Soap

In chemistry, soap is a salt of a fatty acid.[1] Soap is mainly used for washing and cleaning, but
soaps are also important components of lubricants. Soaps for cleansing are obtained by treating
vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strongly alkaline solution. The alkaline solution, often
lye, promotes what is known as saponification. In saponification, fats are broken down
(hydrolyzed) yielding crude soap, i.e. impure salts of fatty acids and glycerol.

Soaps for lubrication greases

Soaps are key components of most lubrication greases, which are usually emulsions of calcium
and lithium soaps in a mineral oil. Lithium-based greases are particularly important. Many other
metal ions are used, including aluminium, sodium, and mixtures of various metal ions. Such
soaps are sometimes classified as thickeners, meaning that they elevate the viscosity of the oil. In
ancient times, lubricating greases were prepared by the addition of lime to olive oil.[2]

Mechanism of cleansing soaps

When used for cleaning, soap serves as a surfactant in conjunction with water. The cleaning
action of this mixture is attributed to the action of micelles, tiny spheres coated on the outside
with polar carboxylate groups, encasing a hydrophobic (lipophilic) pocket that can surround the
grease particles, allowing them to dissolve in water. The hydrophobic portion is made up of the
long hydrocarbon chain from the fatty acid. In other words, whereas normally oil and water do
not mix, the addition of soap allows oils to dissolve in water, allowing them to be rinsed away.
Synthetic detergents operate by similar mechanisms to soap.

Structure of a micelle, a cell-like structure formed by the aggregation of soap subunits (such as
sodium stearate). The exterior of the micelle is hydrophilic (attracted to water) and the interior is
hydrophobic (dissolves grease).

Traditional soap making

The most popular soapmaking process today is the cold process method, where fats such as olive
oil react with lye, while some soapers use the historical hot process.

Handmade soap differs from industrial soap in that, usually, an excess of fat is used to consume
the alkali (superfatting), and in that the glycerin is not removed, leaving a naturally moisturizing
soap and not pure soap. Additional processing of this glycerin containing soap produces glycerin
soap. Superfatted soap, soap which contains excess fat, is more skin-friendly than industrial
soap, though if too much fat is added, it can leave users with a "greasy" feel to their skin.
Sometimes an emollient such as jojoba oil or shea butter is added "at trace" (the point at which
the saponification process is sufficiently advanced that the soap has begun to thicken) in the
belief that it will escape the saponification and remain intact, or in the case of hot process soap -
after most of the oils have saponified so that they remain unreacted in the finished soap.
Superfatting can also be accomplished through a process called a lye discount, where, instead of
putting in extra fats, the soap maker puts in less lye.

Process

Manufacturing process of soaps/detergents

In both cold-process and hot-process soapmaking, heat may be required for saponification.

Cold-process soapmaking takes place at a sufficient temperature to ensure the liquefication of the
fat being used. The lye and fat may be kept warm after mixing to ensure that the soap is
completely saponified.

Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-processed soap can be used right away because lye and fat
saponify more quickly at the higher temperatures used in hot-process soapmaking.
Hot-process soapmaking was used when the purity of lye was unreliable, and this process can
use natural lye solutions, such as potash. The main benefit of hot processing is that the exact
concentration of the lye solution does not need to be known to perform the process with adequate
success.

Cold-process soapmaking requires exact measurements of lye and fat amounts and computing
their ratio, using saponification charts to ensure that the finished product is mild and skin-
friendly. Saponification charts can also be used in hot-process soapmaking, but are not as
necessary as in cold-process soapmaking.

Hot process

In the hot-process method, lye and fat are boiled together at 80–100 °C until saponification
occurs, which before modern thermometers, the soapmaker determined by taste (the bright,
distinctive taste of lye disappears once all the lye is saponified) or by eye; the experienced eye
can tell when gel stage and full saponification have occurred. Beginners can find this information
through research, and classes. It is highly recommended to not "taste" your soap for lye for
readiness. Lye, when not saponified is a highly caustic material. Rather, research proper Hot
Process techniques and use a digital or analog sugar thermometer to make sure you are at the
right temperature.

After saponification has occurred, the soap is sometimes precipitated from the solution by adding
salt, and the excess liquid drained off. The hot, soft soap is then spooned into a mold.

Cold process

A cold-process soapmaker first looks up the saponification value of the fats being used on a
saponification chart, which is then used to calculate the appropriate amount of lye. Excess
unreacted lye in the soap will result in a very high pH and can burn or irritate skin. Not enough
lye, and the soap is greasy. Most soap makers formulate their recipes with a 4-10% deficit of lye
so that all of the lye is reacted and that excess fat is left for skin conditioning benefits.

The lye is dissolved in water. Then oils are heated, or melted if they are solid at room
temperature. Once both substances have cooled to approximately 100-110 °F (37-43 °C), and are
no more than 10°F (~5.5°C) apart, they may be combined. This lye-fat mixture is stirred until
"trace" (modern-day amateur soapmakers often use a stick blender to speed this process). There
are varying levels of trace. Depending on how additives will affect trace, they may be added at
light trace, medium trace or heavy trace. After much stirring, the mixture turns to the consistency
of a thin pudding. "Trace" corresponds roughly to viscosity. Essential oils, fragrance oils,
botanicals, herbs, oatmeal or other additives are added at light trace, just as the mixture starts to
thicken.
The batch is then poured into molds, kept warm with towels, or blankets, and left to continue
saponification for 18 to 48 hours. Milk soaps are the exception. They do not require insulation.
Insulation may cause the milk to burn. During this time, it is normal for the soap to go through a
"gel phase" where the opaque soap will turn somewhat transparent for several hours, before once
again turning opaque. The soap will continue to give off heat for many hours after trace.

After the insulation period the soap is firm enough to be removed from the mold and cut into
bars. At this time, it is safe to use the soap since saponification is complete. However, cold-
process soaps are typically cured and hardened on a drying rack for 2–6 weeks (depending on
initial water content) before use. If using caustic soda it is recommended that the soap is left to
cure for at least four weeks.

Molds

Many commercially available soap molds are made of silicone or various types of plastic,
although many soap making hobbyists may use cardboard boxes that are lined with plastic wrap.
Soaps can be made in long loaves that are cut into individual bars, block molds that are cut into
loaves and then bars, or individual molds.

Purification and finishing

The common process of purifying soap involves removal of sodium hydroxide, glycerol and
some impurities. These components are removed by boiling the crude soap curds in water and re-
precipitating the soap with salt.

Most of the water is then removed from the soap. This was traditionally done on a chill roll
which produced the soap flakes commonly used in the 1940s and 1950s. This process was
superseded by spray dryers and then by vacuum dryers.

The dry soap (approximately 6-12% moisture) is then compacted into small pellets. These pellets
are now ready for soap finishing, the process of converting raw soap pellets into a saleable
product, usually bars.

Soap pellets are combined with fragrances and other materials and blended to homogeneity in an
amalgamator (mixer). The mass is then discharged from the mixer into a refiner which, by means
of an auger, forces the soap through a fine wire screen. From the refiner the soap passes over a
roller mill (French milling or hard milling) in a manner similar to calendering paper or plastic or
to making chocolate liquor. The soap is then passed through one or more additional refiners to
further plasticize the soap mass. Immediately before extrusion it passes through a vacuum
chamber to remove any trapped air. It is then extruded into a long log or blank, cut to convenient
lengths, passed through a metal detector and then stamped into shape in refrigerated tools. The
pressed bars are packaged in many ways.

Sand or pumice may be added to produce a scouring soap. The scouring agents serve to remove
dead skin cells from the surface being cleaned. This process is called exfoliation. Many newer
materials are used for exfoliating soaps which are effective but do not have the sharp edges and
pore size distribution of pumice.

Nanoscopic metals are commonly added to certain soaps specifically for both coloration and
anti-bacterial properties. Titanium powder is commonly used in extreme "white" soaps for these
purposes; nickel, aluminium and silver are less commonly used. These metals provide electron-
robbing behavior when in contact with bacteria, stripping electrons from the organism's surface
and thereby disrupting their functioning (typically killing the bacteria when it has lost too many
electrons). Because some of the metal is left behind on the skin and in the pores, the benefit can
also extend beyond the actual time of washing, helping reduce bacterial contamination and
reducing potential odors from bacteria on the skin surface.
Galvanization
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Galvanization (or galvanisation) classically refers to any of several electrochemical processes

named after the Italian scientist Luigi Galvani. Now the term generally refers to an
electrodeposition process used to add a thin layer of another metal to an item made of steel, in
order to prevent rusting. More recently, though, the term has been broadened in common usage
to include applying a protective metallic coating to an underlying piece of metal, using a process
called hot-dip galvanization, which produces similar results, but which does not employ
electrochemical deposition.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Meanings
o 1.1 Electricity
o 1.2 Metal protection
o 1.3 History
• 2 Zinc coatings
o 2.1 Eventual corrosion
• 3 See also
• 4 References

• 5 External links

[edit] Meanings
[edit] Electricity
Originally, "galvanization" was the administration of electric shocks (in the 19th century also
termed Faradism, after Michael Faraday). It stemmed from Galvani's induction of twitches in
severed frogs' legs, by his accidental generation of electricity. This archaic sense is the origin of
the meaning of galvanic when meaning "affected/affecting, as if by a shock of electricity;
startled".[1] Its claims to health benefits have largely been disproved, except for some limited uses
in psychiatry in the form of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Later the word was used for
processes of electrodeposition. This remains a useful and broadly applied technology, but the
term "galvanization" has largely come to be associated with zinc coatings, to the exclusion of
other metals.

[edit] Metal protection

In current use, the term refers to the coating of steel or iron with zinc. This is done to prevent
galvanic corrosion (specifically rusting) of the ferrous item. The value of galvanizing stems from
the relative corrosion resistance of zinc, which, under most service conditions, is considerably
less than those of iron and steel. The effect of this is that the zinc is consumed first as a
sacrificial anode, so that it cathodically protects exposed steel. This means that in case of
scratches through the zinc coating, the exposed steel will be cathodically protected by the
surrounding zinc coating, unlike an item which is painted with no prior galvanizing, where a
scratched surface would rust. Furthermore, galvanizing for protection of iron and steel is favored
because of its low cost, the ease of application, and the extended maintenance-free service that it
provides.

The term galvanizing, while correctly referring to the application of the zinc coating by the use
of a galvanic cell (also known as electroplating), sometimes is also used to refer to hot dip zinc
coating (commonly incorrectly referred to as hot dip galvanizing). The practical difference is that
hot dip zinc coating produces a much thicker, durable coating, whereas genuine galvanizing
(electroplating) produces a very thin coating. Another difference, which makes it possible to
determine visually which process has been used if an item is described as 'galvanized', is that
electroplating produces a nice, shiny surface, whereas hot dip zinc coating produces a matte,
grey surface. The thin coating produced by electroplating is much more quickly consumed, after
which corrosion turns to the steel itself. This makes electroplating unsuitable for outdoor
applications, except in very dry climates. For example, nails for indoor use are electroplated
(shiny), while nails for outdoor use are hot dip zinc coated (matte grey). However, electroplating
and subsequent painting is a durable combination because the paint slows down the consumption
of the zinc. Car bodies of some premium makes are corrosion protected using this combination.

Nonetheless, electroplating is used on its own for many outdoor applications because it is
cheaper than hot dip zinc coating and looks good when new. Another reason not to use hot dip
zinc coating is that for bolts and nuts size M10 or smaller, the thick hot-dipped coating uses up
too much of the threads, which reduces strength (because the dimension of the steel prior to
coating must be reduced for the fasteners to fit together). This means that for cars, bicycles and
many other 'light' mechanical products, the alternative to electroplating bolts and nuts is not hot
dip zinc coating but making the bolts and nuts from stainless steel (known by the corrosion
grades A4 and A2).
Electroplated steel is visually indistinguishable from stainless steel when new. To determine
whether a part is electroplated or stainless steel, apply a magnet. The most common stainless
steel alloys (including those used for bolts and nuts) are not magnetic or only very slightly
attracted to a magnet.

[edit] History

The process of galvanization was patented by Stanislas Sorel, of Paris, France in December,
1837.[2]

[edit] Zinc coatings

Main Article: Hot-dip galvanizing, Sherardizing

Zinc coatings prevent corrosion of the protected metal by forming a physical barrier, and by
acting as a sacrificial anode if this barrier is damaged. When exposed to the atmosphere, zinc
reacts with oxygen to form zinc oxide, which further reacts with water molecules in the air to
form zinc hydroxide. Finally zinc hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to
yield a thin, impermeable, tenacious and quite insoluble dull gray layer of zinc carbonate which
adheres extremely well to the underlying zinc, so protecting it from further corrosion, in a way
similar to the protection afforded to aluminium and stainless steels by their oxide layers.

Hot-dip galvanizing deposits a thick robust layer that may be more than is necessary for the
protection of the underlying metal in some applications. This is the case in automobile bodies,
where additional rust proofing paint will be applied. Here, a thinner form of galvanizing is
applied by electroplating, called "electrogalvanization". The hot-dip process slightly reduces the
strength of the base metal, which is a consideration for the manufacture of wire rope and other
highly-stressed products. The protection provided by this process is insufficient for products that
will be constantly exposed to corrosive materials such as salt water. For these applications, more
expensive stainless steel is preferred. Some nails made today are electro-galvanized.

As noted previously, both mechanisms are often at work in practical applications. For example,
the traditional measure of a coating's effectiveness is resistance to a salt spray. Thin coatings
cannot remain intact indefinitely when subject to surface abrasion, and the galvanic protection
offered by zinc can be sharply contrasted to more noble metals. As an example, a scratched or
incomplete coating of chromium actually exacerbates corrosion of the underlying steel, since it is
less electrochemically active than the substrate.
Galvanized surface with visible spangle

The size of crystallites in galvanized coatings is an aesthetic feature, known as spangle. By

varying the number of particles added for heterogeneous nucleation and the rate of cooling in a
hot-dip process, the spangle can be adjusted from an apparently uniform surface (crystallites too
small to see with the naked eye) to grains several centimeters wide. Visible crystallites are rare in
other engineering materials. Protective coatings for steel constitute the largest use of zinc and
rely upon the galvanic or sacrificial property of zinc relative to steel.

Thermal diffusion galvanizing, a form of Sherardizing, provides a zinc coating on iron or copper
based materials partially similar to hot dip galvanizing. The final surface is different than hot-dip
Galvanizing; all of its zinc is alloyed.[3] Zinc is applied in a powder form with "accelerator
chemicals" (generally sand[4], but other chemicals are patented). The parts and the zinc powder
are tumbled in a sealed drum while it is heated to slightly below zinc's melting temperature. The
drum must be heated evenly, or complications will arise. Due to the chemicals added to the zinc
powder, the zinc/iron makes an alloy at a lower temperature than hot dip galvanizing. This
process requires generally fewer preparatory cleanings than other methods. The dull-gray crystal
structure formed by the process bonds stronger with paint, powder coating, and rubber
overmolding processes than other methods. It is a preferred method for coating small, complex-
shaped metals and smoothing in rough surfaces on items formed with powder metal.

[edit] Eventual corrosion

Rusted corrugated steel roof

Although galvanizing will inhibit attack of the underlying steel, rusting will be inevitable,
especially due to natural acidity of rain. For example, corrugated iron sheet roofing will start to
degrade within a few years despite the protective action of the zinc coating. Marine and salty
environments also lower the lifetime of galvanized iron because the high electrical conductivity
of sea water increases the rate of corrosion. Galvanized car frames exemplify this; they corrode
much quicker in cold environments due to road salt. Galvanized steel can last for many years if
other means are maintained, such as paint coatings and additional sacrificial anodes.