis which passes
Fig. 29-6-11 Maximum bending moments, shear, and deflection for commonly occurring loads
on beams.
-FIBERS ABOVE NEUTRAL AXIS
ARE IN COMPRESSION

cross section, and the way the cross

section is turned with respect to the
load.To illustrate this last point, one BD2
may bend a flat steel rule across its thin D z =
axis; butif the steel rule is set on its _L ^-NEUTRAL SURFACE OR NEUTRAL AXIS
edge, then it is virtually impossible to FIBERS ARE NOT UNDER COMPRESSION
B
bend the rule in the direction of its
width. This resistance to bending can
1 h OR TENSION
FIBERS 8ELOW NEUTRAL AXIS
ARE INTENSION
BD3- brj3
be measured in terms of a quantity z = (A) LOCATION OF NEUTRAL AXIS
called the section modulus of the sec- 6D
tion concerned. The theory and the
mathematics behind the development
of the section modulus of beams and
shapes will not be covered in this text.
Thus the ability of any beam to resist D3
z =
(II (2) (3)
bending is directly related to its section
32
modulus, which is expressed in cubic (B) NEUTRAL AXES OF RECTANGLES
inches (U.S. Customary) or cubic mil-
limeters (metric) and is denoted Z in crta
calculations. The bending stress 5, the
bending moment Q and the section
modulus are related by the formula
= Z x 5 h- 10 6 in which the quantities
are inch-pounds, cubic inches, and
M ,

M
z -
;p4-d4)
32D
x

r h1

(II
*W (2)
( 3)

pounds (U.S. Customary) and newton- Fig. 29-7-1 Formuals for section moduli for (O NEUTRAL AXES OF BEAMS
millimeters, cubic millimeters, and common shapes. Fig. 29-7-2 Neutral axis.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 593

through the centroid of the cross-sec-
tional area.
U.S. CUSTOMARY METRIC*
The majority of engineering hand- Section Moment of Section Moment of
hooks show onlj one illustration of the Modulus Shape Inertia = / Modulus Shape Inertia = /

structural shape v> ith both the A- \ and m.3 ln.**» It^mm 3 10* mm 4 **

)-) axes shown as illustrated in Fig.

157 W18 x 85 1440 3050 W460 x 128 637
29-7-2C(3).
151 W16 x 88 1220 2850 W410 x 132 538
151 VX/21 x 73 1600 2830 W530 x 109 667
142 W18 x 77 1290 2670 W460 x 113 556

SHEARING STRESSES 140 W21 x 68 1480 2620 W530 x 101 617

IN BEAMS 131 W14 x 84 928 2560 W360 x 134 415
125 WI2 x 92 789 2420 W310 x 143 348
In designing beams for vertical shear.
121 W14 x 78 851 2270 W360 x 122 365
it is customary to consider only the full
height of the uebs of S. C. WT, and 118 WI8 x 64 1050 2180 W460 x 97 445
WWT beams to carry the full load: the 116 W16 x 71 941 2160 W310 x 129 308
flanges are not considered. 116 W12 x 85 723 2130 W410 x 100 398
112 WI4 x 74 797 2060 W360 x 110 331
EXAMPLE 1 A cantilever beam 10 ft
long supports a 5000 lb load at the end 107 W12 x 79 663 1950 W3I0 x 118 275
of the beam. What size A36 beam is 105 W16 x 64 836 1830 W460 x 82 370
required? 97.5 W12 x 72 597 1770 W3I0 x 107 248
Solution First select a beam to with- 94.3 W16 x 58 748 1730 W410 x 85 315
stand the bending forces. Refer to Fig. 92.2 W14 x 61 641 1680 W360 x 91 267
29-6-11: maximum bending moments 88 \X/12 x 65 533 1590 W310 x 97 222
= FL = 5000 x 10 x 12 = 600 000 80.9 W16 x 50 657 1510 W410 x 74 275
in. -lb. The allowable bend stress for 736 WI0 x 66 382 1400 W250 x 101 164
A36 steel (see Fig. 29-1-8) is 24
kips/in. 2 .
70.6 W12 x 53 426 1280 W310 x 79 177
64.8 W12 x 50 395 1190 W310 x 74 165
Section modulus required = Z 64.8 SI 5 x 50 486 1140 S380 x 64 187
M + 5 = 600 000 24 000 62.7 W14 x 43 429 1140 W360 x 64 178
25 in.
60.5 W10 x 54 306 1140 S380 x 64 187
Refer to Fig. 29-7-3. A W8 x 31 has a 59.6 SI 5 x 42.9 447 1090 W250 x 80 126
section modulus of 27.5 in. 3 which is ,
54.7 W14 x 38 386 1010 W360 x 57 161

acceptable. If the depth of the beam is 51.9 W12 x 40 310 1010 S3I0 x 74 128
not an important design factor, then
50.8 S12 x 50 305 941 W310 x 60 129
the W10 x 29 beam, which is lighter
49.2 W10 x 45 249 901 W250 x 67 104
and has a section modulus of 30.9 in. 3 ,
43.3 W8 x 48 184 803 W200 x 71 76.6
would be the most economical.
41.8 W14 x 30 290 779 W360 x 45 122
Next the beam must be checked for
vertical shear. Maximum shear force 36.3 S12 x 31.8 218 690 S310 x 47 91.1

= 5000 lb. Web area of a W8 x 31 35.1 W10 x 33 171 633 W250 x 49 70.6

beam (refer to the structural-steel 30.9 W10 x 29 158 602 W250 x 45 71.1

handbook) = 8 x .31 = 2.48 in. 2 Ver- .

27.5 W8 x 31 110 496 W200 x 46 45.5

tical shear stress = 5000 -r- 2.48 =

24.8 S10 x 25.4 124 465 S250 x 38 51.4
2016 lb or 2 kips/in. 2 Permissible .
24.3 W8 x 28 97.8 446 W200 x 42 40.9
shear stress for steel (see Fig. 29-1-8) is
21.6 W10 x 21 107 424 W250 x 33 48.9
14.5 kips/in. 2 Therefore the W8 x 31
.
20.8 W8 x 24 82.5 380 W200 x 36 34.4
beam is acceptable.
16.2 S8 x 23 64.9 316 S200 x 34 27.0
EXAMPLE simple beam 6 m long
2 A 14.2 W8x 17 56.6 279 W200 x 27 25.8
supports a uniformly distributed load 13.4 W6 x 20 41.5 244 W150 x 30 17.2
of 6 kN/m. Neglecting the mass of the 12 M12 x 11.8 71.9 232 M310 x 17.6 29.7
beam, select the lightest A572M-310
beam to safely carry this load. 10.1 W6 x 16 31.7 192 W150 x 24 13.4

Solution First select a beam to with-

7.23 W6 x 12 21.7 136 W150 x 18 9.16

stand the bending forces. Refer to Fig. 5.43 W4 x 13 11.3 103 W100 x 19 4.76

Maximum
29-6-11. bending moments 5.08 W6 x 85 14.8 103 W150 x 14 6.87

= NI? - 8 = 6000 x 6 2 -=- 8 = 27 000 * Soft Converted. * * Taken at X-X axis.

N*m. or 27 x 10 6 N*mm. The allowable Fig. 29-7-3 Section modulus and moment of inertia for shapes used as beams.

594 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

bending stress for A572M-310 steel EXAMPLE 4 A floor 5 m wide has a of 5000 lb at its free end. Is the deflec-
(see Fig. 29-1-8) is 205 MPa. Section uniformly distributed load of 3000 tion excessive?
modulus required = Z = -s- (5 -* M N*m. The floor joists are 38 mm wide Solution Refer to Fig. 29-6-11. The
10 ) = 27 x 10 x 10
6 6 6
(205 x 10 A = -i- ) and are spaced 400 mm center-to-cen- maximum deflection for a cantilever
131 700 mm
3
. ter. If the allowable bending stress is beam having a concentrated load at its
Referring to Fig. 29-7-3, we find that not to exceed 9600 kPa, what depth of free end is FL 3 4 3EI, where F = 5000
lb, L = 96 in. E = 29 x 10 lb/in. (see
6 2
aW150 x 18 beam has a section modu- floor joists must be used? ,

lus of 136 000

3
which is accept-mm , Solution On each floor joist, the uni- Fig. 29-1-3), and / = 97.8 in. 4 (Fig.
able. formly distributed load is 3000 x (400 29-7-3). Therefore
Next the beam must be checked for * 1000) - 1200 Nun. For a simple
Maximum deflection
vertical shear. beam with a uniformly distributed 5000 x 963
load, the maximum bending moment .52 in.
3 x 97.8 x 29 x 106
Maximum shear force (Fig. 29-6-11) = FL 2 4- 8 = (1200 x 5 x 5) - 8 =
= NL =
6kN x 6 18 kN 3750 Nun, or 375 x 10 4 Nunm. Allow- Allowable deflection = 1/180 of the
2 2
able bending stress = 10 MPa. span (for cantilever beams) = 96 -^
Therefore 180 = .53 in. Therefore, since the max-
Web area of a W150 x 18 beam (refer
imum deflection is less than the
to the structural-steel handbook) = Section modulus required = Z
allowable, the W8 x 28 beam is
153 x 6 = 918 mm 2
. Average vertical = M S
acceptable.
shear stress = 18 000 * 0.000 918 = 10&
19.6 MPa. The permissible vertical = 375 x
10 6 EXAMPLE 6 AW310 x 60 simple beam
shear stress for A572M-310 steel (see 10 x 10^ has a concentrated load of 27 kN act-
Fig. 29-1-8) is 125 MPa. Therefore the 375 000 mm? ing at the center of the beam. The
W150 x 18 beam is acceptable. beam span is 6 m. Check for de-
The section modulus for the joist =
flection.
bd2 t 6 where/? = width = 38 mm and
EXAMPLE 3 A
simple beam 16 ft long Solution Refer to Fig. 29-6-11. The
d = depth, which is unknown.
supports a 30 000 lb concentrated load maximum deflection for a simple beam
Therefore
4 ft from the left abutment. What size with a concentrated load is FL 3 -=-

A36 beam is required? 375 000 x 6 48£/ where F = 27 kN, L = 6000 mm,
243 mm
Solution First select a beam to with- -v- 38 E = 200 000 MPa (Fig. 29-1-3), and / =
stand the bending forces. Refer to Fig. 129 x 10 6 mm 4 (Fig. 29-7-3). Therefore
Since standard joist sizes are 38 x 184.
29-6-11. Maximum
bending moments
Maximum
38 x 235, and 38 x 286, the joist size deflection
= FAB L = 30 000 x 4 x 12 4- 16
-=-
27 000 x 60003
of 38 x 286 is selected. 4.7 mm
= 90 000 ft-lb, or 1 080 000 in. -lb. 48 x 200 000 x 129 x 10*
Allowable bending stress for A36 steel
(see Fig. 29-1-8) is 24 kips/in. 2 .
Allowable deflection = span -r 360 =
6000 -r 360 = 16.7 mm. Since the max-
Section modulus required = Z DEFLECTION OF BEAMS imum deflection is less than the
= M 4- S
The vertical distance a horizontally
allowable, the W310 x 60 beam is
= 1 080 000 -r 24 000 acceptable.
= 45 in. 3 placed beam moves when it bends
under an applied load is called deflec-
Referring to Fig. 29-7-3, we find that a tion. Since deflection may cause ASSIGNMENTS
W10 x 45 beam has a section modulus cracking in plastered ceilings or buck-
of 49.2. ling of floors, the limitations placed on
See Assignments 65 through 88 for
Unit 29-7 on page 599.
Next the beam must be checked for the deflection of the beam may be the
vertical shear. governing factor in its selection. In
building construction the maximum
Maximum shear force
deflection of beams is limited to 1/360
30 000 x 12
= 22 500 lb of the span, or, for cantilever beams,
16
1/180 of the span. After the beam is

Web area of a W10 x 45 beam (refer to selected to withstand the bending and
the structural-steel handbook) = 10.12 shearing stresses, it must then be
x .38 = 3.85 in.
2
.
checked for deflection The theory and
.

the mathematics behind the develop-

Average vertical shear stress = ment of beam defection will not be
22 500
5844 lb covered in this text. The formulas
3.85 using the double-integration method
for finding the deflection of simple
The permissible vertical shear stress
beams are shown in Fig. 29-6-11.
for A36 steel (see Fig. 29-1-8) is 14.5
kips/in. 2 . Therefore the W10 x 45 EXAMPLE 5 A W8 x 28 cantilever
beam is acceptable. beam 8 ft long has a concentrated load

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 595

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 29
Assignments for Unit 29-1, 2-in.-diameter hole in a piece of mild t. Find the tensile stress and the elonga-
steel plate .25 in. thick, assuming that tion the bar length is 6000 mm.
Stresses and Strains if

the ultimate shear strength of the steel is 32. Calculate the load required to punch a
U.S. CUSTOMARY ASSIGNMENTS 60 000 lb/in. 2 . 50-mm-diameter hole in a piece of mild
1 A load of 40 000 lb is suspended from a steel plate 6 mm thick, assuming that the
steel rod. What
the area of the bar if is ultimate shear strength of the steel is

the allowable unit stress is 12 000 METRIC ASSIGNMENTS 415 MPa.

pounds per square inch (lb/in. 2 )? What is 17. A 350 kN is suspended from a
load of
the minimum stock size that can be used steel rod.What is the area of the bar if Assignments for Unit 29-2,
round rod, (o) of a square bar?
of a the allowable unit stress is 90 MPa?
(a)
Bolted and Riveted Joints
2. What may safely be placed on an 8 x 8 What is the minimum stock size that can 33.On a B- or A3-size sheet, show the cal-
in. wooden post if the allowable unit be used [a] of a round rod, (b) of a square
culations for the single-riveted buttjoint
stress is 880 lb/in. 2 ? bar?
and the riveted roof truss shown in Fig.
3. What is the unit stress on a 4 x 4 x .50 18. What may safely be placed on a 50 x 1
29-2 -A or 29-2-B. For the single-riveted
in. angle iron if the angle is subjected to a 1 50 wooden post if the allowable unit
buttjoint, calculate the main stresses
60 000-lb load? Rounds and fillets need stress is 8 MPa?
that could safely be applied to the joint.
not be considered for calculation pur- 19. What is the unit stress on a 75 x 75 x Plate material is A36 steel. For the
poses. 10 mm angle iron if the angle is sub-
riveted roof truss, the roof truss has
4. What must be the diameter of an A36 jected to a 250-kN load? Rounds and
shown acting on the upper and
loads as
steel rod that safely lifts a load of 5 000 1 fillets need not be considered for calcula-
lower chord members. Calculate the
lb? The factor of safety is 5. tion purposes.
number of rivets required to carry these
5. What is the maximum tensile load that 20. What must be the diameter of an A36
loads.
can be carried by an A36 steel strut hav- steel rod that safely lifts a load of 90 kN?
34. On a B- or A3-size sheet, show the cal-
ing a cross-sectional area of 1.75 in. 2 ? The factor of safety is 4.
culations for the double-riveted butt
The factor of safety is 3. Refer to Fig. 21. What maximum tensile
is the load that
joint and the riveted lap joint shown in
29-1-8. can be carried by an A36 steel strut hav-
Fig. 29-2-C or 29-2-D. For the double-
6. A load of 40 000 lb is hung from an A36 ing a cross-sectional area of 900 2? mm riveted butt joint, calculate the main
steelbar 4 x .375 in. What is the factor The factor of safety is 4. Refer to Fig.
stresses in the boiler joint when the
of safety? 29-1-8.
boiler plate is subjected to the tension
7. A machine of 12 t rests on four struc- 22. A load of 200 kN is hung from an A36
stress shown. Inthe case of the riveted
tural-steel legs. If the factor of safety is 5, steel bar 75 x 12. What is the factor of
what is the cross-sectional area of each safety?
leg if the load is equally proportioned on 23. A machine t rests on four structural
of 8
each leg? Use A572-50 steel. steel legs. the factor of safety is 4, what
If

8. What is the maximum load a 6-in. sched- is the cross-sectional area of each leg if

ule 40 pipe can support using the work- the load is equally proportioned on each
0.875 RIVETS
ing stress shown in Fig. 29-1-3? leg? Use A572M-350 steel.
9. A steel bar 1 6 ft long elongates . 1 24 in. 24. What is the maximum load a 4-in. sched-
under a tensile force. Calculate the unit ule 40 pipe can support using the work-
elongation. ing stress shown in Fig. 29-1-3?
10. What detormation will occur in a 1.00- 25. A steel bar 5000 mm long elongates
r-.3l2
in.-diameter steel tie rod, 8 ft long, when 3. 1 5 mm under a tensile force. Calculate
a tensile load of 8 tons is applied? the unit deformation.
1 1. What load will elongate a .375 x 1 in. 26. What deformation will occur in a 25 mm
x 10 ft long steel tie rod ,125 in.? diameter steel tie rod, 2400 mm long,
1 2. What unit deformation is produced by a when a tensile load of 70 kN is applied? SINGLE RIVETED BUTTJOINT
tensile stress of 34 000 psi in a 1 .80 2 -in. 27. What load will elongate a 10 x 25 x
steel bar? 3000 mm long steel tie rod 3 mm?
13. A 1 x 1 x .125
angle iron 12 ft long in. 28. What unit deformation is produced by a
supports a tensile load of 4000 lb. Find tensile load of 1 50 kN in a 25 2 mm steel 90 KIPS
the total deformation. Ignore the rounds bar? 0.625
and fillets for calculation purposes. 29. A 25 x 25 x 3 mm angle iron 3600 mm
14. Calculate the allowable load that may long supports a tensile load of 18 kN. TWO L s
be placed on a short 6 x 6 in. post. The Find the total deformation. Ignore the 4.00 X 4.00 X .38
material is Eastern spruce, building rounds and fillets for calculation pur- _*~.44 GUSSET PLATE
grade. poses. /-TWO Ls
1 5. A flat mild steel bar of rectangular sec- 30. Calculate the allowable load that may £ 3.50 X 3.50 X .38
tion 3 x .75 in. carries an axial pull of 1 be placed on a short 150 x 150 mm -^-75 KIPS
tons. Find the tensile stress and the post. The material is Eastern spruce, con-
elongation in inches if the unloaded struction grade. Refer to Fig. 29- -4. 1

length is 20 ft. 31. A flat, mild steel bar of rectangular sec- RIVETED ROOF TRUSS
16. Calculate the load required to punch a tion 75 x 20 mm supports a mass of 1 Fig. 29-2-A Riveted joints.

596 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 020 RIVETS SECTION A welds required if .44-in. fillet welds are
016 RIVETS SECTION B used and the line of action on the angle
is taken through the centroidal axis.

41 Do the same as in Problem 40 except the

weld is on the sides and end of the angle.
42. A boiler 42 in. in diameter, made of A36
welded by a single-V
T=m steel, .50 in. thick
butt weld.
sure
boiler?
in
What
pounds per square inch
is

is the allowable pres-

of the
SINGLE RIVETED BUTT JOINT
43. Do the same as Problem 42 except use
in

.500 kN a single-V butt, welded both sides.

020 44. A 42 in. in diameter made of A36
boiler
RIVETS
has to withstand a steam pressure
steel,
TWO Ls
125 X 125 X 13 of 325 lb/in. 2 A single-bevel butt joint,
.

^-16 GUSSET PLATE •COVER PLATES 5 THICK welded one side, is used. What is the
/-TWO LS required thickness of boiler plate?
£, 100 X 100 X 13 45. An intermittent fillet weld is used on
-^—420 kN both sides of a welded T A572-55 steel
STRESS = 70 MPa section 6 ft long. The weld length is 3
1

RIVETED ROOF TRUSS in. on a pitch of 2 in. If a tensile load of

1

Fig. 29-2-B Riveted joints.

DOUBLE RIVETED BUTT JOINT 600 kips is uniformly distributed along
the welded section, what size fillet weld
is required?

016 RIVETS
46. What is the maximum tensile load that
can be applied to an A36 steel welded
section 8 ft long? A 38-in. intermittent
SECTION A fillet weld 3 in. long on a 2-in. pitch is 1

0.75 RIVETS SECTION B used on each side of the plate.

METRIC ASSIGNMENTS
on an
47. Calculate the safe load in tension
TENSILE LOAD = 100 kN '/^<kv open-square butt weld, welded one
side, joining two 6 x 50 mm A36 steel 1
RIVETED LAP JOINT
plates.
Fig. 29-2-D Riveted joints. 48. Do the same as in Problem 47 except use
an open square, welded both sides.
49. A 2 x 250 mm A36 steel bar, welded
1

both sides, is connected to a steel plate.

Calculate the length of the two 10-mm
side fillet welds required if the plate is

Assignments for Unit 29-3, subjected to a tensile load of 1 30 kN.

-COVER PLATES .25 THICK 50. Two A572M-380 structural-steel plates
± Welded
U.S.
Joints
CUSTOMARY ASSIGNMENTS
40
U
mm thick are connected by a double-
butt weld. Calculate the allowable
A B 35. Calculate the safe load in tension on an load the weld will support in a 1 00-mm
STRESS 8000 PSI open-square butt weld, welded one wide section.
DOUBLE RIVETED BUTT JOINT side, joining two .25 x 6 in. A36 steel 51. A 050 A572M-290 steel shaft is welded

v
plates. to a steel plate by a 6-mm fillet weld.
0.75 RIVETS 36. Do the same as in Problem 35 except use Calculate the safe tensile load that could
"
an open square, welded both sides. be supported by the weld.
*_rr^ IT"
j-*
1
6.0C 37. A .50 x 10 in. A36 steel bar, welded 52. A 100 x 100 x 13 mm A36 steel angle
supporting a load of 400 kN is welded to
r_*_ both sides, is connected to a steel plate.
Calculate the length of the two ,375-in. a steel plate. Calculate the length of side
r.SU
50
.50 side fillet welds required if the plate is welds required using the largest per-
subject to a tensile load of 5 000 lb. 1 missible fillet welds. The line of action on
38. Two A572-55 structural-steel plates the angle is taken through the centroidal
TENSILE LOAD = 18 000 LB 1.50 in. thick are connected by a dou- axis.

RIVETED LAP JOINT ble-U butt weld. Calculate the allowable 53. Do the same as in Problem 52 except
load per inch the weld will support. that the weld is on the sides and end of
Fig. 29-2-C Riveted joints.
39. A 02 in. A572-42 steel shaft is welded to the angle.
a steel plate by a ,25-in. fillet weld. Cal- 54. A boiler 1 000 mm in diameter, made of
culate the safe tensile load that could be A36 steel 1 2 mm thick, welded by a is

supported by the weld. single-V butt weld. What the max- is

lap joint, a structural joint is fastened by 40. A 4 x 4 x .500 in. A36 steel angle imum allowable pressure the boiler?
in

four rivets. Calculate the main stresses supporting a load of 90 kips is welded to 55. Do the same as in Problem 54 except use
when the tensile load shown is applied. a steel plate. Calculate the length of side a single-V butt, welded both sides.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 597

56. A boiler 1 000 mm in diameter is made of mm pitch is used on each side of the showing the loading diagram, the shear
A36 steel and has to withstand a steam plate. diagram, and the calculations. Scale is to
pressure of 2.2 MPa. A single-bevel bun suit.

joint, welded one side, is used. What is Assignments for Unit 29-4, 62. On a B- or A3-size sheet, draw the four
the required thickness of boiler plate? Beams beams shown in Fig. 29-5-C or 29-5-D,
57. An intermittent fillet weld is used on 59. On a B- or A3-size sheet, calculate the showing the loading diagram, calcu-
both sides of a welded T A572M-380 moments and loads for the problems lated reaction diagram, and the shear

steel section 5000 mm long. The weld shown in Fig. 29-4-A or 29-4-B. diagram plus the calculations. Scale is to
length is 50 mm on a 200-mm pitch. If a 60. On a B- or A3-size sheet, calculate the suit.

tensile load of 1 .3 MINI is uniformly dis- moments and reactions for the problems
tributed along the welded section, what shown in Fig. 29-4-C or 29-4-D.
size fillet weld is required? Assignments for Unit 29-6,
58. What is the maximum tensile load that Assignments for Unit 29-5, Bending Moment Diagrams
can be applied to an A36 steel welded Shear Diagrams 63. On a B- or A3-size sheet, draw the bend-
section 2400 mm long? A 12-mm inter- 61 On a B- or A3-size sheet, draw the four ing moment diagrams for the four
mittent fillet weld 75 mm long on a 300- beams shown in Fig. 29-5-A or 29-5-B, cantilevered beams shown in Fig. 29-5-

I3U
30 LB I

—_ 2400 --J

-i ^1500 1 5400 ^
I
400LB 1.8 kN
1.3 kN
300LB
^
* 14' -0
3'-0>f
aEM^ "f 4200 ^
Y//
900
Pill 600 N/m mm
§ w 5000
% 4200
*
5 6
400LB 300LB
4kN 3kN 2kN

% 8-0 500LB V//

2
4'-0 4'-0 y/ ^ ^300^300
HI 25 LB FT]
12' -0
Y/, 4400
^700|
4=
1 300 N/m I

900 %
9 7 9

1
300LB ? 3 kN
500LB -* -^ 5 kN -^ X
I |4-0 5-
9'-0 |4- 5-0

* |300o|3200
I > 6200
j
J fr

Fig. 29-4-A Calculating moments and loads. Fig. 29-4-B Calculating moments and loads.

500 LB 2.7 kN

3 KIPS 600LB800LB 300LB 14 kN 3.5 kN 1.3 kN 2.5 kN

5--oir 8-0 * * 12' -0 T8-0J 1500 ^ >f 3600 ^ 2400 jf

i IB '-°
^
R2
&
Rl
%R2
*= 24' - A A 4500 A A 9000

R2
A A 7200 A
R2
Rl R2 Rl R2 Rl Rl

1 2 3
3 kN
4 KIPS 800LB 3 KIPS 20 kN 3.5 kN 13.5 kN
650LB ,j, ,.
e'-o^ 6'-0T8'-0 T 1800 'f 3600 900 1800 ^2400^
80 LB.'FT lllll] 75 LB FT |
J'S'- O ||||||Hl 60 LB/FT 1900 N/m |

A l8 '-° A A 20 -° A. £ 24-0
ft
A ft
A £ 7200
ft
Rl R2 Rl R2 Rl R9 R2 R2
R2 Rl Rl
5 6

I000LB
400 LB ? LB 800 LB kN j, 3.5 kN
X 6- -0* 1.8
_L a,
S'-O^ I 1
10 LB,FT~1 900 >k 1.6 k N/m llll

ft
20' -0 A 6-0 ft
18' -0
ft8'-0 ft £olx> A 800 1

f
ft
5400
ft
2400
Rl R2 Rl R2 Rl R2
Rl R2
7 8 7 8

Fig. 29-4-C Calculating moments and reactions. Fig. 29-4-D Calculating moments and reactions.

598 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

800 LB 600 LB 8kN
4'-0| 2m >^
75 LB F T

20-0 A
{ A
500 LB 500 LB 5.5 kN 6kN
3'-0* 5" -0 * , * 6m *
80 LB FT

A A

5 KIPS

^ 12' -0

% f A A

8 KIPS 12 KIPS 15 kN 12 kN 12' -0 5m

3-0 * 6-0 * 5m Y 5m 80 LB/.FT 200 N/m

Fig. 29-5-A
15' -0

Shear problems.
A A
I 1=
Fig. 29-5-B Shear problems.
^r Fig. 29-5-C
20' -0

Shear problems.
^ 4
Fig. 29-5-D
9m

Shear problems.
A

A or 29-5-B. Below each diagram show acting at the center of the beam? The 80. A cantilever beam 5 m long carries a
the calculations. Scale is to suit. beam is to be 12 ft and the allowa-
long, uniformly distributed load of 8 kN-m.
64. On a B- or A3-size sheet, draw the bend- ble bending stress must not exceed 200 1 Neglecting the mass of the beam, select
ing moment diagrams for the four lb/in. 2 . the lightest A572M-350 beam that will
loaded beams shown in Fig. 29-5-C or 72. A simple W10 x 66 beam, 20 ft long, is safely carry this load.
29-5-D. Below each diagram show the made of A36 steel. Calculate the largest 81. What is the maximum uniformly dis-
bending moment calculations. concentrated load the beam can sup- tributed load that can be safely placed
port at the middle of the span and the on a simple W300 x 60 beam 6 m long
Assignments for Unit 29-7, largest uniformly distributed load the made A572M-3
of 1 steel?

Beam Design beam can support? 82. A simple beam 6 m long has a uniformly
73. A W10 x 29 beam has a 20-ft span. distributed load of 5 kN-m and a 1 0-kN
U.S. CUSTOMARY ASSIGNMENTS What is the largest concentrated load, concentrated load 1.2 m from the left
65. Select the lightest beam from Fig. 30-7-3 located at the center, that the beam can abutment. Select the lightest A36 steel
that can be used to safely carry a 4000- carry if the maximum deflection is the beam from Fig. 29- -8 that will safely 1

Ib end of a 9-ft
load suspended from the span 360? 4- carry this load.
cantilever beam. Use A572-45 steel. 74. Do the same as in Problem 73 except 83. How many 38 x 286-mm wood beams
66. A simple beam 30 ft long supports a substitute a uniformly distributed load must be joined to form a simple beam
uniformly distributed load of 300 lb/ft. for aconcentrated load. that will carry safely a concentrated load
Neglecting the weight of the beam, 75. An 2 x 31.8 cantilever beam 12 ft
SI of 25 kN acting at the center of the
select the lightest A36 steel beam that long has a concentrated load of 8000 lb beam? The beam is to be 3.5 m long, and
will safely carry this load. at its free end. Is the deflection the allowable bending stress must not
67. A simple beam 24 ft long supports a excessive? exceed 8000 kPa.
44 000-lb concentrated load ft from 1 76. A x 16-in.-deep simple
lO-in.-wide 84. A simple W250 x 98 beam 6 m long is

the left abutment. Neglecting the mass wooden beam has a span of 16 ft and a made of A36 steel. Calculate the largest
of the beam, select the lightest A36 steel uniformly distributed load of 1000 lb/ft. concentrated load the beam can sup-
beam that will safely carry this load. Check the beam for deflection, using port at the middle of the span and the
68. A cantilever beam 1 6 ft long carries a values of 320 000 for £ and 2948 for
1 /. largest uniformly distributed load the
uniformly distributed load of 500 lb/ft. beam can support?
Neglecting the weight of the beam, METRIC ASSIGNMENTS 85. A W250 x 43 beam has a 6-m span.
select the lightest A572-50 steel beam 77. Select the lighest beam from Fig. 29-7-3 What is the largest concentrated load,
that will safely carry this load. that can be used to safely carry an 1
8- located at the center, that the beam can
69. What the maximum uniformly dis-
is kN load suspended from the end of a 3- carry if the maximum deflection is the
tributed load that can be safely placed m cantilever beam. Use A572M-310 span 4- 360?
on a simple Wl 2 x 40 beam 20 ft long steel. 86. Do the same as in Problem 85 except
made A572-45 steel?
of 78. A simple beam
long supports a
10 m substitute a uniformly distributed load
70. A simple beam 20 ft long has a uniformly uniformly distributed load of 5 kN«m. for the concentrated load.

distributed load of 300 lb/ft and a 2400- Neglecting the mass of the beam, select 87. AnS300 x 47 cantilever beam 4 m long
concentrated load 4 ft from the left
Ib the lighest A36 steel beam that will has a concentrated load of 35 kN at its
abutment. Select the lightest A36 steel safely carry this load. free end. Is the deflection excessive?

beam that will safely carry this load. 79. A simple beam 8 m long supports a 200- 88. A 250-mm-wide x 400-mm-deep sim-
71. How many (1% x 11 s/sin.
2 x 12 in. kN concentrated load 3 m from the left ple wooden beam has a span of 5 m and
actual size) wood beams must be joined abutment. Neglecting the mass of the a uniformly distributed load of 4 kN*m. 1

to form a simple beam that will carry beam, select the lighest A36 beam that Check the beam for deflection using val-

safely a concentrated load of 6000 lb will safely carry this load. ues of 9400 for E and 226 1 for /.

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 599

CHAPTER 30
UNIT 30-1
Modern Engineering
Tolerancing
An engineering drawing of a manufac-
tured part is intended to convey
information from the designer to the
manufacturer and inspector. It must
contain all information necessary for
the part to be correctly manufactured.
It must also enable an inspector to
make a precise determination of
whether the parts are acceptable.
Therefore each drawing must con-
vey three essential types of infor-
mation
1. The material to be used
2. The size or dimensions of the part
3. The shape or geometric charac-
teristics
The drawing must also specify per-
missible variations for each of these
aspects, in the form of tolerance or
limits.
Materials are usually covered by
separate specifications or supplemen-
tary documents, and the drawings
need only make reference to these.
Size is specified by linear and angu-
lar dimensions. Tolerances may be
applied directly to these dimensions or
may be specified by means of a general
tolerance note.
Shape and geometric characteris-
tics,such as orientation and position,
are described by views on the drawing,
supplemented
to some extent by
dimensions.
600 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN
Engineering
Tolerancing
In the past tolerances were often
shown for which no precise interpreta-
tion existed, such as on dimensions
which originated at nonexistent center
lines. Specification of datum features
was often omitted, resulting in mea-
surements being made from actual sur-
faces when datums were intended.
There was confusion concerning the
precise effect of various methods of
expressing tolerances and of the num-
ber of decimal places used. While tol-
erancing of geometric characteristics
was sometimes specified in the form of
simple notes, no precise methods or
interpretations were established.
Straight or circular lines were drawn,
without specifying how straight or
round they should be. Square corners
were drawn without specifying how
much the 90° angle could vary.
Modern systems of tolerancing,
which include geometric and posi-
tional tolerancing, use of datum and
datum targets, and more precise inter-
pretations of linear and angular toler-
ances, provide designers and drafters
with a means of expressing permissible
variations in a very precise manner.
Furthermore, the methods and sym-
ACRONYM STANDARDIZING BODY
ANSI AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS INSTITUTE
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
ISO
FOR STANDARDIZATION
Fig. 30-1-1 Standardizing bodies.
bols are international in scope and
therefore help break down language
barriers.
It is not necessary to use geometric
tolerances for every feature on a part
drawing. In most cases it is to be
expected that if each feature meets all
dimensional tolerances, form varia-
tions will be adequately controlled by
the accuracy of the manufacturing pro-
cess and equipment used.
This chapter covers the application
of modern tolerancing methods on
drawings.
National and International Stan-
dards References are made to techni-
cal drawing standards published by
United States and ISO standardizing
bodies. These bodies are generally
referred to by their acronyms, as
shown in Fig. 30-1-1.
Most of the symbols in all these
standards are identical, but there are
some variations. These are chiefly in
themethods of indicating datum fea-
tures and of applying the symbols to
drawings. In view of the exchange of
drawings among the United States and
other countries, it would be advan-
STANDARD FOR
DIMENSIONING AND
TOLERANCING
ANSI YI4.5
ISO
RIIOI
tageous for drafters and designers to /" TOLERANCE = .005
Size of Dimensions
become acquainted with these differ- In theory, it is impossible to produce a
ent symbols. part to an exact size, because every
For this reason whenever dif- part, measured with sufficient accu-
if

ferences between United States and racy, would be found to be a slightly

ISO standards occur, two methods are different size. However, for purposes
shown in some of the illustrations, and of discussion and interpretation, a
each is labeled with the acronym of the number of distinct sizes for each
appropriate standardizing body, ANSI dimension have to be recognized.
• 1.50 t 04
or ISO (ISO, CSA, and BSI [British
TOLERANCE = .08 Actual Size In ordinary practice, actual
Standards Institute] all use identical
TOLERANCE size simply means the measured size of
symbols). However, differences in (A) SIZE
an individual part.
symbols or methods of application do
not in any way affect the principles or
BILATERAL TOLERANCE Nominal Size The nominal size is the
interpretation of tolerances, unless °03 designation of size used for purposes
0.500 :
specifically noted. :
of general identification.
The nominal size is used in referring
Illustrations to a part in an assembly drawing stock-
Most of the drawings in this chapter list, in a specification, or in other such

are not complete working drawings. documents. It is very often identical to

They are intended only to illustrate a the basic size but may differ widely;
principle. Therefore, to avoid distrac- for example, the diameter of a .50 in.
tion from the information being pre- ^— BILATERAL TOLERANC steel pipe is 0.84 in. (21.34 mm). The
sented, most of the details that are not nominal size is .50 in.
(B) TYPE OF TOLERANCE
essential to explain the principle have
Fig. 30-1-3 Tolerances. Specified Size This is the size specified
been omitted.
on the drawing when the size is associ-
ated with a tolerance. The specified
DEFINITIONS OF which is equal to the difference size is usually identical to the design
BASIC TERMS between the limits of size. The plural size or, if no allowance is involved, to
term tolerances is sometimes used to the basic size.
Definitions of some of the basic terms denote the permissible variations from
used in dimensioning and tolerancing the specified size when the tolerance is Basic SizeThe basic size of a dimen-
of drawings follow. While these terms sion the theoretical size from which
is
expressed bilaterally.
are not new, their exact meanings war- the limits for that dimension are
For example, in Fig. 30- 1-3 A the tol-
rant special attention in order that derived by the application of the allow-
erance on the center distance dimen-
there be no ambiguity in the precise ance and the tolerance.
sion 1.50±.04 is .08 in., but in
interpretation of tolerancing methods Figure 30-1-4 shows two mating fea-
common practice the values + .04 and
described in this chapter. tures with the tolerance and allowance
- .04 are often referred to as the
zones exaggerated, to illustrate the
tolerances.
Dimension sizes, tolerances, and allowances.
A bilateral tolerance is a tolerance
A dimension is a geometric charac- which expressed as plus and minus
is
This figure also illustrates the origin of
teristic, of which the size is specified, tolerance block diagrams, as shown in
values, where neither is zero, to
such as diameter, length, angle, loca- Fig. 30-1-5, which are commonly used
denote permissible variations in both
tion, or center distance. The term is to show the relationships among part
directions from the specified size.
also used for convenience to indicate limits, gage or inspection limits, and
A unilateral tolerance is one which
the size or value of a dimension, as gage tolerances.
applies in only one direction from the
specified on a drawing. See Fig. 30-1-2.
specified size, so that the permissible Design Size The design size of a dimen-
variation in the other direction is zero. sion is the size in relation to which the
Tolerance
The tolerance on a dimension is the
total permissible variation in its size, BASIC OR ZERO LINE-ySEE
E->SEE FIGURE
fi
AL1
30- l-5-|
.LOWANCE-
^ TOLERANCE

TOLERANCEi \
•HOLE SIZE

MAXIMUM f EXTERNAL
f^T BASIC
INTERNAL
PART
MINIMUM
MAXIMUM
SIZE
SIZE MINIMUM PART SIZE SIZE
SIZE

L-DESIGN SIZE 1-DESIGN SIZE

Fig. 30-1-2 Dimensions of a part. Fig. 30-1-4 Sizes of mating parts.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 601

 LOWER profile, orientation, or location of a INTERPRETATION OF
HOLE DEVIATION UPPER
f
feature or datum target. DRAWINGS AND
TOLERANCE DEVIATION These terms are called exact dimen- DIMENSIONS
BASIC OR sions. See Fig. 30-1-7. They are shown
ZERO LINE -h
LOWER without direct tolerances, and each is It should not be necessary to specify

enclosed in a rectangular frame to indi- the geometric shape of a feature,

SHAFT UPPER DEVIATION
l

unless some particular precision is

TOLERANCE DEVIATION j cate that the tolerances in the general
tolerance note do not apply. required. Lines which appear to be
Fig. 30-1-5 Tolerance block diagram. straight imply straightness; those that
appear to be round imply circularity;
those that appear to be parallel imply
tolerance for that dimension is
.625 1.002
parallelism; those that appear to be
assigned. square imply perpendicularity; center
Theoretically, it is the size on which lines imply symmetry; and features
the design of the individual feature is that appear to be concentric about a
based, and therefore it is the size common center line imply concen-
which should be specified on the draw- DATUM DIMENSION tricity.
ing. For dimensions of mating features BASIC DIMENSION Therefore it is not necessary to add
it is derived from the basic size by the angular dimensions of 90° to corners of
application of the allowance, but when rectangular parts nor to specify that
there is no allowance, it is identical to opposite sides are parallel.
the basic size. However, if a particular departure
from the illustrated form is permissi-
Deviations ble, or if a certain degree of precision
The differences between the basic, or of form is required, it must be spec-
zero, line and the maximum and mini- ified. If a slight departure from the true
mum sizes are called the upper and
-TRUE POSITION DIMENSION
geometric form or position is required,
lower deviations, respectively. it should be exaggerated pictorially in
Fig. 30-1-7 Exact dimensions.
Thus upper devia-
in Fig. 30-1-6 the order to show clearly where the dimen-
- .001, and
tion of the external part is sions apply. Figure 30-1-9 shows some
the lower deviation is - .003. For the examples. Dimensions which are not
hole diameter, the upper deviation is Feature to scale should be underlined free-
+ .002, and the lower deviation is A feature a specific, characteristic
is hand.
+ .001, whereas for the length of the portion of a part, such as a surface,
pin the upper and lower deviations are hole, slot, screw thread, or profile.
0.250
+ .02 and — .02. respectively. While a feature may include one or
more surfaces, the term is generally
used in geometric tolerancing in a
UPPER UPPER DEVIATION ^.002 more restricted sense, to indicate a
-BASIC OR specific point, line, or surface. Some
\ZERO LINE examples are the axis of a hole, the
»3.00 1.02*^
\ K .

j_ edge of a part, or a single flat or curved

0.499
+ .000 T 0,- 5OI
surface, to which reference is being 156 ±.002 2 HOLES
-.002 -ooo
made or which forms the basis for a Fig. 30-1-9 Exaggeration of small
T~ 0.5ooJ-f^T datum. dimensions.
LOWER
DEVIATION-.003 LOWER DEVIATION + .00I
Axis
Fig. 30-1-6 Deviations.
An axis is a theoretical straight line Point-to-Point Dimensions
about which a part or circular feature When datums are not specified, linear
revolves or could be considered to dimensions are intended to apply on a
Exact Dimensions revolve. See Fig. 30-1-8.
point-to-point basis, either between
True-Position Dimension True-position opposing points on the indicated sur-
is the theoretical exact location estab- faces or directly between the points
lished by basic dimensions. -CENTER LINE marked on the drawing.
Datum Dimension A datum dimension The examples shown in Fig. 30-1-10
Jl__ should help to clarify this principle of
is a dimension which establishes the
point-to-point dimensions.
true position of a
target.
datum or datum 2
AXIS Location Dimensions
Basic Dimension A basic dimension Fig. 30-1-8 Divergence of axis and center with Datums
represents the theoretical exact size. line when part is deformed. When location dimensions originate

602 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 -0 — — <$)-
-ANSI DATUM SYMBOL

DRAWING CALLOUT

DRAWING CALLOUT
DATUM FEATURE
NOTE - DATUM PLANE R APPLIES TO ALL
DIMENSIONS ORIGINATING FROM THIS SURFACE
POINT OF MEASUREMENT IF PART IS BOWED DRAWING CALLOUT
(A)
(F) BOWED PARTS

90°
i i
;
,

30 1 2°
\
<

: i

D D D
DIRECTION OF MEASUREMENTS
POINTS OF MEASUREMENT TO DATUM
(C) HEIGHT
<B) INTERPRETATION IF PART IS BOWED
90°
Fig. 30-1-11 Dimension referred to a datum.

T DRAWING CALLOUT

ANGLE OF MEASUREMENT
assumed to be the datum
POINTS OF

(A)
MEASUREMENT

LENGTH
TTTT
POINTS OF MEASUREMENT
(G) ANGULAR
surface
feature.
is

For example, if the sur-

POINTS OF MEASUREMENT FOR BENT OR BOWED PART
DRAWING CALLOUT
INCORRECT LENGTH MEASUREMENT
faces of the part shown in Fig.
30-1-12A were not quite parallel, as
J_i shown in the lower view, dimension
D would be acceptable if the top
surface were within limits when
measured at a and b, but need not
(D) THICKNESS OF THIN PARTS be within limits if measured at c.
2. If only one of the extension lines
refers to a straight edge or surface,
the extension of that edge or surface
is assumed to be the datum. Thus in

Fig. 30- 1-1 2B measurement of

dimension A is made to a datum

CORRECT LENGTH MEASUREMENT

DRAWING CALLOUT POINTS OF MEASUREMENTS surface as shown at a in the bottom
POINTS OF MEASUREMENTS
view.
(B) LENGTH OF THIN PART (E) CIRCULAR PARTS (H) LOCATION
3. Ifboth extension lines refer to off-
Fig. 30-1-10 Point-to-point dimensions when da turns not used.
set points ratherthan to edges or
surfaces, generally it should be
assumed that the datum is a line
running through one of these points
and parallel to the line or surface to
from a feature or surface specified as a Assumed Datums which it is dimensionally related.
datum, measurement is made from the There are often cases where the basic Thus in Fig. 30-1-12C dimension A
theoretical datum, not from the actual rules for measurements on a point-to- is measured from the center of hole

feature or surface of the part.
There will be many cases where a
curved center line, as shown in Fig.
30-1-10F, would not meet functional
requirements or where the position of
the hole in Fig. 30-1-10H would be
required to be measured parallel to the
base. This can easily be specified by
point basis cannot be applied, because
the originating points, lines, or sur-
faces are offset in relation to the fea-
tures located by the dimensions. It is
then necessary to assume a suitable
datum, which usually the theoretical
is
extension of one of the lines or sur-
faces involved.
D to a line through the center of hole
C which is parallel to the base iine,
as at a
Permissible Form Variations
The actual size of a feature must be
within the limits of size, as specified on
the drawing, at all points of measure-

referring the dimension to a datum fea- The following general rules cover ment. This means that each measure-
ture, as shown in Fig. 30-1-1 1 This will. three types of dimensioning pro- ment, made at any cross section of the
be more fully explained in Unit 30-7, cedures commonly encountered. feature, must be not greater than the
where the interpretation of coordinate maximum limit of size nor smaller than
tolerances is compared with geometric 1 . If a dimension refers to two parallel the minimum limit of size. See Fig.
and positional tolerances. edges or planes, the larger edge or 30-1-13.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 603

 TC
v
DRAWING CALLOUT
DRAWING CALLOUT POSSIBLE DEVIATION FROM TRUE FORM

-MEASURING DISTANCE
trrt INCORRECT

POINTS OF MEASUREMENT
(A) PARALLEL PLANES

wA
(A) PARALLELEPIPEDS

1
rzrK
I IM — H f-

DRAWING CALLOUT
U«-MAX-»»| P~MAX-H

±. \T7
DATUM SURFACE!

POINT OF MEASUREMENT

(B) SINGLE PLANE

__. MIN |-»— -^1 MIN L«—
(B) CYLINDRICAL FEATURES
Fig. 30-1-13 Deviations permitted by toleranced dimensions.

DRAWING CALLOUT

DATUM
SURFACE
POINT OF MEASUREMENT
(C)OFFSET POINTS
Fig. 30-1-12 Assumed datums.
By themselves, toleranced linear
dimensions, or limits of size, do not
give specific control over many other
variations of form, orientation, and, to
some extent, position, such as errors
of squareness of related features or
deviations caused by bending of parts,
lobing, eccentricity, and the like.
Therefore features may actually cross
the boundaries of perfect form at the
maximum material size and at the min-
imum material size.
In order to meet functional require- ture and no geometric tolerance is
ments, it is often necessary to control given, no element of the feature would
such deviations. This is done to ensure extend beyond the maximum material
that parts are not only within their lim- boundary of perfect form. Examples
its of size but also within specified lim- are shown in Fig .30-1-15. According to
its of geometric form, orientation, and ANSI rules, all parts are expected to
position. In the case of mating parts, have perfect form of individual fea-
such as holes and shafts, it is usually tures at the maximum material con-
necessary to ensure that they do not dition.
cross the boundary of perfect form at
the maximum material size, by reason
of being bent or otherwise deformed.
This condition is shown in Fig. 30-1-14, Reference and Source Material
where features do not cross the max- I. ANSI Y 14. 5M Dimensioning and
imum material boundary but are per- Tolerancing
mitted to cross the boundary of perfect
form at the minimum material condi-
tion.
ASSIGNMENTS
Ifonly size tolerances or limits of See Assignments 1 and 2 for Unit 30-1
size are specified for an individual fea- on page 645.

604 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 EXTERNAL FEATURE INTERNAL FEATURE UNIT 30-2
-i 747
752
.750
— Geometric
Tolerancing

A geometric tolerance is the maximum

DRAWING CALLOUT DRAWING CALLOUT permissible variation of form, orienta-
tion, or location of a feature from that
-H0.749U- -»J0.75O indicated or specified on the drawing.
The tolerance value represents the
I width or diameter of the tolerance
zone, within which the point, line, or
UJ
AT MAXIMUM SIZE FORM AT MINIMUM SIZE FORM
surface of the feature shall lie.

MUST BE PERFECT MUST BE PERFECT

From this definition it follows that a
feature would be permitted to have any
-»|0.749U-
variation of form, or take up any posi-
tion, within the specified geometric
tolerance zone.
For example, a by a
line controlled
straightness tolerance of .006 mustin.
0.747*1 (-•—
be contained within a tolerance zone
.006 in. wide. See Fig. 30-2-1.

POINTS, LINES,
AND SURFACES
The production and measurement of
0.750
engineering parts deals, in most cases,
DEVIATION FROM DEVIATION FROM with surfaces of objects. These sur-
TRUE FORM TRUE FORM
faces may be flat, cylindrical, conical,
Fig. 30-1-14 Examples of deviation of form when perfect form at the or spherical or have some more or less
maximum material condition is required. irregular shape or contour.

006 WIDE TOLERANCE ZONE

DRAWING CALLOUT POSSIBLE DEVIATION ACCEPTED BY LIMIT GAGES

Fig. 30-2-1 Tolerance zone for straightness

of a line.

Measurement, however, usually has

to take place at specific points. A line
or surface evaluated dimensionally
is

by making a series of measurements at

various points along its length.
DIA
Therefore, geometric tolerances are
chiefly concerned with points and
RNAL FEATURE (SHAFT)
lines, while surfaces are considered to
be composed of a series of line ele-
ments running in two or more direc-
tions.
Points have position but no size, and
therefore position is the only charac-
teristic that requires control. Lines
and surfaces have to be controlled for
form, orientation, and location. There-
DIA
fore geometric tolerances provide for
!) INTERNAL FEATURE
control of the characteristics shown in
Fig. 30-1-15 Form variations accepted by limit gages. Fig. 30-2-2.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 605

 TYPE OF introduced as required, but all are
FEATURE CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL SEE UNIT
TOLERANCE shown for reference purposes.
STRAIGHTNESS 30-2,30-4
INDIVIDUAL FORM APPLICATION TO DRAWINGS
1 MATURES FLATNESS / / 30-4
The feature control frame is related to
CIRCULARITY (ROUNDNESS! o 30-9
the feature by one of the following

INDIVIDUAL
CYLINDRICITY
& methods (shown in Fig. 30-2-4):
1. Locating the frame below the
PROFILE OF A LINE r\ leader-directed callout or dimen-
OR RELATED
FEATURES
PROFILE
PROFILE OF ASURFACE o 30 - 10

2.
sion pertaining to the feature.
Running a leader from the frame to

RELATED
ANGULARITY ^ 30-6
3.
the feature.
Attaching a side or end of the frame
to an extension line extending from
ORIENTATION PERPENDICULARITY
FEATURES _L a plane surface feature.
PARALLELISM 4. Attaching a side or end of the frame
// to an extension of the dimension

LOCATION
POSITION
* 30-7 line pertaining to a feature of size.
ISO practice is to attach the dimen-
CONCENTRICITY
© sion line to the feature control
frame and place the feature of size
CIRCULAR RUNOUT
/ 30 - II
above or below the frame.

Fig. 30-2-2
RUNOUT
TOTAL RUNOUT

Geometric characteristic symbol.

U APPLICATION TO SURFACES
The arrowhead of the leader from the
feature control frame should touch the
FEATURE CONTROL FRAME When necessary, other compart- surface of the feature or the extension
ments are added to contain datum ref- line of the surface.
Some geometric tolerances have been
erences, as explained in Unit 30-5. The leader from the feature control
used for many years in the form of
Geometric characteristic symbols frame should be directed at the feature
"PARALLEL WITH
notes such as
used for form of a line are shown in in its characteristic profile. Thus, in
SURFACE A WITHIN .001" and Fig. 30-2-2. Other symbols will be Fig. 30-2-5 the straightness tolerance is
"STRAIGHT WITHIN .12." While
such notes are now obsolete, the
reader should be prepared to recognize
them on older drawings.
The modern method is to specify
geometric tolerances by means of the
feature control frame. A feature con-
trol frame for an individual feature is
divided into compartments containing
the geometric characteristic symbol
followed by the tolerance. See Fig.
30-2-3. Where applicable, the toler-
ance preceded by the diameter sym-
is

bol (see Unit 30-4) and is followed by a

material condition symbol (see Unit
30-3).

"GEOMETRICAL CHARACTERISTIC
\SYMBOL
\ \GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCE VALUE

>4n-
— .006 2 X LETTER HEIGHT

LENGTH AS REQUIRED
Fig. 30-2-3 Feature control frame for an
individual feature. Fig. 30-2-4 Placement of feature control frame.

606 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 STRAIGHTNESS CIRCULARITY same plane, separated by
TOLERANCE TOLERANCE lines in the Cylindrical Surfaces For cylindrical
the specified tolerance. parts, or curved surfaces which are
Theoretically, straightness could be straight in one direction, the feature
measured by bringing a straightedge control frame should be directed to the
into contact with the line and deter- side view, where line elements appear
mining that any space between the as a straight line, as shown in Figs.
straightedge and the line does not 30-2-9 and 30-2-10.
exceed the specified tolerance.

Fig. 30-2-5 Preferred location ot feature

control symbol. r-0 .334

—10.003
directed to the side view, and the
circularity tolerance to the end view.
This may not always be possible, and a
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT
tolerance connected to an alternative
view, such as a circularity tolerance
connected to a side view, is accept-
able.
When two or more feature control
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT
frames apply to the same feature, they
are drawn together with a single leader -0.339
and arrowhead, as shown in Fig. REFERS TO LINE
30-2-6. ELEMENTS ON
SURFACE

.004
/

o .002
1
— 0.003 TOLERANCE ZONE
lT Zl i

0.625

Fig. 30-2-6 Two controls of one surface.

(B)
VIRTUAL CONDITION-
INTERPRETATION
r~ ^7 t
MAX

f
Fig. 30-2-7 Circular tolerance zone.
.004 TOLERANCE ERROR J
CIRCULAR TOLERANCE
BENDING ERROR
ZONES STRAIGHTNESS SYMBOL
STRAIGHTNESS TOLERANCE
When the resulting tolerance zone
circular or cylindrical, such as when
is
E
straightness of the center line of a cyl- 0.625
MAX
indrical feature is specified, a diameter
symbol precedes the tolerance value in
r LINE BEING CONTROLLED
^-^- — -^
t

the feature control frame. See Fig.

30-2-7.
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT
.004 TOLERANCE ERROR TT
TOLERANCE ZONE .006 WIDE CONCAVE ERROR
1
STRAIGHTNESS
LINE-
Lines Straightness is fundamentally a
characteristic of a line, such as the IB) STRAIGHTNESS TOLERANCE ZONE 0.625
edge of a part or a line scribed on a MAX
surface. A straightness tolerance is STRAIGHTEDGE
specified on a drawing by means of a £_ r~r
feature control frame, which is
directed
ing control, as
by a leader
shown
to the line requir-
in Fig. 30-2-8. It
m LINE-^
h
.004 TOLERANCE ERROR

CONVEX ERROR
(B) INTERPRETATION
states in symbolic form that the line
NOTE - NO PART OF THE CYLINDRICAL
shall be straight within .006 in. This SURFACE MAY LIE OUTSIDE THE
means that the line shall be contained (C) CHECKING WITH A STRAIGHTEDGE LIMITS OF SIZE
within a tolerance zone consisting of Fig. 30-2-8 Straightness symbol and Fig. 30-2-9 Straightness errors in surface
the area between two parallel straight application. elements of a cylindrical surface.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 607

 A A .003

DRAWING CALLOUT
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT
MEANS STRAIGHT WITHIN .003
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT MEASURED IN DIRECTION
OF ARROWS-

REFERS TO LINE ELEMENTS

ON SURFACE

INTERPRETATION
DRAWING CALLOUT
REFERS TO EACH (A) STRAIGHTNESS IN ONE DIRECTION
LINE ELEMENT
004 TOLERANCE ZONE- — .005
d-l-'002 !
rE

-.004 TOLERANCE ZONE

1—1.008 Kf—
(B) INTERPRETATION IB) INTERPRETATION
Fig. 30-2-10 Straightness of surface line Fig. 30-2-1 1 Straightness of a conical
elements. surface. DRAWING CALLOUT

-STRAIGHT WITHIN .002 MEASURED

,IN DIRECTION OF ARROWS

A straightness tolerance thus ap- Flat Surfaces A straightness tolerance STRAIGHT WITHIN .005
applied to a surface indicates ^MEASURED IN DIRECTION
plied to the surface controls surface flat
OF ARROWS
elements only. Therefore it would con- straightness control in one direction
trol bending or a wavy condition of the only and must be directed to the line on
surface or a barrel-shaped part, but it the draw ing representing the surface to
would not necessarily control the be controlled and the direction in
straightness of the center line or the which control is required, as shown in STRAIGHT WITHIN
.008 MEASURED IN
conicity of the cylinder. Fig. 30-2- 12A. It is then interpreted to DIRECTION OF
INTERPRETION ARROWS
Straightness of a cylindrical surface mean that each line element on the
is interpreted to mean that each line surface in the indicated direction shall (B) STRAIGHTNESS IN SEVERAL
element of the surface shall be con- liewithin a tolerance zone. Dl RECTIONS

tained within a tolerance zone consist- Different straightness tolerances

ing of the spacebetween two parallel may be specified in two or more direc-
planes, separated by the width of the tions when required, as shown in Fig.
specified tolerance, when the part is 30-2-12B. However, if the same
[
— j.008 rH 005
rolled along one of the planes. All cir- straightness tolerance is required in !\
cular elements of the surface must be two coordinate directions on the same
within the specified size tolerance. No
error in straightness would be permit-
surface, a flatness tolerance rather
than a straightness tolerance is used.
EB
ted if the diameter were at its max- If it is not otherwise necessary to
imum material size. The straightness draw all three views, the straightness (C) THREE STRAIGHTNESS TOLERANCES
tolerance must be less than the size tolerances may all be shown on a ON ONE VIEW
tolerance. single view by indicating the direc- Fig. 30-2-12 Three straightness tolerances
on one view.
tion with short lines terminated
Conical Surfaces A straightness toler-
by arrowheads, as shown in Fig.
ance can be applied to a conical sur-
30-2- 12C.
face in the same manner as for a a certain amount of bow may be quite
cylindrical surface, as shown in Fig. Straightness in a Specified Length It is acceptable spread over the entire
if
30-2-1 1 and will ensure that the rate of
. often desirable on long parts to specify length, but quite undesirable if concen-
taper uniform. The actual rate of
is a straightness tolerance over a specific trated atsome point along the length.
taper, or the taper angle, must be sepa- length, either with or without a max- This requirement is specified on the
rately toleranced. imum overall tolerance. For example. drawing by including the specified

608 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 external feature, for example, a shaft,
.01 / 2.50 UNIT 30-3 and the maximum limit of size for an
Relationship to internal feature, such as a hole.

Fig. 30-2-13 Tolerance in a specified length. Feature of Size
DEFINITIONS
length with the tolerance in the feature
control frame and separating them Maximum Material Condition (MMC)
with a diagonal line, as shown in Fig. This term refers to that limit of size of a
30-2-13. The expression .01/2.50 feature which results in the part con-
means .01 in. in any 2.50 in. long por- taining the maximum amount of mate-
tion of the part. rial. Thus it is the maximum limit of
can be readily shown that for a
It size for an external feature, such as a
part which is uniformly bowed in a shaft, or the minimum limit of size for
circular arc, a bow of .01 in. in 10 in. an internal feature, such as a hole. See
would be .04 in. in 20 in., or .16 in. in 40 Fig. 30-3-1.
in. etc., as illustrated in Fig. 30-2-14.
Virtual Condition (Size) Virtual condi-
When a maximum overall tolerance is
tion refers to the overall envelope of
perfect form within which the feature
would just For an external feature
fit.
such as a shaft, it is the maximum mea-
sured size plus the effect of actual form
variations, such as straightness, flat-
ness, or roundness. For an internal
feature such as a hole, it is the mini-
mum measured size minus the effect of
such form variations
Least Material Condition (LMC) This
Fig. 30-2-14 Resultant in specifying
term refers to that size of a feature
straightness per unit length with no
specified total. which results in the part containing the
minimum amount of material. Thus it
is the minimum limit of size for an
Regardless of Feature Size (RFS) This
term indicates that a form or positional
tolerance applies to any size of a fea-
ture which lies within its size toler-
ance.
FEATURES OF SIZE
Geometric tolerances so far consid-
ered concern only lines, line elements,
and single surfaces. These are features
having no diameter or thickness, and
tolerances applied to them cannot be
affected by feature size.
Features of size are features which
do have diameter or thickness. These
may be cylinders, such as shafts and
holes They may also be slots, tabs, or
rectangular or flat parts, where two
parallel, flat surfaces are considered to
form a single feature.
If freedom of assembly of mating
parts is the chief criterion for establish-
ing a geometric tolerance for a feature
of size, the least favorable assembly
condition exists when the parts are
made to the maximum material condi-
tion. Further geometric variations can
then be permitted, without jeopardiz-
ing assembly, as the features approach
their least material condition.

to be combined with a tolerance in a

specified length, the tolerances are
INTERNAL FEATURE EXTERNAL FEATURE
shown in a double feature control sym-
bol, as in Fig. 30-2-15. An example is: DRAWING CALLOUT
STRAIGHT WITHIN .01 IN. FOR rrSl A — 1.003|
THE FULL LENGTH, BUT NOT V//////////////A
TO EXCEED .003 IN. IN ANY 1.00 -^• 500+-.oo°o 0- 5 ™+ o
-:°o o°6
IN. LENGTH.
V//////////////A

.010
MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION = MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION =
MINIMUM PERMISSIBLE DIAMETER- LARGEST PERMISSIBLE SIZE-
003/1.00
V///////////////A
-
\

0.500
i
0.500
7
Fig. 30-2-15 Overall tolerance combined
with a tolerance in a specified length.
W///////////A \
NOTE-LEAST MATE RIAL CONDITION 0.505 NOTE- LEAST MATERIAL CONDITION 0.494

VIRTUAL CONDITION VIRTUAL CONDITION-

•0.500
Reference and Source Material
1. ANSI Y 14. 5M Dimensioning and
T ,

Tolerancing .SOC?. .0.497

ASSIGNMENT 003-
WM^M% .003

See Assignment 3 for Unit 30-2 on

page 647. Fig. 30-3-1 Maximum material and virtual condition.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 609

 EXTERNAL FEATURE
DRAWING CALLOUT
INTERNAL FEATURE
H ,
DRAWING CALLOUT

h* .250
+ .003
.000
T
2H
1
'/////////A \
3I6
. w H= LETTER HEIGHT OF DIMENSIONS
307 .312
Fig. 30-3-4 MMC symbol.
V////////A + .000 f
1 .250 -.003 i

FEATURES AT MAXIMUM
MATERIAL CONDITION
~(m)

PINSAND HOLES AT MAXIMUM

Y///////A i MATERIAL CONDITION Fig. 30-3-5 Application of MMC symbol.
3i2 .312

V//////A T .--0.250 specified on the drawing by including

the symbol @) immediately after the
PIN AT LEAST MATERIAL CONDITION tolerance value in the feature control
HOLE AT MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION frame as shown in Fig. 30-3-5.
CENTER DISTANCE MUST BE PERFECT A form tolerance modified in this
IN ORDER TO ASSEMBLE way can be applied only to a feature of
V//////A k size; it cannot be applied to a single
PINSAND HOLES AT LEAST
MATERIAL CONDITION surface. It controls the boundary of the
3 2 .312
-2.003 H^0 -253 feature, such as a complete cylindrical
T L 005 V///////A "T surface, or two parallel surfaces of a
flat feature. This permits the feature
surface or surfaces to cross themax-
Fig. 30-3-2 Effect of form variations. imum material boundary by the
amount of the form tolerance. If it is
EXAMPLE The effect of a form toler-
1
required that the virtual condition be
anceis shown in Fig. 30-3-2. where a kept within the maximum material
cylindrical pin of 0.3O7-.312 in. is boundary, the form tolerance must be
intended to assemble into a round hole specified as zero at MMC, as shown in
of 0.3 12-. 3 16 in. If both parts are at Fig. 30-3-6.
their maximum material condition of
0.312 in., it is evident that both would
have to be perfectly round and straight
inorder to assemble. However, if the ooo(m) "®"
pin was at its least material condition
of 0.307 in., it could be bent up to .005 U. S. CUSTOMARY METRIC
in. and still assemble in the smallest EACH CENTER DISTANCE MAY BE Fig. 30-3-6 MMC symbol with zero
permissible hole. INCREASED OR DECREASED BY .003 tolerance.

Fig. 30-3-3 Effect on location.

EXAMPLE 2 Another example, based
on the location of features, is shown in Application with Maximum Value It is
Fig. 30-3-3. This shows a part with two sometimes necessary to ensure that
projecting pins required to assemble increased and the other decreased by the geometric tolerance does not vary
into a mating part having two holes at .003 in. without jeopardizing the over the full range permitted by the
same center distance. assembly condition. size variations. For such applications a
The worst assembly condition exists maximum limit may be applied to the
when the pins and holes are at their geometric tolerance, in addition to the
maximum material condition, which is
MAXIMUM MATERIAL tolerance permitted at the maximum
0.250 Theoretically, these parts
in.
CONDITION material condition, as shown in Fig.
would just assemble if their form, ori- The symbol for maximum material 30-3-7.
entation (squareness to the surface), condition is shown in Fig. 30-3-4. The
and center distances were perfect. symbol dimensions are based on per-
However, if the pins and holes were at
REGARDLESS OF
centages of the recommended letter
their least material condition of 0.247 height of dimensions.
FEATURE SIZE (RFS)
and 0.253 in. respectively, it is evident
, If a geometric tolerance is required When MMCis not specified with a
that one center distance could be to be modified on an MMC
basis, it is geometric tolerance for a feature of

61 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 '© 002 MAX case it applies regardless of feature with the size dimension or attached to
/"• size (RFS). Alternatively it may be an extension of the dimension line. In
intended to control the bounding sur- this instance, a diameter symbol pre-
EXAMPLE I
faces of the feature, in which case the cedes the tolerance value as the toler-
tolerance is modified on an MMC ance zone is circular at any given
basis. Straightness tolerances using point, and the tolerance is applied on
both of these methods are described in either an RFS or MMC
basis. The

I® this unit.
The same straightness symbol is
straightness tolerance may be greater
than the size tolerance where neces-
used in the feature control symbol as sary. The collective effect of size and
EXAMPLE 2 for straightness of surface elements in form variation can produce a virtual
Fig. 30-3-7 Tolerance with a maximum Unit 30-3. However, when not modi- condition equal to the MMC
size plus
value. fied by MMC, the feature control sym- the straightness tolerance. When
bol may be directed to extension lines applied on an RFS basis, as in Fig.
from the diameter or thickness, as 30-4-1, the maximum straightness tol-
size, no relationship is intended to shown in Fig. 30-4-1. erance is the specified tolerance.
exist between the feature size and the Figures 30-4-1 and 30-4-2 show When applied on an MMC
basis, as in
geometric tolerance. In other words, examples of cylindrical features where Fig. 30-4-2, the maximum straightness
the tolerance applies regardless of fea- all circular elements of the surface are tolerance is the specified tolerance
ture size. to be within the specified size toler- plus the amount the feature departs
In this case, the geometric tolerance ance; however, the boundary of per- from its MMC
size. The axis or center
controls the form, orientation, or loca- fect form at MMC
may be violated. line of the actual feature must lie
tion of the center line, axis, or median This violation is permissible when the within the specified cylindrical toler-
plane of the feature. feature control frame is associated ance zone.
The regardless of feature size sym-
bol shown in Fig. 30-3-8 is shown only
with a tolerance of position. See Unit r— .605-615 .605-. 615
30-7.

— .015 .015 (m)

<t> .ooi (s)

1

Fig. 30-3-8 Application of RFS symbol.

'

(A) DRAWING CALLOUT (A) DRAWING CALLOUT

Reference and Source Material
1. ANSI Y 14. 5M Dimensioning and

Tolerancing .615
.630 VIRTUAL CONDITION

ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 4 through 7 for Unit
30-3 on page 647.
re
v-V
-""-7
-J
•

VL
.630 VIRTUAL CONDITION— 1

\
UNIT 30-4
Straightness FEATURE DIAMETER TOLERANCE FEATURE DIAMETER TOLER ANCE
SIZE ZONE ALLOWED SIZE ZONE ALLOWE D
of Features .015 .615 .015
.615

and Flatness .614

.613
.015
.015
.614
.613
.016
.017

1 1 1 1

In applying a geometric tolerance to a \ \ 1 \

feature of size, it is often desirable to .606 .015 .606 .024
.605 .015 .605 .025
control the feature as a whole, rather
than merely its surface elements. Such
control may be intended to control the (B) INTERPRETATION (B) INTERPRETATION
center line or median plane, in which Fig. 30-4-1 Specifying straightness — RFS. Fig. 30-4-2 Specifying straightness— MMC.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 61
 A straightness tolerance, not modi- only to center lines that run in the DRAWING CALLOUT
fied by MMC. may be applied to parts direction of the line or line elements to
or features of any size or shape, which the straightness tolerance is
provided the\ ha\e a center line or directed. If there could be some ambi-
— 1.000@]
median plane which is intended to be guity, a note should be added, such as i!
straight in the direction indicated. THIS DIRECTION ONLY, as shown .624
.618
Examples are parts having a cross sec- in Fig. 30-4-5A. If the part is circular
tion which is hexagonal, square, or and it is intended that the tolerance
rectangular. See Fig. 30-4-3. apply in all directions, a diameter sym- (A) FOR ANY REGULAR SHAPE
bol should precede the tolerance
value, as shown in Fig. 30-4-5B.
DIAMETER SYMBOL ADDED IF
ecu TOLERANCE ZONE IS CIRCULAR

*
XXX 0.OOO(M)

JL- THIS DIRECTION

ONLY
£
(A) SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR PARTS

j-Ll (B) FOR CYLINDRICAL SHAPES

PERMISSIBLE VARIATIONS
?
XXX

(B) REGULAR POLYGONS

Fig. 30-4-3
©
Straightness of the center line-
(A) APPLIES IN
-- $-
ONE DIRECTION ONLY

—
EXTREME VIRTUAL CONDITION
(-FEATURE SIZE

(8 .002
RFS.

TT rRAIGHTNESS
Tolerances directed in this manner
apply to straightness of the center line
-U U_L
.625
.617
errorJ

PERMISSIBLE
FEATURE STRAIGHTNESS
or center plane between all opposing SIZE ERROR
line elements of the surfaces in the lon-
which the control
gitudinal direction to
is directed. The width of the toler-
-+ .624
623
.000
.001

.622 .002
ance zone is in the direction of the (B) APPLIES IN ALL DIRECTIONS
.621 .003
arrowhead. If the cross section forms a Fig. 30-4-5 Direction of application of
.620 .004
regular polygon, such as a hexagon or straightness.
.619 .005
square, the tolerance applies to the
.618 .006
center lines between each pair of sides,
without its being necessary to so state If a tolerance is shown
two direc-
in
tions, it is measured in these two direc- Fig. 30-4-7 Straightness— MMC.
on the drawing. If the cross section is
zone becomes
circular, the tolerance tions, and the tolerance zone is then a
circular and a diameter symbol then parallelepiped, as shown in Fig.
precedes the tolerance, as shown 30-4-6.
in
Fig. 30-4-4.

0.03

Y DIAMETER SYMBOL
PRECEDES TOLERANCE
Fig. 30-4-4 Diameter symbol added when
tolerance zone is circular or cylindrical.

0.05 WIDE TOLERANCE ZONE

CONTROL IN 0.13 WIDE TOLERANCE ZONE
SPECIFIC DIRECTIONS 4=r^n
As already stated, straightness of a (A) DRAWING CALLOUT (B) TOLERANCE ZONE
center line or median plane applies Fig. 30-4-6 Straightness in two directions.

612 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

STRAIGHTNESS— ZERO MMC great when the part approaches the \£J\ oos -^
least material condition, a maximum <
It is quite permissible to specify a geo-
value may be added, as shown in Fig.
metric tolerance of zero MMC, which
1

30-4-8.
means that the virtual condition coin-
cides with the maximum material size.
See Fig. 30-4-7. Therefore, if a feature FLATNESS (A) DRAWING CALLOUT
is at its maximum material limit every-
The symbol for flatness is a parallelo-
where, no errors of straightness are
gram, with angles of 60° as shown in TOLERANCE ZONE ISSPACE BETWEEN
permitted. PARALLEL PLANES .005 APART
Fig. 30-4-9. The length and height are
Straightness on an MMC
basis can
based on a percentage of the height of
be applied to any part or feature having
the lettering used on the drawing.
straight-line elements in a plane which
includes the diameter or thickness.
Flatness of a Surface
This includes practically all the parts
Flatness of a surface is a condition in
already shown on an RFS basis. How-
which all surface elements are in one
ever, it should not be used for features
which do not have a uniform cross
section.
J / 7
A 60°
(B)

Fig. 30-4-10
INTERPRETATION
Flatness of a surface.

STRAIGHTNESS WITH A
MAXIMUM VALUE |—• — I
-5 H-w
If itdesired to ensure that the
is H = RECOMMENDED LETTER HEIGHT
straightness error does not become too Fig. 30-4-9 Flatness symbol.

MAX] Fig. 30-4-11 Controlling flatness on two or

•|0.OOO (M) .002 MAX] 0.000 (M) .001
more
I £ \//////////. surfaces.

.994 plane. On such a surface all line ele-

TV////////A ments
straight.
in two or more directions are

A flatness tolerance is applied to a

DRAWING CALLOUT DRAWING CALLOUT linerepresenting the surface of a part
by means of a feature control frame, as
shown in Fig. 30-4-10.
1—0.998 EXTREME VIRTUAL ,— 01.000 EXTREME VIRTUAL A flatness tolerance means that all
CONDITION CONDITION
points on the surface shall be con-
tained within a tolerance zone consist-
ing of the space between two parallel
lff=fr 777777%
planes which are separated by the
specified tolerance. These planes may
/ be oriented in any manner to contain
DIAMETER the surface; that is, they are not neces-
FEATURE TOLERANCE ZONE DIAMETER
SIZE FEATURE sarily parallel to the base.
ALLOWED TOLERANCE ZONE
SIZE If the same control is desired on two
.998 .000 ALLOWED
or more surfaces, a suitable note may
.997 .001 1.000 .000
be added instead of repeating the sym-
.996 .002 1.001 .001
bol, as shown in Fig. 30-4-1 1.
.995 .002 1.002 .001

.994 .002 1.003 .001

Reference and Source Material
I. ANSI Y 14. 5M Dimensioning and

Tolerancing

PERMISSIBLE VARIATIONS PERMISSIBLE VARIATIONS ASSIGNMENTS

See Assignments 8 through 12 for Unit
Fig. 30-4-8 Straightness of a hole and shaft with a maximum value. 30-4 on page 647.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCyVG 613

 DATUM PLANE
UNIT 30-5
Datums and the
Three-Plane
DATUM FEATURE-
Concept Fig. 30-5-1 Magnified section of a flat
surface.
IRST DATUM
DATUMS PLANE
(PRIMARY)
Datum A datum a point, line, plane.
is Usually only one datum is required
(A) PRIMARY DATUM
or other geometric surface from which for orientation purposes, but posi-
dimensions are measured when so tional relationships may require a SECOND
DATUM
specified or to which geometric toler- datum system consisting of two or PLANE
ances are referenced. A datum has an three datums. These datums are desig- (SECONDARY
exact form and represents an exact or nated as primary, secondary, and terti-
fixed location, for purposes of man- ary. When these datums are plane
ufacture or measurement. surfaces that are mutually perpendicu-
lar, they are commonly referred to as a
Datum Feature A datum feature is a
three-plane datum system, or a datum
feature of a part, such as an edge, a
reference frame.
surface, or a hole, which forms the
basis for a datum or is used to establish Primary Datum primary datum
If the
its location. feature is a flat it could lie on a
surface,
suitable plane surface, such as the sur-
face of a gage, which would then
DATUMS FOR
become a primary datum, as shown in
GEOMETRIC TOLERANCING Fig. 30-5-2. Theoretically, there will be (B) SECONDARY DATUM
As defined, datums are exact geo- a minimum of three high spots on the
metric points, lines, or surfaces, each flat surface which will come in contact

based on one or more datum features with the surface of the gage. THIRD DATUM PLANE-
of the part. Surfaces are usually either (TERTIARY)
Secondary Datum If the part, while
flat or cylindrical, but other shapes are
lying on this primary plane, is brought
used when necessary. The datum fea-
into contact with a secondary plane, it
tures, being physical surfaces of the
will theoretically touch at a minimum
part, are subject to manufacturing
of two points.
errors and variations. For example, a
flat surface of a part, if greatly magni- Tertiary Datum The part can now be
fied, will show some irregularity. If slid along, while maintaining contact
brought into contact with a perfect with the primary and secondary
plane, it will touch only at the highest planes, untilit contacts a third plane.

points, as shown in Fig. 30-5-1. The This plane then becomes the tertiary
true datums are theoretical but are datum, and the part will theoretically
considered to exist in the form of locat- touch it at only one point.
ing surfaces of machines, fixtures, and These three planes constitute a
gaging equipment on which the part datum system from which measure-
rests or with which it makes contact ments can be taken. They will appear (C) TERTIARY DATUM
during manufacture and measurement. on the drawing, as shown in Fig. Fig. 30-5-2 The datum planes.
30-5-3, except that the datum features
will be identified in their correct
THREE-PLANE SYSTEM To locate the datum surface or
sequence by the methods described 1 fea-
Geometric tolerances, such as later in this unit. ture on the drawing
straightness and flatness, refer to unre- It must be remembered that the 2. To identify the datum feature so
lated lines and surfaces and do not majority of parts are not of the simple that it can easily be referred to in
require the use of datums. rectangular shape, and considerably other requirements.
Orientation and locational toler- more ingenuity may be required to
ances refer to related features; that is, establish suitable datums for more There are two methods of datum
they control the relationship of fea- complex shapes. symbolization in general use for such
tures to one another or to a datum or purposes: one is shown and used in
datum system. Such datum features Identification of Datums ANSI standards; the other, the ISO
must be properly identified on the Datum symbols are required to serve method, is used in most other coun-
drawing. two purposes: tries of the world.

614 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 TERTIARY
DATUM
PLANE
SECONDARY DATUM

SECONDARY
DATUM
PLANE

-TERTIARY DATUM
PRIMARY
DATUM
PLANE

-PRIMARY DATUM
Fig. 30-5-3 Three-plane datum system

ANSI Datum Symbolization 3. By adding the symbol to a note, a should be slightly greater than the
In the ANSI system, every datum fea- dimension, or a feature control height of the lettering used on the
ture is by a capital letter,
identified frame pertaining to the feature. drawing. The triangle was formerly
enclosed rectangular box.
in a Filled in. but because of microforming
These methods are illustrated in Fig.
A dash is placed before and after the 30-5-6.
and cost reduction it was changed to a
letter, to identify it as applying to a hollow triangle.
datum feature, as shown in Fig. 30-5-4. The datum is identified by a capital
letter placed in a square frame and
connected to the leader.
2X LETTER HEIGHT

H = LETTER
I" EIGHT —»-| LETTER HEIGHT Application of Datum
-An (A)
(-«-l.2

CURRENT SYMBOL
X
Identification to Drawings
The datum feature symbol is place on
A or directed to the datum feature in one
-0.5 H
of the following ways:

Fig. 30-5-4
ANSI.
DATUM REFERENCE LETTER
Datum feature identification T 1. The datum feature symbol
on or directed
is

to the outline of the

placed

(B) FORMER SYMBOL feature when the datum feature is

Fig. 30-5-5 ISO datum feature indicator the surface itself or line elements of
symbol. the surface. This is the preferred
This identifying symbol may be method.
directed to the datum feature in any 2. It is on an extensionline from the
one of the following ways.
ISO Datum Symbolization datum feature surface, but not in
1. By attaching a side, end. or corner The ISO method is used in Canadian, line with the dimension. This
of the symbol frame to an extension British,and most other national stan- method is useful when the datum
line from the feature dards. The ISO datum feature symbol feature surface is very small or if,

2. By running a leader with arrowhead isa right-angled triangle, with a leader for other reasons, it is difficult to
from the symbol frame to the fea- projecting from the 90° apex, as shown place the symbol on the line repre-
ture in Fig. 30-5-5. The base of the triangle senting the surface.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 615

3. It is on an extension line, in line
ANSI CALLOUT ISO CALLOUT
with the feature dimension, when
the datum is the datum axis of the
cylindrical surface represented by
the extension line, especially when
n 002
n .002

applied on an MMC
basis.
4. It is on two extension lines, using
.2^
two datum symbols on the same
leader, when two surfaces form a
l~l .002

>
a .002

single datum, such as two sides of a

slot or of a rectangular part.
5. It ison a leader line to a small fea-
ture, such as a hole, when the sur- (A) DATUM SURFACE CONTROLLED BY A FEATURE CONTROL SYMBOL
face is too small to place the symbol
on the surface and extension lines
OR
are not used.

All these
Fig. 30-5-7.
methods are illustrated in
The symbol should not be DIA
_A

^ T
DIA
placed on a hidden-feature line, but on
the extension line to it or on the sur-
face line in a sectional view.

Association with >^^ ^^

Geometric Tolerances
The datum letter is placed in the fea-
-B
ture controlsymbol frame by adding
an extra compartment for the datum
KWNWWW^
reference, as shown in Fig. 30-5-8.
If two or more datum references are
involved, then additional frames are
added and the datum references are
placed in these frames in the correct
order, that is, primary, secondary, and
tertiary datums. as shown in Fig.
30-5-9.

Multiple Datum Features (B)SYMBOLONOR DIRECTEDTOTHE DATUM SURFACE (FLAT OR ROUND)

If a single datum is established by two
datum features, such as two ends of a
shaft, the features are each identified
by separate letters. Both letters are
then placed in the same compartment
of the feature control symbol, with a
dash between them, as shown in Fig.
30-5- 10B. The datum, in this case, is
the common line between the two
datum features.

Datums Based on Features

of Size
When a feature of size is specified as a
datum feature, the datum has to be
established from the full surface of a
cylindrical feature or from two oppos-
ing surfaces of other features of size.
However, the true datum is a datum
median plane of
axis, center line, or
the feature.
There are two methods of establish- ICISYMBOLON EXTENSION LINE BUT NOT IN LINE WITH THEDIMENSION
ing such datums: on an MMC
basis or
without MMC. Fig. 30-5-6 Placement of datum symbol for single features.

616 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 -GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTIC SYMBOL
ANSI CALLOUT ISO CALLOUT
-GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCE
-DATUM REFERENCE

Fig. 30-5-8 Feature control symbol

referenced to a datum.

DlfV
l-A-
PRIMARY DATUM

I SECONDARY DATUM
TERTIARY DATUM
(A)SYMBOL PLACED ON OR DIRECTED TO THE EXTENSION
LINE FROM ONE DATUM SURFACE IN LINE WITH THE DIMENSION.
DATUM IS TWO PARALLEL PLANES SEPARATED BY THE MMC.

rH Fig. 30-5-9 Multiple datum references.

DATUM SYMBOL
£
(B) IS PLACED IN LINE WITH THE DIMENSION.
J HEL

rS DRAWING CALLOUT
-DATUM PLANE A-B

-DATUM FEATURE A
DATUM FEATURE B-
INTERPRETATION

(C) DATUM IS A CYLINDER WITH A DIAMETER EQUAL TO MMC

I
s£
(A) COPLANAR DATUM FEATURES

.003 A-B
EEh

-A- ^ DATUM AXI

DIM
A
I

1
1-A-h t DRAWING CALLOUT
DATUM FEATURE By
DIM
1 1
iT- DATUM FEATURE A
?^=rl
/
h-~< — |

EI DATUM AXIS A-B

t A_ /IULATEO DATUM A
DIM DIM
*i DIM
DIM F3 K-M3 —r SIMULATED DATUM B-

T SMALLEST PAIR OF COAXIAL

CIRCUMSCRIBED CYLINDERS-
(D) VARIATIONS HAVING DATUM SYMBOL IN LINE WITH DIMENSION
INTERPRETATION
(B) COAXIAL DATUM FEATURES

Fig. 30-5-10 TWo datum features for one

Fig. 30-5-7 Placement of datum symbol for feature of size. datum.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCIIMG 617

DATUM FEATURES— Bn
WITHOUT MMC
When is specified as a
a feature of size 0XXX -f + V

datum feature and not modified on

is i VT7
an MMC basis, the datum axis or
median plane is established from the (A) DRAWING CALLOUT
virtual size of each individual part. (A) DRAWING CALLOUT
When there are other features on a
common center line, the symbol DATUM CYLINDER
should be directed to extension lines
DATUM AXIS-

and be associated with or in line with

the dimension, as shown in Fig.
30-5-11.
.PART-
EXAMPLE I

r-0 XXX
H OR
rH DATUM AXIS
INTERPRETATION
DATUM
CYLINDER
(B)
XXX
Fig. 30-5-14 Internal cylindrical feature as
DATUM datum.
CYLINDER

Fig. 30-5-11 Symbols on extension lines

when center line is common to other EXAMPLE 2 case it is the largest such cylinder
features. which can be inscribed within the fea-
ture.It will therefore contact the inner
(B) INTERPRETATION
surface of the feature at the lowest
Fig. 30-5-12 Datum passed on center line of
External Cylindrical Datum Features If part.
points on the surface, as shown in Fig.
the axis of an external cylindrical fea- 30-5-14.
ture designated as a primary datum
is

feature, the datum is the axis of an

imaginary perfect cylinder. This is the
DATUM FEATURES— MMC
smallest such cylinder which can be The measurement of geometric toler-
circumscribed around the feature so ances, which refer to datums that are
that it just contacts the highest points features of size, is greatly simplified if
on the surface. Geometric tolerances the datums are specified on an MMC
which are referenced to such a datum basis. This permits the use of fixed
refer theoretically to the axis of this "go" gages.
datum cylinder, as shown in Fig. (A) DRAWING CALLOUT Datum features on an MMC basis
30-5-12. always apply at their virtual condition.
Virtual condition refers to the poten-
Cylindrical Features as Secondary Datums
tialboundary of a feature, as specified
It is often desirable to specify an end
on a drawing, derived from the collec-
face or flange of a cylindrical feature as
the primary datum, using the cylindri-
tive effect of the maximum material
limit of size and the specified form or
cal feature as thesecondary datum. In
orientation tolerance. These are added
such cases the secondary datum sym-
for external features, such as shafts,
bol may be directed to the cylindrical
SECONDARY f
.'"•:'- "••"'»: • >.
and subtracted for internal features,
surface rather than to the center line. DATUM
CYLINDER B such as holes and slots.
The primary datum is then a perfect
PRIMARY DATUM PLANE A- no form or orientation tolerance is
If
plane on which the part would nor-
specified, it is assumed, for datum ref-
mally rest. The secondary datum is (B) INTERPRETATION
still the axis of an imaginary perfect
erence purposes, that the form toler-
cylinder, but also one that is perpen-
Fig. 30-5-13 Cylindrical feature as ance is zero MMC.
secondary datum.
dicular to the primary datum. This cyl-
The fact that a datum applies on an
inder would theoretically touch the MMC basis is indicated in the feature
control frame by the addition of the
feature at only two points. This is illus- Datum Features If an
MMC symbol @ immediately follow-
Internal Cylindrical
trated in Fig. 30-5-13, where the part internal cylindrical feature, such as a
has been purposely drawn out of hole, is specified as a primary datum ing the datum reference, as shown in
square to show the effect of such feature, the datum
again the axis of
is Fig. 30-5-15. When there is more than
deviations. an imaginary perfect cylinder. In this one datum reference, the MMC sym-

618 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 -GEOMETRICAL CHARACTERISTIC maximum material limit of size, plus both datum feature surfaces. It should
SYMBOL
:G EOMETR I CAL TOLERANCE the specified form tolerance. be noted that in such cases the form
DATUMS
k—-uf\ ui
In Fig. 30-5-17, because no form tol- tolerance is not doubled in calculating
erance is specified, the cylindrical gag- the virtual condition. This is because if

004© A@ k
B
ing elements are made to the maximum the part is everywhere at its maximum
material size of .565 in. This provides material condition, as shown in the
THIS INDICATES THAT DATUM A an exact location of the part when it is gaging position, then a convex point on
APPLIES ON MMC BASIS WHILE
DATUM B DOES NOT made to the maximum material condi- one side can only be offset by a con-
tion. However, it allows a deviation of cave point on the other side. If this
Fig. 30-5-15 Reference to datums — MMC. any direction from true posi-
.003 in. in were not true, the size dimension
tion if is everywhere at the
the part would be exceeded.
minimum material size of .559 in. and It should be noted that Fig. 30-5-18B
bol must be added for each datum there are no form errors. shows the element of a gage which
where this modification is required. locates on the datum on an MMC
The datum identification symbol basis. It does not check the flatness
could be shown in any of the ways requirement.
used for data that are not on an MMC Internal Features — MMC The same
basis. However, it is convenient to
direct the symbol in line or in associa-
tion with the feature size
may also be coupled to the
dimension.
form
It

toler-
E 0.562
t
+ 003 rules apply to internal features, except
that the
is the
maximum
material condition
minimum and the
limit of size,
specified form tolerance is subtracted
Fig. 30-5-17 Gage element for circular
ance one used, as shown in Fig.
from this limit to obtain the virtual
if is datum.
condition. The size of the locating ele-
30-5-16. This is permissible because an
ment of the gage is identical to the
MMC datum is based on the maximum
virtual condition, as shown in Fig.
material size of the feature and the Rectangular Features — MMC If the
30-5-19.
applicable form tolerance. specified datum feature consists of two
flatsurfaces and the cross section is
not a regular polygon, then the datum
consists of two parallel planes. These 0.750 + .002
-.000
EE are separated by a distance equal to
the maximum material condition, plus
the specified form tolerance.
Figure 30-5-18 shows a flatness tol-
erance which applies separately to

(A) APPLIED ON MMC BASIS BOTH SIDES

£J .003 -.000 — | .002 (M)"1

~b !\ (A) ANSI DRAWING CALLOUT

TH3"
.875 1.004

s- (A) DRAWING CALLOUT

LOCATING
ELEMENT
31
OF GAGE (B) LOCATING ELEMENT OF GAGE
Fig. 30-5-19 Gage element for internal
(B) COUPLED WITH FORM TOLERANCES datum feature.
Fig. 30-5-16 Specifying datums.

Reference and Source Material

External Features with Regular Cross Sec-
I. ANSI Y 14. 5M Dimensioning and
tions — MMC For external features Tolerancing
having a cross section which is circular
or which comprises a regular polygon, 003
the datum will be of the same shape as (B) LOCATING ELEMENT OF GAGE ASSIGNMENTS
the datum feature. The width or diame- Fig. 30-5-18 Gage element for rectangular See Assignments 13 through 16 foi
ter of the datum will be equal to the datum feature. Unit 30-5 on page 648.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 619


UNIT 30-6
Orientation
ANGULAR RELATIONSHIPS
OF FLAT SURFACES
Orientation refers to the angular rela-
tionship which exists between two or
more lines, surfaces, or other features.
The general geometric characteris-
tic for orientation termed angularity.
is
This term may be used to describe
angular relationships, of any angle,
between straight lines or surfaces with
straight-line elements, such as flat or
cylindrical surfaces. For two particu-
lar types of angularity special terms
are used. These are perpendicularity.
or squareness, for features related by a
90° angle, and parallelism for features
related by an angle of 0°.
An orientation tolerance indicates a
relationship between two or more fea-
tures. Whenever possible, the feature
to which the controlled feature is
related should be designated as a
datum.
SYMBOLS FOR GEOMETRIC
CHARACTERISTICS
There are three geometric symbols for
these characteristics, as shown in Fig.
30-6-1. The proportions are based on
the height of the lettering used on the
drawing.
For geometric tolerancing of angu-
larity, the angle between the datum
and the controlled feature should be
stated as a basic angle. Therefore it
should be enclosed in a rectangular
frame, as shown in Fig. 30-6-2, to indi-
cate that the general tolerance note
does not apply. However, the angle
need not be stated for either perpen-
dicularity (90°) or parallelism (0°).
ANGULARITY PERPENDICULARITY
H = LETTER HEIGHT (SQUARENESS)
Fig. 30-6-1 Orientation symbols.
620 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN
^1
.004 B
£H
Fig. 30-6-2 Orientation tolerances with
identified datum.
The datum is identified with a capital
and the same letter is then used
letter,
in the feature control symbol, as
shown in Fig. 30-6-2.
For the tolerancing of angularity the
same characteristic symbols are used
for both lines and surfaces.
ORIENTATION TOLERANCING
OF FLAT SURFACES
Figure 30-6-3 shows three simple parts
inwhich one flat surface is designated
as a datum feature and another flat
surface is related to it by one of the
orientation tolerances.
Each of these tolerances is inter-
preted to mean that the designated sur-
face shall be contained within a
tolerance zone consisting of the space
between two parallel planes, separated
by the specified tolerance (.002 in.)
and related to the datum by the basic
angle specified (30, 90, or 0°).
Control in Two Directions
The measuring principles for
angularity indicate the method of
aligning the part prior to making
angularity measurements. Proper
alignment ensures that line elements of
the surface perpendicular to the angu-
lar line elements are parallel to the
datum.
Av
— 0.6
PARALLELISM
For example, the part in Fig. 30-6-4
will be aligned so that line elements
running horizontally in the left-hand
view will be parallel to the datum.
J_ However, these line elements will bear
a proper relationship with the sides,
ends, and top faces only if these sur-
faces are true and square with the pri-
mary datum.
It may be functionally more impor-
tant to measure the angle in a direction
parallel to a side or perpendicular to
the front or back face. In this case, one
side or face must be chosen as a sec-
ondary datum, as shown in Fig. 30-6-4
Under these circumstances, the part
is aligned on the angle plate so that the
secondary datum B is exactly parallel
to the side of the angle plate.
LINES RELATED TO SURFACES
Internal Cylindrical Features
Figure 30-6-5 shows some simple parts
in which the axis or center line of a
hole is related by an orientation toler-
ance to a flat surface. The flat surface
is designated as the datum feature.
The center line of the hole must be
contained within a tolerance zone con-
sisting of the space between two paral-
lel planes. These planes are separated
by a specified tolerance of .006 in. and
are related to the datum by one of the
basic angles 45. 90, or 0°. Figure 30-6-6
clearly illustrates the tolerance zone
for angularity.
When the tolerance is one of perpen-
dicularity, the tolerance-zone planes
can be revolved around the feature
axis without the angle being affected.
The tolerance zone therefore becomes
a cylinder. This cylindrical zone is per-
pendicular to the datum and has a
diameter equal to the specified toler-
ance, as shown in Fig. 30-6-7.
Control of Direction of Angularity The
angularity tolerance in Fig. 30-6-5 con-
trols angularity of the hole in the direc-
tion in which it has its greatest slope,
that is, the minimum angle. In some
cases, it may be functionally more
important to control the angle in a spe-
H
cific direction, such as parallel to a
side. In this case, a secondary datum
should be added, as shown in Fig.
30-6-8.
 ANGULARITY PERPENDICULARITY PARALLELISM

-^ .002 A

002 A // .002 A
30°

(A) ANSI CALLOUT

J- .002 A

YA
f
^- .002 A
r
.002 >
>*
_L
// .002 A

(B) INTERNATIONAL CALLOUT

TOLERANCE TOLERANCE TOLERANCE

ZONE .002 WIDE ZONE .002 WIDE- ZONE .002 WIDE-

<C) INTERPRETATION

Fig. 30-6-3 Orientation tolerancing.

1 .006 A
hh
T
ll

s 0.05 A B
f
(B) PERPENDICULARITY

r-0 XXX
// .006 A

(A) ANGULARITY

Fig. 30-6-4 Angularity referred to a datum Fig. 30-6-5 Orientation of lines and C _T_B.
system. surfaces. (C) PARALLELISM

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 621

TOLERANCE ZONE TWO SECONDARY DATUM XXX
PARALLEL PLANES .006 WIDE S

Mi \x

Fig. 30-6-9 Parallelism controlled in two

directions.

Fig. 30-6-6 Tolerance zone for Controls on MMC Basis Since a hole is a
angularity- -Fig. 30-6-5. feature of size, any of the tolerances
shown in Fig. 30-6-5 can be modified (A) ANGULARITY
on an MMCbasis. This is specified by-
adding the symbol (M) after the toler-
ance. Figure 30-6-10 shows an ex- XXX
PARALLEL PLANES CAN BE REVOLVED, ample.
THUS TOLERANCE ZONE BECOMES "*- 1 0O.I A
A CYLINDER
0.250 +002
0.006 (m) A
Hh
^ EB
£EL
(B) PERPENDICULARITY
Fig. 30-6-10 Feature controlled on MMC
basis.

Control of Center Lines Tolerances

90°
Fig. 30-6-7 Tolerance zone for
—
perpendicularity Fig. 30-6-5.
-SECONDARY DATUM
Fig. 30-6-8 Angularity referred to two
datums.
Control of Parallelism in Two Directions
The feature control symbol shown in
Fig. 30-6-5C controls parallelism with
a base only. If control with a side is
also required, the side should be desig-
nated as a secondary datum, as shown
in Fig. 30-6-9. The tolerance zone will
be a parallelepiped, and two separate
measurements will have to be made.
intended to control orientation of the
center line of a feature are applied to
drawings as shown in Fig. 30-6-1
The center line of the cylindrical fea-
ture must be contained within a toler-
ance zone consisting of the space
between two parallel planes separated
by the specified tolerance. The parallel
planes are related to the datum by the
basic angle of 75. 90. or 0°.
Since the tolerance planes for per-
pendicularity can be revolved around
the feature axis, the tolerance zone
effectively becomes a cylinder. The
diameter of this cylinder is equal to the
specified tolerance.
Tolerances Applied to Line
Elements of the Surface
In some cases it may be more impor-
tant to control line elements of the
cylindrical surface, instead of
its axis
or center line. For this purpose the
tolerance is directed to the surface
with a sinde arrowhead, as shown in
Fig. 30-6-12.
Except for perpendicularity, such
controls apply to only two line ele-
ments of the surface. These are the
lines on opposite sides of the feature.
1
(C) PARALLELISM
Fig. 30-6-11 Orientation of external
cylindrical features.
which lie in a plane perpendicular to
the datum and which includethe axis
of the cylindrical feature. There are
two tolerance zones, each of which
may be considered to be the area
between two parallel lines, which lie in
this measurement plane. These lines
are separated by the specified toler-
ance and are related to the datum by
the basic angle. Figure 30-6-13 shows
these zones for a parallelism tolerance.
Figure 30-6-14 illustrates perpendicu-
larityand parallelism on an MMC
basis.
For perpendicularity the measure-
ment plane can be revolved around the
axis without altering
its relationship to
the datum. Therefore, unless other-

622 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 0.375 +002

//
©
.003 (m) A

(A) ANGULARITY (A) PERPENDICULARITY (B) PARALLELISM

Fig. 30-6-14 Perpendicularity and parallelism — MMC.
J_ 0.003 A
ture surface or the axes of datum cylin-
ders. Many of the methods are also
applicable to the center lines of non-
cylindrical features, such as those
having square or hexagonal cross
sections. |^|.004| a]
"EJ When MMC Not Specified The toler-
Is
(B) PERPENDICULARITY (A) DRAWING CALLOUT
ance zone is always the space between
two parallel planes separated by the
specified tolerance and related to the
// .003 A
datum by the basic angle. The con- DATUM CYLINDER
trolled feature, whether it be a flat sur-
face, the center line of the feature, or a
lineelement of the surface, must be
contained within this tolerance zone.

EXAMPLE 1 Figure 30-6- 15 shows a flat

T-EJ surface related to an external cylindri-
(C) PARALLELISM cal datum feature. Since the is MMC TOLERANCE
Fig. 30-6-12 Orientation of surface not specified, the real datum is the axis ZONE .004 WIDE
elements.
of a datum cylinder, which is the small-
est perfect cylinder that can be circum- (Bi TOLERANCE ZONE
scribed around the feature. The toler- Fig. 30-6-15 Angularity of flat surface with
ance zone is the space between two an external cylinder.
wise specified, perpendicularity ap-
plies to line elements in all positions of parallel planes .004 in. apart, which are
the measuring plane. related to the datum axis by the basic
angle.
^|.004 A
Orientation Using EXAMPLE 2 Figure 30-6-16 is similar to
Lines as Datums Fig. 30-6-15 except that the flat surface
The following examples of orientation is related to an internal cylindrical fea-
tolerancing involve internal or exter- ture. The datum is therefore the axis of
nal cylindrical datum features. These the largest perfect cylinder which will
features establish datums which are fit within the center hole of the part.
either line elements of the datum fea- The tolerance zone is the space
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT

-TOLERANCE ZONE .004 WIDE

DATUM PLANE A-

MEASUREMENT PLANE-
TOLERANCE ZONE .003-

DATUM CYLINDER-
IB) TOLERANCE ZONE
Fig. 30-6-16 Angularity of flat surface with
Fig. 30-6-13 Tolerance zones for parallelism in Fig. 30-6-12. an internal cylinder.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 623

 0.625 ±.003
between two parallel planes, .004 in. resented by the upper and lower solid
apart, related to this datum axis by the lines in the illustration.
specified basic angle.
Reference and Source Material
EXAMPLE Figure 30-6-17 shows a
3
1. ANSI Y 14. 5M Dimensioning and
simple parallelism requirement of a flat
Tolerancing
surface in relation to a cylindrical hole. .625±.004
The tolerance zone is the space
between two parallel planes, 0.1 mm ASSIGNMENTS
apart and parallel to the datum axis.
See Assignments 17 through 21 for *.750±.004».
Unit 30-6 on page 649.
(A) COORDINATE TOLERANCING

UNIT 30-7 O.625±.003

Tolerancing for
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT Location of Features
-DATUM CYLINDER
TOLERANCE The location of features is one of the
ZONE O.I WIDE-i most frequently used applications of
dimensions on technical drawings.
Tolerancing may be accomplished
either by coordinate tolerances
applied to the dimensions or by geo-
V-DATUf metric (positional) tolerancing.
Positional tolerancing is especially
(B) TOLERANCE ZONE useful when applied on an MMCbasis (B) POSITIONAL TOLERANCING - RFS
Fig. 30-6-17 Parallelism of a flat surface to groups or patterns of holes or other
with a cylindrical hole. small features in the mass production
of parts. This method meets functional O.625±.003
requirements in most cases and per-
mits assessment with simple gaging
EXAMPLE 4 Figure 30-6-18 shows a procedures.
requirement for perpendicularity of Most examples in this unit are
the axis of a hole with line elements of devoted to the principles involved in
a cylindrical surface. There are actu- the location of small, round holes,
ally two line elements of the cylindrical because they represent the most com-
surface perpendicular to the hole, rep- monly used applications. The same
principles apply, however, to the loca-
tion of other features, such as slots,
tabs, bosses, and noncircular holes.

TOLERANCING METHODS (C) POSITIONAL TOLERANCING - MMC

Fig. 30-7-1 Comparison of tolerancing
A single hole is usually located by methods.
means of rectangular coordinate
dimensions, extending from suitable
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT
edges or other features of the part to
applicable tolerances specified in a
the axis of the hole. Other dimension-
TOLERANCE ZONE 0.08 general tolerance note.
ing methods, such as polar coordi-
2. (a) Positional tolerancing, RFS
90° nates, may be used when circum-
(regardless of feature size).
stances warrant.
There are two standard methods of
(b) Positional tolerancing, MMC
These positional tolerancing
basis.
tolerancing the location of holes, as
methods are part of the system of
illustrated in Fig. 30-7-1:
geometric tolerancing.
(B) TOLERANCE ZONE I. Coordinate tolerancing, which of these tolerancing methods
Any
Fig. 30-6-18 Perpendicularity of hole with refers to tolerances applied directly can be substituted one for the other,
line elements of surface. to the coordinate dimensions or to although with differing results. It is

624 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 n
.620
(
^ MAXIMUM
ALLOWABLE
VARIATION
#

—«-|.750±.005 ["•— ^—.745—*» -*- .010

DRAWING CALLOUT TOLERANCE ZONE ATSURFACE DRAWING CALLOUT

(A) EQUAL TOLERANCES
020

.010 Fig. 30-7-4 Square tolerance zone.

For the examples shown in Fig.

30-7-2, the tolerance zones are shown
and the maximum toler-
in Fig. 30-7-5.
ance values are as shown in the follow-
.750±.0I0
ing examples.
DRAWING CALLOUT TOLERANCE ZONE AT SURFACE TOLERANCE ZONE AT
SURFACE
(B) UNEQUAL TOLERANCES (C) POLAR TOLERANCES
Fig. 30-7-2 Tolerance zones for coordinate tolerances. MAXIMUM
TOLERANCE

SQUARE TOLERANCE
necessary, however, to first analyze ZONE —
the widely used method of coordinate
tolerancing in order to explain and
understand the advantages and disad-
vantages of the positional tolerancing
methods.
EXAMPLE I / .0I0 2 + .OIO 2 =.014

COORDINATE TOLERANCING
Coordinate dimensions and tolerances
/—MAXIMUM
may be applied to the location of a / TOLERANC
single hole, as shown in Fig. 30-7-2. 0224
They locate the hole axis and result in
-EXTREME PERMISSIBLE VARIATION
a rectangular or wedge-shaped toler- IN POSITION OF AXIS
\
nace zone within which the axis of the Fig. 30-7-3 Tolerance zone extending .010
hole must lie. through part.
1
If the two coordinate tolerances are
equal, the tolerance zone formed will
-* .020 »»
be a square. Unequal tolerances result
in a rectangular tolerance zone. Where
one of the locating dimensions is a
Maximum Permissible Error EXAMPLE 2
J OIO 2 + .OIO 2 =.0224
The actual position of the feature axis
radius, polar dimensioning gives a cir-
may be anywhere within the rectangu- MAXIMUM
MAXIIV
cular ring section tolerance zone. For
lar tolerancezone. For square toler- ^\TOLER ANCE7
simplicity, square tolerance zones are
ance zones, the maximum allowable
/

>n \
used in the analyses of most of the
variation from the desired position
examples in this section.
occurs in a direction of 45° from the
It should be noted that the tolerance
direction of the coordinate dimen-
zone extends for the full depth of the
sions. See Fig. 30-7-4.
hole, that is, the whole length of the
For rectangular tolerance zones this
axis. This is illustrated in Fig. 30-7-3
maximum tolerancethe square root
is
and explained in more detail in a later
of the sum of the squares of the indi-
unit. In most of the illustrations, toler-
vidual tolerances, or expressed math- EXAMPLE 3
ances will be analyzed as they apply at
ematically
the surface of the part, where the axis Fig. 30-7-5 Tolerance zones for parts shown
in Fig. 30-7-2.
is represented by a point.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 625

EXAMPLE 1 Use of Chart 1. It is simple and easily understood,

A quick and easy method of finding the and, therefore, it is commonly

\ .010- + .0102 = .014
maximum positional error permitted used.
with coordinate tolerancing, without 2. It permits direct measurements to
EXAMPLE 2
be made with standard instruments
having to calculate squares and square
\ .010- + .0202 = .0224 roots, is by use of a chart like that and does not require the use of spe-
shown in Fig. 30-7-6. cial-purpose functional gages or
EXAMPLE 3 For polar coordinates the In the first example shown in Fig. other calculations.
extreme variation is 30-7-2, the tolerance in both directions
is .010 in. The extensions of the hori- Disadvantages of
\ a- + r-
zontal and vertical lines of .010 in the Coordinate Tolerancing
where A = R tan a chart intersect at point A, which lies There are a number of disadvantages
T = tolerance on radius between the radii of .013 and .014 in. to the direct tolerancing method:
R = mean radius When interpolated and rounded to
a = angular tolerance 1. It results in a square or rectangular
three decimal places, the maximum
tolerance zone within which the
Thus, the extreme variation in the permissible variation of position is
axis must lie. For a square zone this
third example is .014 in.
permits a variation in a 45° direction
In the second example shown in Fig.
V(1.25 x .017 45) 2 + .0202 = .03 of approximately 1.4 times the
30-7-2, the tolerances are .010 in. in
specified tolerance. This amount of
one direction and .020 in. in the other.
Note: Mathematically, A in the and
variation may necessitate the speci-
The extensions of the vertical hori-
above formula should be 2R tan a/2, fication of tolerances which are
zontal lines at .010 and .020 in.,
instead of R tan a, and T should be T only 70 percent of those that are
respectively, in the chart intersect at
cos A/2; but the difference in results is functionally acceptable.
point B, which lies between the radii of
quite insignificant for the tolerances 2. It may result in an undesirable
.022 and .023 in. When interpolated
normally used. accumulation of tolerances when
and rounded to three decimal places,
Some values of tan A for commonly maximum variation of position is
several features are involved,
the
used angular tolerances are as follows: especially when chain dimension-
.022 in. Figure 30-7-6 also shows a
ing is used.
chart for use with tolerances in
3. It is more difficult to assess clear-
millimeters.
A tan a A tan a A tan a ances between mating features and
0° 5' 0.00145 0°25' 0.00727 0°45' 0.01309 Advantages of components than when positional
0°10' 0.00291 0°30' 0.00873 0°50' 0.01454 Coordinate Tolerancing tolerancing is used, especially when
0°15' 0.00436 0°35' 0.01018 0°55' 0.01600
The advantages claimed for direct co- a group or a pattern of features is
0°20' 0.00582 0°40' 0.01164 1° 0' 0.01745
ordinate tolerancing are as follows: involved.

.012

.006

004

002

000 .002 .004 .006 .008 010 .012 014 .016 018 020 05 1 0.15 0.2 25 03 35 0.4 0.45 0.5
HORIZONTAL TOLERANCE HORIZONTAL TOLERANCE
DIMENSIONS IN INCHES DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS
Fig. 30-7-6 Chart for calculating maximum tolerance using coordinate tolerancing.

626 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

4. It does not correspond to the con- LOCATION OF POSITION SYMBOL
IN FEATURE CONTROL FRAME
trol exercised by fixed functional
"go" gages, often desirable in mass
production of parts. This becomes
particularly important in dealing
with a group of holes. With direct
coordinate tolerancing. the location
of each hole has to be measured
separately in two directions, 2 H (FRAME HEIGHT)
whereas with positional tolerancing SYMB OL REQUIRED—'
H - HEIGHT OF NUMBERS
on an MMC basis one functional (A) DRAWING CALLOUT
Fig. 30-7-8 Position symbol.
gage checks all holes in one oper-
ation.
TOLERANCE ZONE O .010

SYMBOL FOR POSITION

POSITIONAL TOLERANCING The geometric characteristic symbol
Positional tolerancing is part of the for position a circle with two solid
is

system of geometric tolerancing. In center lines, as shown in Fig. 30-7-8.

this system the location of features is This symbol is used in the feature con-
shown either by coordinate dimen- trol frame in the same manner as for
sions or by polar and angular dimen- other geometric tolerances. TOLERANCE ZONE
sions, except that the dimensions are Positional tolerances may be spec- Fig. 30-7-9Positional tolerancing-
shown without direct tolerances. ified on an MMC, RFS, or LMC (least regardless of feature size.

These dimensions represent the basic material condition) basis.

sizes and are commonly known as When specified on the MMC basis,
true-position or basic dimensions. the specified tolerance is independent diagonal between the two tolerances.
Each such dimension is enclosed in a of the size of the feature. Where the For square tolerance zones this
rectangular frame to indicate that it actual size of the feature has departed amount is .4 times the specified toler-
1

represents an exact value, to which from MMC, an increase in the toler- ance values. The specified tolerance
tolerances shown in the general toler- ance is allowed equal to the amount of can therefore be increased to an
ance note do not apply. See Fig. such departure. amount equal to the diagonal of the
30-7-7. The frame size need not be any When specified on an RFS basis, the coordinate tolerance zone without
larger than that necessary to enclose specified tolerance independent of
is affecting the clearance between the
the dimension. Permissible deviations the size of the feature, and the toler- hole and its mating part.
from the basic dimension are then ance is limited to the specified value It is quite practical, however, to

given by a positional tolerance as regardless of the actual size of the
described in this unit. feature.
As positional tolerance controls the
position of the axis of the hole, the
feature control frame is normally
attached to the size of the feature, as
BASIC DIMENSION SYMBOL-
shown in Fig. 30-7-9.
The positional tolerance represents
the diameter of a cylindrical tolerance
zone, located at true position as deter-
mined by the true-position dimensions
on the drawing, within which the axis
or center line of the hole must lie.
Except for the fact that the tolerance
zone is circular instead of square, a
positional tolerance on this basis has
replace coordinate tolerances with a
positional tolerance having a value
equal to the diagonal of the coordinate
tolerance zone. This does not affect
the clearance between the hole and its
mating part, yet it offers 57 percent
more tolerance area, as shown in Fig.
30-7-10. Such a change would most
likely result in a reduction in the num-
ber of parts rejected for positional
errors.
A simpler method is to make coordi-
nate measurements and evaluate them
on a chart, as shown in Fig. 30-7-11.
For example, if measurements of four
parts are as shown in the table below .

exactly the same meaning as direct only two are acceptable. These posi-
coordinate tolerancing with equal tol- tions are shown on the chart.
erances in both directions.
It has already been shown that with
BASIC DIME rectangular coordinate tolerancing the Part Measurements Acceptability
SY A
maximum permissible error in location .565 752 Rejected

POSITIONAL TOLERANCE is not the value indicated by the hori-

B .562 .754 Accepted
zontal and vertical tolerances, but C .557 753 Accepted
Fig.30-7-7 Identifying true-position
D .556 .754 Rejected
dimensions. rather is equivalent to the length of the

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 627

 FEATURE CONTROL FRAME
POSITIONAL ASSOCIATED WITH DIMENSION
TOLERANCING—
MAXIMUM MATERIAL
CONDITION
The problems of tolerancing for the
position of holes are simplified when
positional tolerancing applied on an is

MMC basis. This overcomes the dis-

AREA OF CIRCUMSCRIBED
CIRCULAR ZONE = 157 % OF
advantages listed for the coordinate
method. Positional tolerancing sim-
plifies measuring procedures because
itpermits the use of functional "go"
gages. It also permits an increase in
positional variations as the size de- Fig. 30-7-12 Positional tolerancing — MMC.
parts from the maximum material size
without jeopardizing free assembly

Fig.
SQUARE TOLERANCE ZONE
30-7-10 Relationship of tolerance
of mating features.
A positional tolerance on an MMC bol @ is added in the feature control
frame immediately after the tolerance.
zones. basis is specified on a drawing, on
either the front or the side view, as A positional tolerance applied to a
shown in Fig. 30-7-12. The sym- MMC hole on an MMC basis means that the
boundary of the hole must fall outside
a perfect cylinder having a diameter
equal to the maximum material condi-
tion of the feature minus the positional
012 tolerance. This cylinder is located with
its axis at true position. The hole must,
.010 of course, meet its diameter limits.
The effect is illustrated in Fig.
008 30-7-13, where the gage cylinder is

shown at true position and the mini-

006 mum and maximum diameter holes are
TOLERANCE ZONE drawn to show the extreme permis-
-.010 DIA
sible variations in position in one
TRUE POSITION
direction.
Therefore, if a hole is at its max-
imum material condition (minimum
diameter), the position of its axis must
lie within a circular tolerance zone
having a diameter equal to the spec-
ified tolerance. If the hole is at its max-

imum diameter (least material condi-

tion), the diameter of the tolerance
zone is increased by the amount of the
feature tolerance. The greatest devia-
tion in one direction from true position
is therefore

H + P
.010

012
where H hole diameter tolerance
P positional tolerance

An example is illustrated in Fig.

30-7-14. The hole at its least material
SCALE VALUE IN INCHES
condition has a .543-in. diameter.
NOTE - DARK CIRCULAR AREA REPRESENTS O .010 TOLERANCE ZONE H = .004
Fig. 30-7-11 Chart for evaluating positional tolerancing — RFS. P = .006

628 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 GAGE CYLINDER LOCATED condition. It cannot be used when it is
AT TRUE POSITION
essential that variations in location of
the axis be observed regardless of fea-
ture size.

Coordinate Tolerancing Method This

method is preferred in many applica-
where it is not economical to pro-
tions
vide functional gages. Coordinate tol-
erancing may require a reduction in the
POSITIONAL TOLERANCE DIAMETER OF GAGE CYLINDER
specified tolerance from the estimated
permissible variation in order to com-
pensate for a square tolerance zone.
SIZE TOLERANCE MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION Also, it does not permit an increase in
(MINMUM HOLE DIAMETER) the permissible variation as the size
approaches the least material con-
dition.
MAXIMUM HOLE DIAMETER
Positional Tolerancing, RFS This
Fig. 30-7-13 Positional variations for tolerancing — MMC. method is very similar to the coordi-
nate tolerancing method except that it
results in a round, instead of a square,
Therefore, the greates deviation in any particular case. The preferred meth-
tolerance zone. The specified toler-
one direction is ods for various types of applications
ance value can therefore be increased
are as follows.
by 40 percent without affecting free
H + P .004 + .006
.005 Positional Tolerancing on an MMC Basis assembly of mating parts. However, it
This method is preferred when produc- is probably the least used method since

must be emphasized that posi-
It
tional tolerancing, even on an MMC
basis, is not a cure-all for positional
tolerancing problems; each
tolerancing has its own
ness. In each application a
must be selected which best
tion quantities warrant the provision
of functional "go" gages, because gag-
ing is then limited to one simple opera-
tion, even when a group of holes is
method of involved. This method also facilitates
area of useful- manufacture by permitting larger vari-
method ations in position when the diameter
suits the departs from the maximum material
measurement entails the use of mathe-
matics or a chart.
Projected Tolerance Zone
The application of this concept is rec-
ommended where the variation in
perpendicularity of threaded or press-
fitholes could cause fasteners, such as

0.539
-.000
.005
O .006(M)
<t>

HOLE DIA TOLERANCE HOLE PLUS

POSITIONAL
POSITIONAL TOLERANCE
P = TOLERANCE
HOLE AT HOLE AT
MAXIMUM MATERIAL CONDITION LEAST MATERIAL CONDITION
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT (B) INTERPRETATION
Fig. 30-7-14 Hole with an MMC positional tolerance.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 629

 AXIS OF CLEARANCE HOLE
IN MATING PART UNIT 30-8
FASTENER Datums for Positional
Tolerancing
MATING PART
WiTH CLEARANCE HOLE In the examples given so far, the po-
INTERFERENCE sition of the axis of the hole was
AREA
established by using dimensions from
These
the actual surfaces of the part.
PART TO HAVE
surfaces were not designated as
datums. The true or mean position of
the axis was therefore a line parallel to
a surface line element on each of the
surfaces from which the dimensions
AXIS OF THREADED HOLE were drawn, as illustrated in Fig.
POSITIONAL TOLERANCE ZONE 30-8-1.
^— TRUE POSITION AXIS
Fig. 30-7-15 Illustrating how fastener can interfere with mating part.
0.005

A
TRUE POSITION AXIS 1

O.0I POSITIONAL
TOLERANCE ZONE
H
1
1-3-
AXIS OF THREADED
HOLE (A) DRAWING CALLOUT

-6X .250-20UNC

*.60
O.0I (m) A B C
.60 MIN PROJECTED
TOLERANCE ZONE
HEIGHT

(A) DRAWING CALLOUT (B) INTERPRETATION •TRUE POSITION OF THE

AXIS ISA LINE PARALLEL
Fig. 30-7-16 Specifying a projected tolerance zone.
TO THESE SURFACE LINES
(B) INTERPRETATION OF TRUE POSITION
Fig. 30-8-1 Lines from which measurements
are made.

screws, studs or pins, to interfere with

, maximum
mating parts, as shown in Fig. 30-7-15.
Interference can occur where a posi-
tional tolerance is applied to the depth
of a hole and the hole axis is inclined
within allowable limits. Figure 30-7-16
illustrates the application of a posi-
tional tolerance using a projected tol-
erance zone. The specified value for
the projected tolerance zone is the
permissible mating part
thickness. If these sides are off-square with one
another or with other surfaces of the
Reference and Source Material part, the true position of the axis
I. ANSI Y 14. 5M Dimensioning and would be similarly off-square, as
Tolerancing shown in a somewhat exaggerated for-
mat in Fig. 30-8-2.
some applications this may be the
In
ASSIGNMENTS desired requirement, but in most cases
See Assignments 22 through 27 for it is preferable to have the hole either

minimum value and represents the Unit 30-7 on page 650. related to other surfaces or features or

630 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 DIMENSIONS APPLY TO 625 + .002 DATUM C
THE SHORTEST DISTANCE -.000
FROM THE AXIS OF THE
HOLE TO THE SIDE

/
'DATUM B
90°
^-^/^
:
if . .

"
iff '
I
I

.PARALLEL ikk l&T*

Fig. 30-8-2 Results when sides are off- 'UM A—/ 90°
square.

(A) DRAWING CALLOUT (B) INTERPRETATION OF TRUE POSITION

Fig. 30-8-4 Part with three datum features specified.

related to a full side rather than a line

on the surface. It is then necessary to
+ 0.12
specify the desired datum feature or 6.8
- 0.06
features in the required order of
-A- •(^ 0.15 (M) A B
priority.
The consideration in such
first
applications is to decide on the pri-
mary datum feature. The usual course
of action is to specify as the primary
datum the surface into which the hole Fig. 30-8-5 Datum system for a long hole.
is produced. This will ensure that the

true position of the axis is perpendicu-

surface or at the basic angle,
lar to this
if itother than 90°. Secondary and
is Long Holes It is not always essential to part shown in Fig. 30-8-6, it is quite
tertiary datum features are then have the true position of a hole perpen- evident that the true position of the
selected and identified, if required. dicular to the face into which the hole small hole is established from the axis
Figure 30-8-3 shows a part similar to is produced. may
be functionally
It of the large hole. In cases like these, it
that shown in Fig. 30-8-1 but with the more important, especially with long may not be necessary to specify one of
addition of a primary datum feature holes, to have it parallel to one of the the holes as a datum, although it would
and the MMC
modifier. Figure 30-8-4 sides. Figure 30-8-5 is a case in point. facilitate gaging if the datum were
shows the same part with three datum In this example the sides are desig- specified on an MMC basis.
features specified. nated as primary and secondary In other cases, such as that shown in
datums. A tertiary datum is not re- Fig. 30-8-7. it is essential to specify the
quired. datum; otherwise, the origin of the
true-position dimension would be left
-0.625
.002 Circular Datums Circular features,
in doubt. It could be either the axis of
such as holes or external cylindrical
the hole or the axis of the outside cylin-
features, can be used as datums just as
drical surface.
readily as flat surfaces. In the simple

+ .006
0.375
-.002

.50 ± .01

Fig. 30-8-3 Part with one datum feature

specified. Fig. 30-8-6 Part where specification of the datum feature may not be required.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 631

 areas for a primary datum, two for a
XXX
secondary datum, and one for a terti-
ary datum.
not necessary to use targets for
It is

alldatums. It is quite logical, for exam-

ple, to use targets for the primary
datum and other surfaces or features
for secondary and tertiary datums if
required; or to use a flat surface of a
part as the primary datum and to locate
fixed points or lines on the edges as
secondary and tertiary datums.
Datum targets should be spaced as
far apart from each other as possible to
-0- 0.008 (m) A b(m) provide maximum rigidity for making
measurements.
Fig. 30-8-7 Position referenced to a circular datum.

Identification of Targets
Each datum target is shown on a view
Multiple- Hole Datums The axis of holes 2. Functional requirements of the part
of the part in its desired location by
is sometimes specified as a datum fea- may necessitate the use of only a
means of a datum target symbol. These
ture with MMC being specified for the portion of a surface as a datum fea-
symbols are shown in Fig. 30-8-9.
datum reference. On an MMC basis, ture, for example, the portion
Each datum target is then identified
any number of holes or similar features which contacts a mating part in
by means of a datum target identifica-
which form a group or pattern may be assembly.
tion symbol. This symbol consists of a
specified as a single datum. All fea- 3. A surface selected as a datum fea-
circle with a diameter approximately
tures forming such a datum must be ture may not be sufficiently true,
3.5 times the height of the lettering
related with a positional tolerance on and a flat datum feature may rock
used on the drawing. This circle is
an MMC basis. See Fig. 30-8-8. when placed on a datum plane, so
divided by a horizontal line, as shown
that accurate and repeatable mea-
in Fig. 30-8-10. The upper half contains
surements from the surface would
DATUM TARGETS not be possible. This is particularly
the target area size, where applicable,
and the lower half contains a number
The full feature surface was used to so for surfaces of castings, forgings,
and letter which identifies that particu-
establish a datum for the features so weldments, and some sheet-metal
lar target in the datum system. Targets
far designated as datum features. This and formed parts.
should be numbered consecutively:
may not always be practical for the
following reasons:
A useful technique to overcome for example, in a three-plane, six-point
such problems is the datum target datum system, if the datums are A, B,
The surface of a feature may be so method. In this method certain points, and C, the datum targets would be A,,
large that a gage designed to make lines, or small areas on the surfaces are A 2 A 3 B 4 B 5 and C 6
, , , , .

contact with the full surface may be selected as the bases for establishment Each datum target symbol is con-
too expensive or too cumbersome of datums. For flat surfaces, this usu- nected to its datum target by a leader.
to use. ally requires three target points or The use of a solid leader line indicates

4X 0.25O-.254

2X 0.I56-.I6O

-(& 0.005 (m) A B(M)

Fig. 30-8-8 Group of holes forming a single datum.

632 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 SPHERICAL ENDS-

DATUM POINT A CROSS ON THE SURFACE

PART
OR 3 /

DATUM A PHANTOM LINE ON THE SURFACE

LINE
n rt

Itool OR GAGE :

OR A CROSS ON THE PROFILE, (A)

(WHERE THE LINE APPEARS AS
A POINT ON THE SURFACE)

DATUM AREA A SECTION-LINED AREA ON THE

SURFACE ENCLOSED BY PHANTOM
LINES

Fig. 30-8-9 Symbols for datum targets.

TARGET AREA STYLE,

WHERE APPLICABLE
—2 X LETTER HEIGHT

(B)
^90°-^/
3.5 X LETTER HEIGHT

DATUM
IDENTIFYI
LETTER
V B2 J
F"
X PIN ON TOOL
OR GAGE-

Fig. 30-8-10 Datum target identification Fig. 30-8-11 Symbol for a datum target
symbol. point.

that the datum target is on the near 30-8-12 illustratestwo such points as
(visible) surface. The use of a dashed they would appear on a drawing.
leader line indicates that the datum tar- Target points may be represented on
get is on the far (hidden) surface. tools, fixtures, and gages by spher-
Arrowheads or dots are not used on ically ended pins, as shown in Fig.
(O
these leaders. 30-8-13.
Fig. 30-8-13 Location of part on datum
The datum surface may also be iden- target points.
tified in the normal manner.

Dimensioning for
Target Location
The location of datum targets is shown
by means of datum dimensions. Each
dimension is shown, without toler-
ances, enclosed in a rectangular frame,
indicating that the general tolerance
does not apply. Dimensions locating a
set of datum targets should be dimen-
Fig. 30-8-12
surface.
Datum target points on a l B DATUM TARGET POINTS
ARE ON THESE SURFACES
sionally related or have a common
origin.
Targets not in the Same Plane
In most applications datum target
Target Points points which form a single datum are
Each target point is shown on the sur- all located on the same surface, as
face, in its desired location, by means shown in Fig. 30-8-12. However, this is
of a cross,
to the
drawn at approximately 45°
coordinate dimensions. The
not essential. They may be located on
meet functional
different surfaces, to
|xx[-J \+ — |xxx| —
cross is twice the height of the lettering requirements, as shown, for example, Fig. 30-8-14 Datum target points on
used, as shown in Fig. 30-8-1 Figure
1 . in Fig. 30-8-14. In some cases the different planes.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 633

 datum plane may be located in space, Datum Target Areas Reference and Source Material
that not actually touching the part.
is. Datum by
target areas are indicated 1. ANSI Y 14. 5M Dimensioning and
as shown in Fig. 30-8-15. In such drawing the datum target boundary on Tolerancing
applications the controlled features the plan view in phantom lines and
must be dimensioned from the spec- section-lining the area, as shown in
The datum symbol
ASSIGNMENTS
datum, and the position of the
ified Fig. 30-8-17. target
datum from the datum targets must be isdirected to the area by an arrowless See Assignments 28 and 29 for Unit
shown by means of exact datum leader. The diameter of the circular 30-8 on page 650.
dimensions. For example, in Fig. target area is shown in the upper half of
30-8-15 datum B is positioned by means the datum target symbol.
of datum dimensions .38. .50. and .06. 1

The top surface is controlled from this

datum by means of a toleranced
dimension, and the hole is positioned
by means of a true-position dimension
|
1 .00 [
and a positional tolerance.

o xxxt.oox
|<fr|
o.ooi©)|a|b|
UNIT 30-9
Circularity
(Roundness) and
Fig. 30-8-17 Datum target areas.
Cylindricity

CIRCULARITY
Circularity refers to a condition of a
Datum target areas may have any circular line or the surface of a circular
desired shape, a few of which are feature where all points on the line, or
shown in Fig. 30-8-18. Target areas on the periphery of a plane cross sec-
should be kept as small as possible, tion of the feature, are equidistant
Bl J V B2 consistent with functional require- from a common center point.
ments, to avoid having large, section- Examples of circular features would
Fig. 30-8-15 Datum outside of part profile. lined areas on the drawing. include disks, spheres, cylinders, and
cones. The measurement plane for a
sphere is any plane which passes
Target Lines through a section of maximum diame-
A datum target line is identified by the ter.For a cylinder, cone, or other non-
symbol "A"*on the edge view of the spherical feature, the measurement
surface, a phantom line on the surface plane is any plane perpendicular to the
view, or both (Fig. 30-8-16) axis or center line.

"X" ON Errors of Circularity

EDGE VIEW Errors of circularity (out-of-round-
OF SURFACE
ness) of a circular line or the periphery
r-@"iHr of a cross section of a circular feature
may occur as ovality, where dif-
ferences appear between the major
and minor axes; as lobing, where the
diametral values may be constant or
nearly so; or as random irregularities
from a true circle. All these errors are
illustrated in Fig. 30-9-1. The geo-
metric characteristic symbol for cir-
cularity is simply a circle, having a
-PHANTOM LINE ON diameter equal to 1.5 times the height
SURFACE VIEW of letters on the drawing, as shown in
Fig. 30-8-16 Datum target line Fig. 30-8-18 Typical target areas. Fig. 30-9-2.

634 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 CYLINDRICITY
Cylindricity refers to a condition of a
surface which forms a cylinder where
the surface elements in cross sections
parallel to the axis are straight and par-
allel and cross sections perpendicu-
in
lar to the axis are round. Cylindricity
(A) OVALITY
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT thus combines in one term geometric
form tolerances for circularity,
straightness, and parallelism of the
PERIPHERY OF PART IN surface elements.
ONE CROSS SECTION" Cylindricity tolerances can be
applied only to cylindrical surfaces,
such as round holes and shafts. No
specific geometric tolerances have
been devised for other circular forms,
(B) LOBING which require the use of several geo-
metric tolerances. A conical surface,
for example, must be controlled by a
combination of tolerances for cir-
(B) TOLERANCE ZONE cularity, straightness, and angularity.
Fig. 30-9-3 Circularity tolerance. Errors of cylindricity may be caused
by out-of-roundness, like ovality or
lobing, by errors of straightness
caused by bending or by diametral
Circularity of Noncylindrical Parts
variation, by errors of parallelism like
IRREGULAR
(C)
Noncylindrical parts refer to conical
conicity or taper, and by random irreg-
Fig. 30-9-1 Common types of parts and other features which are cir-
circularity errors.
ularities from a true cylindrical form.
cular in cross section but which have
The geometric characteristic sym-
variable diameters, such as those
bol for cylindricity consists of a circle
shown in Fig. 30-9-4. Since many sizes
with two tangent lines at 60°. as shown
of circles may be involved, it is usually
in Fig. 30-9-5.
best to direct the circularity tolerance
to the longitudinal surfaces as shown.
Cylindricity Tolerance RFS —
The cylindricity tolerance symbol is
1.5 X LETTER HEIGHT used a feature control frame in the
in
usual manner, and it is directed to the
cylindrical surface, in either the side or
end view, as shown in Fig. 30-9-6.
Fig. 30-9-2 Circularity symbol.

r
XXX
x: XXX
Since cylindricity is a form tolerance
controlling surface elements only, it
cannot be modified on an MMCbasis.
The cylindricity tolerance must be less '

1 than the size tolerance.

Circularity Tolerance — RFS PART
A
I

circularity tolerance may be spec-

ified by using this symbol in the feature
control frame. It is expressed on an

RFS basis.
A circularity tolerance specifies the
width of an annular tolerance zone,
bounded by two concentric circles in
the same plane, within which the circu-
lar line or the periphery of the feature XXX
in that plane shall lie, as shown in Fig.
30-9-3. A circularity tolerance cannot
be modified on an MMCbasis since it
controls surface elements only. The
circularity tolerance must be less than Fig. 30-9-4 Circularity tolerance on
the size tolerance. noncylindrical parts. Fig. 30-9-5 Cylindricity symbol.

ENGINEERING TOLER/VNCING 635


UNIT 30-10
Profile Tolerancing
PROFILES
A profile is the outline form or shape of
a line or surface. A line profile may be
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT the outline of a part or feature as
depicted in a view on a drawing. It may
represent the edge of a part, or it may
refer to line elements of a surface in a
002 WIDE TOLERANCE ZONE
single direction, such as the outline of
Jr
cross sections through the part. In con-
trast, a surface profile outlines the
form or shape of a complete surface.
The elements of a line profile may be
(B) straight lines, arcs, or other curved
lines. The elements of a surface profile
may be flat surfaces, spherical sur-
.002 WIDE TOLERANCE ZONE faces, cylindrical surfaces, or surfaces
L composed of various line profiles in
two or more directions.
A profile tolerance may be applied
to a single, independent line or sur-
face, or any part of a complex line or
(C)
surface. It may be applied to a feature
of size, in which case MMC
is spec-
ified. It may be related to a datum, in
002 WIDE TOLERANCE ZONE
which case it also controls orientation
and, in some cases, position of the line
or surface.
PROFILE SYMBOLS
There are two geometric characteristic
symbols for profiles, one for lines and
(B) PERMISSIBLE FORM ERRORS
one for surfaces. Separate symbols are
Fig. 30-9-6 Cylindricity tolerance directed
required, because it is often necessary
to either view.
to distinguish between line elements of
a surface and the complete surface
itself. The symbol for profile of a line
consists of a semicircle with a diameter
Reference and Source Material equal to twice the lettering size used
1. ANSI Y 14. 5M Dimensioning and on the drawing. The symbol for profile
Tolerancing of a surface is identical except that the
semicircle is closed by a straight line at
the bottom, as shown in Fig. 30-10-1.
ASSIGNMENTS
See Assignments 30 through 33 for
Unit 30-9 on page 651.
PROFILE OF
r
PROFILE OF
A LINE A SURFACE
H = HEIGHT OF LETTERS
Fig. 30-10-1 Profile symbols.
636 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN
All other geometric tolerances of form
and orientation are merely special
cases of profile tolerancing.
Profile tolerances are used to con-
trol the position of lines and surfaces
which are neither flat nor cylindrical.
PROFILE OF A LINE
A profile-of-a-line tolerance may be
directed to a line of any length or
shape. If a datum is not referenced and
the line is intended to be straight, the
profile tolerance is identical to a
straightness tolerance in meaning and
interpretation. If the line is intended to
be circular, the profile tolerance is
identical to a circularity tolerance. The
form of lines of any other shape or
combinations of straight and curved
lines must be controlled by a profile
tolerance.
Similarly, a profile-of-a-surface tol-
erance may be directed to a surface of
any size or shape. If a datum is not
referenced and the surface is intended
to be flat, the profile tolerance is iden-
tical to a flatness tolerance. If the sur-
face is intended to be cylindrical, the
profile tolerance is identical to a cylin-
dricity tolerance. To
control the form
of all other surfaces, or combinations
of straight, flat, and curved surfaces, a
profile tolerance must be used.
A profile-of-a-linetolerance is spec-
usual manner, by including
ified in the
the symbol and tolerance in a feature
control frame directed to the line to be
controlled, as shown in Fig. 30-10-2.
If the line on the drawing to which
the tolerance directed represents a
is
surface, the tolerance applies to all line
elements of the surface parallel to the
plane of the view on the drawing,
unless otherwise specified.
The tolerance indicates a tolerance
zone consisting of the area between
two parallel lines, separated by the
specified tolerance, which are them-
selves parallel to the basic form of the
line in a plane parallel to the view on
the drawing.
and
Bilateral
Unilateral Tolerances
The profile tolerance zone is normally
equally disposed about the basic pro-
file in a form known as a bilateral toler-
ance zone. The width of this zone is
always measured normal to the profile
 within the limits of the positional toler-
ance zone in order to enclose the
curved profile.
radius were shown as a toler-
If the
anced dimension, without the rec-
tangular frame, as in Fig. 30-10-5, it
would become a separate measure-
ment.
Figure 30-10-6 shows a more com-
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT plex profile, where the profile is
located by a single toleranced dimen-
Fig. 30-10-4 Position and form as separate sion. There are, however, five basic
TOLERANCE ZONE .006 requirements. dimensions defining the true profile.
In this case, the tolerance on the
height indicates a tolerance zone .06
frame to indicate that the tolerance in in.wide extending the full length of the
the general tolerance note does not profile.This is because the profile is
apply. established by basic dimensions. No
When the profile tolerance is not other dimension exists to effect the ori-
intended to control the position of the entation or height. The profile toler-
profile, there must be a clear distinc- ance specifies a .008-in.-wide toler-
(B) BILATERAL TOLERANCE ZONE
tion between dimensions which con- ance zone, which may lie anywhere
Fig. 30-10-2 Simple profile with profile
trol the position of the profile and within the .06 in. tolerance zone.
tolerance that is bilateral.
those which control the form or shape
of the profile. Extent of Controlled Profile
Any convenient method of dimen- The profile is generally intended to
surface.The tolerance zone may be sioning may be used to establish the extend to the first abrupt change or
considered to be bounded by two lines basic profile. Examples are chain or sharp corner. For example, in Fig.
enveloping a series of circles, each common-point dimensions, dimen- 30-10-6 it extends from the upper left-
having a diameter equal to the spec- sioning to points on a surface or to the to the upper right-hand corners, unless
ified profile tolerance, with their cen- intersection of lines, dimensioning otherwise specified. If the extent of the
ters on the theoretical, basic profile, as located on tangent radii, and angles.
shown in Fig. 30-10-2. To illustrate, the simple part in Fig.
Occasionally it is desirable to have 30- 10-4 shows a dimension of .90 ± .01
the tolerance zone wholly on one side controlling the height of the profile.
of the basic profile instead of equally This dimension must be separately
— [.70|—*-
HlfH /" /^|.008

divided on both sides. Such zones are measured. The radius of 1.500 in. is a "1,

called unilateral tolerance zones.

They are specified by showing a thick
basic dimension, and it becomes part
of the profile. Therefore the profile .90 ?4 ^-fF~34]
N
chain or zone line close to the profile tolerance zone has radii of 1.497 and .84 |R.50^
surface. The tolerance is directed to 1 .503 but is free to flat in any direction
,

this line, as shown in Fig. 30-10-3.

2.35
Method of Dimensioning -«
2.33
»-
1

The true or mean profile is established (A) DRAWING CALLOUT

by means of basic dimensions, each of
which is enclosed in a rectangular TOLERANCE ZONE FOR FORM
OF PROFILE.008 WIDE SHOWN
INAN EXTREME POSITION-

(A) TOLERANCE (B) TOLERANCE

ZONE ON OUTSIDE ZONE ON INSIDE (B) PROFILE TOLERANCE ZONE
OF TRUE PROFILE OF TRUE PROFILE Fig. 30-10-5 Position and radius separate Fig. 30-10-6 Profile defined by basic
Fig. 30-10-3 Unilateral tolerance zones. from form. dimensions.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 637

 Fig. 30-10-11 Profile tolerance required for
all around the surface.

(A) DRAWING CALLOUT Specification on an MMC basis is par-

ticularly useful for parts of simple or
0.1 TOLERANCE regular cross sections, such as square,
ZONE rectangular, hexagonal, or round bars,
-TOLERANCE ZONES-
X
-.004
(-.004
.as shown in Fig. 30-10-12.

\ ^-BASIC PROFILE

(Bl TOLERANCE ZONE

Fig. 30-10-7 Specifying extent of profile.

O .750
(B) TOLERANCE ZONE
Fig. 30-10-9 Dual tolerance zones.
profile not clearly identified by sharp
is

corners or by basic profile dimensions, .584- .002

itmust be indicated by a note under the
(A)
feature control symbol, such as FROM Ail-Around Profile Tolerances
A TO B as shown in Fig. 30-10-7. Where a profile tolerance applies all
If the controlled profile includes a around the profile of a part, the symbol
sharp corner, the corner represents a used to designate "all around" is
discontinuity of the tolerance bound- placed on the leader from the feature
ary, and the boundary is considered control frame. See Figs. 30-10-10 and
to extend to the intersection of the 30-10-11.
boundary lines, as shown in Fig.
30-10-8. Profile Tolerance on
different profile tolerances are
If an MMCBasis
required on different segments of a A profile tolerance may be specified on
surface, the extent of each profile tol- an MMC basis for any profile that .50=. 01
erance is indicated by the use of refer- includes opposing surfaces. This
ence letters to identify the extremities. method is especially suitable when the (B) (O
See Fig. 30-10-9. tolerance applies all around the part. Fig. 30-10-12 Profile tolerance— MMC.

BASIC PROFILE-

PROFILE OF A SURFACE
ALL-AROUND SYMBOL As already stated, a profile-of-a-line
tolerance, when directed to a line on a
drawing which represents a surface,
applies to the profile of all cross sec-
tions parallel to the view on the draw-
ing, unless otherwise specified. This is
illustrated by the cross sections AA
-TOLERANCE ZONE EXTENDS and BB in Fig. 30-10-13.
TO THIS POINT H = LETTER HEIGHT the profile in a plane normal to the
If
Fig. 30-10-8 Tolerance zone at a sharp plane of the drawing requires toleranc-
corner. Fig. 30-10-10 All-around symbol. ing. a separate tolerance may be added

638 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 (A) DRAWING CALLOUT
Fig. 30-10-13 Tolerance applies to profile of
cross section.

to the side view. Frequently this pro- TOLERANCE ZONE .006 WIDE
file willbe straight, in which case a
straightness tolerance may be sub-
shown in Fig. 30-10-14.
stituted, as
If same tolerance is intended to
the
apply over the whole surface, instead
of to lines or line elements in specific
directions, the profile of a surface sym-
bol used, as shown in Fig. 30-10-15.
is

While the profile tolerance may be

directed to the surface in either view, it
(B) TOLERANCE ZONE
Fig. 30-10-16 Profile referenced to a datum.
is usually directed to the view showing

the more characteristic profile.

The profile-of-a-surface tolerance
indicates a tolerance zone having the
same form as the basic surface, with a
uniform width equal to the specified
tolerance within which the entire sur-
face must lie.
— .001
Orientation rffl .008 A
In theexamples so far, the profile tol-
erances have been shown without
reference to a datum, and it has been J- k_
permissible to move evaluating charts
in any direction in an effort to encom- TrZJ
pass the line or surface profile. More
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT
often than not, requirements call for
the profile to be oriented to some other

1 surface or feature of the part. This is

specified simply by indicating suitable
TOLERANCE ZONE .008 PARALLEL
datums. Figure 30-10-16 shows a sim- TO DATUM A
ple part where the base is designated
as a datum. DATUM A-

Fig. 30-10-14 Profile and straightness

tolerance to same surface. Position of Lines and Surfaces
Position of features, such as holes and
bosses, is normally controlled by a
(B) TOLERANCE ZONE
positional tolerance. Such a tolerance
Fig. 30-10-1 7 Position of a surface.
automatically controls the orientation
and form of the feature, since all points
on the feature surface must lie within shapes. It is usually confined, how-
the positional tolerance zone. ever, to straight lines, circular lines,
Positional tolerances may also be flat or cylindrical surfaces, or some-
applied to surfaces, such as the posi- times regular shapes such as hex-
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT tion of the flat surface in Fig. 30-10-17. agons. For example, in Fig. 30-10-18. it
The surface must be dimensioned from is immaterial whether the geometric

.006 TOLERANCE ZONE the datum feature or features by means symbol is position or profile the —
of basic dimensions, as shown. The interpretation is identical.
tolerance zone is then established at an The criterion which distinguishes a
exact position from the datum, and all profile tolerance as applying to posi-
points on the surface must lie within tion or to orientation is whether the
this tolerance zone without further profile is related to the datum by a
adjustment. basic dimension or by a toleranced
(B) TOLERANCE ZONE Positional tolerancing may also be dimension. This is illustrated by Fig.
Fig. 30-10-15 Profile of a surface. applied to lines or surfaces of other 30-10-19.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 639

 Cylindrical Data
Profile tolerances controlling position
2.997 are very useful for parts which can be
revolved around a cylindrical datum
mum a feature, such as screw-machine cams.
The position or size as well as the form
can easily be assessed by revolving the
part on the datum axis in conjunction
with a dividing head, with an indicator
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT (B) TOLERANCE ZONE gage to make direct measurements on
Fig. 30-10-18 Profile tolerance for position. the periphery. Figure 30-10-20 shows
an example.

Reference and Source Material

I. ANSI Y 14. 5M Dimensioning and

Tolerancing.

ASSIGNMENTS
28+0.12
See Assignments 34 through 37 for
22±0.I2 Unit 30-10 on page 652.

PROFILE TOLERANCE CONTROLS

(A)
FORM OF PROFILE ONLY
EE + .000
r-O.502
-.001
+ .001
60 o -.000

O.90 + .01

^N^n 7
2210.12

.300 1 .005-*-

50 ±0.12-
.56 * .01
PROFILE TOLERANCE CONTROLS
(B)
FORM AND ORIENTAION OF PROFILE BETWEEN C & D

BASIC VALUES

r>>| 0.2 1 a| DEGREES RADIUS

1.000

30 1.000

60 .936

90 .896

120 .858

150 .819

180 .780

210 .741

240 .702
(C)PROFILE TOLERANCE CONTROLS
FORM, ORIENTATION, AND POSITION 270 .663
OF PROFILE
290 .546
Fig. 30-10-19 Comparison of profile
.546 Fig. 30-10-20 Profile tolerances control form and
tolerances. 340
size of cam profile.

640 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 DATUM A
UNIT 30-11 0.250
-7

Correlative
Tolerances

Correlative geometric tolerancing

refers to tolerancing for the control of DATUM B
two or more features intended to be •-TOLERANCE ZONE .004 WIDE PARALLEL
TO DATUM B
correlated in position or attitude.
Examples of such correlated toleranc- (A) DRAWING CALLOUT (B) TOLERANCE ZONE
ing include coplanarity. for control of Fig. 30-11-3 Surface referenced to a datum system.
two or more flat surfaces; positional
tolerance at MMC for symmetrical
relationships, such as control of fea- provided for some of them to clarify control coplanar surfaces perpendicu-
tures equally disposed about a center and simplify drawing callout require- lar to adatum instead of parallel to it.
line;concentricity and coaxiality, for ments. Figure 30-1 1-3 shows a case where the
control of features having common When position is to be separately coplanar surfaces are required to be
axes or center lines; and runout, for controlled, other form or orientation perpendicular to the axis of a hole.
control of surfaces related to an axis. tolerances may be applied to control
These are all tolerances of location, for the correlation of features.
which the positional symbol and posi- TOLERANCING
tional tolerances could be used. Spe- SYMMETRICALLY
COPLANARITY
cial symbols, however, have been LOCATED FEATURES
Coplanarity refers to the relative posi-
tion of two or more flat surfaces,
Where it is required that a feature be

located symmetrically with respect to

i

which are intended to lie in the same

the center plane of a datum feature,
>
geometric plane. A profile of a surface
1
^. 1
1

t 1
\
positional tolerancing is used. A sym-
1

1
1

tolerance may be used where it is

1 1
1 1

metrical relationship may be con-

J
. 1

1 two or more surfaces

desirable to treat
i
_! I
i

as a single interrupted or noncon-

trolled by specifying a positional toler-
/
tinuous surface. See Fig. 30-11-1. In
ance at MMC as illustrated in Figs.
ZO .003 |
this case, a control similar to a flatness
30-11-4 and 30-11-5.

tolerance is provided. Both surfaces

(A) DR AWI NG CALL OUT
must lie within the specified limits of
size.
CONCENTRICITY
Figure 30-11-2 shows a case where Concentricity is a condition in which
coplanar surfaces are also required to two or more features, such as circles,
be accurately located and parallel to spheres, cylinders, cones, or hex-
another surface of a part, which is then agons, share a common center or axis.
designated as a datum feature. In this An example would be a round hole
case, the datum and the controlled sur- through the center of a cylindrical part.
faces must be associated by a basic A concentricity tolerance is a partic-
I
.003 WIDE TOLERANCE ZONE dimension. ular case of a positional tolerance. It
(B) TOLERANCE ZONE It is sometimes necessary to refer- controls the permissible variation in
Fig. 30-11-1 Specify profile of a surface for ence surfaces to a datum system position, or eccentricity, of the center
coplanar surfaces. instead of to a single datum surface. line of the controlled feature in relation
This occurs when it is necessary to to the axis of the datum feature when

-0- .006 a .006 WIDE TOLERANCE ZONE PARALLEL TO DATUM

1.000

(A) DRAWING CALLOUT DATUM (B) TOLERANCE ZONE

Fig. 30-1 1-2 Coplanar surfaces parallel to a datum.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 641

 |-^- |.Q04 ©[A©)-.
-<$ 0.12 (v) A B

.750 ±
m
+ .004 .246

T
1—16.8
16.6
GAGING
EE DRAWING CALLOUT PRI NCI PLE

(A) DRAWING CALLOUT EXAMPLE I

-THESE DIMENSIONS ARE EQUAL

+ .003
^REGARDLESS OF THEIR SIZE •0.312

3- E L
T~
•— 0.308
MEDIAN PLANE OF DATUM A
0.12 WIDE TOLERANCE ZONE 11
WHEN SLOT IS AT MMC (7.8)—
(B) TOLERANCE ZONE
p «

<
1

1
i 1

DRAWING CALLOUT GAGING PRINCIPLE

EXAMPLE 2

Fig. 30-11-5 Symmetry tolerance — MMC.

Figure 30- 1 1 -8 shows an example of a

part where two cylindrical portions are
intended to be coaxial. This figure also
illustrates the extreme errors of ec-
centricity and parallelism that the
concentricity tolerance would permit.
A concentricity tolerance may be
H =LETTER HEIGHT referenced to a datum system, instead
Fig. 30-11-6 Concentricity symbol. of to a single datum, to meet certain
functional requirements. Figure
30-1 1-9 gives an example in which the
(C) PERMISSIBLE VARIATIONS
tolerance zone is perpendicular to
Fig. 30-11-4
for symmetry.
Positional tolerancing at MMC
Concentricity — RFS datum A and also concentric with
Concentricity tolerance, because of its the axis of datum B in the plane of
unique characteristic, is always used datum A.
on an RFS basis. Where it is necessary to control
Figure 30- 1 1 -7 shows a common type coaxiality of related features within
the feature and datum are intended to of part where the outer diameter is their limits of size, a zero positional
be concentric or coaxial. required to be concentric with the cen- tolerance at MMC
is specified. The

The tolerance zone for circles is a ter hole, which is designated as a datum feature is normally specified on
other circular features it is a
circle: for datum feature. an MMC
basis (Fig. 30-1 1-10).
cylinder, concentric with the datum
axis, having a diameter equal to the
specified tolerance. The center of all
+012
cross sections normal to the axis of the r-0 io
o
controlled feature must lie within this
tolerance zone.
I §8 0.1 A

The geometric characteristic sym- 1 S^- * v. >

bol used for concentricity consists of
28°
(/ f k
&-
two concentric circles, having diame- -0.12
ters equal to the actual height (1:1) and
1 times the height of lettering used on
.5

the drawing. See Fig. 30-11-6. Fig. 30-11-7 Cylindrical part with concentricity tolerance.

642 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 @ ©.004 A -i
.546
°.542~^ the axis. The tolerance spec-
datum
controlled surface is the total
ified for a
tolerance or full indicator movement
O.750
* .004 (FIM) in inspection and international
|-A-| 1.000 terminology.
.995 There are two types of runout con-
+
.000J
0.390 -.003 trol, circularrunout and total runout.
The type used is dependent upon
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT
design requirements and manufactur-
* 0" (m) A (m) ing considerations. The geometric
0.004 TOLERANCE ZONE- characteristic symbols for runout are
(A) DRAWING CALLOUT shown in Fig. 30-1 1-12.

1 / H = LETTER HEIGHT
*
1
y— °- 8 H
^y
j

AXIS OF DATUM FEATURE "> V AT MMC-i / 45°

(Bi EXTREME ECCE NTRICITY

0.004
AXIS OF

TOLERANCE ZONE-j
DATUM A -,
/

_L
.J /
>— 0.6 H
'r/ /
7 tf\

-*\ u H |^_

F S HALL DIAMETE
^
T^l

J /
r
I CIRCULAR
RUNOUT
Fig. 30-11-12
TOTAL
RUNOUT
Runout symbols.

Circular Runout
(C) EXTREME ANGULAR VARIATION Circular runout provides control of cir-
Fig. 30-11-8 Concentricity of cylindrical
cular elements of a surface. The
features.
DIAMETER tolerance is applied independently at
FEATURE TOLERANCE
DIAMETER any circular measuring position as the
SIZE
ZONE ALLOWED part is rotated 360°. See Fig. 30-1 1-13.
RUNOUT 1.000
Where applied to surfaces constructed
Runout a composite tolerance used
is around a datum axis, circular runout
.999 .00 1

to control the functional relationship controls variations such as circularity

.998 .002
of one or more features of a part to a and coaxiality. Where applied to sur-
.997 .003
datum axis. The types of features con- faces constructed at right angles to the
trolled by runout tolerances include .996 .004 datum axis, circular runout controls
those surfaces constructed around a .995 .005 wobble.
datum axis and those constructed at Where a runout tolerance applies to
right angles to a datum axis. See Fig. a specific portion of a surface, a chain
30-11-11. (B) TOLERANCE ZONES line is drawn adjacent to the surface
Each feature must be within its Fig. 30-11-10 Zero positional tolerancing at profile to show the desired length. See
runout tolerance when rotated about MMC for coaxiality. Fig. 30-1 1-13.

DATUM AXIS (ESTABLISHED FROM DATUM FEATURE)

SURFACES AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE DATUM AXIS-

+ .000
1.000
-.002

DATUM FEATURE
SURFACES CONSTRUCTED
AROUND THE DATUM AXIS
Fig. 30-11-9 Concentricity referenced to datum system. Fig. 30-11-11 Features applicable to runout tolerancing.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 643

 A1 .001 A SINGLE CIRCULAR ELEMENTS-

APPLIES TO PORTION OF -

SURFACE INDICATED

(A) DRAWING CALLOUT (B) METHOD OF MEASURING

Fig. 30-1 1-13 Specifying circular runout relative to a datum diameter.

Total Runout Figure 30-11-15 illustrates the ap-

np
0.12 A
Total runout concerns the runout of a plication of runout tolerances where
complete surface, not merely the two datum diameters act as a single
runout of each circular element. For datum axis to which the features are a 0.5 A
measurement purposes the checking related.
indicator must traverse the full length
or extent of the surface while the part Establishing Datums 1-0 6
isrevolved about its datum axis. Mea- In many examples the datum axis has ^AH
surements are made over the whole been established from centers drilled
Fig. 30-11-16 Cylindrical datum feature.
surface without resetting the indicator. in the two ends of the part, in which
Total runout is the difference between case the part is mounted between cen-
the lowest indicator reading in any ters for measurement purposes. This is

position and the highest reading in that an ideal method of mounting and
or in any other position on the same revolving the part when such centers
surface. Thus in Fig. 30-1 1-14 the toler- have been provided for manufacturing
ance zone is the space between two purposes. When centers are not pro-
concentric cylinders separated by the vided, any cylindrical or conical sur- Reference and Source Material
specified tolerance and coaxial with face may be used to establish the I. ANSI Y 14. 5M Dimensioning and

the datum axis. datum axisif it is chosen on the basis of Tolerancing

the functional requirements of the
part.
Figure 30-11-16 shows a simple,
ASSIGNMENTS
external cylindrical feature specified See Assignments 38 through 42 for
as the datum feature. Unit 30-11 on page 653.

/* .002 A-B

J* .001 A-B

Fig. 30-11-14 Tolerance zone for total

runout. Fig. 3C-'1-;5 Specifying runout relative to two datum diameters.

ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

ASSIGNMENTS for Chapter 30
Assignments for Unit 30-1,
Modern Engineering Tolerancing
Parts may deviate from true form and still
be acceptable provided the measure-
+ .000 1 .25 + .01

+ .003 f
-0 — — —^>" <t>

ments lie within the limits of size. Show .996 1.000 DRAWING CALLOUT
by means of a sketch with dimensions
two acceptable form variations for each
part shown in Fig. 30- -A. 1

2. On a B- or A3-size sheet, prepare

sketches from the drawings shown in
Fig. 30- -B or 30- -C and the following
1 1
(A) PART I
j

information.
(a) Using illustration (A) make a toler-
ance block diagram similar to Fig. .1.000
'
30-1-5. Show the deviations and limits .998
of size. 1 80° 30'
L.02'

\b) Draw illustration (B) and shade in

.300
and dimension the tolerance zone. 79° 30'

(c) The exaggeration of sizes is used

when it improves the clarity of the draw-

ing. Draw illustration (C) and exagger- |
PART 2 i

ate the sizes which would improve the

readability of the drawing. Dimension
(B)
the exaggerated features.
[d] With reference to illustration (D), is
l— no
the part acceptable? State your reason.
(e) With reference to the drawing call- © .188 HOLE AT THIS POINT TO BE 1° RIGHT
OF CENTER MEASURED AT HOLE At
out shown in illustration (E), what parts
would pass inspection?
[f] In the drawing callout in illustration

(F), what parts in illustration (E) would .02 STEP AT

THIS POINT
pass inspection?

,-t<M>
60 i .02 .016 HOLE .02 J
AT THIS POINT

(C)

PART 4

O^^Hlh^
T
i.oo + .oi L.02
.02

SIZE OF PARTS
-3.00 + .02- (E)

DRAWING CALLOUT

—»»j.70 i .021 -•-.625 + -008

(C)

1
1.00 + .02
.600 + .OIO 3.02 .25 +.01 <IM>-(+M>
PART J ^— DATUM FEATURE
-« 2.00 + .02-
(D) (F)
Fig. 30-1 -A Assignments. Fig. 30-1 -B Assignments.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 645

 Assignment of Unit 30-2,
Geometric Tolerancing
2 T 35!
3. With reference to Fig. 30-2-A and the

~r
35.01 3 35.041 -j-
information given below, add the fea-
35.000 ture control frames to the following
34.088 4
DRAWING CALLOUT parts:
_i '

^ Part Surface A to have a straightness tol-

^
1 .

erance of .004 in.

(A)
Part 2. Surface M to have a straightness tol-
erance of .006 in.

Surface N to have a straightness tol-

r-CURVED erance of .008 in.

Part 3. Surface R to be straight within .006

for the length, but not to
^ ->/ 24
in.

exceed .002
full

in. for any 2.00 in.

I PART 1 length.

\ / 60°\ 34
Part 4. With straightness specified as
12.5 59° \ shown, what is the maximum per-
12.0
L2 missible deviation from straightness
1
\ if the radius is (a) .496 in., (b) .501 in.,
1
(c) .504 in.?
Part 5. Eliminate the bottom view and place
the feature control frames on the
(B)
front and side views.

0.5 SAWCUTS
10 mm WIDE
CENTER SECTIONN-, ^-0 I

/ \ 4 HOLES

II Vi FLAT

-•755 .505
7/m

189°-
90° PART 2

/ \ HORIZONTAL

-STARTING OF ANGLE
SLOPED
(C) CURVED
PART 3

- .002

20 + 0.5

R .500 + .004-
-• 50 t 0.5 •>

DRAWING CALLOUT

PART 5 N-l-00'
Fig. 30-1-C Assignments. Fig. 30-2-A Assignments.

646 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

Assignments for Unit 30-3, Assignments for Unit 30-4, 11, In Fig. 30-4-C, part 1 is required to fit

Relationship to Feature of Size Straightness of Features into part 2 so that there will not be any
4. With reference to Fig. 30-3-A, what is and Flatness interference and the maximum clearance
the maximum deviation permitted from 8. With reference to Fig. 30-4-A are parts A will never exceed .005 in. Show suitable
straightness for the surface of the diame- to E acceptable? flatness tolerances for both parts and a
ter if the shaft was (a) at MMC, (£>) at 9. If (M)was added to the straightness size with the largest tolerance for part 2.
LMC,(c) 0.621? tolerance shown in Fig. 30-4-A, what 12. Show the tolerance zones and widths,
5. With reference to Fig. 30-3-B, calculate parts would be acceptable? for the three parts shown in Fig. 30-4-D.
the MMC, LMC, and extreme virtual con- 10. Dimension the ring and snap gage Determine the extreme virtual condi-
dition of the hole and shaft. shown in Fig. 30-4-B to check the pins tions for parts 2 and 3.
6. With reference to Fig. 30-3-B, if the hole shown. The ring gage should be of such
was straight and at its MMC, how much a size as to check the entire length of pin.
could the shaft be bent and still assemble The two open ends of the snap gage
if the shaft diameter was (a) at MMC, (o) should measure the minimum and max-
atLMC, (c) at 017.94? imum acceptable pin diameters.
7. With reference to Fig. 30-3-C, calculate
the limits for the distances between the
holes when the pins and holes are at (a)

MMC, and \b) LMC.

L i
*
+ .00OJ

PART FEATURE STRAIGHTNESS ACCEPTABLE PART I PART 2

SIZE DEVIATION
Fig. 30-4-C Assignment.
A .747 .001

B .741 .004

C .742 .005

D .740 .006
Fig. 30-3-A Assignment.
E .740 .003

Fig. 30-4-A Assignment.

— 0.06
r\£J\ °

-*-0 19 -0.16

|
— |0 0.05 (M)
i
4 + 0.4
1

f 1

50 + 1.0

1 i

1
II
1
1

1
1

1
i

J—J
ALJ\ o-i

j \ BOTH SIDES
Fig. 30-3-B Assignment. 8 I 0.3

m v//////////A \
u RING GAGE
I cj o@H
PART

0.5
2

+0.03
+ .006
-J U-o 506
-.000

3.500
.000
g a _L \j
1- \-0 28 + 0.4
-0.503
-.008
T P~r r\

SNAP GAGE PART 3

Fig. 30-3-C Assignment. Fig. 30-4-B Assignment. Fig. 30-4-D Assignment.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 647

 10 PINS DATUM BO 1.856
Assignments for Unit 30-5, STRAIGHTNESS
i .004

Datums and the Three-Plane PIN 2 TOLERANCE

OF .002 AT MMC
Concept
13. Draw the top and front views of Fig.
30-5-A and show the following
information:
1.62 t .02
• Surface A
datum is A
• Surface B is datum B.
• Surfaces Cand Dare datum features which
form a single datum.
• Add the geometric tolerances from the
information shown on the drawing.

14. With reference to Fig. 30-5-B:

• Pins 2, and 3 are used to establish the

1 ,

secondary and tertiary datums for the part

shown.
• Make a two-view drawing of the part
shown and identify the primary second-
ary, and tertiary datum planes as A, B, and
C, respectively. BASE FLAT WITHIN .01
THE BACK OF THE SLOT IS TO
• Place the flatness tolerance specified for
HAVE A FLATNESS TOLERANCE Fig. 30-5-D Assignment.
the back of the slot on the drawing. OF 0.2
• With reference to the slot tolerance and
assuming that the top surface is smooth
and flat, are the three parts shown
acceptable? 25 & 25.03
15. With reference to Fig. 30-5-C: diameter
Mis to be used as datum A, the end face
of diameter N
is to be used as datum B,
srftz L-0.02
and the two sides of the slot in diameter
N are to be used as datum C. Prepare
Assignments for Unit 30-6,
two drawings, one with ANSI drawing Orientation
1 7. Today's drafters must be capable of inter-
standards the other with ISO drawing
preting and preparing drawings for use
standards, which will identify these
datums. in other countries as well as in their own
1 6. Prepare a three-view drawing showing locality.From the information shown in
Fig. 30-6-A prepare a three-view sketch
the datums and feature control frames
for Fig. 30-5-D. 0.3
showing the datums and geometric tol-
erancing for use in the United States and
with ISO standards.
18. The surfaces shown in Fig. 30-6-B are
required to be controlled in the follow-

25 -$ PART 3 T25.3
ing manner. Surfaces A, B, C, and D are
datums A
B, C, D, respectively. Prepare a
three-view drawing showing the

Fig. 30-5-B
'n^
Assignment.
1
datums and feature control symbols
from the information supplied.
In Fig. 30-6-C it is required that the hole
9.
be parallel with datum A within ±0.5°.
Given that the tangent of 0.5° is 0.0087,
show the drawing callout and describe
N
the tolerance zone.
20. In Fig. 30-6-D it is functionally necessary
that the shaft portion of the part not
depart from perpendicularity with the
holes by more than the tolerance spec-
ified. Show the drawing callout for this,

and indicate the shape and size of the

-DATUM A IS TO BE STRAIGHT WITHIN
.008 FOR THE 4.00 LENGTH BUT THE
STRAIGHTNESS ERROR NOT TO EXCEED
.002 FOR ANY 1.00 LENGTH
-DATUM B IS TO BE FLAT WITHIN .004
-SURFACE B IS TO BE PARALLEL TO
DATUM C-D WITHIN
Fig. 30-5-A Assignment.
tolerance zone.
2 1 Sketch the basic elements of a gage to
check the perpendicularity requirement
in Fig. 30-6-E. If the large hole were
round and straight and at the size mea-
.006
sured, what would be the greatest
Fig. 30-5-C Assignment. angularity error of the hole axis?

648 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 SLOT -DATUM SURFACE A

0.250 +.002
-.000

/
1

d
w
0.898
t .001

_, J
Fig. 30-6-C Assignment.

SURFACE C

BRACKET + .000
- BOTTOM TO BE DATUM A O 1.004
-.002
- BACK TO BE DATUM B
- HOLE TO BE PERPENDICULAR TO BOTTOM WITHIN .003
- BACK TO BE PERPENDICULAR TO BOTTOM WITHIN .004
- TOP TO BE PARALLEL WITH BOTTOM WITHIN .005
-SURFACE C TO HAVE AN ANGULARITY TOLERANCE OF 006
WITH THE BOTTOM. SURFACE D TO BE THE SECONDARY 1.25

DATUM FOR THIS FEATURE.

- THE SIDES OF THE SLOT TO BE PARALLEL WITH EACH
OTHER WITHIN .002
Fig. 30-6-A Bracket. + .001
O 502
-.000

SURFACE E-

MAXIMUM PERPENDICULARITY TOLERANCE BETWEEN

HOLES AND SHAFT .005 IN 1.00 IN.
Fig. 30-6-D Assignment.

60° + 1° _L 0.05 (m) A

-36
•0.1

SURFACE Q—f \

16.5
DOVETAIL SLIDE
-SURFACE D OF THE DOVETAIL MUST HAVE AN ANGULARITY
TOLERANCE OF 0.05mm WITH DATUM A.
-SURFACE C SHOULD BE PERPENDICULAR TO DATUM A WITHIN
0.03mm.
-SURFACE E MUST BE PERPENDICULAR TO DATUMS A AND D
WITHIN 0.02mm. MEASURED SIZE OF LARGE HOLE 16.62

Fig. 30-6-B Dovetail slide. Fig. 30-6-E Assignment.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 649

Assignments for Unit 30-7, Only the dimensions related to the
Tolerancing for Location of datums need be shown. Scale is 1:1.
Features Datum information is as follows:
22. If coordinate tolerances as shown in Fig.
• Primary datum (three points). Points A, 60Q +
30-7-A are given, what are the shapes of
the tolerance zones and the distance one-fifth the height distance from the top
between extreme permissible positions and bottom, respectively. Point A3 is
of the holes?
on the center of surface A/ midway
located CALCULATE TOLERANCE TO
23. In Fig. 30-7-B add the largest equal toler-
between the center of the hole and the NEAREST .001
ances so that two such parts are
if
right end. MAXIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN
assembled with the edges aligned, the HOLE CENTERS = .025
Secondary datum is a datum line located
distance between their hole centers Fig. 30-7-C Assignment.
on the center of surface D.
could never be more than that shown.
Tertiary datum is a datum point located on
24. If a tolerance shown in Fig. 30-7-C is
the center of surface £
specified for the vertical dimension,
what tolerance should be added to the
horizontal dimension to meet the same +.002
-©.502
requirement as that required in Assign-
ment 23?
25. In order to assemble correctly, the hole in
the part in 30-7-D must not vary
Fig.
from its by more than that
true position
shown on the drawing when the hole is
at its smallest size.
(a) Show suitable tolerancing to achieve
this:

• By means of coordinate tolerancing

• By positional tolerancing without MMC
(A)
• By positional tolerancing on an MMC basis

(b) What would be the maximum per-

*-.860-M
missible departure from true position if
MAXIMUM VARIATION OF HOLE
the hole were at its maximum diameter, IN ANY DIRECTION = .0014
using positional tolerancing RFS?
Fig. 30-7-D Assignment.
(c) What would be the maximum per-
missible departure from true position
with a maximum-diameter hole and a
positional tolerance on an MMC basis? .75 I .02
26. The part shown in Fig. 30-7-E is set on a
revolving table, adjusted so that the part
revolves about the true-position center
of the large hole.
(a) both indicators give identical read-
If

ings and the results shown are obtained,

(B)
1.25 t .03

O "4>
Fig. 30-7-A Assignment.
which parts are acceptable?
(b) What is the positional error for each
part?
27. With reference to Fig. 30-7-D a pro-
jected tolerance zone of .60 in. is 8 +0.06
required for the 0.502 in. hole. Show
how this would be added to the feature
control frame.
0.24(M)
Lffl

Assignments for Unit 30-8,

Datums for Positional
PART SIZE OF HIGHEST LOWEST
Tolerancing NO. MANDREL READING READING
28. On a B- or A3 -size sheet, make a three-
view drawing of the bearing housing 1 8.00 1.54 1.32

shown in Fig. 30-8-A showing the I -"1 20+ r*~ 2 8.06 0.18 -0.07
datum features. Only the dimensions 3 7.96 1.87 1.59
related to the datums need be shown.
CALCULATE TOLERANCES 4 7.94 1.72 1.48
Scale is half size or 1 .2.
TO NEAREST 0.02 : 8.00 1.95 1.85
29. On make a two-
a B- or A3-size sheet, MAXIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN
view drawing of the part shown in Fig. HOLE CENTERS = 0.5 6 8.05 1.24 1.02

30-8-B showing the datum features. Fig. 30-7-B Assignment. Fig. 30-7-E Assignment.

650 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

 DATUM AND LOCATION o .001

ROUNDS& FILLETS R.20 LOCATION FROM

DATUM
PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY

DATUM A
DESCRIPTION

TARGET AREAS
Al
DATUM
PLANE
DATUM
PLANE
.60
DATUM
PLANE
1.40
0.750
1
+ .000
CM^
-.006
0.50 A2 .60 5.00

DATUM B
TARGET LINES
A3
B4
3.60 3.20

.80
ABC
B5 5.60
0.748 -0.746 0.744
DATUM C
TARGET POINT C6 .60 1.80

zSECONDARY DATUM PLANE

TERTIARY DATUM PLANE

-O.750
SECTION SECTION
A-A B-B
-0 1.20
Fig. 30-9-A Assignment.

-0 12 METRIC
-PRIMARY DATUM PLANE -0.25

Fig. 30-8-A Assignment.

=f r

120- Fig. 30-9-B Assignment.

70
SURFACE
E
^ 20
40

80-
1.
PRIMARY DATUM PLANE
.SURFACE D- -40-
15
-SECONDARY DATUM PLANE
TERTIARY DATUM PLANE

HEIGHT
60
SURFACE
M
SURFACE
N
T
30
'i
_L

Fig. 30-8-B Assignment.

PART 2
Fig. 30-9-C Assignment.
Assignments for Unit 30-9,
Circularity (Roundness) 31. Add circularity tolerances to the diame-
and Cylindricity ters shown in Fig. 30-9-B. The circularity 25 10.5- METRIC
30. Sketch the tolerance zone for the cir- tolerances are to be one-fifth of the size
cularity tolerance in Fig. 30-9-A. If tolerances for each diameter.
measurements made at cross sections 32. Show on each part in Fig. 30-9-C a cylin-
The size of the cylindri- 10
AA, BB, and CC, indicate that all points drical tolerance. 0.08
on the periphery fall within the annular cal tolerance is to equal one-quarter the
each diameter.
rings shown, would you conclude that
the part met the specified circularity tol-
size tolerance for
33. Sketch the tolerance zone for the cylin- xy 0.02
T
erance? If not, which cross section is not drical tolerance in Fig. 30-9-D indicating

acceptable? its size and shape for a part shown. Fig. 30-9-D Assignment.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 651

Assignments for Unit 30-10,
Profile Tolerancing
o .008 A B

34. In Fig. 30- 0-A it is required to have the

1

form of the indented portion controlled

by the line profile tolerance of .006 in.
Show the tolerance and sketch the
resulting tolerance zone on the drawing.
35. It is required to control the profile in Fig.
30- 0-B with the tolerance described on
1

the drawing. Add the line profile toler-

ance to the drawing and sketch the
resulting tolerance zone.
36. Draw the tolerance zone, showing its

relationship to the datums, for the profile Fig. 30-10-C Assignment.

tolerance shown in Fig. 30-10-C.
37. A cam is dimensioned as shown in Fig.
30-10-D. If parts are measured with an

indicator which was set to zero and the

following readings were obtained,
which parts shown in the chart would
be acceptable? Of the nonacceptable
parts, which could be made acceptable
by regrinding? r> 0.5 A B

Fig. 30-10-A Assignment.

DISTANCE FROM CENTER

ANGLE C RAD ANGLE PART PART PART PART
1 2 3 4

fHEih| 24.5 24.6 24.7 24.5 24.4

2 RAD
30 27.5 30 27.8 27.7 27.4 27.4

60 27.5 60 27.6 27.6 27.25 27.5

90 25 90 25.1 25 24.6 25.1

120 22 120 22.4 21.9 21.7 22.1

150 20.5 150 20.6 20.4 20.2 20.5

180 180 20.2 19.8 19.6 20.1

.+.02
| :
'-.00
TO 20 TO TO TO TO TO
270 270 20.3 19.75 20.3 20
CONTROL THE PROFILE A TO 3 WITH 300 20.5 300 20.4 20.4
20.3 20.2
A LINE PROFILE TOLERANCE OF .003
EXCEPT THAT THE .546 STRAIGHT
PORTION CAN BE PERMITTED TO VARY 330 22 330 21.9 22 21.7 21.9
VERTICALLY BY + .01.

Fig. 30-10-B Assignment. Fig. 30-10-D Assignment.

652 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

Assignments for Unit 30-1 1,
Correlative Tolerances
38. In Fig. 30-1 1-A show tolerances which
will ensure that features are symmetrical
3FLAT SURFACES COPLANAR WITH ONE
maximum material
at their conditions as
ANOTHER WITHIN .001 AND PERPENDIC-
shown on drawings. ULAR WITH AXIS OF CENTER HOLE
39. It is required to have the three flat sur- WITHIN .002
faces in Fig. 30-1 1-B coplanar with one
another and perpendicular with the axis
of the center hole within the tolerances
specified. Add suitable geometric toler-
ances to the drawing. Show the toler- -.000
ance zones for the part
Fig. 30-1 1-B Assignment
40 It is required to have the top diameter in

Fig. 30- 1-C concentric with the bottom

1

when resting on surface A

diameter,
Show how this should be specified on
the drawing on an RFS basis.
41 Show the size and form of the tolerance
zone for the concentricity tolerance
shown in Fig. 30- 1 I -D.
35 10.05
42. The part shown in Fig. 30-1 1-E is
intended to function by rotating with
the two end diameters supported in
bearings. The two larger diameters are
15 CONCENTRIC WITH 35 WITHIN 0.03
required to run true within the tolerance WHEN RESTING ON SURFACE A
specified. Show how this would be
toleranced.

®-' 5
<o£ 2HOLES \-SURF ACE A

4 L"
Fig. 30-1 1-C Assignment.

® 0.06 M N

— .2 40 + .006

RECTANGULAR PROJECTION TO BE '

SYMMETRICAL WITH HOLES WITHIN .002

„ „„ +0.03
20
12
0.02

+ .008
® J56 -.000

.000 F '9- 30-1 1-D Assignment.

.004

0.156 HOLE TO BE SYMMETRICAL WITH 1

-.002
0.546 WITHIN .001

f.004
1
.312 1 .004 .000 +
|l.00 '
.1
PART
'

TC J

Zl
THE 2 SLOTS TO BE SIMULTANEOUSLY
SYMMETRICAL WITH THE 1.000 WIDTH >— 0.389 + .000 TWO LARGER DIAMETERS TO RUN TRUE
WITHIN ZERO TOLERANCE -.002 WITH NOT MORE THAN .001 FIM
Fig. 30-1 1-A Assignment. Fig. 30-1 1-E Assignment.

ENGINEERING TOLERANCING 653

CHAPTER 31
Descriptive
Geometry

UNIT 31-1
Graphic Solutions
A major problem in technical drawing
and design is the creation of projec-
views of lines
tions for finding the true
and planes. The following is a brief
review of the principles of descriptive
geometry involved in the solution of
such problems. The designer working
along with an engineering team can
solve problems graphically with geo-
metric elements. Structures that
occupy space have three-dimensional
forms made up of a combination of
geometric elements (Fig. 31-1-1). The
graphic solutions of three-dimensional
forms require an understanding of the
space relations that points, lines, and
planes share in forming any given
shape. Problems which many times
require mathematical solutions can
often be solved graphically with an
accuracy that will allow manufacturing
and construction. Basic descriptive
geometry is one of the designer's
methods of thinking through and solv-
ing problems. In the 18th century a
French mathematician, Gaspard
Monge, developed the principles of
graphically solving spatial problems
related to military structures. Descrip-
tive geometry was introduced to the
U.S. Military Academy at West Point
by Claude Crozet in 1816. The
Mongean method of presentation has
changed, but the basic principles are Fig. 31-1-1 Geometric space-frame structure, Franklin Park Mall, Toledo, Ohio. |Unistrut Corp.)

654 ADVANCED DRAFTING DESIGN

still taught in engineering schools
throughout the world. The visual stud-
ies required in descriptive geometry
assist in the development of the rea-
soning powers used in graphically
solving problems.
In this chapter a graphic technique is
used to analyze all geometric
ments. The visual examination of geo-
metric elements will assist in the
description of structures of every pos-
sible shape. The basic shape of most
structures designed by human beings
is rectangular. This is a result of the
relatively simple planning needed to
form type of structure. Figure
this
31-1-2 shows the basic geometric ele-
ments and some of the common and
unusual geometric features of engi-
neering designs.
ele-
REFERENCE PLANES
Unfolding of the reference planes
forms a two-dimensional surface
which a drafter uses to construct and
solve problems (Fig. 31-1-3). The
planes are labeled so that T represents
the top or horizontal reference plane,
F represents the front or vertical refer-
ence plane, and 5 represents the side
(end) or profile reference plane. Thus a
point 1 on the part, line, or plane would
be identified as \ F on the front refer-
ence plane, \ T on the top reference
plane, and l s on the side reference
plane.
The folding lines shown onbox the
on the
are referred to as reference lines
drawing. Other reference planes and
reference lines are drawn and labeled
as required.

4- +
+ 4-
+ • •
4
STRAIGHT CURVED

(A) POINTS (B) LINES

CIRCLE ELLIPSE TRIANGLE SQUARE PENTAGON HEXAGON

(C) PLANES

TRIANGULAR CYLINDER CONE

PRISM

TETRAHEDRON HEXAHEDRON OCTAHEDRON DODECAHEDRON ICASAHEDRON

(D) SOLIDS
Fig. 31-1-2 Basic geometric elements and shapes.

DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY 655

 ^TOP OR HORIZONTAL TOP VIEW
-FOLDING LINES / REFERENCE PLANE

S^ IT
/// T
-SIDE OR PROFILE
REFERENCE PLANE S
DEPTH

F S
T i

.H^
y ^s. r>
h IS
F I

\ ^ X" HEIGHT F S

^pP
1/
1

PART
A

^ WIDTH — DEPTH -\
FRONT VIEW SIDE VIEW
-FRONT OR VERTICAL
REFERENCE PLANE F
(A) AND B IDENTIFIED ON
POINTS A
UNFOLDED REFERENCE PLANE
(A) PICTORIAL VIEWOF REFERENCE PLANES

TOP REFERENCE PLANE

REFERENCE
LINES

IT
~T ^-FOLDING LINE
' /
// REFERENCE L
THE DRAWING

IS
IF

H \— DEPTH —

«-D—
(B) POINTS A AND B IDENTIFIED TO
SIDE REFERENCE LINES
FRC NT REFERENCE PLANE REFE RENCE P LANE
Fig. 31-1-4 Points in space.
(B) UNFOLDING OF THE THREE REFERENCE PLANES
Fig. 31-1-3 Reference planes.

POIMTS are placed in the same position as the and side views (lines A TB T and A S B S ,

fold lines in Fig. 3 1-1-4 A. respectively).

A point can be considered physically
real and can be located by a small dot Inclined Lines A line that appears
or a small cross. It is normally identi- LINES IN SPACE inclined in one plane, as shown in Fig.
fied by two or more projections. In 31-1-5B. and is parallel to one on the
Lines in descriptive geometry are
Fig. 31-1 -4A pointsA and B are located other two principal planes will appear
grouped into three classes depending
on all three reference planes. Notice