IGCSE

BIOLOGY

Topic 1: Characteristics of Living Organisms

• Movement: Action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of place

• Respiration: The chemical reaction in cells that break down nutrient molecules and release energy for
metabolism
• Sensitivity: The ability to detect or sense stimuli in the internal or external environment and to make
appropriate response. For example, sunflower moving toward the direction of the sun
• Growth: A permanent increase in size and dry mass, by an increase in cell number or cell size or both
- Piglet-Pig
• Excretion: Is the removal of the waste products from metabolism (chemical reactions in cells including
respiration) from organisms, toxic materials and substances in excess of requirements
• Nutrition: The taking in of materials for energy, growth and development. Plants require any light, water,
carbon dioxide and ions. Animals require organic compounds, ions and usually need water
• Reproduction: The processes that makes more of the same kind of organism
Classification

• Binomial System of Naming: An internationally agreed system in which the scientific name of an organism is
made up of two parts showing the genus and species
• Genus+Species- Homo+Sapiens
• Classification systems aim to reflect evolutionary relationships
• It is a method that is traditionally based on the study of morphology and anatomy
• The sequences of basis of DNA and of amino acids in proteins are used as a more accurate means of
classification
• Organisms which share a more recent ancestor have base sequences in DNA that are more similar than
those who only share a distant ancestor
• Organisms can be classified into groups by the features they share
• Species: A group of organisms that can reproduce fertile offspring
• Organisms can be classified based on physical similarities

Features of Cells in Living Organisms

- Cell membrane
- DNA as genetic material
- Ribosomes for protein synthesis
- Enzymes (involved in respiration)

The Five Kingdoms & their Classification

• Animals • Prokaryote
- Multicellular - Unicellular
- No cell wall - No nucleus
- Heterotrophic feeders - Saprophytes
- E.g. Mammals - E.g. Bacteria
• Plantae • Protoctistans
- Multicellular - Unicellular
- Have cell walls and chlorophyll - Have a nucleus
- Autotrophic feeders - E.g. Amoeba
- E.g. All green plants

• Fungi
- Multicellular
- Have cell walls made of chiton
- Do not have chlorophyll
- Saprophytic feeders: live on dead or decomposing matter
- E.g. Mushrooms
Vertebrates
 Classes Exoskeleton Body Body Parental care, Sense Habitat/
Temperature Temperature reproduction, organs and Movement
type of limbs
fertilisation and
where do
young develop
Moist, Poikilothermic Take O2 • External • Eyes • Aquatic-
overlapping dissolved in fertilisation • Lateral fresh water
scales water through • lay eggs and lines estuarine or
gills young hatch • Sense marine
out organs • Swim
Fish • Limited care • Fins for
except for sea moving,
horse different
ones for
various
purposes
Moist and slimy Poikilothermic Can breathe • Male mates • Eyes and • Can live on
skin with no through moist with female nostrils for land or water
exoskeleton skin and lungs for her to lay sight and but need
Amphibians eggs. smell water to
• External reproduce
fertilisation offsprings
• Young
resemble fish
Dry scales Poikilothermic • Breathe • Lay eggs and • Eyes for Terrestrial
through young hatch sight
Reptiles nostrils out • Nostrils for
• Have lungs • Males mate smell
with females
Feather- down Homeothermic • Take O2 • Internal • Eyes • Mostly aerial
and tight from air fertilisation • Nostrils • Some are
through • Lay fertilised • 2 legs for Terrestrial &
Birds nostrils eggs walking aquatic
• Mouth • Young hatch • Wings for • Fly, walk, hop
• Beak out of eggs flying and swim
• Have lungs
Majority don’t Homeothermic • Take O2 • Don’t lay • Paws • Land and
have an from air eggs, give • Feet some in sea
Mammals exoskeleton through birth to live • Nostrils (aquatic)
nostrils and young • Eyes • For example
mouth whales and
• Have lungs dolphins

Common Features
- Spinal chord in the vertebrate column
- Skull has jaw bones and teeth
- Front end of the spinal chord is expanded into a brain protected by the skull

Flowering Plants
Feature Monocotyledon Dicotyledon
Leaf shape Long and narrow Broad
Leaf veins Parallel Branching
Cotyledons (embryonic leaf in One Two
seed-bearing plants, one or more
of which are the first leaves to
appear from a germinating seed)
Grouping of flower parts, sepals In threes In fives
and carpels

Arthropods

• There are more arthropods than any other group of animals

• Arthropod means ‘jointed foot’- all arthropods have jointed appendages (limbs)
• Segmented bodies
• Waterproof exoskeleton for protection and support (shed during moulting)
• Open circulatory system
• Compound eyes (has many individual units)
• Excretory structures called Malpighian Tubules
• Wings in many groups
• Respiration using spiracles and trachea

Group Body Parts Number of Legs Antennae Eyes

Myriapods • Waterproof body • 100+ • 2 • 2

- Millipede covering
• Hard exoskeleton
• Segmented body
Crustaceans • Jointed limbs • 10 • 2 • 2
- Crab • Gills under the shell
• Hardened claws
Arachnids • Simple eyes • 8 • 0 • 8
- Spider • Combined head and
thorax
• Abdomen
• Powerful piercing jaws
Insects • Compound eyes • 6 • 2 • 2
- Fly • Antennae
• Mouthparts
• 2 pairs of wings
• Separate head, thorax
and abdomen

Features of Viruses
- Protein coat (capsid) which protects the single strand of nucleic acid
- Have either a single strand of DNA or RNA
- Capsomeres (subunit of capsid)
- The only life process they show is reproduction within the host cell

Topic 2: Organisation of the Organism

 Part Description Found Function

Animal and Plant Cells Cytoplasm • Jelly-like substance • Enclosed by the • Contains cell
that contains particles membrane organelles e.g.
and organelles mitochondria
• Place where chemical
reactions take place
Membrane • Partially permeable • Around the cytoplasm • Prevents the cell
layer that forms a contents from
boundary around the escaping
cytoplasm • Controls what
substances enter and
leave the cell
Nucleus • Round/oval structures • Inside the cytoplasm • Controls cell:
containing DNA in the - Division
form of chromosomes - Development
- Activity
Plant Cells Only Cell wall • Tough, non-living layer • Around the outside of • Prevents plant cells
made of cellulose that the cell membrane from bursting
surrounds the • Permeable (allows
membrane water and salts to
pass through
Sap Vacuole • Fluid-filled space • Inside the cytoplasm • Contains salts and
surrounded by a of plant cells sugars
membrane • Contains water
necessary to provide
turgor pressure
Chloroplast • Organelle contain Inside the cytoplasm of • Traps light energy for
chlorophyll some plant cells photosynthesis

• The cytoplasm of cells contain ribosomes on rough endoplasmic reticulum and vesicles
• Almost all cells, except prokaryotes, have mitochondria and rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Mitochondria is where aerobic respiration takes place
• Cells with a high rate of metabolism require large numbers of mitochondria to provide sufficient energy

Specialised Cells

Palisade Mesophyll Cells

- Absorbs light energy for photosynthesis
- Packed with chloroplasts
- Regular shaped
- Cells are closely packed which form a continuos layer for efficient
absorption of sunlight

Ciliated Cells
- Have tiny hairs called ‘cilia’ which move mucus in the trachea and
bronchi
- Can waft mucus with bacteria and dust away from the lungs
 Root Hair Cells
- Absorb water and mineral ions from the soil
- Long finger-like with a very thin wall
- Large surface area for efficient absorption
Egg Cells
- Fertilise with sperm cells
- Spherical
- Large surface area for absorbing water
- Large nucleus for the genetic material of the baby

Xylem Vessels
- Long, thin cells arranged end-to-end to form vessels
(tubes).
- Have no end walls, cytoplasm and nucleus
- Walls are lignified
- Transport water and mineral ions from the roots to Nerve Cells
leaves
- Lignin provides strength for the stem and makes the - Transmit messages from one part of the body to
vessels waterproof another
- Conduct impulses
- Long axon allows it to deliver an action potential
along the way

Red Blood Cells

- Contain haemoglobin to carry oxygen to cells
- Thin outer membrane to let oxygen diffuse
through easily
Sperm Cells
- Fertilise the female egg cell (female gamete)
- The head contains genetic information and an
enzyme to help penetrate the egg cell membrane
- The middle section is packed with mitochondria for
energy
- The tail moves the sperm to the egg

Levels of Organisation

• Tissues: A group of cells with similar structures, working together to perform a shared function. E.g Muscle
• Organ: A structure made up of a group of tissues, working together to perform specific functions. E.g Lungs
• Organ System: A group of organs with related functions working together to perform body functions. E.g Circulatory
 Topic 3: Movement In And Out Of Cells
Diffusion

• The net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower
concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement
- Substances move into and out of cells by diffusion through the cell membrane
- Diffusion of gases and solutes are very important as they allow crucial processes such as gas exchange to
happen
- Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of random movement of molecules and ions
Factors Affecting Diffusion

• Distance
- Shorter the better
- Smaller distance to travel means faster rate
- E.g. Thins walls of alveoli and capillaries
• Concentration Gradient
- Bigger the better
- This can be maintained by removing the substance as it passes across the diffusion surface
- E.g. Oxygenated blood being carried away from the surface of alveoli
• Surface Area
- Larger the better
- More surface area means more space can be occupied
- E.g. Millions of alveoli in the lungs, giving a huge surface area for diffusion of oxygen
• Temperature
- High the better
- Molecules receive more kinetic energy at higher temperatures and therefore move at a quicker pace
Osmosis
- The net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a
region of lower water potential (concentrated solution), through a partially permeable membrane
- Water diffuses through partially permeable membranes through the process of osmosis
- Water moves in an out of cells by osmosis through the cell membrane
Endosmosis
- When placed in a dilute solution, plant tissues will take in water by osmosis
- This is because there is a higher water potential outside the cell tissue than inside
- Plant cells will become turgid due to the turgor pressure created by an increase in water inside the tissue
Exosmosis
- When placed in a concentrated solution, water will leave the cell by osmosis
- This is because there is a lower water potential outside the tissue than inside the tissue
- The tissues become flaccid and plasmolysis occurs
- Plasmolysis is the shrinking of the cell’s membrane due to water moving out of the cell and into a
hypertonic solution

Water Potential
- A high water potential is equivalent to a low solute concentration and vice versa
- For plants to take in water through their roots, they must have a high solute concentration or low water
potential in the roots compared to the soil
- If animal cells are placed in a solution that has a higher solute concentration than the cytoplasm, then water
will leave the cell by osmosis, until it shrinks and dies
- If animal cells are placed in a solution that has a lower solute concentration than the cytoplasm, then water
will enter the cell by osmosis until it bursts

Turgor Pressure
- Water enters plants cells through osmosis and the fluid pushes against the cell wall
- This creates a pressure known as turgor pressure
- The cell wall of the plant cell is strong and provides a rigid and sturdy structure and can withstand that
pressure
- This causes the cells to expand and become turgid, thus keeping a plant upright and steady
Active Transport
- The movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of
higher concentration using energy from respiration
- It goes against a concentration gradient
- Ion uptake by root hairs, and uptake of glucose by epithelial cells of villi and kidney tubules is carried out by
active transport, making it a vital process

• Protein molecules are known as carriers

- Protein molecules in the cell surface membrane pick up and carry particles across the membrane
- Respiration supplies energy to drive the carrier protein across the membrane
- The particle is then realised into the cell, even against a concentration gradient

Topic 4: Biological Molecules

 Carbs Lipids Proteins
Carbon yes yes yes

Hydrogen yes yes yes

Oxygen yes yes yes

Nitrogen no no yes

• Some large molecules are made from small molecules

- Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose are made from Glucose
- Proteins are made from amino acids
- Fats and oils are made from fatty acids and glycerol
• The following experiments are carried out to test for:
- Iodine solution to test for starch
- Benedict solution to test for reducing sugars
- Biurete test for proteins
- Ethanol emulsions for testing fats and oils
- DCPIP test for vitamin C

• Proteins are polymers made up of long chains of amino acids chemically bonded together
• There are roughly 20 different types of amino acids, so their pattern in the chain can be quite complex
• The molecules can also be of different sizes
• Hence different sequences of amino acids give different shapes to protein molecules

• The particular shape that a protein molecule has allows other molecules to fit into it. This is particularly
important for antibodies and enzymes
• Enzymes are proteins folded into complex shapes that allow smaller molecules to fit into them
• The place where these substrate molecules fit is called the active site
• Antibodies are proteins
• They can neutralise pathogens in a number of ways
• Each lymphocyte produces a specific type of antibody- a protein that has a chemical 'fit' to a certain antigen
• When a lymphocyte with the appropriate antibody meets the antigen, the lymphocyte reproduces quickly and
makes many copies of the antibody to kill the pathogen

Structure of DNA
- Two strands coiled together to form a double helix
- Each strand contains chemicals called bases
- Cross-links between the strands are formed by pairs of bases
- The bases always pair up n the same way. A with T and C with G

• Water is important as a solvent because:

- Transports nutrients, e.g. glucose and amino acids in blood, and
sucrose in phloem
- Removes excretory products, e.g. ammonia, urea
- Helps break down molecules of food and substances in digestion

Topic 5: Enzymes
• Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction
• Enzymes: Proteins that function as biological catalysts

• Enzymes help in most chemical reactions in living organisms

• Enzymes help speed up reactions that would otherwise take too long to happen
• Digestion: if enzymes didn't help in digestion, then molecules wouldn't be able to break down and provide
energy to the body

• Enzymes have active sites in which substrates are attracted to and bind with
• Enzymes either break or make bonds
• The reaction is catalysed at the active site where an enzyme-substrate complex is formed
• After the reaction is completed, the molecule created (product) is released
• Enzymes are very specific (each chemical reaction is controlled by a different enzyme)
• This is due to the shape of the active site
• Only substrates with the same type of shape as the active site will bond together and react

Lock and Key Mechanism

Effect of Temperature
- Suitable temperature is 37oC for humans, and 25oC for plants
- High temperatures speed up the reaction to a certain point
- This is because substrate molecules will move faster, so when they collide with the enzyme, they have more
energy and are more likely to bind to the active site
- Enzymes also receive an increase in energy due to high temperature
- This causes them to vibrate. Eventually, they will vibrate upto a point where they become denatured
- They lose their shape and and can no longer bind to the substrate
- Because of this, high temperatures reduce enzyme activity
- Any damage inflicted on enzymes is usually irreversible
Effect of pH
- Each enzyme has its own optimum pH, which depends on the environment in which it is working
- Changing the acid or base conditions around an enzyme molecule affects its three-dimensional shape and
can denature the enzyme
- The wrong pH will slow down enzyme activity
- This can be reversed if the optimum pH is restored

Topic 6: Plant Nutrition

Photosynthesis: A process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from
sunlight
- Carbon dioxide + water —> glucose + oxygen (in the presence of light and chlorophyll)
- 6CO2 + 6H2O —> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll
- Plants can absorb and use light energy because they contain green pigments known as chlorophyll
- They are found in chloroplasts
- They allow the energy in light to drive chemical reactions
- They are energy transducers, converting light energy into chemical energy
Glucose produced from photosynthesis usually changes to sucrose for transport around the plant, or changes
into starch for storage of energy

• Experiments can be used to find out what is needed for photosynthesis

- First the plant is destarched (kept in the dark for 48 hours)
- Plant uses up stored starch
- Another plant is exposed to all other conditions required- this is the control
- Another plant is deprived of one condition (light or CO2)
- After a few hours, the control plant is tested for starch
- The equation for photosynthesis shows the materials plants need
- When tested for starch, only the parts with chlorophyll contained starch
- For CO2, a plant can be sealed around a container with CO2 absorbing pellets
- The control plant would be in the same conditions without the pellets

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

• Light
- As light intensity increases, so does the rate of photosynthesis
- Light intensity is related to the distance between the light and the plant
- However, a point is reached where all the chloroplasts cannot trap anymore light
• Carbon Dioxide
- Like light, as CO2 intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases
- Air consists of 0.04% CO2, which can limit the rate of photosynthesis
- Due to this, at times, greenhouses are used so that the atmospheric conditions can be controlled
• Temperature
- If it gets too cold, the rate of photosynthesis will decrease. Plants cannot photosynthesise if it gets too hot
Limiting factor: Something preset in the environment in such short supply, that it restricts life processes

Factors Limiting Photosynthesis

• Light: Without enough light, a plant cannot photosynthesise very quickly, even if there is plenty of water and
carbon dioxide
• Carbon Dioxide Concentration: Sometimes photosynthesis is limited by the concentration of carbon dioxide in
the air, even if there is plenty of light and water
• Temperature: If it gets too cold, the rate of photosynthesis will decrease. Plants cannot photosynthesise if it
gets too hot

CO2 Enrichment, Optimum Light and Temperatures in Greenhouses Systems

- To control conditions of plant growth
- Carbon dioxide can easily become a limiting factor
- Greenhouses have closed systems so the air inside them can be controlled
- If light conditions are not at an optimum level, they can be improved by artificial light
Leaf Structure
 Feature Function
Waxy Cuticle - Reduces water loss and reflects heat
- Thicker on the upper surface since it is more exposed to the
warming rays of sunlight
Upper epidermis - A complete covering which is one cell thick
- It is transparent to allow the free passage of light
- Prevents the entry of disease-causing pathogens
Palisade mesophyll - Tall thin cells arranged in columns and separated by very
narrow air spaces
- Contain many chloroplasts
- Dense packing of these cells allows the maximum absorption
of light energy
Vein (vasuclar bundle) - The transport system in and out of the leaf
- Xylem vessels deliver water and mineral salts
- Phloem sieve tubes carry away organic products of
photosynthesis, such as glucose (changed into sucrose)
Spongy Mesophyll - Loosely packed cells and are covered with a thin layer of
water
- Air spaces between them aid the diffusion of gases through
the leaf
- The air spaces are saturated with water vapour so water
diffuses out of the leaf
Air Spaces - Allows communication between the interior and exterior
environment of the plant
Guard Cells - When a plant is short of water or has excess water, these
cells open and close the stoma accordingly
- When there is plenty of water, these cells become turgid
- When there is lack of water, they become flaccid closing the
stoma
Stomata - Minute pores that allow the entry of carbon dioxide and the
exit of oxygen
- Present in the lower epidermis
- This surface is less exposed to the sun’s radiation so that
evaporation of water is kept to a minimum

Mineral Requirements
• Nitrate ions
- Needed to convert the glucose from photosynthesis into amino acids
- If there is a shortage, plants will reduce their rates of photosynthesis since it will need fewer sugars to
make amino acids

• Magnesium ions
- Required for the synthesis of chlorophyll
- If there is a shortage, photosynthesis will reduce as less chlorophyll will be present

Topic 7: Human Nutrition

Diet

Balanced Diet: One which contains all the essential nutrients in the correct proportions to maintain good health

Nutrients required for the body

- Carbohydrates
- Fats
- Proteins
- Vitamins
- Minerals
- Fibre
- Water
Effect of Age, Sex and Activity on Dietary Needs

• Amount of energy needed is provided mainly by carbohydrate and fat intake

• Males usually use up more energy than females, and the energy demand increases until we stop growing
• A person doing physical exercise will use up more energy than someone doing office work
• While children are growing, they need more protein per kilogram of body weight than adults do
• Pregnant women require extra nutrients in order for the foetus to develop

Effects of Malnutrition- A result of an unbalanced diet

• Too much food can lead to obesity, which can further lead to coronary heart disease and diabetes
• Too much animal fat can result in high levels of cholesterol: it can stick to the walls of arteries and can
block them. Blocking will lead to coronary heart disease and angina
• Lack of food can result in starvation. This can result in anorexia nervosa
• Balance of food may be wrong at times: too much carbohydrate and little protein can lead to kwashiorkor in
young children
• Constipation is a result of lack of fibre in the diet
• Vitamin and mineral deficiency (such as Vitamin C) can lead to diseases such as scurvy
Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are needed to give the body energy
- Excess carbohydrate can be stored as glycogen an fat
- There are two types of carbohydrate– starch and sugar
- Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth and small intestine and are absorbed as glucose
- Refined sugars are absorbed rapidly, providing a sudden boost in energy
- Starch is digested and absorbed more slowly, giving a steady supply of energy. They are known as slo
release carbohydrates
- Starch is found in: cereals, cornflour, potatoes, pasta and flour
- Sugar is found in: fruit, vegetables, honey, milk and malt products
Fats
- Fats help to provide concentrated sources of energy and help to insulate the body in cold weather
- They are good stores of energy as they are insoluble in water
- There are two main types: saturated and unsaturated
- Saturated fats are usually obtained from animal sources, for example butter and lard. The exceptions are
coconut and palm oils
- Unsaturated fats come from vegetable sources, such as sunflower oil
Proteins
- Proteins assist with growth and repair of the body
- They are digested in the stomach and small intestine, and absorbed as amino acids
- Proteins are found in animal products like meat, fish, cheese, milk and eggs
- Vegetable sources include soya-bean products, pulses and nuts

Vitamin C & D
Vitamin C
- Needed for: healthy skin, protecting cells, helping absorb iron
- Sources: Fruit, vegetables
Vitamin D
- Needed for: helping absorb calcium, strong teeth + bones
- Sources: margarine, oily fish
- Vitamin D deficiency results in rickets, where the bones stop hardening properly. This causes rickets in which
the legs are bent giving a “bandy legged appearance”

Calcium
- Helps to make bones and teeth
- Sources: Diary products (milk), fish
Iron
- Makes haemoglobin in RBC to carry oxygen to cells
- Sources: Read meat, eggs, green/leafy veg
- Deficiency causes anaemia, where number of RBCs are reduced or haemoglobin
Fibre
- Prevents heart diseases, diabetes, weight gain and some cancers and also improves digestive health
- Sources: Oats, barely, root veg (onions, potatoes)
Water
- Makes up 75% of the human body weight
- Regulates body temperature, keeps body hydrated
- Found in most body fluids
Kwashiorkor
- Sufficient or near sufficient calorie intake but not enough protein in the diet
- Swelling of ankles and feet, dissented abdomen (build up of abdomen fluid), thinning of hair, loss of teeth
Marasmus
- Energy deficiency, not enough caloric intake in the body, weight is reduced by 60%
- Emaciation and shrunken appearance
Alimentary Canal

Ingestion: The taking in of substances (food and drink) into the body through the mouth
Mechanical Digestion: The breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to the food molecules
Chemical Digestion: The break down of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble molecules
Absorption: The movement of digested food molecules/ions through the wall of the intestine and into the blood
Assimilation: The uptake and use of food molecules by cells
Egestion: The passing out of food that as not been digested or absorbed, as faeces, through the anus
Diarrhoea: The loss of watery faeces

Treatment: Oral Rehydration Therapy

- Consists of drinking a solution of mineral ions (salts) to replace the water that has been lost (thus avoiding
dehydration) but also to replace the mineral ions that are drawn from the walls of the intestine

Cholera: A disease caused by bacterium

- The bacterium produces a toxin that causes secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine
- This causes osmotic movement of water into the gut, causing diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of salts from
blood
 Duodenum

Organ Function
Mouth - Carries out ingestion
- Food is mechanically digested by cutting, chewing and
grinding of teeth
- Saliva is added-this contains amylase to begin the digestion
of starch
Oesophagus - Muscular tube which helps food (boluses) move to the
stomach
Stomach - Muscular walls squeeze food to make it semi-liquid
- Contains gastric juice which contains protease to digest
protein and hydrochloric acid to maintain an optimum pH
(1-2.4)
- Acid also kills bacteria
- The low pH denatures enzymes in harmful microorganisms in
foods and gives the optimum pH for pepsin activity
Duodenum - First part of the small intestine
- Receives pancreatic juice (containing protease, lipase and
amylase) which is mixed with semi-liquid food and bile
- Also contains sodium hydrogen carbonate, which neutralises
acid from the stomach, producing a pH of 7-8
Pancreas - Secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum
- Produces the hormones insulin and glucagon
Liver - Makes bile which is stored in the gall bladder
- Bile contains salts that emulsify fats, forming droplets with a
large surface area to make digestion by lipase more efficient
- Digested foods are assimilated here
- E.g glucose is stored as glycogen
Ileum - Longest part of the small intestine
- Enzymes in the epithelial lining break down maltose and
peptides
- Surface area is increased by the presence of villi which allow
the efficient absorption of digested food molecules
Colon - Part of the large intestine
- Main function is the reabsorption of water from undigested
food
- Also absorbs bile salts to pass back to the liver
Rectum - Stores faeces until it is egested

Anus - Has muscles to control when faeces are egested from the
body
Mechanical Digestion

Types of Teeth
Incisor Canine Premolar Molar

Bites off Shreds Grinding Grinding

and cuts and tears and and
pieces food chewing chewing
of food of food of food

Cause of Dental Decay

- Bacteria is present on the surface of teeth
- They form a layer called plaque along with food deposits
- They feed on sugars in the food, creating acid
- The acid dissolves the enamel forming a hole
- The soft dentine layer underneath dissolves much faster
- The hole may reach the pulp cavity, where bacterial infection can get to the nerves
- This can result in a toothache and possibly an abscess (infection in the jaw)

Care of Teeth
- Avoid sugary foods
- Clean teeth regularly to remove plaque
- Use dental floss or a toothpick to remove food between teeth
- Use fluoride toothpaste to harden the enamel
- Brush regularly

Chemical Digestion
- Significant in the alimentary canal as it produces small, soluble molecules the can be absorbed
Functions and Secretion of Various Enzymes

• Amylase: Breaks down starch into simpler sugars (glucose) , secreted in the salivary glands and the pancreas
• Protease: Breaks down protein into amino acids, secreted in the stomach
• Lipase: Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol, secreted in the pancreas, but also found in the mouth
and the stomach

Digestion of Starch

• Amylase is secreted into the alimentary canal and breaks down starch into maltose
• Maltose is broken down by maltase to glucose on the membranes of the epithelium lining the small intestine
Pepsin and Trypsin are two protease enzymes that function in different parts of the alimentary canal
- Pepsin in the stomach
- Trypsin in the small intestine

Roles of Bile
• Neutralisation
- After the stomach, food travels to the small intestine
- The enzymes in the small intestine work best in alkaline conditions, but the food is acidic after being in the
stomach
- A substance called bile neutralises the acid to provide the alkaline conditions needed in the small intestine
- Bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder
• Emulsifying of fats
- Bile is then secreted in the small intestine, and its function is to “emulsify” fat, the purpose to give a
larger surface area for the enzyme lipase to work on

Absorption
- Movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the intestine into the blood
Significance of Villi and Microvilli

• These are finger-like projections found on the epithelial lining of the small intestine
• Very small, approximately 1mm long.
• Each villi is made up of even smaller microvilli

• Increase internal surface area of the intestinal walls

• Larger surface area for absorption
• This is particularly useful because digested nutrients pass into the villi
• This increased surface basically means that the distance travelled by nutrient molecules is decreased, hence
allowing for more efficient absorption of nutrients.

• Inside each villus are blood capillaries that absorb amino

acids and glucose
• Lacteals are also present that absorb fatty acids and
glycerol
• Food molecules are absorbed mainly by diffusion

Topic 8: Transport in Plants

Xylem
- Transport water and mineral ions form the roots to the leaves
Phloem
- Carries sugar & other organic nutrients made by plant from the leaves to the rest of the plant
Water Uptake

• Water is absorbed by plants through their roots

• The large surface area of root hair cells increases the rate of absorption of water by osmosis and ions by
active transport making it much more efficient

Path Taken by Water

- There is a high water potential in the soil and not-so-high water potential in the root hair cell
- Because of this, osmosis occurs and water and inorganic ions move from the soil to the root hair cells
- The inorganic ions and water travel to the xylem tube
- The xylem vessel transports the water and minerals up the xylem tube from the root to stem
- The water and inorganic ions leave the xylem and is absorbed by the cells in the leaves

Transpiration

• Loss of water vapour from leaves by evaporation of water at the surfaces of mesophyll cells followed by
diffusion of water vapour through the stomata

Water Vapour Loss

- Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the leaf
- Water in the mesophyll cells form a thin layer on their surfaces
- The water evaporates into the air spaces in the spongy mesophyll
- This creates a high concentration of water molecules in the air spaces
- Water vapour diffuses out of the leaf into the surrounding air, through the stomata, by diffusion

Transpiration Pull
- Water molecules are attracted to each other (cohesion)
- Water vapour evaporating from a leaf creates a suction
- Pressure of water at the top of the vessels is lower than that of the bottom
- Water move up the stem in the xylem, more water is drawn into the leaf from the xylem. This creates a
transpiration stream, pulling water up from the root

Wilting
- Young plant stems and leaves rely on turgor pressure to keep them rigid
- If the amount of water lost by transpiration is more than the amount absorbed by the roots, the plant will
have a water shortage
- Cells become flaccid
- Stems and leaves lose their rigidity and will start to wilt
Factors Affecting Transpiration Rate

Temperature
- Increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of water molecules, so they diffuse faster
Wind
- Increase in air movement removes water molecules as they pass out of the leaf, maintaining steep
concentration gradient for diffusion

Humidity
- A decrease in humidity results in a lower concentration of water molecules outside the leaf, making a
steeper concentration gradient for diffusion

Light Intensity
- Increase in light intensity allows the stomata to open which allows gas exchange for photosynthesis so
water vapour can diffuse out the leaf

Translocation

• Movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem, from regions of production or of storage (source) to
regions of use for respiration or growth (sink)
• Different parts of the plant may act as a source and a sink at different times during the life of a plant

Topic 9: Transport in Animals

Circulatory System

• A system of blood vessels with a pump and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood
Circulation of a Fish
- Single circulatory system
- Fish have single circulatory systems in which blood passes through the heart only once each time it
completes a full circuit around the fish's body, including through its gills and all other organs and tissues

Double Circulation of Mammals

- There are two distinct parts to a double circulation:

• The pulmonary circulation, in which blood is circulated through the lungs where it is oxygenated
• The systemic circulation, in which blood is circulated through all other parts of the body where it unloads its
oxygen
• A DCS is more efficient than a SCS
• The heart pumps the blood twice, so higher pressures can be maintained
• The blood travels more quickly to organs. In the single circulatory system of a fish, blood loses pressure as it
passes through the gills
• It then travels relatively slowly to the other organs
Heart

Thickness of the Ventricles

• The right ventricle pumps blood only to the lungs while the left ventricle pumps blood to all other parts of
the body
• This requires much more pressure, which is thy the wall of the left ventricle is much thicker than that of the
right ventricle

Thickness of the Atria and Ventricles

• The walls of the atria are thin

• They can be stretched to receive blood as it returns to the heart but can contract with enough force to
push blood through the bicuspid and tricuspid valves into the ventricles
Blood flow
• Blood is pumped away from the heart into arteries and returns to the heart in veins
Importance of the Septum

• The septum separates the two sides of the heart

• The right side of the heart pumps de-oxygenated blood (blood not containing oxygen) to the lungs to pick
up oxygen
• The left side of the heart pumps the oxygenated blood from the lungs around the rest of the body
• Septum ensure that the two compositions of blood do not mix
Functioning of the Heart
- The heart beats as the cardiac muscles in its walls contract and relax
- When they contract, heart becomes smaller, squeezing blood out. This is called systole
- When they relax, the heart becomes larger, allowing blood to flow into the atria and ventricles. This is called
diastole
- Between atria and ventricles are atrio-ventricular valves
- When the ventricles contract, these valves stop blood flowing back into atria
- As the ventricles contract, the blood pushes the semilunar valves upwards
• Activity of the Heart may be monitored by ECG, pulse rate and listening to sounds of valves closing
Effect of Physical Activity on Heart Rate
- Heart beats about 70 times a minute, more if you are younger
- The rate becomes lower the fitter you are
- During exercise the heart rate increases to supply the muscles with more oxygen and glucose
- These are needed to allow the muscles to respire aerobically, so they have sufficient energy to contract
- Regular exercise is needed to keep the heart muscle in good condition
- This results in the heart being more efficient in maintaining blood pressure and reduces the risk of coronary
heart disease

Diet and Exercise Prevent CHD

• Diet consisting of low-cholesterol

• Low sugar foods
• Regular exercise will make your heart and blood circulatory system more efficient
• It will also lower your bad cholesterol level, and also keep your blood pressure at a healthy level

Coronary Heart Disease

• CHD is a heart disease where certain parts of the “coronary artery” becomes clogged with cholesterol, and
substances such as oxygen and nutrients cannot be transported across the body.

Risk Factors

• Diet
• Stress
• Smoking
• Genetic predisposition
• Age
• Gender

Treatment of CHD

Drugs

• Various drugs that help lower cholesterol levels

• Aspirin can reduce the tendency of the blood to clot
Surgery
• Angioplasty
- A long, thin tube (catheter) is inserted into the narrowed part of the artery
- A wire with a deflated balloon is passed through the catheter to the narrowed area
- The balloon is then inflated, compressing the deposits against your artery walls. A stent is often left in the
artery to help keep the artery open
- Some stents slowly release medication to help keep the artery open
• By-pass Surgery
- A surgeon creates a graft to bypass blocked coronary arteries using a vessel from another part of your
body
- This allows blood to flow around the blocked or narrowed coronary artery
- As this requires open-heart surgery, it's most often reserved for cases of multiple narrowed coronary
arteries

Blood and Lymphatic Vessels

Arteries
• Carry blood away from the heart
• Blood is at high pressure
• Blood is rich in oxygen except for the pulmonary artery
• Have a thick layer of muscle and elastic fibres
• Have narrow lumen
• Contain blood under high pressure
Veins
• Carry blood to the heart
• Blood is at low pressure
• Blood is low in oxygen except the pulmonary vein
• Have thin walls
• Have larger internal lumen
• Contain blood under low pressure
• Have valves to prevent blood flowing backwards
Capillaries
• Found in the muscles and lungs
• Microscopic– one cell thick
• Very low blood pressure
• Where gas exchange takes place
• Oxygen passes through the capillary wall and into the tissues, carbon dioxide passes from the tissues into
the blood

Main Blood Vessels Found in Organs

• Heart • Kidney • Lungs

- Vena cava - Renal artery - Pulmonary artery
- Aorta - Renal vein - Pulmonary vein
- Pulmonary artery
- Pulmonary vein

Arterioles
• Smaller vessels that branch into even smaller vessels, which function to regulate the flow of blood into
different tissues

Venules
• Very small blood vessels that allow deoxygenated blood to return from the capillary beds to the larger blood
vessels called veins
Shunt Vessels
• Shunt vessels are blood vessel that link an artery directly to a vein, allowing the blood to bypass the
capillaries in certain areas. Shunt vessels can control blood flow by constriction and dilation

Lymphatic System
- Collection of lymph vessels and glands
- Three main roles
- Production of lymphocytes which protect the body from infections
- Return of tissue fluids to the blood in the form of lymph fluid (prevents fluid build up)
- Absorption of fatty acids and glycerol from the small intestine

Blood

Components

• Red blood cells

- Contain haemoglobin that transport oxygen around the body
• White blood cells
- Produce antibodies (phagocytes and lymphocytes)
• Plasma
- Transports blood cells, ions, soluble nutrients, hormones and carbon dioxide
• Platelets
- Used in clotting of blood

Lymphocytes
- Cytoplasm makes antibodies
- Nucleus controls production of antibodies
- Cell membrane detects antigens

Phagocytes
- Carry out phagocytosis
- Lobed nucleus
- Large cell to store enzymes
- Flexible cell membrane

Clotting
- Blood contains tiny structures called platelets, and a protein called fibrinogen
- When a blood vessel is damaged, a series of chemical reactions happen
- The enzymes released produce prothrombin which is plasma protein
- It is converted to thrombin
- Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin fibres which, form a mesh at the site of the wound
- Platelets get stuck to this mesh which then stop the bleeding
- Prevents blood loss and the entry of pathogens from the external environment
Describe the process of blood clotting

When a blood vessel is damaged, chemical reactions occur. The enzymes released produce a plasma protein
known as prothrombin. This get converted to thrombin, which converts fibrinogen in the blood (a protein) into
fibrin fibres. These help to form a mesh like structure at the wound. Structures in the blood known as platelets
get stuck to the mesh and stops bleeding.

Capillaries and Tissues

- Blood enters capillaries from arterioles
- This allows substances in the plasma and oxygen from RBCs to diffuse through the capillary wall into tissues
- Liquid in the plasma passes out as well
- Forms tissue fluid, bathing the cells
- Waste products diffuse back through the capillaries
 Topic 10: Diseases and Immunity

Pathogen: A disease causing organism

Transmissible Disease: Where pathogens can be passed from one host to the other
- Pathogens may be transmitted either through direct through direct contact (blood or other body fluids) or
from contaminated surfaces, food, animals, from the air

Body’s Defences
1. Mechanical barriers, skin and hairs in the nose
2. Chemical barriers, mucus and stomach acid
3. Cells, phagocytes and lymphocytes (can be enhanced by vaccination)

• Antibodies lock onto antigens which leads to the destruction of pathogens

• Each pathogen is different in terms of genetic make up

• Its antigens have specific shapes
• This requires WBCs to produce specific antibodies which fit the shapes of the antigens
• Only then can the pathogen be destroyed

Active Immunity: A defence against a pathogen by antibody production in the body

- It is gained after an infection by a pathogen, or by a vaccination
- Long term
Vaccination
- Harmless pathogen given which has antigens
- Antigens trigger an immune system response by lymphocytes which produce antibodies
- Memory cells are produced that remember the antibody produced and provide long-term immunity
- These cells release the antibodies when the same pathogen enters the body
- Protects the body from potential pathogens
- Hence, if a pathogen does enter the body, the antibodies produced eliminate them which prevents the
spreading of pathogens
- This reduces the number of host cells pathogens can inhabit as antibodies protect the body

Passive Immunity: Short-term defence against a pathogen by antibodies acquired from another individual
- Mother to infant
• During passive immunity, memory cells are not produced as it is short term

• A mother’s antibodies cross the placenta and are in breast milk

• The new born child temporarily is immune to pathogens for which the mother produced antibodies, E.g gut
infections
• This keeps the baby healthy

• Some diseases are caused by the body producing antibodies which destroy its own cells
• Type 1 diabetes is an example where the body destroys it own insulin-producing cells by an immune reaction
 Topic 11: Gas Exchange in Humans

Alveoli: Surface of Gas Exchange

• Features
- The walls of the alveoli are made from a single layer of cells– allows for gases to easily diffuse in
and out of the capillaries
- The alveoli have a moist lining– The oxygen dissolves into the moist lining and enters the blood
stream
- Large surface area– The lungs contain a lot of alveoli, allowing for more gas to be exchanged

1. Trachea
2. Pulmonary Vein
3. Pulmonary Artery
4. Bronchiole
5. Alveoli
6. Lung
7. Bronchiole
8. Bronchiole
9. Bronchiole
10. Bronchi
11. Larynx

Ventilation
Breathing In (Inspiration) Breathing Out (Expiration)
External ITM Contract and pull the rib cage Relaxed
upwards and outwards
Internal ITM Relaxed Contract, causing the rib cage to fall
downwards and inwards
Diaphragm Muscles Contract and move the diaphragm Relax and returns the diaphragm to its
downwards dome shape
Lung Volume Increases and the pressure falls Decreases and the pressure rises

Air is Rushed in to fill extra space and Forced out

equalise the pressure
Compositions of Air

Component of Air Inspired Air Expired Air Reason

Oxygen 21% 18% Oxygen has diffused from the
air in the alveoli into the blood
Carbon dioxide 0.04% 3% Carbon dioxide has diffused
from the blood into the air in
the alveoli
Nitrogen 78% 78% Nitrogen gas is not used by
the body
Water vapour Very variable Saturated Water evaporates from
surfaces in the alveoli
Temperature Very variable 37ºC Heat is lost to the air from
the lung surfaces

Exercise and Breathing

- During exercise the muscles work hard and need to release more energy by respiration
- Greater volumes of air must therefore be breathed in and out by increasing the breathing rate (more
breaths per minute) and tidal volume (more air per breath)
- Due to increased respiration, more carbon dioxide is produced
- Any alterations in blood CO2 concentration is detected by sensors in the brain
- Nerve impulses are then sent to the muscles in the chest and the heart
- Rapid breathing will result in more carbon dioxide lost from the lungs
- Rapid heartbeat will result in more blood being pumped to tissues to carry carbon dioxide away

Goblet Cells
- Produce a sticky substance called mucus
- It traps microbes and dust particles
Ciliated Cells
- Have fine hairs on the surface of cells
- They sweep mucus away from the lung surfaces

Gas Exchange of Alveoli and Blood

- An exchange of gases takes place between the gases inside the alveoli and the blood
- Blood arriving in the alveoli has a higher carbon dioxide concentration which is produced during respiration by
the body’s cells
- However, the air in the alveoli has a much lower concentration of carbon dioxide, meaning there is a
concentration gradient which allows carbon dioxide to diffuse out of the blood and into the alveolar air
- Similarly, blood arriving in the alveoli has a lower oxygen concentration (as it has been used for respiration
by the body’s cells), while the air in the alveoli has a higher oxygen concentration
- Therefore, oxygen moves into the blood by diffusion and combines with the haemoglobin in red blood cells
to form oxyhaemoglobin
 Topic 12: Respiration
Uses of Energy
- Muscle contraction
- Protein synthesis
- Cell division
- Active transport
- Growth
- Passage of nerve impulses
- Maintenance of body temperature

Aerobic Respiration

• The chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release energy
• Glucose + Oxygen —> Carbon dioxide + water
Measurement of Oxygen Consumption

• A measured mass of living organisms is put in the chamber

• The spring clip is kept open so that there is an equilibrium of temperature and pressure set up with the
surroundings
• After five minutes or so, the spring clip is closed and the movement of the coloured liquid along the capillary
tube is observed. The time taken for it to move a measured length along the tube is recorded
• The living organisms are removed and the experiment is repeated
• The effect of temperature on respiration can be investigated using this apparatus. The respiratory chamber
can be placed in a thermostatically controlled water bath and the measurements made at a series of
temperatures

Anaerobic Respiration

• The chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules to release energy without using oxygen
• Glucose —> lactic acid (during vigorous exercise)
• Glucose —> Alcohol + Carbon dioxide (in the microorganism yeast)
• This form of respiration releases much less energy per glucose molecule than aerobic respiration

• Lactic acid builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous exercise causing an oxygen debt
• Lactic acid lowers the pH of our muscles, causing enzymes catalysing the contraction of our muscles to
denature
• This leads to cramps and aches
• Stops muscles from functioning properly
• It is broken down in the liver with the help of oxygen
• Lactic acid + Oxygen —> Carbon dioxide + water
• After strenuous exercise the lactic acid generated from anaerobic respiration must be broken down into
harmless chemicals. Oxygen is needed to do this
• Causes us to breath heavily after exercise as we attempt to pay off the oxygen debt
Role of Glomerulus
- Filters water, glucose, urea and salts in the blood under high pressure
- Wastes, plus some useful molecules, plus some water are filtered into the nephron (kidney tubule)
Role of the Tubule
- Reabsorption of all the glucose, most of the water and some salts back into the blood
- Leads to the concentration of urea in the urine as well a loss of excess water and salts

Topic 13: Excretion in Humans

Deamination: the removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form urea
• The molecule is broken down into two parts
• One molecule is converted into fat or carbohydrate and used as a source of energy
• The other molecule (ammonia) combines with carbon dioxide to form urea
• Occurs in the liver
Assimilation
- Amino acids are used in the synthesis of proteins in the liver
- Proteins are converted into amino acids
- Some amino acids are built back into plasma proteins and fibrinogen
- These proteins also help to make new cells
- Excess amino acids are taken to the liver, absorbed and changed into urea
• Excretion is an important function of the body which removes toxic materials, waste products of metabolism
and substances in excess
• Substances like urea and carbon dioxide in particular must be excreted
• Urea, produced during deamination in the liver denatures enzymes which will slow down many metabolic
reactions in the body
• Carbon dioxide, a product of respiration, dissolves in the plasma and tissue fluid to form carbonic acid
(H2CO3) which can denature enzymes and other proteins at high concentrations

Volume and Concentration of Urine

• The amount and concentration of urine is affected by water intake, temperature and exercise
• The volume of urine is increased, and its concentration is decreased, when:
- You drink a lot
- The surrounding temperature is low
- You are not exercising
• The volume of urine is decreased, and its concentration is increased, when:
- You do not drink much
- The surrounding temperature is high
- You are exercising
- The kidneys compensate for this by producing a smaller volume of more highly concentrated urine, as during
exercise, water is lost by sweating

Dialysis

• The kidneys in some people may stop working properly

• If such kidney failure happens, the patient may receive treatment with a dialysis machine. The machine:
- removes urea from the blood
- maintains correct levels of glucose and sodium ions in the blood
• A patient with kidney failure needs to have toxic chemicals removed from the blood to stay alive
• Blood is removed from a vein from the arm, and is kept moving through dialysis tubing in the dialysis
machine using a pump
• The tubing is very long, providing a large surface area
• Dialysis fluid has a composition similar to blood plasma, with no urea or uric acid
• These substances as well as excess salts are removed by diffusion in the blood into dialysis fluid
• Clean blood is then passed through a bubble trap to remove any air bubbles before it is returned to the
patient

Advantages of Transplants Disadvantages of Tranplants

The patient can live a normal life- dialysis requires lengthy Transplants require a suitable donor with a good tissue match
sessions in hospitals, tiring the patient after each session.
A dialysis machine will be available for other patients to use The operation is very expensive

Dialysis machines are expensive to buy and maintain There is a risk of rejection of the donated kidney.
Immunosuppressive drugs may be required
Transplantation is not accepted in some religions

Topic 14: Coordination and Response

Nerve Impulse: An electrical signal that passes along nerve cells called neurones

Nervous System
- The point of the nervous system is to “detect” and “respond” to stimuli
- Stimuli is basically a detectable change in ones internal or external environment
- The Nervous System is split into two essential systems, the Central nervous System and the Peripheral
Nervous System.

Central Nervous System

- The CNS consists mainly of the brain and spinal cord
- The Spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support tissue that runs through a
tunnel in the backbone, essentially protecting it
- The skull protects the brain
- The CNS gives out instructions to the other parts of the body to perform certain jobs
Peripheral Nervous System
- The key job of PNS is to detect stimuli and send impulses to the brain regarding the detected stimuli
- PNS is made out of receptors and nerves which help carry the impulses
Receptor Cells: Cells that detect something about its environment
- There are many receptors in the body which are able to detect a wide variety of things such as
Temperature, Light, Touch, Sound and Chemicals
- Effectors are opposite of receptors
- Effectors respond to stimuli, whilst receptors detect it. Effectors are usually muscle and glands
Voluntary Actions
- Involves the brain and its initiation
- It involves conscious thought, as we make a decision about making the action
Involuntary Actions
- Generally reflexes, which cannot be overridden
- Initiated by sense receptors, which generate electrical impulses
- These actions are automatic, making them faster than voluntary actions
- Activities within the body suck as heartbeat and peristalsis are controlled involuntary

Reflex Arcs
- Process which control reflex relations
- It describes the pathway of an electrical impulse in response to a stimulus
- The path taken for a reflex arc: Sensory Cell → Sensory Neurone → Relay neurone → Motor neurone –>
Effector

Examples:
- Blinking (stimulated by bright light)
- Knee jerk (stimulated by the force applied to the knee)
- Yawning (stimulated by high Carbon Dioxide levels)
Reflex Action: A way of automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating stimuli with the responses of
effectors (muscles and glands)

Synapse: Junction between two neurones

- It ensures that the impulses only travel in one direction
Structure of a Synapse
Nerve Impulses
- An impulse arrives at the synapse
- At the end plate are tiny vesicles containing a chemical (neurotransmitter)
- The chemical is released into the gap
- The chemical diffuses across the gap and the impulse restarts on the other side when the neurotransmitter
binds to the correct receptor molecule
- Drugs such as heroine act upon synapses
- They cause their effects by changing the way neurotransmitters diffuse across the gap
Sense Organs
- Groups of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli: light, sound, touch temperature and chemicals

• Cornea: a transparent layer responsible for

most of the refraction of light rays
• Iris: controls how much light enters the pupil
• Lens: focuses light onto the retina
• Retina: contains light receptors, some
sensitive to light of different colours
• Optic nerve: carries impulses to the brain

Pupil Reflex
• High light intensity:
- Circular muscles of the iris contract
- Pupil reduces in size
- Less light will enter, retina is protected from bleaching
• Low light intensity
- Radial Muscles of iris contract
- Pupil is widened
- More light can enter and reach the retina
Accommodation of the Eye

• Distant Object
- Light needs to be refracted less
- Ciliary muscles relax, eyeball becomes spherical
- Ligaments are tight
- Lens is pulled long and thin
• Close Object
- Light must be greatly refracted
- Ciliary muscles contract, pull eyeball inwards
- Ligaments relax
- Lens becomes short and fat
Rods and Cones

Rods
- Packed most tightly around the edge of the retina
- Provide black-and-white images
- Have greater sensitivity at low light intensity (night vision) as they are wired to a single sensory neurone in
the optic nerve

Cones
- Packed most tightly at the centre of the retina
- Provide detailed images, in colour (there are three types, sensitive to red, green and blue light)
- Only for under high light intensity
Hormones in Humans

Hormone: A chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried by the blood, which alters the activity of one
or specific target organs

Endocrine Organs

• Adrenal glands: Adrenaline- control of preparing the body for action

• Pancreas: Insulin and glucagon- control of blood sugar concentration
• Ovaries in females- Oestrogen and Progesterone- control puberty in females, including development of breasts
and hips, controlling the menstrual and ovulation
• Testes: Testosterone- controls puberty in males, including deepening voice, stronger muscles and growth of
body hair. Also controls development and release of sperm

Adrenaline
- Secreted in flight or fight situations (released when
the body is given a shock)
- Overall effect is to provide more glucose and more
oxygen for working muscles
- Increases breathing and pulse rate
- Widens pupils
- Converts glycogen in muscles to glucose
- Adrenal glands release the hormone
- Skin becomes pale and blood is diverted away
- Its actions are often very rapid and last for a very
short period of time
- Occurs during times of heavy exercise
- Acts as a chemical messenger
- Increases glucose concentration in the blood as it
converts glycogen in muscles
 Comparison Nervous System Endocrine System
Speed Very rapid Can be slow

Duration of response Completed within seconds May take years before complete

Homeostasis

Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal environment

- It controls conditions in the tissue fluid around the cells
- Helps keep optimum conditions constant
Negative Feedback
- It is the change fed back to the effector
Example
- An increase in blood glucose levels would trigger a sensor
- This stimulates a response in an effector
- The response is secretion of insulin
- This would result in glucose levels dropping below normal
- Sensors detect the drop and instruct the effector (pancreas) to stop secretion
Control of Glucose Concentration
- The liver controls the amount of glucose in the blood
- It is further controlled by the hormones insulin and glucagon
- Both hormones are secreted by the pancreas
- Insulin is released when blood sugar is too high, glucose —> glycogen
- Glucagon is releases when blood sugar is too low, glycogen —> glucose

Type 1 Diabetes

Symptoms
- Excessive thirst
- Sweet smelling breath
- High overflow of glucose into urine
Treatment
- Regular injection of pure insulin

Maintenance of Body Temperature

Vasodilation
- Occurs when the body is too hot
- Muscles in the walls of arterioles relax, creating a wide lumen
- This allows a lot of blood to pass through
- More heat is radiated, so one cools down

Vasoconstriction
- Occurs when the body is too cold
- Muscles contract, creating a narrow lumen
- This only allows little blood to pass through
- Less heat is radiated so that it is conserved
Tropic Responses

Gravitropism: A response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from gravity

Phototropism: A response in which parts of a plant grow towards or away from the direction from which light is
coming

Auxins
- Families of hormones found in plants
- They are only made in shoot tips
- They diffuse slowly down the plant from the shoot tip
- They are unequally distributed in response to light and gravity
- Auxins stimulate cell elongation

2,4-D
- This hormone upsets normal growth patterns
- When sprayed on plants, it can cause uncontrolled growth and respiration resulting in the death of the plant
- Some plant species are more sensitive than others to synthetic plant hormones, so weedkillers can be
selective
 Topic 15: Drugs
Drugs: Any substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body

Antibiotics
- Drugs which are used as medicines
- All medicines contain drugs, but not all drugs are medicines: aspirin contains the drug acetylsalicylic
- They kill bacteria and prevent their growth
Antibiotic Resistance
- Over time, bacteria can become resistant to certain antibiotics. This is an example of natural selection
- In a large population of bacteria, there may be some that are not affected by the antibiotic
- These survive and reproduce, creating more bacteria that are not affected by the antibiotic
MRSA
- It is very dangerous because it is resistant to most antibiotics
- To slow down or stop the development of other strains of resistant bacteria, one should:
Always avoid the unnecessary use of antibiotics
Always complete the full course of medication

Antibiotics and Viruses

- Antibiotics kill bacteria
- However they do not affect viruses
- Antibiotics cannot kill viruses because viruses have different structures and replicate in a different way than
bacteria
- Antibiotics work by targeting the growth machinery in bacteria (not viruses) to kill or inhibit those particular
bacteria

Alcohol and Heroin

Alcohol Effects
- Cardiovascular (building up of deposits of fat in the coronary arteries)
- Intestines are irritated, causing indigestion, nausea, diarrhoea and ulcers
- Sex organs become stimulated, but do not work well: sperm count may decrease
- Tongue and oesophagus cancer are much more likely to occur
- Consumption causes damage to the liver, leading to liver failure, where alcohols and toxins are usually
broken down

Heroin Effects
- Addiction to the drug
- Mimics the action of the body’s natural pain killers
- Changes the concentration of neurotransmitters
- Heroin interacts with receptors normally sensitive to natural neurotransmitters
- Provides a fake pleasurable sense of well-being being a narcotic
- Can lead to negative social implications such as crime
- Injection of the drug can cause the infection HIV

Smoking

Effects of Smoking
- Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
- Lung cancer
- Coronary heart disease
Smoking and Lung Cancer
- Smoke inhaled contains many harmful chemicals like tars, carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide
- These are known as carcinogens
- These causes the lung tissues to change and become damaged
- These damaged cells become unrepairable beyond a certain point, and turn cancerous

Effects on Gas Exchange

Carbon Monoxide
- Reduces amount of oxyhaemoglobin
- It binds very tightly to haemoglobin, and the effect is permanent as carboxyhaemoglobin is very stable
- This reduces aerobic respiration
- Reduces oxygen transport across the body

Nicotine
- Chemical causing addiction
- Increases heart beat and makes blood vessels narrower
- These two affects raise blood pressure, causing long term damage to circulation
- Increased heart rate causes demand for oxygen, but CO reduces its availability
- Overall, this leads to the heart muscle getting damaged

Tar
- Causes cancer, which is uncontrolled division of cells
- Cells which line the lower part of the bronchus grow through the basement membrane and invade other
tissues
- It is irritant, causing cough and making the effects of emphysema worse (destroying of air sac walls,
resulting in a smaller surface for gas exchange)

Hormones and Sports

- Effect of these hormones can be used to improve the performance in sport
Anabolic Steroids
- Increase the growth of muscle and reduce fat content of the body
- Increase strength and power: weight ratio is useful in ‘explosive’ sports such and sprinting and shot put
Testosterone
- Stimulates male’s aggressive behaviour
- Aggression can be important in contact sports like rugby
 Topic 16: Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction
- A process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent
Advantages
- Only one parent needed
- Rapid colonisation of favourable environments
Disadvantages
- No variation, so any change in environment conditions will affect all individuals

Sexual Reproduction
- A process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the
productions of offspring that are genetically different from each other

Advantages
- Variation, so new features of organisms may allow adaptation to new environments
Disadvantages
- Two parents needed
- Fertilisation is random, so harmful variations can occur
Nuclei of Gametes: Haploid (23 chromosomes)
Nuclei of Zygote: Diploid (46 chromosomes)

Fertilisation: The fusion of gamete nuclei. It occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a nucleus in an ovule

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Functions of Plant Features

Sepal: Green parts of the plant which protect the flower bud. Disappear after pollination
Petals: Brightly coloured and scented. Produce nectar in some cases. Colour, nectar and scents attract
pollinating insects
Anthers: Contain 4 pollen sacs filled with pollen grains. Each pollen grain contains a male nucleus (male gamete)
Stigma: A ‘platform’ on which the pollen grains land
Ovaries: Hollow chambers where ovules develop in their walls

Insect-Pollinated pollen: sticky/spiky to stick to insects

Wind-Pollinated pollen: very light and smooth, so it can be in the wind and blown to other plants

Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the another of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or
different flower on the same plant

Cross-pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different
plant of the same species

Implications
- In self-pollination, there is not much chance of any genetic variation
- In cross-pollination, there is always risk of the pollen not reaching the other part. The pollinators can be
unreliable
- Also, in some cases of cross-pollination, plants either have male or female flowers. This is risky as plants of
the opposite sex may not be nearby
Growth of the Pollen Tube
- Only produced when pollen lands on a stigma of the same species
- The pollen tube then grows down the style and acts as a channel to deliver the male gamete to the female
gamete
- Once reaching the ovule (which contains the female gamete) the tube locates the micropyle (gap) in the
ovule and allows the male gamete to enter from the tube into the ovule
- Fertilisation occurs when the male and female gametes fuse to form a zygote
Structural Adaptations

Part of Flower Insect-Pollinated Flower Wind-Pollinated Flower

Petals Large, brightly coloured, scented, have Small, green or dull in colour
nectaries
Anthers Stiff, firmly attached where insects will Hang loosely on long thin filaments
brush them
Pollen Small amount, large and sticky grains Enormous quantities of light, smooth

Stigma Flat or lobe shaped, positioned where Long and feathery, hang outside the flower
insects will burst them

Germination

Requirements
- Supply of water
- Oxygen for aerobic respiration
- Suitable temperature for enzymes involved in the process

Sexual Reproduction in Humans

Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive System

Male Reproductive System

• Testes: produce sperm, produces testosterone

• Scrotum: holds the testes outside the body, at the ideal temperature (35%) for the formation of sperm
• Sperm Duct: carries sperm from the epididymis to the penis on copulation
• Prostate gland: helps to produce the seminal fluid which makes up 99.5% of the semen (sperm make up
another 0.5%
• Urethra: carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of the penis
• Penis: passes urine out of the man's body and ejaculates semen into the vagina of a woman during sexual
intercourse
• Epididymis: stores mature sperm for release on copulation
Female Reproductive System

• Ovaries: contain follicles which develop the ova, and produces

• Oviduct: enfolds ovarian follicle at ovulation and transfers the ovum into oviduct on ovulation
• Uterus: the site of growth of the foetus and placenta. Contracts rhythmically to expel foetus at birth
• Vagina: site of copulation. The brith canal
• Placenta: only present during pregnancy and grows from both maternal and foetal tissue. It is the organ that
provides nutrients ad oxygen to the growing foetus and removes excretory materials
• Cervix: neck of uterus is a ring of muscle, until birth, keeps the foetus in the uterus. It relaxes to allow birth
of the baby

Fertilisation: The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete (ovum)

Sperm
- Smaller than the ova
- Produced in huge numbers (300,000,000 per ejaculation)
- Motile: can swim by beating the flagellum (tail)
Adaptive Features
- Flagellum (tail) beats to move the sperm towards the ovum
- Acrosome contains enzymes which help to penetrate the egg cells membrane
- Mitochondria release energy for beating of flagellum
Ovum
- Much larger than sperm
- Produced in small numbers (once a month)
- Do not move, but have a large food store
Adaptive Features
- Jelly coat changes a fertilisation to allow entry of sperm
- Cytoplasm contains food stores for early development of the zygote
• In early development, the zygote forms an embryo which is a ball of cells that implants into the cell wall of
the uterus

Umbilical Cord
- Contains blood vessels which carry materials for exchange between mother and foetus
Placenta
- Exchanges soluble materials such as food, waste and oxygen
- Protects the foetus from the mother’s immune system
- Protects the foetus from dangerous fluctuations in the mother’s blood
Amniotic Sac/Amnion
- A membrane that encloses the amniotic fluid. Gets ruptured before birth
Amniotic Fluid
- Protects the foetus against: mechanical shock, drying out and temperature fluctuations

Foetus: Growth and Development

- Growth is the repeated division of the zygote (mitosis) into many cells that make up the baby in the early
stages of pregnancy
- Development involves the organisation of the cells into tissues and organs, increasing the size of the foetus
towards the end of pregnancy

• Some harmful materials can cross the placenta and the foetus
- Nicotine
- Rubella virus
Antenatal Care

Includes
- Advice on a pregnant women’s diet if too much weight is gained
- Guidance on motherhood
- Checks of foetus and mother
• A pregnant women is advised to have a healthy and nutrient rich diet as she needs it for herself and the
foetus
• Smoking should be avoided as it can lead to foetal injury, premature birth, and low birth weight. Tobacco
contains nicotine, which causes problems in blood flow, which can slow down the growth of the foetus
• Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can cause foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). FAS is a group of mental and
physical defects that may include:
- Intellectual disability
- Heart defects
- Cleft palate
- Defects of the face, fingers, arms, and legs

Breast Feeding vs Bottle-feeding

- Breast milk is low in bacteria
- Contains antimicrobial factors so that infants suffer from fewer infections
- Easily digestible
- Free
- Delivered at body temperature
- Suckling however, may have a contraceptive effect (not always certain)
- Bottled Milk is based on cow’s milk
- The exact quantity of the baby’s food intake can be measured
- People other than the mother can help in feeding
- Formula milk is expensive
- Not so easily digested
- Microbes can be passed to the baby is sanitation is not carried out properly

Process of Labour

• Breaking of the amniotic sac

• Contraction of the muscles in the uterus wall
• Dilation of the cervix
• Passage created for the baby
• Tying and cutting of the umbilical chords
• Delivery of the afterbirth
Sex Hormones in Humans

Testosterone
- Hormone released into the blood during puberty
- Changes behaviour to more aggressive, women become an attraction
- Pituitary gland produces hormones which affect other endocrine organs
- Develops facial hair
- Chest broadens, muscles become larger, voice becomes deep as larynx changes shape
- Stimulated the testes to begin production of sperm
- Penis becomes larger, and scrotum expands to contain larger testes
- Hair develops under armpits and pubic region

Oestrogen
- Hormone released into the blood during puberty
- Changes in behaviour, become more maternal and attracted to boys
- Pituitary gland produces hormone which affect other endocrine organs
- Begins cycle of egg production
- Breasts develop and increase in size, nipples become larger
- Hair develops under armpits and pubic region
- Hips become broader and pelvis widens and fat is deposited
- Vagina becomes larger

• Oestrogen is produced by the ovaries during the menstrual cycle, and in the placenta during
pregnancy
• Progesterone is produced by the ovarian follicle, and in the placenta during pregnancy
Menstrual Cycle

• Hormonally controlled cycle which:

- prepares the uterus to receive any fertilised ova
- Control of development of mature ova
Hormones Present

Follitropin (FSH): produced by the pituitary gland, released from day 5-14, causes growth of the
ovarian follicle
Leutropin (LH): produced by the pituitary gland, released from day 11-14, causing the ovarian follicle
to burst and release the ovum
Oestrogen: released continuously but increasing from day 3, produced by the ovary, cause the growth
and repairs the lining of the uterus
Progesterone: released continually but increasing from day 10, produced by the placenta during
pregnancy, keeps the lining of the uterus ready for implantation and pregnancy

Birth Control in Humans

• Natural: Abstinence
- Prevents fertilisation by abstinence around ovulation or complete abstinence
- Not very effective
• Mechanical: Barriers such as male and female condoms, diaphragm
- Prevents fertilisation by preventing the entry of semen into the vagina
- Effective and also aid in prevention of transmission of STDs
• Chemical: Contraceptive Pills
- Prevents fertilisation by preventing ovulation and making the oviduct hostile to the sperm (killing
the sperm)
- Very effective if used correctly
• Surgical: Sperm Duct (vasectomy and female sterilisation)
- Prevents fertilisation by restricting from the sperm and ovum from meeting
- Completely effective but permanent
Use of Hormones in:

• Contraception
- The contraceptive pill contains the hormones progestogen and oestrogen
- The progestogen causes changes in the lining of the uterus which makes implantation of the zygote
difficult
- The combined pill prevents ovulation
• Fertility Drugs
- These can be used to increase the chance of pregnancy
- FSH and LH treatment causes multiple release of ova, increasing the chance of pregnancy
Artificial Insemination
- AI is way of increasing the chances of a woman having a baby when the male partner is infertile
- It uses sperm form a donor, stored in a sperm bank
- Semen is inserted into the female partner’s uterus around the time of ovulation
- The baby will not carry any genes of the male in the relationship
- However the baby has the right to know who the real father is (sperm donor), but some donors
wish to remain anonymous

Vitro Fertilisation
- If the woman has a problem with blocked oviducts, a doctor can collect the ova produced by FSH
and LH treatment
- Some ova are fertilised in a petri dish using the male partner’s sperm
- Early embryos produced are then inserted into the uterus to achieve pregnancy
- The treatment is quite expensive and not always successful
- Some argue that the world’s population is large enough without creating more babies artificially for
infertile couples

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

STI: An infection that is transmitted via body fluids through sexual contact
- Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in an STI which can lead to AIDS (acquired immune deficiency
syndrome)

Methods of Transmission
- Unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person
- Drug use involving sharing a needle used by an infected person
- Transfusions of unscreened blood
- Infected mother to foetus
- Feeding an infected mother’s milk to baby
- Use of unsterilised surgical treatment
Methods of Control
- Using a condom for sexual intercourse
- Assistance for sexual intercourse
- Screening of blood used for transfusions
- Use of sterilised needles for drug injections
- Feeding a baby with bottled milk when the mother has HIV
- Use of sterilised drug treatments

Effect of HIV
- The virus attacks lymphocytes in the blood stream
- Lymphocytes produce antibodies which attack antigens present on invading microbes
- HIV prevents this immunity being retained, so the aids sufferer has no protection against diseases
such as tuberculosis (TB) and pneumonia
 Topic 17: Inheritance

Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from generation to generation

Chromosomes, Genes and Proteins

Chromosomes: Thread-like structures of DNA carrying genetic information in the form of genes

Gene: A length of DNA that codes for a specific protein

Allele: A version of a gene

Sex in Humans
- Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes present is each human cell, one pair is the sex chromosomes
- These determine the sex of the individual
- Male have XY female have XX
- The presence of a Y chromosome results in male features developing

• The characteristics a cell or an organism possesses depends on the proteins the cell can manufacture
- DNA (as gene) controls the production of - protein, responsible for - characteristics
Nucleotide Structure

- DNA carries its instructions as coded messages using full different chemical compounds

• DNA controls cell function by controlling the

production of protein
• Hair cells contain keratin (a structural protein)
• Antibodies are proteins which pay a part in the
immune response
• Neurotransmitters in the nucleus system bind to
receptor proteins in the synapse

• For one organism to pass on characteristics to

it’s off-spring, it must be able to copy the
coded instructions for these characteristics, and
hand them on
• DNA in the chromosomes must be copied and
replicated.

Replication of DNA
- The DNA molecule unwinds by the action of an
enzyme
- Small proteins bind to each side to keep the two
strands separated
- New nucleotides, which are present in the nucleus of
the cell, line up along each single DNA strand following
the base pair rules
- A lines up alongside T
• Sequence of bases of DNA are a series of - C lines up alongside G
coded instructions for the building up of amino - The nucleotides join together making two new DNA
acids into proteins molecules, and each one is an identical copy of the
parent cell’s DNA
- The DNA molecules automatically wind up into the
double helix shape
How a Protein is made
- The base sequence in the DNA is transcribed into another base sequence in the mRNA
- This is done using very similar base pairing rules to those used in the replication of DNA
- However, RNA never contains the base T, it is replaced with U. A-T becomes A-U
- Once made, mRNA leaves the nucleus through the membrane, and travels to ribosomes
- This is where proteins are made
- The sequence of bases in the mRNA is used to build up a particular sequence of amino acids into a
protein
- mRNA passes through the ribosomes, where the code of bases is translated to the code of amino
acids
- The ribosome then produces the respective protein
- Replication: DNA is copied, using DNA
- Transcription: mRNA is made by DNA
- Translation: protein is made by mRNA
• DNA —> mRNA —> protein —> characteristics

• Cell specialisation depends on proteins

- All body cells in an organism contain the same genes
- However, the cell only makes the specific proteins it needs to carry out its specialised function
Haploid Nucleus: A nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes- e.g. gametes
Diploid Nucleus: A nucleus containing to sets of chromosomes- e.g in body cells

Haploid Nucleus: male and female gametes

Diploid Nucleus: Zygote
- In a diploid cell there is a pair of each type of chromosome (male and female). There are 23 pairs
Cell Division

Mitosis: Copying Division

- A nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells
- Occurs before sexual intercourse
- Characteristics are transmitted from one generation of cells to the next

1. Parent cell

2. Chromosomes make identical copies of

themselves

3. They line up along the centre

4. They move apart

5. Two daughter cells form with identical

chromosomes to the parent cell
Role of Mitosis
- In animals, each tissue provides its own new cells when they are needed
- E.g. liver produces liver cells
Stem Cells: Unspecialised cells that divide by mitosis to produce daughter cells that can become
specialised for a a specific functions

Meiosis
- A nuclear division giving rise to cells that are genetically different
- A reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid, resulting in
genetically different cells
- It is involved in the production of gametes
• During sexual reproduction- 2 gametes fuse to form the zygote. The gametes must contain only one
set of chromosomes
• Meiosis only occurs in gamete producing organs- the testes and the ovaries

Monohybrid Inheritance

Genotype: The genetic make-up of an organism in terms of the alleles present

Phenotype: The observable features in an organism

Homozygous: Having two identical alleles in a particular gene- TT or tt

Heterozygous: Having two different alleles in a particular gene- Tt or tT

Dominant: An allele that is expressed if it is present

Recessive: An allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present
Co-dominance

• Blood group O produces no sugar, thus other blood groups are more dominant over blood group O
• Sex-linked Characteristics: A characteristic in which the gene responsible is located on a sex
chromosome and that this makes it more common in one sex than another
- E.g. colour blindness + haemophilia
 Topic 18: Variation

Variation: Differences between individuals of the same species

Phenotype: The observable characteristics of an organism. It is caused by both genetic and

environmental factors

Genotype: The full set of genes an organism possesses

• Continuos variation results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes- height

• Discontinuous variation results in a limited number of phenotypes with not intermediates- tongue
rolling. It is mostly caused by genes alone. E.g. blood groups in humans

Mutation: A genetic change

- It is the way in which new alleles are formed
- Ionising radiation and some chemicals (such as tar from tobacco) increase the rate of mutation
- Exposure can cause uncontrolled cell division, leading to the formation of tumours (cancer)
Gene Mutation: A change in the base sequence of DNA

Sickle-Cell Anaemia
- People who are heterozygous for the sickle-cell anaemia allele are resistant to malaria
- It is caused by mutation of haemoglobin
- When the cells become sickle shaped, they become less efficient in transporting oxygen and are
more likely to become stuck in a capillary, preventing blood flow

• Symptoms
- Painful swelling of the hands and feet
- Fatigue or fussiness from anaemia
- A yellowish colour of the skin
- Aching joints
Haemoglobin- Change in base sequence
- The haemoglobin gene mutates causing a base sequence to change
- This leads to faulty mRNA being made by transcription
- Faulty haemoglobin is formed by translation, creates sickled shaped cells
- This leads to weakness, aching joints and poor circulation

Malaria
- Life-threatening disease caused by a parasite that invades red blood cells
- A person who is heterozygous for sickle-cell anaemia has protection from the disease because the
malaria parasite is unable to invade and reproduce in the sickle cells
- When distributions of malaria and sickle-cell anaemia are shown on a map of the world, it is found
that the two coincide in tropical areas because of the selective advantage of the Hn allele in
providing protection against malaria

Adaptive Features
- Inherited functional features of an organism that increase its fitness
Fitness
- The probability of an organism surviving and reproducing in the environment in which it is found
Hydrophytes
- Plants that grow in water
- Lotus, seaweed
Adaptations
- Little lignin in the xylem, since the leaf is supported by the water
- Very thin cuticles since water conservation is not a problem
- Stomata on upper surface to allow CO2 uptake from the atmosphere
Xerophytes
- Plants which grow in dry environments
- Cacti
Adaptations
- Green stem helps in carrying out photosynthesis
- Leaves reduced to spine to reduce surface area for water to transpire
- Stomata are sunk in grooves to avoid drying winds
- Shallow roots absorb water from lightest rainfall
- Deep roots penetrate to very low water tables

Selection

Natural Selection
- Passing on of genes/alleles to the next generation by the best-adapted organisms, without human
interference
- Some organisms are better suited to their environment than others
- These organisms will be more likely to survive and breed than some of their competitors, as there
is a competition for resources
- Because of this, the characteristics the ‘fitter’ organisms posses will be passed down to successive
generations

Evolution
- Change in the adaptive features of a population over time as the result of natural selection
- For example, the development of strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria is an example of evolution
by natural selection

Process of Adaptation
- The process, resulting from natural selection, by which populations become more suited to their
environment over many generations

Natural Selection Artificial Selection

Depends upon the natural environment Humans are the agents of selection

Slower process Much more quicker process

Offers advantages to the animal or plant in its natural Offers no advantages to the animal or plant in its natural
envrionemt environment
Selective Breeding
- A process in which humans are the agents of selection and choose which animals to cross breed,
showing the desirable traits
- These individuals are cross to produce the next generation
- If the selection of the offspring shows the desirable traits, it will then be bred with its parent to
produce the next generation

Maintaining Variation
- What appears to humans as a valuable characteristic might not always be valuable in natural
situation
- It is very important that humans preserve animal and plant genes for characteristics that do not
offer any advantage to us at the moment
- Therefore, plants genes may be conserved as seeds, which are easy to store, and animals genes
may be kept as frozen eggs, sperm or embryos
 Topic 19: Organisms and their Environment
Energy Flow
- The sun is the principle source of energy source of energy input to biological systems
- Photosynthetic plants and some bacteria are able to trap light energy from the sun and convert it
into chemical energy
- Heterotrophic organisms get their energy by eating plants or animals that have eaten plants
- Therefore all organisms indirectly receive their energy sun energy
- Energy is passed on from one organism to another in the food chain
- Energy given out by organisms is lost in the environment

Food chains and food webs

Food chain: The transfer of energy from one organism to the next, beginning with the producer
- Energy is transferred between organisms in a food chain by ingestion
Trophic Level: The position of an organism in a food chain, food web, pyramid of numbers or pyramid
of biomass

Energy transfer between trophic levels

- Trophic levels are the positions of organisms in a food chain.
- It begins with a producer followed by a primary consumer, secondary consumer and a tertiary
consumer
- The producer obtains energy by absorbing sunlight and converting it into chemical energy
- When the primary consumer eats the producer (usually a plant of some sort) it obtains only 10%
energy from the plant out of 100%
- This is because energy may be lost due to heat from respiration, uneaten parts of the plant,
undigested food and excretion
- The process is repeated at each trophic level where only 10% energy is gained from the previous
organism

Energy Transfer is Inefficient

- As we go down the food chain, the amount of energy passed on per trophic level is 10%
- This means more producers are required to full fill energy for herbivores and carnivores
- Energy may be lost by heat from respiration, excretion, undigested food and unbeaten food

Why food chains have fewer than 5 trophic levels

- 90% of energy is lost at each trophic level
- This means that in long food chains, very little energy entering the chain through the producer is
available to the top carnivores
- Thus, most food chains have below five trophic levels
Why humans should eat plants
- When humans eat closer to the producer in a food chain, they can get more energy by consuming
the same mass of food
- This is because there is less loss at one step (90%)
- Since crops are being used to feed livestock, humans will have to use resources such as fertilisers,
water and time to grow and then feed these crops to the plant
- When the animals eat the plants they will only gain 10% of energy from the plant as there is loss
at each trophic level
- Hence when the humans eat the animals they will be getting only 1% of energy from the animals
making it inefficient to do so

Food web: A network of interconnected food chains

Producer: an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually energy from sunlight, through
photosynthesis

Consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms

- Consumer mage classed as primary, secondary and tertiary according to their position in a food
chain

Herbivore: An animal that gets its energy by eating plants

Carnivore: An animal that gets its energy by eating other animals
Decomposer: An organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic material

Humans and Food Webs

- Humans can have negative effects on food chains and food webs
- By over-harvesting food species such as cod. This is so that species that are eaten by cod increase
in population
- By introducing foreign species to a habitat. Rabbits for example were introduced to Australia for
hunting, but bred very quickly. This reduced grass available for native Australian species

Pyramid of Numbers
- Diagrammatic representation of the number of different organisms at each trophic level in an
ecosystem at any one time
- Number of organisms at any level is represented by the the length of the rectangle
- Moving up the pyramid, the number of organisms generally decreases, but the size of each individual
increases

Problems
- Range of numbers may be enormous: 500,000 grass plants may only support a single top carnivore,
so drawing the pyramid to scale may be very difficult
- Pyramids may be inverted, particularly if the producer is very large (e.g an oak tree) or parasites
feed on the consumers (e.g bird lice on an owl)

Pyramids of Biomass
- Represents the biomass (number of individuals x mass of each individual) at each trophic level at
any one time. This should solve the scale and inversion problems of the pyramid of numbers
- The pyramid of biomass is useful because the biomass gives a good idea of how much energy is
passed on to the next trophic level
Nutrient Cycles

The Carbon Cycle

- Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration and combustion
- Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers to make carbohydrates in photosynthesis
- Animals feed on the plant passing the carbon compounds along the food chain
- Most of the carbon they consume is exhaled as carbon dioxide formed during respiration. The
animals and plants eventually die
- The dead organisms are eaten by decomposers and the carbon in their bodies is returned to the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide
- In some conditions decomposition is blocked. The plant and animal material may then be available as
fossil fuel in the future for combustion

• The combustion of fossil fuels returns high amounts of carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. As
a result, carbon dioxide concentrations have increased
• The chopping down of trees for wood as a fuel uses up oxygen and returns carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere, and can have a very severe local effect

The Water/Hydrological Cycle

The Nitrogen Cycle

• Plants and animals need nitrogen to make proteins

• They cannot get nitrogen directly from the air because, as a gas, nitrogen is fairly unreactive
• Plants are able to take up nitrogen compounds such as nitrates and ammonium salts from the soil
Nitrogen fixation

Making nitrogen compounds from nitrogen in the air is called nitrogen fixation
It happens in these ways
- The energy in lightning splits nitrogen molecules into individual nitrogen atoms. These react with
oxygen to form nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen oxides are washed to the ground by rain, where they form
nitrates in the soil
- Nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in the soil and in the root nodules of leguminous plants, such as peas,
beans, fix nitrogen gas into nitrogen compounds. These bacteria contain a particular enzyme which
allows them to combine nitrogen and hydrogen in ammonium ions and then nitrate

Nitrification
- Ammonium ions produced by the decomposition of amino acids and proteins are oxidised, first into
nitrite and then to nitrate
- This process is carried out by nitrifying bacteria which live in the soil
- This only occurs in the presence of oxygen
- In the absence of oxygen, the process is reversed
- Denitrifying bacteria obtain their energy by converting nitrate to nitrogen gas
Role of Microorganisms
- Decomposition
- Nitrification
- Nitrogen fixation
- Denitrification
Population Size

Population: A group of organisms of one species, living in the same area, at the same time
Community: All of the populations of different species in an ecosystem
Ecosystem: A unit containing the community of organisms and their environment, interacting together

Factors Affecting the Rate of

Population Growth
- Food supply
- Predation
- Disease
Population Size

Slow start Maximum Environment The

to observed al population
population growth rate- resistance begins to
growth as a compromise (limiting fall when all
the number between factors) the
of mature, biotic becomes resources
potential and dominant, are up
reproducing increasing
initial faster than
individuals environmental the death they are
is low and resistance rate and/or replaced
they may decreasing
be widely the birth
dispersed rate
 Topic 20: Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

Bacteria
- Bacteria are single celled organisms which have naked DNA
- Many bacteria have an extra ring of DNA known as a plasmid
- The plasmid has non-vital genes, which means genes that are not absolutely necessary to keep the
bacterium alive
- However it may have genes, that confer drug resistance, determine sex or whether they have pili and
flagellae.

• Bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic engineering due to their rapid reproduction rate and their
ability to make complex molecules

They are useful because:

- They can be grown and manipulated without raising ethical concerns
- They have a genetic code that is the same as all other organisms, so genes from other animals or plants
can be successfully transferred into bacterial DNA
- They posses rings of DNA, called plasmids which are very suitable for genetic engineering techniques
- They require minimal amounts of energy and nutrients, and are microscopic, so can easily be grown in labs
Production of Ethanol and Biofuels
- Yeast is a fungus that is able to respire anaerobically
- During this process, yeast breaks down carbohydrates in plants in order to obtain energy
- One of these waste products is ethanol
Role of Yeast in Bread Making
- Flour, sugar, water and salt are mixed with yeast to form the dough
- Dough is rolled and kept in a warm environment
- During this, the yeast ferments the sugar, and the bubbles of carbon are trapped by sticky proteins of the
dough
- During baking, the yeast is killed due to heat and fermentation is stopped
• Pectinase is an enzyme which breaks won clumps of plant cells: this changes fruit juices from cloudy to clear
Biological Washing Powders
- Most difficult stains to remove usually contain lipids and proteins
- These can be washed out using powders containing protease and lipase
- These powder have the advantage of being able to work at low temperatures, meaning less water heating
needed and clothes don't shrink

Commercial Applications of Enzymes

- Lactase is an enzyme which is used to break down lactose (a sugar found in milk)
- It is immobilised on carrier fibres
Penicillium in Antibiotic Production
- It is a fungus
- This fungus absorbs food molecules from its environment, and then uses these molecules for its own
metabolism
- Sometimes, a penicillium mould would secrete substances into the environment to kill off any disease-causing
or competitive microorganisms
- Its secreted substance/the antibiotic is called penicillin
Penicillin Production
- Large-scale production of useful products takes place in industrial fermenters
- For the manufacture of penicillin, penicillium is added into a fermenter with nutrients and conditions that
drive it to produce penicillin
- The penicillin is then collected and used.

Genetic Engineering
- Changing the genetic material of an organism by removing, changing or inserting individual genes
Examples of GE
- The insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce human insulin
- The insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance to herbicides/insect pests/additional vitamins
Bacterial Production of a Human Protein

Main stage Insulin example

Desired gene is identified Human insulin gene is identified

The gene is removed from the organism’s DNA The gene for making human insulin is cut out of some
human DNA

The DNA in the other organism is cut open A loop of bacterial DNA is cut open

The gene is inserted into the cut DNA The human insulin gene is inserted into the cut loop, and
this loop is inserted into a bacterial cell

The inserted gene works in the transgenic (genetically The inserted gene works in the transgenic (genetically
engineered) organism engineered) organism
The bacterial cell produces human insulin The transgenic organism is cloned to produce lots of
identical copies

The transgenic bacterium is cloned to make lots of copies Large amounts of human insulin is collected
Genetically Modified Crops
Benefits
Engineered organisms can offer higher yields from fewer
resources (fewer fertilisers needed)
Crops engineered to cop with extreme environmental conditions
will open up new areas for cultivation, and reduce the risk of
famine
Genetic engineering gives much more predictable results than
selective breeding
Foods can be engineered to be more convenient, such as
potatoes which absorb less fat when crisps are made, or even
to contain medicinal products such as vaccines
Problems
Plants engineered for pesticide resistance could cross-pollinate
with wild relatives, creating ‘superweeds’
Engineered bacteria may escape from the lab or the factory,
with unpredictable consequences
‘New’ organisms might be patented. A company that has spent
a lot of money on delving such an organism might refuse to
share its benefits with other consumers, making the company
very powerful
How far should we allow research, into human gene transfer to
go?
 Topic 21: Human Influence on Ecosystems
Food Supply

Food supply has increased because:

- Agricultural machinery has been improved, increasing productivity and area of land for growing crops
- Chemical fertilisers have developed, which protect plants and have improved yields
- Insecticides have developed which improve the quality of the yield
- Herbicides have been introduced to reduce competition wit weeds
- Selective breeding has been improved to increase production by crop plants and life stalk

Implications of Growing Population

- Increased use of machinery has resulted in larger clearing of fields and removal of hedges
- Increased use of organic fertilisers affects plant diversity dramatically and result in excess in nitrate levels in
rivers, leading to eutrophication of water
- Use of pesticides to eliminate competitors for crop species have caused the reduction in population of many
native wildflowers and some non-target insects and birds by direct toxicity, or by the removal of their food
supply

Causes of Famine
- Increasing population
- Drought
- Unequal distribution of food
- Flooding
- Poverty

Impacts of Monoculture
- Poor wildlife foods: less variety of weeds for insects and birds
- Spread of disease: plant pathogens, such as potato blight fungus and tobacco mosaic virus, spread easily
- Loss of genetic variety: this may mean that any change in environmental resistance could damage or all of
the plants
- Damage to soil: the minerals with be continuously drained away by many of the same plant. As the crop is
harvested and taken away, the minerals will be lost from the soil

Impacts of Intensive Farming

- Heavy Deforestation
- Spread of diseases due to overcrowding of animals
- Use of pesticides can kill beneficial insects, which can disturb the food chain
- Damage on crops and human life as exceeding use of pesticides affects the health of human beings
severely, leading to skin allergies, physical deformity, and congenital disease

Reasons for Habitat Destruction

- Increased area for food crop growth, livestock production and housing
- Extraction of natural resources
- Marine pollution (oil spills etc.)
Effects of Deforestation

• Reduction in soil fertility

• Increased flooding and landslides
• Changes in recycling of materials
• Climatic changes
• Loss of biodiversity
Pollution

• Water
- caused by sewage, fertilisers and toxic chemicals
- oil spills and human error
- non-biodegradable plastics
- leads to eutrophication and loss of marine life
• Air
- due to smoke and gases released from factories
- emissions from vehicles
- burning of fossil fuels
- leads to the greenhouse effect and acid rain
• Land
- Non-Biodegradable plastics
- Littering
- Landfill sites
- animals may consume these harmful materials and die
- ruins natural beauty
- if plastics are burned, they release smoke which is harmful for health
Eutrophication

- Nitrate and other ion levels increase

- This increases the growth of algae, as these nutrients are absorbed, which shades light from aquatic plants
- This increased the decomposition of dead organisms which use of water and oxygen
- Depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water lead to death of fish and plants

Non-biodegradable Plastics
- Block the passage of water through drainage channels, leading to water logging of soils. This reduces
oxygenation and thus affects soil fertility
- They can be mistakenly consumed by animals on both and land and in water. They block the animal’s
digestive system and cause many deaths
- They do not allow the passage of oxygen, so when they are present in landfill sites they inhibit natural
decomposition of other wastes
- When burned, they release toxic ‘smoky’ particles, which can affect breathing and have a long-term effect
on health
Carbon Dioxide and Methane
- Carbon dioxide is emitted by combustion of fossil fuels in power stations and internal combustion engines
(vehicles)
- Leads to global warming, climate change and melting of polar ice caps
- Methane is produced by animals such as cows, and in waterlogged conditions of swamps and rice fields
- Contributes to the greenhouse effect, increase in global temperatures
Acid Rain

• Causes
- Sulphur and nitrogen in fossil fuels are converted to oxides during combustion
- More oxidation occurs in clouds
- The oxides dissolve in water, and fall as acid rain
• Effects
- Soils become very acidic which can lead to the death of crops
- Water in lakes and rivers collects excess minerals, which causes death of fish and invertebrates (interruption
of food chains)
- Forest trees suffer starvation because of leaching of ions and destruction of photosynthetic tissue
• Solutions
- Clean up emissions from power stations with scrubbers
- Clean up emissions from car exhausts with catalytic converters
Female Contraceptive
- They are washed into water when they are excreted in urine
- They reduce sperm count in men
- Lead to feminisation of aquatic organisms (causing an imbalance of gender in fish populations)
Sustainable Resource: one which is produced as rapidly as it removed from the environment so that is does not
run out

Sustainable Development: as development providing for the needs of an increasing human population without
harming the environment

• Forests and fish are some resources that can be maintained

• Fish can be maintained by doing the following:
- Setting of quotas on the amount of fish that can be caught and how many trees can be cut
- Educating people about fish behaviour and the importance of trees
- Re-stocking by breeding fish and planting trees
Requirements of Sustainable Development
- It requires the management of conflicting demands
- Humans: require sufficient land area to grow crops and livestock must be protected from predators
- Wildlife: Reduce the risk of over-hunting, maintain a population size high enough to maintain genetic variation
and protect suitable habitat which must provide food, shelter and breeding sites
- It also requires planning and cooperation at different levels, for example:
Local: farmers
National: government regulations
International: conservation bodies (like WWF)

Recycling
- Products such as paper, glass, plastic and metals can be recycled
Sewage Treatment

• Used to make the water that it contains is safe to return to the environment or for human use
• It has two main functions:
- to destroy or eliminate potential pathogens by the high temperature in an anaerobic digestion tank, or by
chlorination of the water before it is discharged
- To remove organic compounds in faeces and urine, which may otherwise contributed to the biological oxygen
demand (BOD) of the water into which the treated sewage is discharged. Organic compounds are digested
by fungi and bacteria

Why Organisms become Endangered

- Loss of habitat
- Climate change
- Hunting
- Pollution
- Introduction of new species

• If the population of a species were to fall, it would be a of a great risk

• Climate change for example, is changing rapidly
• If the population were to fall, less number of species would be able to adapt to new climatic conditions,
causing following generations to suffer and eventually, could lead to extinction

Conservation of Endangered Species

- Monitoring and protecting species and habitats
- Education
- Captive breeding programmes
- Seed banks
- Creating new habitats (ponds etc)

Reasons for Conservation

- Reducing extinction
- Protecting vulnerable environments
- Maintaining ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycles and resource provision