ANS 1.

Digestive System Parts and Functions

Mouth

This is where the process of digestion begins. The smell of food itself triggers the secretion of saliva by
the salivary glands in the mouth. Saliva contains the salivary amylase enzyme which helps in the
breakdown of starch. In the mouth lies the tongue, which is vital for mixing and tasting food. Teeth help
in the grinding of food.

Pharynx (Throat)

The throat or pharynx is a funnel shaped tube that is connected to the mouth. It is charged with passing
chewed food into the esophagus from the mouth. It features an epiglottis which is used as a switch to
control entry of air and food into the larynx and esophagus respectively.

Esophagus

After you have swallowed your food, it passes through the throat and into the esophagus. Here, food is
passed through the hypo-pharynx and the oropharynx. Through a process called peristalsis, food is
converted into a small round mass and transported into the stomach. At the end of the esophagus,
there is a muscular ring called the cardiac sphincter. It is responsible for closing the end of the
esophagus in order to trap food in the stomach.

Stomach

In the stomach, food is coated with a mixture of digestive enzymes and acid. This helps break down
food. The stomach walls are protected from the acid released into the stomach by a thick coat of
mucous. After food has been broken down in the stomach, it is then passed on to the small intestine.

Small Intestine

The small intestine is divided into 3 parts: the duodenum, the jejunum and the ileum. The walls of the
small intestine have finger-like projections called villi. They facilitate the absorption of nutrients into the
bloodstream.

Accessory Organs
In the duodenum (the first part of the small intestines), carbohydrates, protein and fats are broken
down with the help of enzymes from the pancreas. Bile juice is released from the gall bladder to further
break down fats into a form that the body can use.

Large Intestine (Colon)

After the small intestine, we have the large intestine which is charged with absorbing water and
breaking down waste. It contains bacteria that help with the breakdown of waste that is passed on from
the small intestine. Once the remaining nutrients are extracted, it becomes feces that are excreted
through the anal canal.

Rectum and Anus

The rectum receives stool from the large intestine. When this happens, your body lets you know that
you need to pass stool. It is the rectum’s job to hold the stool until it is evacuated. The stool is passed on
from the rectum to the anus for ejection. The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that allow you to
control the anus function.

ANS 2. The respiratory system, which includes air passages, pulmonary vessels, the
lungs, and breathing muscles, aids the body in the exchange of gases between the air
and blood, and between the blood and the body’s billions of cells. Most of the organs
of the respiratory system help to distribute air, but only the tiny, grape-like alveoli and
the alveolar ducts are responsible for actual gas exchange.

In addition to air distribution and gas exchange, the respiratory system filters, warms,
and humidifies the air you breathe. Organs in the respiratory system also play a role in
speech and the sense of smell.

The respiratory system also helps the body maintain homeostasis, or balance among
the many elements of the body’s internal environment.

The respiratory system is divided into two main components:

Upper respiratory tract: Composed of the nose, the pharynx, and the larynx, the
organs of the upper respiratory tract are located outside the chest cavity.
  Nasal cavity: Inside the nose, the sticky mucous membrane lining the nasal
cavity traps dust particles, and tiny hairs called cilia help move them to the
nose to be sneezed or blown out.
 Sinuses: These air-filled spaces along side the nose help make the skull lighter.
 Pharynx: Both food and air pass through the pharynx before reaching their
appropriate destinations. The pharynx also plays a role in speech.
 Larynx: The larynx is essential to human speech.

Lower respiratory tract: Composed of the trachea, the lungs, and all segments of the
bronchial tree (including the alveoli), the organs of the lower respiratory tract are
located inside the chest cavity.

 Trachea: Located just below the larynx, the trachea is the main airway to the
lungs.
 Lungs: Together the lungs form one of the body’s largest organs. They’re
responsible for providing oxygen to capillaries and exhaling carbon dioxide.
 Bronchi: The bronchi branch from the trachea into each lung and create the
network of intricate passages that supply the lungs with air.
 Diaphragm: The diaphragm is the main respiratory muscle that contracts and
relaxes to allow air into the lungs.
ANS 3. ★ The Human Circulatory System ★

◆A system that circulates every necessary element in the body. In order to circulate necessary components, we require a
messenger and messenger requires a pathway to support. Moreover, the human circulatory system works on this principle.

★ The Heart ★

◆The muscular organ which is located near the chest slightly towards the left in the thoracic region. It is the very crucial organ
of our body which works continuously throughout our life. The human heart is divided into four chambers which are involved in
the transportation of oxygenated blood and deoxygenated The upper two chambers are called as atria whereas the lower two
chambers are called as ventricle.

★ The Blood ★
◆The fluid connective tissue which plays a vital role in circulating food, hormones, water, air and other necessary products to
different parts of the body. Blood flows through a specified set of pathways called blood vessels. The organ which is involved in
pumping blood to different body parts is the heart. Blood cells, blood plasma, proteins, and salts together constitute the human
blood.

★ Blood Vessels ★

◆Blood vessels are the pathways through which the blood travels from one part to different parts of the body. Arteries
and veins are two types of blood vessels in the circulatory system of the body.

◆Arteries are the blood vessels that transport oxygenated blood from the heart to various parts of the body. They are thick,
elastic and are divided into a small network of blood vessels called capillaries

Every living organism generates waste in its body and has a mechanism
to expel it. In humans, waste generation and disposal are taken care of
by the human excretory system. The human excretory system comprises
ANS 4.

of the following structures:

 2 Kidneys
 2 Ureters
 1 Urinary bladder
 1 Urethra

Kidneys

Kidneys are the main organ of the human excretory system. The
kidneys are paired organs in each individual. They are the primary
excretory organ in humans and are located one on each side of the spine
at the level of the liver. They are divided into three regions- the renal
cortex which is the outer layer, the renal medulla which is the inner
layer and the renal pelvis which is responsible for carrying the urine
from the kidney to the ureter. The functional unit of a kidney is called
the nephron.
Ureters

There is one ureter that comes out of each kidney as an extension of the
renal pelvis. The ureter is a thin muscular tube that carries urine from
the kidneys to the bladder.

Urinary Bladder

It is a sac-like structure that is lined with smooth muscle layer and is

responsible for storage of urine till it is expelled from the body by
micturition. Micturition is the act of expelling urine from the body. The
bladder receives urine from the ureters, one from each kidney. The level
of the urinary bladder placement in the body differs in men and women.

Urethra

This is a tube that arises from the urinary bladder and functions to expel
urine to the outside by micturition. The urethra is shorter in females and
longer in the males. In males, the urethra functions as a common path
for sperms and urine. The opening of the urethra is guarded by a
sphincter that is autonomically controlled.

Other Excretory Organs

Apart from the above mentioned excretory organs, there are other
organs that also perform some form of excretion.

Skin

The skin is the largest organ in the body. Its primary function is to
protect the different organs of the body. However, the skin helps in
excretion by the way of sweat. The skin eliminates compounds like
NaCl, some amount of urea etc.
Lungs

Lungs are the primary respiratory organs and they help take in oxygen
and expel carbon dioxide. But, in this process, they also function to
eliminate some amount of water in the form of vapour.

Liver

The liver has an important function in excretion. It is said to be the first

line of defence when it comes to hormones, fats, alcohol, and drugs.
Most drugs undergo a first pass metabolism which occurs in the liver.
Few drugs are eliminated directly by the kidneys. The liver is said to
play a role in the elimination of excess fats and cholesterol that is
essential to the health of the body.

Structure of a Nephron

Learn more about Urine Formation here.

The structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephrons. Each
kidney consists of millions of nephrons that are all functioning together
to filter urine and expel the waste products. Each kidney consists of the
following parts:

 Bowman’s capsule– is the first part of the nephron which is a cup-

shaped structure and receives the blood vessels. The glomerular
filtration occurs here. The blood cells and proteins remain in the
blood.
 Proximal Convoluted Tubule– The Bowman’s capsule extends
downwards to form the proximal tubule. Water and reusable materials
from the blood are now reabsorbed back into it.
 The loop of Henle– The proximal tubule leads to the formation of a
u-shaped loop called the Loop of Henle. The Loop of Henle has three
parts: The descending limb, the u-shaped bend, and the ascending
limb. It is in this area that the urine becomes concentrated as water is
reabsorbed. The descending limb is freely permeable to water
whereas the ascending limb is impermeable to it.
 Distal Convoluted Tubule– The Loop of Henle leads into the distal
convoluted tubule which is where the kidney hormones cause their
effect. And the distal convoluted tubule leads to the collecting ducts.
 Collecting Duct– The distal convoluted tubule of each nephron leads
to the collecting ducts. The collecting ducts together form the renal
pelvis through which the urine passes into the ureter and then into the
urinary bladder.

Functions of the Excretory System

The excretory system performs many functions such as:

 Helps eliminate waste products such as urea, uric acid ammonia, and
other products via urine.
 It helps maintain the osmotic level of blood and plasma
 It helps maintain the electrolyte balance in the body
 And it also helps in the metabolism of those drugs that do not get
metabolized in the liver.
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