Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 1
Subject: Dactyloscopy
REVIEW NOTES ON
PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
(DACTYLOSCOPY)
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
1. Fingerprint – An impression of the friction
ridges of all or any part of the finger. A
friction ridge is a raised portion of the
epidermis on the palmar (palm and fingers)
or plantar (sole and toes) skin, consisting of
one or more connected ridge units of friction
ridge skin. These ridges are sometimes
known as "dermal ridges" or "dermal
papillae".
2. Dactyloscopy – is the practical application
of fingerprints or the process of identification
by fingerprint comparison and the
classification of fingerprints.
3. Dactylography – is the scientific study of
fingerprints as a means of identification.
4. Poroscopy – the scientific study of pores or
science of identification by means of the
pores.
5. Podoscopy - the science of identification
through friction ridge characteristics existing
on the sole of the human foot.
6. Chiroscopy – the science of identification
through friction ridge characteristics existing
on palms.
7. Ridgeology –the study of poroscopy,
edgeoscopy, and ridge characteristics for the
purpose of the positive identification of
fingerprints.
8. Edgeoscopy – the study of the
characteristics formed by the sides or edges
of papillary ridges as a means of
identification.
Dogmatic Principle of Fingerprint
1. Principle of Individuality – no two
fingerprints are exactly alike
2. Principle of Permanency – configuration
and details of individual ridges remain
constant and unchanging.
3. Principle of Infallibility – fingerprint is the
most reliable means of identification.
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Fingerprints in other species
The Koala is one of the few mammals
(other than primates) that have fingerprints. In
fact, koala fingerprints are remarkably similar to
human fingerprints; even with an electron
microscope, it can be quite difficult to distinguish
between the two.
History and Development
A. Primitive Knowledge
1. Egypt – The earliest evidence of ridge detail
on the hands and feet of humans was seen
in the 4,000 year old mummies of ancient
Egypt. The hands and feet of mummies have
been examined on numerous occasions and
they confirmed the presence of ridge detail
on the mummies‟ digits.
2. China – It was a common practice for the
Chinese to use ink fingerprints on official
documents, land scales, contracts, loans
and acknowledgements of debt. Finger
seals for sealing documents to prove its
authenticity. Early in the 12th century, in the
novel, “The Story of the River Bank,”
fingerprint found itself already in the criminal
procedure of China; and in the 16th century,
a custom prevailed in connection with the
sale of children. Palm and sole
impressions were stamped of sale to
prevent impersonation.
3. Japan – A Japanese Historian, Kamagusu
Minakata furthere commented about blood
stamping. Apparently, contracts were
accompanied by a written oath confirmed
with a blood stamp. The blood stamp was a
print of the ring finger in blood drawn from
that digit.
4. France – The most famous ancient stone
carvings is found in the L’lle de Gavrinis of
the coast of France. Here a burial chamber,
or dolman, was discovered dating back to
Neolithis times. Its inner walls are covered
with incised designs- systems of horse-shoe
form, more or less circular concentric
figures, spiral, arching lines sinuous and

straight lines and other markings
occurring in various combinations. Many
anthropologists interpret these lines as
representing finger or palm print
patterns.
5. Nova Scotia – An outline of a hand was
scratched into slate rock beside Kejiomkujil
Lake by an aboriginal Indian. The carving is
an outline of a hand and fingers. Within the
outline the flexion creases of the palm and
fingers are depicted. This carving has
considerable historical significance. Although
it does not demonstrate knowledge of the
individuality of friction ridges or palmar
flexion creases, it clearly illustrates an
early awareness of the presence of those
formations.
6. Babylonia - References by ancient
historians have been found describing how
finger seals were used on legal contracts
from 1855-1913 B.C. This practice identified
the author and protected against forgery.
7. Palestine – William Frederick Bade, Director
of the Palestine Institute of Archeology,
conducted excavations at various sites in
Palestine and at one place found finger
imprints on many pieces of broken
pottery. These “identifications” permitted the
confuse debris to dated accurately to the
fourth century A.D. Commenting on his case,
Fingerprint magazine (1973) stated that
“these impression were obviously intentional
and no doubt, represented the workman‟s
individual trade mark.”
8. Holland and Ancient China – Identification
of individuals was by means of branding,
tattooing, mutilation and also manifested
by wearing of cloths of different designs.
B. PERSONALITIES
1. Constantinople - In treaty ratification, the
sultan soaked hi hand in a sheep’s blood
and impressed in on the document as his
seal.
2. Thomas Bewick (1753-1828) – A British
author, naturalist and engraver became
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Subject: Dactyloscopy
England’s finest engraver who made
fingerprint stamps. He made wooden
engravings of fingerprints and published
their images in his books where he used an
engraving of his fingerprints as a signature.
The engravings demonstrate familiarity with
the construction of skin ridge. In two of the
books he added “Thomas Bewick, his mark”
under the impressions.
3. Sir William J. Herschel – Credited as being
the first European to recognize the value of
friction ridge points and to actually use
them for identification purposes.
4. Dr. J.C.A. Mayer (1788) of Germany – He
published the following statements in his
anatomical atlas; although the arrangement
of skin ridges is never duplicated in two
persons, nevertheless the similarities are
closer among some individuals. In others
the differences are marked, yet in spite of
their peculiarities of arrangement all have a
certain likeness.” This deduction was
published 100 years before the Konai
contract.
5. Dr. Henry Faulds (1843-1930) – In 1875
Faulds had opened a missionary hospital
and a year later started a medical school in
Japan where he may have been exposed to
fingerprints. He wrote a letter to Charles
Darwin telling him of his studies and
requesting assistance. He mentioned that
fingerprints can be classified easily and
that ridge detail is unique. He pointed out
the value of fingerprints of being in
“medico legal studies” and commented
that photographs of people change over
the years but rugae (friction ridges) never
change.
6. Thomas Taylor (1877) - A microscopist of
the Department of Agriculture, Washington,
DC who also suggested that fingerprints
could be used to solve crime.
7. Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914) – He
devised the first truly scientific method of
criminal identification in Paris France called
anthropometry or Bertillonage. He
conceived the idea of using anatomical

measurements to distinguish one criminal
from another. He decided to use various
body measurements such as head length,
head breadth, length of left middle finger,
length of the left cubit (forearm)/ length of left
foot, body height, face breadth, face height
and other descriptions including features
such as scars and hair and eye color to
distinguish criminals.
8. Dr. Henry P. De Forrest - He utilized the
first official municipal use of fingerprints
for non-criminal registration on December
19, 1902 in the Municipal Civil Service
Commission in the City of New York. He
required civil service applicants to be
fingerprinted to prevent them from having
better qualified persons take test for them
and put the system into practice.
9. Capt. James I. Parke – He advocated the
first state and penal use of fingerprint
which was officially adopted in Sing-sing
prison on June 5, 1903 and later at Auburn,
Napanoch and Clinton Penitentiaries.
10. Sgt. Kenneth Perrier – An Englishman and
first fingerprint instructor at the St. Luis
Police Department, Missouri. He was one of
the pupils of Sir. Edward Richard Henry and
through personal contact during the Worlds
Fair Exposition held in St. Luis, a fingerprint
bureau was established on April 12, 1904.
11. Mary K. Holland – She was the first
American Instructor in Dactyloscopy.
12. Harry Mayers II – In 1925, he installed the
first official foot and fingerprint system
for infants at the Jewish Maternity Hospital,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, and the
first system in the state.
13. Juan (Ivan) Vucetich (1855-1925) – The
fast face of the advancement of
fingerprinting in England was due to the
ingenuity of Juan Vucetich, who was
employed as a statistician with the Central
Police Department at La Planta, Argentina.
In July 1891, the Chief of Police assigned
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Subject: Dactyloscopy
Vucetich to set up a bureau of
Anthropometric Identification.
14. Sir Edward Henry (1850-1931) – At the
same time that Vucetich was experimenting
with fingerprinting in Argentina, another
classification system was being developed in
India. This system was called “The Henry
Classification System.”
FINGERPRINTING IN NORTH AMERICA
(1877-1900)
15. Isaiah West Taber (1880) – In 1880, a
photographer in San Francisco who
suggested that fingerprinting be adopted for
the registration of Chinese immigrant
laborers.
16. Gilbert Thompson (1882) – He used his
thumbprint to ensure that the amounts were
not changed or altered on payroll cheques.
When issuing a payroll cheque, he would put
an inked thumbprint over the amount. This is
to prevent fraudulent cheque alterations.
17. Mark Twain (1894) – An America author and
lecture, Twain enhanced the position of
fingerprints when he included their use in the
plot of a novel entitled Pudd’n Head Wilson.
In the novel, a bloody fingerprint is found
in the murder weapon and Pudd‟n Head,
the defense attorney, has the whole town
fingerprinted. He lectured the court and
jury on the basics of fingerprinting, how
fingerprints are immutable, and that two
fingerprints will never be found to be the
same. He also commented on how
identical twins can be indistinguishable
in appearance, at times even by their
parents, but their fingerprints will always
be different.
Fingerprinting in Canada (1904-1920)
18. Edward Foster (1863-1956) – Foster,
Canadian constable of the Dominion Police
attended the world’s Fair to guard a display
of gold. He attended Ferrier’s presentation at
the convention and intrigued by the
possibilities that fingerprinting had to offer,

he felt that a bureau would be effective than
an anthropometry bureau. He also felt that a
national organization in Canada, similar to
the International Association of Chief’s of
Police, would encourage cooperation among
Canadian police departments and be an
ideal body to promote a national interest in
fingerprinting.
Scientific Researchers
19. Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) – Grew,
English botanist, physician and micropist. In
1684 he published a paper in the
philosophical transactions of the Royal
Society of London describing his
observations of the “Innumerable little
ridges of equal big ness on the ends of
the first joints of the fingers.” He
described sweat pores, epidermal ridges,
and their various arrangements. Included
in his paper was a drawing of the
configurations of the hand displaying the
ridge flow on the fingers and palms.
20. Govard Bidloo (1685) – Bidloo, anatomist
in Amsterdam, Holland, published a book on
human anatomy illustrating friction ridges
and pore structure on the underside of
the fingers. His comments were
morphological in nature and he did not refer
to or mentioned the individuality of friction
ridges.
21. Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) – A
professor in 1685 at the University of
Bologna, Italy, published the results of his
examination of the friction skin with the
newly invented microscope. He has been
credited with being the first to use a
microscope in medical studies. His paper
dealt mainly with the function, form, and
structure of the friction skin as a tactile
organ, and its use in the enhancement of
traction for walking and grasping.
He was known as the „Grandfather of
Dactyloscopy” according to Dr. Edmond
Locard, the “Father of Poroscopy.” He
originated the terms “loops and spirals.”
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Subject: Dactyloscopy
22. JCA Mayer (1788) – A German doctor and
anatomist whose paper on fingerprint clearly
addressed the individuality of the friction
ridges.
23. Johannes (Jean) Evangelista Purkinje
(1787-1869) – A professor at the University
of Breslau, Germany, published a thesis that
contained his studies on the eye,
fingerprints and other skin features
entitled, “Commentatio de Examine
Phisiologico Organi Visus et Systematis.” He
classified nine principal configuration groups
of fingerprints and assigned each a name he
was known as the “Father of
Dactyloscopy.”
24. Arthur Kollman (1883) – The first
researcher to address the formation of
friction ridges in embryos and the
topographical physical stressors that may
have been part of their growth. He identified
the presence and locations of the valor
pads of the human hand and foot.
25. H. Klaatsch (1888) – From Germany who
examined the walking pads and
eminences of several pentadactylous of
five fingered mammals. He was credited
being the first researcher to examine the
walking surface of other mammals. He
also referred to the arrangement of the
fundamental limits of the friction ridges as
the reason why all ridge formation are
different.
26. David Hepburn (1895) – He is connected
with the University of Edinburgh, Scotland,
published a paper on the similarity in
appearance of the eminences or walking
surfaces of primates entitled, “The
Papilliary Ridges on the Hands and feet of
monkeys and men.” He was the first to
recognized that ridges assist gripping by
creating friction and that they had a
function other increasing tactile stimulus.

Historical Background – Philippine Setting
27. Mr. Jones was the first to teach fingerprints
in the Philippine Constabulary sometime in
the year 1900. The Bureau of Prisons in
the year 1918, records show that the
fingerprints already existed in the “carpetas”
28. L. Asa N. Darby, under his management
during the re-occupation of the Philippines
by the American Forces, a modern and
complete Fingerprint File has been
establishment in the Philippine
Commonwealth.
29. Mr. Genoroso Reyes was the first Filipino
Fingerprint Technician employed by the
Philippine Constabulary.
30. Capt. Thomas Dugan of New York City
Police Department and Mr. Flaviano G.
Guerrero of the Federal Bureau of
Investigation, Washington, gave the first
examinations for fingerprint in 1937.
Plaridel Educational Institution (PEI), now
the Philippine College of Criminology
(PCCr), Manila is the first governmental
recognized school to teach the science of
fingerprints and other police sciences.
C. Legality of Fingerprints
1. People vs. Jennings [252 III. 534, 96 NE
1077 (1911)] pass upon the admissibility
of fingerprint evidence. Fingerprint
evidence was admitted as a means of
identification. It was also held that persons
experienced in the matter of fingerprint
identification may give their opinions as to
whether the fingerprints found at the scene
of the crime correspond with those of the
accused. The court’s conclusion were based
on a comparison of the photographs of such
prints with the impressions made by the
accused, there being no questions as to the
accuracy or authenticity of the photographs.
It was stated that the weight to be given to
the testimony of experts in the fingerprint
identification as a question for the jury.
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Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 5
Subject: Dactyloscopy
2. New Jersey State vs. Cerciello, in which
fingerprint evidence was permitted to be
introduced. The defendant argued that it
was an error to allow the testimony by
experts explaining the comparison of
fingerprints obtained from the defendant
voluntarily with those fingerprints found upon
a hatchet near the body of the deceased
when the body was discovered. The New
Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals held, “in
principle, its admission as legal evidence is
based upon the theory that the evolution in
practical affairs of fife, whereby the
progressive and scientific tenderness of the
age are manifested in every other
department of human endeavor, cannot be
ignored in legal procedure. But, that the law
it its effort to enforce justice by
demonstrating a fact in issue, will allow
evidence of those scientific processes which
are the work of educated and skillful men in
their various departments, and apply them to
the demonstrations of fact, leaving the
weight and effect to be given to the effort
and its results entirely to the consideration of
the jury”.
3. In the case of State Vs. Conners [87
N.T.L. 419, 94 Atl.812 (1915)] it was held
competent to show by a photograph the
fingerprints upon the balcony post of a house
entered, without producing that post in court,
and to show by expert testimony that the
fingerprints found on the post were similar to
the fingerprints of the defendant.
4. Lamble vs. State [Lamble v. State, 96
N.T.L. 231; 114 ATL. (N.J) 346 (1921)]
which involved the discovery of fingerprints
on the door of an automobile, the court was
of the opinion that it was not necessary to
produce the door as evidence. The court
stated that a photograph of the fingerprints
noted on the door should be sufficient along
with the identification of the fingerprints by
an expert to show these of the defendant.
The court referred to the previous decided
case of States v. Conners.

5. Commonwealth v. Albright, [101 Pa. Sup.
C.L.317 (1931)] - a fingerprint expert
testified that the fingerprint on a piece of
glass, established to be from a pane in a
door that had been broken to effect entrance
to the house was the same as the
impression of the defendant’s left index
finger and he explained in detail the points of
identity which led him to that judgment. In
the Albright case, the court stated, “it is well
settled that the papillary lines and marks on
the fingers of every man, woman and child
posses an individual character different from
those of any other person and that the
chances that the fingerprints of two different
persons may be identified are infinitesimally
remote.
6. People v. Corral [224 cal. 2d 300 (1964)] -
it is completely settled law that fingerprints
are the strongest evidence of the identity of a
person”. This Doctrine was reasserted in
another California case, People v. Riser [47
cal. 2d. 566 (1956)] in which the court stated,
“fingerprint evidence is the strongest
evidence of identity and is ordinarily
sufficient alone to identify the defendant”.
7. Schmerber v California [Schmerber v.
California,384 us,757,767(1966)] - The
introduction into evidence of fingerprint
impressions taken without consent of the
defendant was not an infringement of the
constitutional privileged against self
incrimination. The high court held that it is
constitutional to obtain real or physical
evidence even if the suspect is compelled to
give blood in a hospital environment, submit
to fingerprinting, photographing or
measurement, write or speak for
identification, appears in court, stand or
walk, assume a stance or make a particular
gesture, put on cloth that fits him, or exhibit
his body as evidence when it is material. The
Schmerber case points out the fact that the
privilege against self-incrimination is related
primarily to “TESTIMONIAL COMPULSION”.
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Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 6
Subject: Dactyloscopy
In the Philippines:
8. In the BILANGAWA v. AMADOR case,
(Court of Appeals No.37320-b) a fingerprint
expert and constabulary sergeant testified
and successfully defended fingerprint
evidence based on eight identical ridge
points.
9. People of the Philippines vs. Medina, 59,
Phil. 330 of December 23, 1933 were the
first conviction based on fingerprint and led
to the judicial decision in the Philippine
jurisprudence.
Types of Ridge Formation
1. Recurving ridge – Is the ridge that curves
back in the direction in which it started. It
looks like a hair pin.
2. Converging Ridges – Two or more lines
forming an angle, a ridge whose closed end
is angular and serves as a point of
convergent.
3. Diverging ridges – Two ridges running side
by side and suddenly separating, one ridge
going one way and the other ridge in another
way.
4. Bifurcating ridge – A single ridge which
splits into two forming a “Y” shape, formation
or structure. It is
Ridge Characteristics
1. Island, Eyelet, lake or Eye – It is a single
ridge which bifurcates where the bifurcating
ridges converge at a certain point to form
again into a single ridge.
2. Dot or Series of dots – They are
fragmentary ridges formed like a dot or dots.
3. Short or Series of Short Ridges – They are
fragmentary ridges formed by short or series
of short ridges.
4. Ridge-ending – It is a termination or ending
of ridge or ridges.
5. Fragmentary Ridges – They consist of
disconnected sequences of short ridges
embodied intensely. These ridges are
considered in the classification of fingerprints
if they appear as dark and as thick as the
surrounded ridges within the pattern area.

6. Ridge Hook – It is a ridge that divides to
form two ridges which are shorter in length
than the main ridge.
7. Ridge Bridge – This is a connecting ridge
between two ridges.
8. Incipient or Nascent Ridge – This is a kind
of ridge which is madly formed, thin, short or
broken which appear or appears in the
depressions between two well formed ridges.
9. Sufficient recurve – The space between
shoulders of a loop, free of any appendage,
and abutting at right angle.
10. Appendage- a short ridge at the top or
summit of a recurve usually at right angle.
11. Envelop – Is a single recurving ridge
enclosing one or more rods or bars.
12. Rod or bar – Is a single ending ridge at the
center of a recurving ridge of a loop pattern.
13. Uptrust – Is an ending ridge of any length
rising at a sufficient degree from a horizontal
place.
14. Dissociated ridges – Are unusual ridge
structures having no well defined patterns;
the ridges are extremely short, appear like a
series of “patches” caused by a disturbance
of developmental process at early fetal life of
the individual.
15. Shoulder of a loop- It is that point at which
the recurving ridge definitely turns or curve.
16. Shoulder of a loop- It is that point at which
the recurving ridge definitely turns or curve.
17. Puckering- As growth ceases at several
ends, the ends curls slightly.
18. Creases- Are thin, usually straight narrow
white lines running transversely or formed
side to side, across the print, causing the
puckering of the ridges.
19. Staple- Single recurving ridge at the center
of the pattern area.
20. Spike- An ending ridge at the center of a
pattern which forms the upthrust.
21. Enclosure – a bifurcation which does not
remain open but which the legs of the
bifurcation, after running along side by side
for a short distance, come together again to
form a single ridge once more.
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Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 7
Subject: Dactyloscopy
Focal Points of Fingerprint Pattern
1. Core – Is a point on a ridge formation
usually located at the center or heart of a
pattern.
2. Delta or Triradial Point – Is a point on the
first ridge formation directly at or in front or
near the center of the divergence of the type
lines. It may be: a) a bifurcation b) an
abrupt ending ridge c) a dot d) a short
ridge e) a meeting of two ridges f) a point
on the first recurving ridge located
nearest to the center and in front of the
divergence of the type lines.
Type Lines and Pattern Area
Type lines - basic boundaries of most
fingerprints formed by ridges which run
parallel, starting from the lower corner of
the pattern and flowing inward and
upward the edge of the pattern area,
where they diverge or separate, then
surround or tend to surround the pattern
area.
Pattern area- The part of the fingerprint
which lies within the area surrounded by
the type lines.
Rules in Core Location
1. The core is placed upon or within the
sufficient recurving ridge.
2. When the innermost sufficient recurve
contains uneven number of rods rising as
high as the shoulders, the core is placed
upon the end of the center rod whether it
touches the looping ridge or not.
3. When the innermost sufficient recurve
contains no ending ridge or rod rising as
high as the shoulders of the loop, the
core is placed on the shoulder of the
farther from the delta.
4. When the innermost sufficient recurve
contains an even number of rods rising
as high as the shoulders, the core is
placed upon the end of the farther one of
the two center rods being treated as
though they were connected by a
recurving ridge. The shoulders of a loop
are the points at which the recurving
ridge definitely turns inward or curves.
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 8
Rules in Delta Location
1. The delta may not be located at a
bifurcation which does not open towards
the core.
2. When there is a choice between a
bifurcation and another type of delta
equally close to the point of divergence,
the bifurcation is selected.
3. When there is a series of bifurcations
opening towards the point of divergence
of the type lines, the bifurcation nearest
to the core is chosen as the delta.
4. The delta may not be located in the
middle of the ridge running between the
type lines toward the core but at the
nearer end only. The delta depends
entirely on the point of origin of the ridge.
5. If the ridge enters the pattern area from a
point below the divergence of the type
lines, the delta must be located at the
end nearer to the core.
What are ridge tracing, ridge counting and
ridge count?
Ridge Tracing is the process of tracing
the ridge that originates from the left
delta toward the right delta to see where
it flows in relation to the right delta.
Ridge Counting is the process of
counting the ridges that touch or cross
an imaginary line drawn between the
core and delta of a loop.
Ridge Count is the number of ridges
intervening between the delta and the
core.
Standard Fingerprint Patterns
1. Loops (60 % in appearance)
- ulnar
- radial
2. Arches (5 % in appearance)
- Tented
- plain
3. Whorl (35 % in appearance)
- Plain whorl
- Central pocket loop whorl
- Double loop whorl
- Accidental whorl
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Subject: Dactyloscopy
1. LOOPS - A type of fingerprint pattern in
which one or more of the ridges enters
on either side of the impression, recurve,
touch or pass an imaginary line drawn
from the delta to the core, and terminate
or tend to terminate on or toward the
same side of the impression from which
such ridge or ridges entered.
a. Ulnar Loop - Loops which flow in the
direction of the ulna bone or towards
the little finger.
b. Radial Loop – loops which flow or
recurve towards the radial side or
thumb.
ESSENTIALS OF A LOOP
- It must have a core
- It must have a delta
- An imaginary line must pass
between the core and the delta.
- It must have a ridge count of a
minimum of at least one (1) across a
looping ridge.
2. ARCHES – The ridges go from one side
of the pattern to another, never turning
back to make a loop. (Solis, p 59)
a. Plain Arch - A pattern in which the
ridges enter on one side of the
pattern, then flow or tend to flow
towards the other side, with a rise or
wave in the center, with no angular
ridge formation and no upthrust.
(Tubid)
b. Tented Arch - A pattern similar to a
loop, but lacking at least one of the
essential elements of a loop. This is a
type of fingerprint pattern where
majority of the ridges form an arch
and one or more of the ridges at the
center form a tent in outline, giving an
angle of 90 degrees or less; or one
with un upward thrust having an
angle of 45 degrees or more; or a
pattern similar to a loop, but lacking
at least one of the essential elements
of a loop. (Tubid)

3. WHORLS – Patterns with two deltas and
patterns too irregular in form to classify:
a. Plain whorl (simple whorls Solis, p59),
defined: It is a fingerprint pattern which
there are two (2) deltas and in which at
least one (1) ridge makes a turn through
one complete circuit, an imaginary line
drawn between the two (2) deltas must
touch or cross at least one (1) of the
circuiting whorl ridges within the pattern
area.
b. Central Pocket Loop Whorl, defined –
It is a fingerprint pattern which for the
most part of a loop, but which has a
small whorl inside the loop ridges,
sometimes called a composite pattern,
which means that is made up of two (2)
pattern in one, a whorl inside a loop .
c. Double Loop Whorl, defined – A
Double loop whorl is a pattern consisting
of two (2) separate and distinct loop
formations. One of the loops surrounds
or overlaps the other, also called
COMPOSITE PATTERN, like the central
pocket loop whorl. It arises from the fact
that these patterns are a composite or
combination of two (2) patterns in one,
with two cores and two deltas.
d. Accidental Whorl, defined – It is a
pattern that is a combination of two or
more different types of patterns except in
the PLAIN ARCH. It can be a
combination of a loop and a whorl, a loop
or a central pocket loop whorl, or any
combination of two or more different
loops and whorl type pattern. Like the
central pocket loop whorl and the double
loop whorl, some authorities or authors
call accidental whorl COMPOSITE.
Kinds of Impressions
1. Real Impressions – Impression of the
finger bulbs with the use of printing ink on
the surface of the paper. Other coloring
materials may be used but they are less
visible and indelible
a. Plain method – The bulbs of the last
phalanges of the fingers and thumbs are
pressed on the surface of the paper after
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Subject: Dactyloscopy
pressing them on an ink pad or ink plate
with printing ink.
b. Rolled Method – The bulbs of the
thumb and other fingers are rolled on the
surface of the paper after being rolled in
an ink pad or ink plate with the printing
ink.
2. Chance impression – Refers to fingerprints
which are imprinted or impressed by mere
chance or without any intention to produce it.
a. Visible/Patent prints – impression
made by chance and is visible without
previous treatment. Impression made by
the fingers smeared with some colored
substance, like black ink, vegetable juice,
may be visible immediately after
impression.
b. Semi-visible/plastic/molded prints –
impressions made by chance by
pressing the finger tips on melted
paraffin, putty, resin, cellophane, plastic
tape, butter, soap, etc. These prints need
not a development, although
photography is more applicable.
c. Invisible/Latent prints – prints which
are not visible after impression but made
visible by the addition of some
substances.
Latent prints – Any chance or accidental
impression left by friction ridge skin on a
surface, regardless of whether it is visible or
invisible at the time of deposition.
Patent prints –These are friction ridge
impressions of unknown origin which are
obvious to the human eye and are caused by a
transfer of foreign material on the finger, onto a
surface. Because they are already visible they
need no enhancement, and are photographed
instead of being lifted.
Plastic prints/Molded prints - A friction ridge
impression from a finger or palm (or toe/foot)
deposited in a material that retains the shape of
the ridge detail. Commonly encountered
examples are melted candle wax; putty removed
from the perimeter of window panes and thick

grease deposits on car parts. Such prints are
already visible and need no enhancement, but
investigators must not overlook the potential that
invisible latent prints deposited by accomplices
may also be on such surfaces.
How to Get Fingerprint Impressions on Dead
Bodies?
1. In cases of fresh dead bodies, the
fingers are unclenched and each one is
inked individually with the aid of a small
rubber roller. The paper where the print
will be impressed will be placed in a
spoon-shaped piece of wood and slowly
and evenly rolled over the pattern.
2. If the fist is too tightly clenched, a
small incision may be made at the base of
the fingers. The contraction may also be
overcome by dipping the hands in hot
water.
3. If the so-called washerwoman’s skin
is not too marked on the fingerprints of
dead bodies recovered shortly from
bodies of water (floaters), the fingers
may be dried off with towel and glycerin
is injected with a syringe under the skin of
the finger tips in order to smoothen the
surface. The fingerprints are then taken
like that of a fresh dead body.
4. If the “floater” has been in a body of
water for longer time and the friction
ridges have disappeared, the skin of the
fingertips is cut away. This area of skin
from each finger is placed in a small
labeled test tubes containing
formaldehyde solution. If the papillary
ridges are still preserved on the outer
surface, the person taking the prints
places a portion of the skin on his right
index finger protected by a rubber glove
and then takes the print after inking the
finger tip. The same procedure as
described may be applied to putrefied or
burned bodies according to
circumstances.
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Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 10
Subject: Dactyloscopy
Fingerprint Classification
Classification - is the method of obtaining a
formula for a set of fingerprints whereby it
may be located in the filling cabinet.
Classification Formula - is the numerical
description for a set of classified fingerprints
which is composed of figure and letters
written above the horizontal line like a
fraction.
Blocking - is the process of writing below
each finger-print pattern the corresponding
symbols of its name.
Six Divisions of Classifications in Order
According to their Importance
(Edward Henry “Henry System”)
1. Primary Classification
2. Secondary Classification
3. Sub-secondary classification
4. Major Division
5. Key
6. Final
Formation in classification line
Key Maj. Prim. Sec. Sub.Sec.
Final
Div. Class. Class Class
Class
1. Primary Classification – is the sum total of
all numerical values of whose found in
fingerprint set expressed as the numerator
and the denominator plus the pre-
established fraction of one over 1 (1/1).
How to get the primary classification
a. By Pairing
b. By assigning numerical values to whorl
patterns only
Types of Fingerprint Patterns (Symbol)
Without numerical value: A, T, R, U
With numerical value: W, C, D, X
c. Knowing the numerators and
denominators in the pairs
Note: Even Number- Numerator
Odd Number- Denominator
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d. Summing up the numerical values of
whorls assigned to the fingers plus the
pre-established fraction of 1/1
N= 16+8+4+2+1 = 31+1 = 32
D= 16+8+4+2+1 = 31+1 = 32
Number of Possible Combination in Primary
Classification
• There are 1,024 possible combination for
primary classification from 1/1 to 32/32.
• 1/1 – lowest primary classification
• 32/32 – highest primary classification
Note: Whorl type of pattern is the only
fingerprint patterns with numerical values
and an arbitrary count of one (1) is
always added.
Purpose of Fixed Count of One:
3. Sub- Secondary Classification – is the
The purpose is to avoid a classification of zero
over zero (0/0) in a set of prints in which this
might be mistaken for a letter “O” which has
another specific meaning in the classification.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMPUTATIONS AND
FINGERS MISSING AT BIRTH
• If one finger is amputated, it is given a
classification identical with that of the
opposite finger, including pattern and
ridge count or tracing.
• If two or more finger are amputated they
are given classification identical with the
opposite fingers.
• If two amputated finger are opposite
each other, both are given the
classification of whorls with meeting
tracing.
• When fingerprint card bearing notation of
fingers missing at birth is classified, the
missing fingers should be treated as
amputations in that they are given the
identical classification of the opposite
fingers.
2. Secondary Classification – is the
exhibition of Capital Letter symbols of
plain arch, tented arch, radial loop, ulnar
loop, plain whorl, central-pocket loop,
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Subject: Dactyloscopy
double loop whorl, and accidental found
in the index finger of both hands.
- The pattern appearing on the right
index should be placed on the
numerator and the pattern appearing
on the left index should be placed on
the denominator.
- There are twenty five (25) possible
combinations which may appear in
the index finger from A/A to W/W
without C, D, and X. (Collins) There
are 64 combinations for filing from
A/A to X/X.
Secondary Small Letter Classification
- It is the exhibition of small letter
symbols of arch, tented arch and radial
loop found before and after the index
finger of both hands.
exhibition of the resultant symbol for the
ridge counting in loops as expressed by
symbol I and O and ridge tracing for
whorl as expressed by symbol IMO from
the right index to the left ring finger
excluding the thumbs and the little
fingers of both hands.
- Fingers to be considered are:
index finger, middle finger, and ring
finger of both hands.
Loop Sub- Secondary by Ridge
Counting – It is the exhibition of the
resultant symbol for the ridge counting in
loops as expressed by symbol IO found
from indexes, middles and ring fingers of
both hands, the ridges are counted and
compound to the pre-established table to
obtain the resultant symbol IO. All loop
sets of prints using the Index, Middle,
and Ring fingers of both hands has sixty
four (64) combinations.
Whorl Sub- Secondary by Ridge
Tracing - when the whorl is found on the
index, middle and ring fingers of both
hands the ridges are traced to obtain the
resultant symbol IMO. There are seven
hundred twenty nine (729) possible
Subsecondary combinations for whorl
 Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 12
type patterns in the Index, Middle, and
Ring fingers of both hands.
For whorl tracing:
 Meeting (M) – 0 to 2 ridges from left
delta to the right delta
 Outer (O) – 3 or more ridges below
the right delta
 Inner (I) – 3 or more ridges above the
right delta.
For Tented Arch and Plain Arch
If a Plain Arch or Tented arch are
present on the index, middle, and ring
fingers of both hands, just put a dash (-)
for the sub-secondary classification.
4. Major Division – is the exhibition of the
ridge counting in loops as expressed by
symbol SML and the ridge tracing for
whorls as expressed by symbols IMO
found on the thumbs of both hands.
Three (3) Kinds of Major Division
1) Loop Major Division – When the loop
is found on the thumb of both hands,
the ridges are counted and compared
to the pre- established table of Whorl
Major Division.
Denominator Numerator
Left Hand Right Hand
1- 11= S 1-11= S
12- 16= M 12- 16= M
17 > = L
17 > = L 1 – 17 = S
18 – 22 = M
23 > = L
2) Whorl Major Division – When the
whorl is found on the thumbs of both
hands, the ridges are traced to obtain
the resultant symbol IMO.
3) Combination of Loop and Whorl
Major Division – When one of the
thumbs is loop, the resultant symbol
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Subject: Dactyloscopy
SML is used and when the other thumb
is whorl, the resultant symbol IMO is
used. For T and A just put dash in the
classification line.
5. Final Classification – It is the ridge
count of the loops an whorls found on the
little fingers of both hands. Arches and
tented arches are represented by dashes
in classification formula.
- For T and A just put dash in the
classification line.
- Final Classification is located or
placed on the extreme right of the
classification line.
How to Ridge Count a Whorl:
- When a whorl is found on the right
little finger, ridges are counted from
left delta to the core.
- When the whorl is found on the left
little finger, ridges are counted from
right delta to the core.
6. Key Classification - It is the ridge count
of the first loop from the right thumb to
the left ring finger excluding little fingers
of both hands. In the absence of loop,
the ridge count of the first whorl will be
utilized as the key treated as ulnar loop.
- For T and A just put dash in the
classification line.
- The Key Classification is placed on
the extreme left of the classification
line and is always represented as
numerator, no matter where it is
taken.