Introduction ................................................................................................................... 4
Advanced Models .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Assumptions/Limitations ............................................................................................................................. 4
Throughout this text, the biomechanics of the squat, deadlift, and their variations will be
discussed, paying particular attention to the effects of technique and form on joint torques.
Advanced Models
In an ideal world, we would use techniques such as muscle modeling, which requires three-
dimensional motion capture, electromyography, force plates, and specialized software to
help us calculate precise and individualized biomechanical evaluations. Unfortunately, this
equipment costs hundreds of thousands of dollars and is only used in extensive
biomechanics laboratories. However, this does not mean that biomechanical principles
cannot be applied using the naked eye.
Assumptions/Limitations
Throughout this text, certain assumptions are made, as we do not have access to the
advanced modalities previously described. Assumptions and limitations within this text
are as follows:
• Assuming that the lifter pushes through the center of the foot
• Assuming that the center of gravity is positioned near the load itself in the barbell
squat and through the scapula for the barbell deadlift
• Ignoring muscle co-contractions
• Ignoring electromyography (EMG)
• Focusing on external load, not system mass (ignoring superincumbent bodyweight)
• Not using video capture and force plates
• Not using inverse dynamics or 3D modeling
• Focusing only on vertical forces during the squat and deadlift
• Ignoring momentum, looking at instantaneous torques using quasi-static models
• Assuming that the plate radius is 22.5cm
• Omitting hand length with regards to grip in the deadlift
• Assuming a high bar squat position
• Assuming that the spine stays rigid and no pelvic tilt exists
With squats, the moment arm (sometimes called lever arm) can be estimated by examining
the horizontal distance between the joint center and the ground reaction force vector.
With heavy loads, we can assume that the horizontal component of the ground reaction
force vector is negligible. Therefore, the ground reaction force vector is perpendicular to
the ground and is formed by drawing a line that connects the center of gravity and center of
pressure through the feet, as depicted to the left.
𝝉𝝉 = 𝑭𝑭 ∗ 𝒓𝒓
In biomechanics, torque is calculated using Newton meters (Nm). Newtons are the SI unit
of force. Because gravity on Earth is constant, we can use 9.8 m/s2 for a (we’ll round up to
10 for the sake of simplicity in this manual), and simply substitute the mass of the load in
kilograms for m (we’ll use 100 kg throughout this text). The equation below will calculate
the force in Newtons using the units described.
𝑭𝑭 = 𝒎𝒎 ∗ 𝒂𝒂
When calculating torque, the force will be constant and the length of the moment arm will
determine differences in torque. With explosive lifts, you’d need to deal with momentum,
but with heavy lifts, this momentum can be ignored, as quasi-static models with lifts taking
more than 2-seconds have been shown to be 99% as accurate as dynamic models (Lander
et al., 1990). Variations in form and lever length will show that a movement can be
completed using an infinite number of torque and moment variations.
In many activities, it is surprising to find that the body tends to distribute a fairly consistent
total amount of joint torque independent of the movement style between the three primary
lower body joints. For example, let’s say that 200 Nm of lower body extensor torque is
required to lift a box. The body could move mostly at the hips and utilize 150 Nm of hip
extension torque and 25 Nm of ankle plantar flexion and knee extension torque to achieve
the task. It could also produce 120 Nm of knee extension torque, 50 Nm of hip extension
torque, and 30 Nm of plantar flexion torque. The take-away point here is that there are
many movement patterns that can lead to successful lifting outcomes, and the various
lifting styles tend to require similar total extensor torques but with different distributions
across the various joints.
See the three pictures below representing a lifter picking up a 20-kg box with a knee-
dominant style, a blended style, and a hip-dominant style; the combined hip and knee
moments of the three variations is 84.36 Nm, 84.54 Nm, and 82.56 Nm, respectively.
In this manual, 𝝉𝝉𝑯𝑯 will stand for hip extension torque, while 𝝉𝝉𝑲𝑲 will stand for knee
extension torque.
𝑭𝑭 = 𝒎𝒎 ∗ 𝒂𝒂
𝑭𝑭 = 20 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∗ 10 𝑚𝑚�𝑠𝑠 2
𝑭𝑭 = 200 𝑁𝑁
𝝉𝝉 = 30.7 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 + 53.66 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝝉𝝉 = 61.94 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 + 22.58 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝝉𝝉 = 91.42 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 − 7.78 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝝉𝝉 = 84.36 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝝉𝝉 = 84.54 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝝉𝝉 = 82.56 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
Lander, J. E., Simonton, R. L., & Giacobbe, J. K. (1990). The effectiveness of weight-belts
during the squat exercise. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 22(1), 117-126.
Studies show that with cueing and focus of attention, one can change the amount of EMG
activity in the various synergists during a movement involving multiple muscles (Lewis &
Sahrman, 2009). For example, using more glutes during hip extension will cause a
decrease in hamstring activation. What’s more, this force sharing has been shown to be
easier to do with lighter loads compared to maximal loads (Snyder & Fry, 2012). Although
we can assume that if a movement produces a large magnitude of hip extension torque, it
will be a good movement for the gluteus muscles, we must be careful with our assumptions
as the movement could be carried out largely by the hamstring and adductor muscles.
Lewis, C. L., & Sahrmann, S. A. (2009). Muscle activation and movement patterns during
prone hip extension exercise in women. Journal of athletic training, 44(3), 238.
Snyder, B. J., & Fry, W. R. (2012). Effect of Verbal Instruction on Muscle Activity During the
Bench Press Exercise. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 26(9), 2394-2400.
In order to calculate hip and knee torques, lines representing the moment arms should be
drawn perpendicularly from the ground reaction force vector to each of the said joint
centers, as depicted below. Remember, we are ignoring body mass and focusing on barbell
mass. If we wanted to be more accurate, we would look at system mass, which includes
both, however, this allows for simpler calculations.
𝑭𝑭 = 𝒎𝒎 ∗ 𝒂𝒂
𝑭𝑭 = 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∗ 10 𝑚𝑚�𝑠𝑠 2
𝑭𝑭 = 1000 𝑁𝑁
Because the measurements given are in centimeters,
we will convert them to meters:
1 𝑚𝑚
21.22 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∗ = 0.2122 𝑚𝑚 = 𝒓𝒓
100 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝝉𝝉 = 𝑭𝑭 ∗ 𝒓𝒓
𝝉𝝉 = 1000 𝑁𝑁 ∗ 0.2122 𝑚𝑚 = 212.2 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑭𝑭 = 𝒎𝒎 ∗ 𝒂𝒂
𝑭𝑭 = 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ∗ 10 𝑚𝑚�𝑠𝑠 2
𝑭𝑭 = 1000 𝑁𝑁
Because the measurements given are in
centimeters, we will convert them to meters:
1 𝑚𝑚
45.71 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∗ = 0.4571 𝑚𝑚 = 𝒓𝒓
100 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝝉𝝉 = 𝑭𝑭 ∗ 𝒓𝒓
𝝉𝝉𝑯𝑯 = 1000 𝑁𝑁 ∗ 0.4571 𝑚𝑚 = 457.1 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝝉𝝉𝑲𝑲 = 1000 𝑁𝑁 ∗ 0.0389 𝑚𝑚 = −38.9 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
As you can see, the hip and knee dominant deadlifts are
quite different than those of the squat. The top image
actually involves a knee-flexion net moment where the
hamstrings dominate the quadriceps, whereas the
bottom image shows a knee-extension net moment
where the quadriceps dominate the hamstrings.
However, the net torques are only around 70Nm apart.
Any way you slice it, the deadlift is a hip dominant
movement.
As you can probably imagine, similar torques are created with partial movements
compared to full range movements because more load can be utilized. In the above
example, one would need 15% more load to make up for less ROM (right) in order to match
the torques placed on his joints in the deeper squat (left). The full range movements
possess greater moment arms with lower forces, while the partial movements possess
smaller moment arms with greater forces. Since torque equals perpendicular force times
the length of the moment arm, you end up with similar torques. It should be noted,
however, that full range movements tend to produce greater hypertrophic adaptations in
the literature (Bloomquist et al., 2013).
Bloomquist, K., Langberg, H., Karlsen, S., Madsgaard, S., Boesen, M., & Raastad, T. (2013).
Effect of range of motion in heavy load squatting on muscle and tendon
adaptations. European journal of applied physiology, 1-10.
Various theories have been presented, but here, we are going to concentrate on two of
those theories. The first being that sticking regions are caused by the lifter running out of
passive forces, for example from titin and other passive tissues, and having to switch over
to purely active, contractile forces. This seems to be the case in the bench press (Elliot et al.,
1989). This is most likely the cause of most sticking regions.
Another theory is that the body acts like a spring, especially in large individuals. Let’s take
the squat, for example. As one descends, their hamstrings will make contact with their
calves and their belly will make contact with their thigh. These tissues pressing against one
another will create contributory passive forces in the bottom of a lift. This is not the case
for every individual and varies greatly between lifters depending on their form, depth, and
size.
Where sticking regions occur seems to differ greatly from individual to individual, but they
are similar between lifts in the same individual. For example, person A will have a similar
sticking region in both the sumo and conventional deadlift, but those sticking regions will
differ from person B’s sticking regions in the sumo and conventional deadlift (McGuigan &
Wilson, 1996).
Elliott, B. C., Wilson, G. J., & Kerr, G. K. (1989). A biomechanical analysis of the sticking
region in the bench press. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21(4), 450.
McGuigan, M. R., & Wilson, B. D. (1996). Biomechanical analysis of the deadlift. The Journal
of Strength & Conditioning Research, 10(4), 250-255.
Hales, M. E., Johnson, B. F., & Johnson, J. T. (2009). Kinematic analysis of the powerlifting
style squat and the conventional deadlift during competition: is there a cross-over effect
between lifts?. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(9), 2574-2580.
The Crural Index is the ratio of the length of the lower leg to that of the upper leg. If one
has a low Crural Index, that is, longer femurs, it puts the lifter in a disadvantageous position
during the squat. The next page shows a comparison of a squatter with normal femur
length with a squatter with short femurs and a squatter with long femurs. Taken to an
extreme level, if most of the total “lightning bolt” is taken up by the spine and tibias, the
lifter will stay upright and be much stronger in the squat as a result. Conversely, if most of
the total “lightning bolt” is taken up by the femur, the lifter will fold like an accordion and
be weaker in the squat as a result.
Take world-class 114-pound Polish powerlifter Andrzej Stanaszek, for example. Stanaszek
is a dwarf, meaning he has disproportionately short limbs and is less than 4’10 (he actually
stands under 4’). These proportions give him a mechanical advantage to lift huge loads,
including a 662.5 lb squat and 402.3 lb bench press. Both the bench and squat favor
shorter limbs. Click HERE to see his squat. Ironically, these same proportions don’t appear
to help him in the deadlift - HERE Andrzej fails with 319 lbs.
The resulting knee and hip torques are directly proportional to the increase or decrease in
femur length (20%). As you can imagine, having shorter femurs confers a distinct
advantage in the squat!
According to these estimations, a squatter with 20% shorter femurs with the same amount
of knee and hip extension torques can squat 41.6% more than a squatter with 20% longer
femurs. In fact, reducing femur length transformed the powerlifter from strong to world
record holder!
Lamar Gant is a great example of a phenomenal deadlifter with long arms. At a bodyweight
of 132, Gant was able to pull 683.4 lbs. Click HERE to watch Lamar’s deadlift – notice that
he locks out with the bar resting just above the kneecaps. The free body diagram on the
following page shows why and is drawn similarly to the squats in that the arms were either
shortened or elongated by 20%. The first image is normal length, second is shortened, and
third is elongated.
The resulting hip torques are directly proportional to the increase or decrease in arm
length (20%). In addition the joints have to move through a much larger range of motion,
which will lead to greater fatigue throughout the lift. As you can imagine, having longer
arms confers a distinct advantage in the deadlift!
Subjects performed maximal hip extension torque at four different angles of hip flexion. As
you can see, hamstring EMG does not change very much throughout the hip range of
motion, however, gluteus maximus EMG rises from a flexed to an extended hip position.
Interestingly, hip extension torque is greater in a hip flexed position compared to a hip
extended position. Why this occurs is not fully understood. We are probably stronger in
hip flexion due to the increased involvement of the adductors in hip extension. The glutes
probably fire harder at end range hip extension to compensate for their shorter lengths or
because they have better leverages at that range of motion.
These findings are highly applicable to training as they explain how the muscle works and
provide some insight as to the best way to train the gluteus maximus. If one wants to
optimize the gluteus maximus hypertrophic response, he or she needs to incorporate
multiple hip extension movements such as hip thrusts, squats, and deadlifts.
Worrell, T. W., Karst, G., Adamczyk, D., Moore, R., Stanley, C., Steimel, B., & Steimel, S.
(2001). Influence of joint position on electromyographic and torque generation during
maximal voluntary isometric contractions of the hamstrings and gluteus maximus
muscles. The Journal of orthopaedic and sports physical therapy, 31(12), 730.
Specific tension refers to the force exerted by the fibers per unit of PCSA. This would be
measured in N/cm2. Muscle force denotes how much force the muscle pulls with, but as
we know from previous sections in this text, we care about torque.
In order to calculate the muscle moment (torque), we must multiply the muscle force by
the perpendicular distance from the muscle’s line of pull to the joint center. The following
image shows how hypertrophy can affect the muscle’s moment arm and therefore, moment.
Muscle force corrected for angle of insertion Muscle force corrected for angle of insertion
1764.12 𝑁𝑁 ∗ sin 73º = 1,687.04 𝑁𝑁 2325.93 𝑁𝑁 ∗ sin 90º = 2,325.93 𝑁𝑁
Thus, a gluteus maximus that is 31.85% larger can produce 50% more hip extension torque.
With a 45º arch, the moment arm on this individual shortens by around 5%. A 5% decrease in
torque could mean the difference between finishing a pull and not, especially in competition.
Rounding also places the places the muscles at different starting lengths, especially if the pelvis
changes position. The pelvis modulates hip extensor length, with anterior tilting placing the hip
extensors at longer lengths and posterior tilting placing the hip extensors at shorter lengths. How
this impacts strength is not very clear, but it may depend on the individual.
For more information on the benefits of spinal rounding in the deadlift, check out Bret
Conteras’ article on T-Nation, A Strong Case For The Rounded Back Deadlift.
Watkins IV, R., Watkins III, R., Williams, L., Ahlbrand, S., Garcia, R., Karamanian, A., ... &
Hedman, T. (2005). Stability provided by the sternum and rib cage in the thoracic
spine. Spine, 30(11), 1283-1286.
Information from: McGill, S. (2007). Low back disorders: evidenced-based prevention and
rehabilitation. Human Kinetics.
One must keep in mind that these structures affect how one’s lumbar spine moves as well,
hence the lumbo in lumbopelvic. For example, if one cannot flex at the hip joint any further,
they will compensate via posterior pelvic tilt and lumbar flexion. During periods of deep
hip flexion, such as the bottom of the squat, it may be beneficial to maintain anterior pelvic
tilt because 1) it will put more tension on the adductors and hamstrings and 2) the glutes
are already inhibited due to deep hip flexion. As for near lockout, such as the top of a
deadlift, the opposite is true: increased posterior pelvic tilt will be a more advantageous
position to produce hip extension torque because the gluteus maximus can better activate
in this position.
Intimately involved in the lumbopelvic hip complex are four different muscles groups: hip
abductors, hip adductors, hip flexors, and hip extensors; one’s structure/anatomy greatly
affects how these function by either increasing or decreasing the moment arm of each
muscle. For example, a 2cm superior displacement of the hip joint center decreases the
moment generating capacity of the hip abductors by 49% and hip flexors by 22%. A hip
center displaced 2cm superiorly, 2cm laterally, and 2cm anteriorly was shown to maximize
hip extension torque (Delp & Maloney, 1993).
Bret does a phenomenal job introducing and further explaining the lumbopelvic hip
complex and these concepts in this video.
Delp, S. L., & Maloney, W. (1993). Effects of hip center location on the moment-generating
capacity of the muscles. Journal of biomechanics, 26(4), 485-499.
Lynn et al. (2012) looked at the effects of a counterbalance squat vs. regular squats. This
shows the effects of shifting the system center of mass forward on forward trunk lean,
which decreases knee extension torque while increasing hip extension torque.
Lynn, S. K., & Noffal, G. J. (2012). Lower Extremity Biomechanics During a Regular and
Counterbalanced Squat. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 26(9), 2417-2425.
Front Squat
During the front squat, the bar is placed across one’s shoulders and is supported by the
hands. Shifting the bar forward shifts the center of gravity forward, which in turn allows
the lifter to stay more upright. This upright position spares the hips and low back by
placing more torque on the knees, making the front squat a knee dominant movement.
Back Squat
The most popular of the squat variations is the back squat. During the back squat, the bar
is placed on the upper trapezius and the bar is stabilized with the lifter’s hands. This
allows the lifter to go through a more natural range of motion.
Box Squat
Box squats are very similar to back squats, but at the bottom portion, the lifter must sit on a
box. Typically, this movement allows the lifter to keep their shins more vertical as the lifter
leans forward to keep the center of mass over their feet. This alleviates stress on the knees
and makes the movement much more hip dominant than the typical back squat.
Zercher Squat
The Zercher squat is the most unique of the bunch in that instead of the weight resting on
the trunk, it is being held in the lifter’s elbows. This variation is somewhere between the
front squat and back squat in terms of hip and knee joint torques.
Conventional Deadlift
Obviously the most popular variation of the deadlift, the conventional deadlift, is
performed with the legs in between the arms. This variation is the most hip dominant.
Sumo Deadlift
Powerlifters often utilize the sumo deadlift. By abducting and externally rotating the legs,
they can decrease the hip moment arm and perform the lift in a more upright position since
hip abduction brings their body closer to the bar.
Hack Lift
A hack lift is very similar to a conventional deadlift, except that the bar is behind your legs
instead of in front. This makes the variation much more knee dominant.
The gluteus medius is a small muscle on the side of your hip that attaches to your illiotibial
(IT) band, which attaches to the lateral aspect of your tibia. This muscle acts to abduct the
hip and, when strengthened, may help prevent knee valgus.
For more on knee valgus, check out Bret’s blog article on it.
Butt Wink
Butt wink occurs when one’s femur runs out of room during hip flexion and makes contact
with the acetabulum. This contact induces posterior pelvic tilt and lumbar flexion, and is
commonly seen in the bottom of a squat.
However, if one does need to increase their core stability, they can do so by bracing the
abdominals/obliques. This will increase intra-abdominal pressure, which will increase
spinal stability. The downside of this is that it increases spinal compression and your
spinal erectors must produce more torque in order to counteract the spinal flexion
moments provided by your abdominals, and this may lead to greater fatigue.
Hip
Exte
nsion
Torq
ue
(Nm)
These seemingly minor aids combine to produce large increases in the total poundages that a lifter
can hoist.
Hip
Extension
Torque
(Nm)
The activation patterns of the hip thrust jive very well with the findings of Worrell et al.
(2001), i.e., the gluteus maximus has the highest EMG activity at end range. Because the
force from the load is always perpendicular to the hips, resisting extension, one is able to
maximize hip extension torque and gluteal EMG activity. Below is a graph of the hip
extension torque in a hip thrust of a 6’4, 100kg male using a 220kg load.
45º Hyper
The 45º Hyper is a piece of equipment on which the back extension is often performed.
The torques when performing a back extension on the 45º Hyper are on the graph and
show an inverted u-shaped curve, with the most challenging portion in the middle of the lift.
More information on these concepts, horizontal back extension, 45º hyper, and good mornings are
discussed further by Contreras et al. (2013). Bret was also nice enough to record a video
summarizing the article and these concepts.
Contreras, B. M., Cronin, J. B., Schoenfeld, B. J., Nates, R. J., & Sonmez, G. T. (2013). Are All
Hip Extension Exercises Created Equal?. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 35(2), 17-22.
Reverse Hyper
The reverse hyper was popularized by Louie Simmons at Westside Barbell and is a great
movement for learning how to control one’s pelvis and lumbar spine during a hip hinge
while properly utilizing the glutes. The reverse hyper is performed by laying one’s upper
body face down on a surface with the legs hanging off, secured to a pendulum via a strap.
The lifter will simply move in and out of hip flexion while controlling the movement with
their hip extensors. It should be noted that on the graph below, we are assuming a quasi-
static model, i.e., there is no momentum and that the lifter is not actively preventing the
weight from swinging past 90º of hip flexion.
Below is a graph showing the torque-angle curves of the previous four exercises if a 6’, 200
lb subject were to hold a 100 lb weight at the top of his or her chest.
200
Horizontal Back
100 Extension
0 Reverse Hyper
90º 135º 180º
Hip Angle
500
Torque (Nm)
400
300
200
100
0
Knee: 180º Knee: 180º Knee: 180º Knee: 135º Knee: 90º
Hip: 90º Hip: 135º Hip: 180º Hip: 180º Hip: 180º
As you can see, the GHR is a knee dominant (knee flexion) exercise and not a hip dominant
exercise. For more information on the Glute Ham Raise, check out Bret’s article on T-Nation,
Gutting the GHR.
Barker, P. J., Hapuarachchi, K. S., Ross, J. A., Sambaiew, E., Ranger, T. A., & Briggs, C. A.
(2013). Anatomy and biomechanics of gluteus maximus and the thoracolumbar fascia at
the sacroiliac joint. Clinical Anatomy.