Unit 1

Introduction to Information Literacy

Overview
The impact of information and communication technologies (ICTs) on teaching and learning has
been increasing at all levels, from basic to higher and life-long education. It is providing new
perspectives and opportunities for expanding traditional education processes and systems. ICTs
are more and more becoming an integral part of educational strategies, providing greater
flexibility in learning situations, promoting increased interactivity for learners and connectivity
to people as well as learning resources in different parts of the world. Information literacy is
another feature of recent innovations in education and is paramount in any education system. It is
a new concept that has emerged as a result of the challenges the world is facing in the
information forum. It has come about as a result of globalization which was prompted by world
wide networks, information explosion which was caused by the development of ICTs,
Information overload which was triggered by too much information being posted on the Internet
and the web as well as technological developments such as facebook, blogs, wikis, websites etc.
Information nowadays is everywhere and this has resulted in information literacy being taught to
scholars and society at large. The term university education, in itself, means compliancy with
universally accepted standards of competence for university graduates, and the UZ library has
followed the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) standards for information
literacy which provides a framework for assessing the information literate individual.

Introduction

This unit will introduce students to the introductory concepts that give an initial understanding of
information literacy (IL) through definitions and brief explanations. As the leading academic
library, the University of Zimbabwe Library (UZLib) in an effort to fulfill its mission of
providing access to scholarly information resources that are required to meet its academic
purpose has embedded information literacy training course in a unique way that is meant to
support teaching, learning and research at the university. The teaching of this module by the
library is inspired and motivated by the UZ 2003-2007 Strategic Plan which sought to produce
graduates who are competent in information communication technologies (ICTs). To this end,
the library is committed to play a part in the impartation of these skills to students, in a
manner that empowers them to become independent learners.

1.1 Unit Objectives

• Define information literacy.

• Describe the differences between information literacy and information technology
 • Explain the importance of information literacy

1.2 Defining Information

The American Library Association (1987) defines information as “…all ideas, facts, and
imaginative works of the mind which have been communicated, recorded, published and/or
distributed formally or informally in any format”.

1.3 Definition of information literacy?

The Presidential Committee on Information Literacy defined information literacy as a set of

skills, which requires an individual to: “recognize when information is needed and have the
ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information.”

The Prague Declaration (2003) proclaims that information literacy is the ability to identify what
information is needed, understand how the information is organized, identify the best sources of
information for a given need, locate those sources, evaluate the sources critically, and share that
information. It is the knowledge of commonly used research techniques. “Information literacy
forms the basis for lifelong learning. It is common to all disciplines, to all learning environments,
and to all levels of education. It enables learners to master content and extend their
investigations, become more self-directed, and assume greater control over their own learning.”

In January of 2000, the Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education were
approved and in February of 2004, the American Association for Higher Education and the
Council of Independent Colleges endorsed them. The Standards which also highlights the
importance of an information literate person as that who is able to:

• Determines the nature and extent of information needed.

• Accesses the needed information effectively and efficiently.
• Evaluates information and its sources critically and incorporates selected information into
his or her knowledge base and value system.
• Uses information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose.
• Understands many of the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use of
information, and accesses and uses information ethically and legally.

As derived from the Alexandria Proclamation of 2005, adopted by UNESCO’s Information for
All Programme (IFAP), Information Literacy is the capacity of people to:

• Recognize their information needs;

• Locate and evaluate the quality of information;
• Store and retrieve information;
 • Make effective and ethical use of information, and
• Apply information to create and communicate knowledge.

1.3.1 Information literacy is critically important in this contemporary environment

because:

• we are surrounded by a growing ocean of information in all formats.

• not all information is created equal: some is authoritative, current, reliable, but some is
biased, out of date, misleading, and false.
• the amount of information available is going to keep increasing.
• the types of technology used to access, manipulate, and create information will likewise
expand.

1.4 Capabilities of an Information Literate Individual

• Access information effectively and efficiently

• Evaluate information critically and competently

• Use information accurately and creatively

• Be an independent learner and pursue information related to personal interest

• Strive for excellence in information seeking

1.5 Differentiating Information Literacy and Information Technology literacy.

Information literacy Information technology

- set of abilities to identify information
-to recognize when information is needed.
-the ability to locate
-evaluate,
-use effectively the needed information.
-it also deals with content and communication
-it encompasses authoring,
-information finding and organisation,
-the research process,
-information analysis, assessment and
evaluation.
- skills that enables an individual to use
computers.
-hardware and software applications,
databases, and
-use of other technologies to achieve a wide
variety of academic, work-related, and
personal goals.
-promotion of the concept of fluency with
information technology
-encompasses the broad view of the technology
infrastructures that support the society
-computing,
-individuals develop some technology skills -telecommunications,
encompass not only the technological principles, -broadcasting,
but also some appreciation of history, economics, - publishing,
social and public policy issues that are necessary in -electrical power distribution, transportation as well
the fulfillment of lifelong learning lifelong learning as financial infrastructure and related areas.
through abilities which may use technologies but
are ultimately independent of them.

Summary

The student will be equipped with the ability to identify, search, evaluate, use, and present
information effectively to address various problems in their daily lives, their academic study and
future profession. The achievement of these capabilities is very important because, in the long
run, the student will have learned how to learn. You will know how knowledge is organised,
how to locate information and to integrate new materials with what you already know to deal
with problems for your personal and business needs, and thereby achieve the goal of life-long
learning.

Activity?

1. In your own opinion how do you think Information literacy is able to help you in life?
2. List and explain the difference between information literacy and information technology.
3. Describe what you think is the main causes that prompted the teaching and learning of
information literacy.
4. How does Information Literacy contribute to Life Long Learning?
Unit 2

Information Sources

2.1 Introduction

To obtain timely, relevant and quality information for your study or research work, one needs to
know the various sources of information available. This module is expected to deepen one’s
knowledge of sources of information in print, non- print and electronic formats. It presents the
definition, types, formats, and categories of information sources.

2.2 Learning Objectives

Students will learn:

• The definition of information sources

• Types of information sources

• Categories of information sources

2.3 Definition of Information Sources

Information sources are the various means by which information is recorded for use by an
individual or an organization. It is the means by which a person is informed about something or
knowledge is availed to someone, a group of people or an organization. Information sources can
be observations, people, speeches, documents, pictures, organizations. Information sources can
be in print, non-print and electronic media or format.

2.4 Types of Information Sources

Information can come from virtually anywhere: personal experiences, books, articles, expert
opinions, encyclopedias, the Web. The type of information needed will change depending on its
application. Individuals generate information on a daily basis as they go about their work. In
academic institutions, staff and students consult various sources of information. The choice of
the source to be consulted is usually determined by the type of information sought. The three
types of information sources are:

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary
2.4.1 Primary sources

Primary sources are original materials on which other research is based. This is information
before it has been analysed, interpreted, commented upon, spun or repackaged. They are usually
the first formal appearance of results in physical, print or electronic format. They represent
original thinking, unedited, firsthand, access to words, images, or objects by persons directly
involved in an activity or event or speaking directly for a group.

Examples include:

• Artifacts (e.g. coins, plant specimens, fossils, furniture, tools, clothing, all from the time

under study)

• Audio recordings (e.g. radio programs)

• Diaries

• Internet communications on email, list serves

• Interviews (e.g., oral histories, telephone, e-mail)

• Journal articles published in peer-reviewed publications

• Letters

• Newspaper articles written at the time

• Original Documents (i.e. birth certificate, will, marriage license, trial transcript)

2.4.2 Secondary sources

Secondary sources are less easily defined than primary sources. Generally, they are accounts
written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight. They are interpretations and evaluations of
primary sources written significantly after events by parties not directly involved but who have
special expertise. They may provide historical context or critical perspectives. Secondary sources
are thus not evidence, but rather commentary on and discussion of evidence. However, what
some define as a secondary source, others define as a tertiary source.

Examples include:

• Bibliographies (also considered tertiary)

• Biographical works

• Commentaries, criticisms
• Dictionaries, Encyclopedias (also considered tertiary)

• Textbooks (also considered tertiary)

• Web site (also considered primary)

2.4.3 Tertiary sources

Tertiary sources consist of information which is a distillation and collection of primary and
secondary sources. They are twice removed from the original source and their main purpose is to
list, summarise or simply repackage ideas or other information.

• Almanacs

• Bibliographies (also considered secondary)

• Dictionaries and Encyclopedias (also considered secondary)

• Directories

• Guidebooks

• Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies used to locate primary and secondary sources

• Manuals

• Textbooks (also considered secondary)

2.5 Categories of information sources

There are various categories of information sources and different assignments require
information from a variety of sources. The selection of information sources to be used is largely
determined by the information needs and requirements.

2.5.1 Books

These are works written on widely varying themes and they range from documentary to technical
books to novels and nonfiction books. They are written by researchers or experts and are only
published after passing through editors or publishers. Therefore books can be considered a
source of information wherein assignments of responsibilities for the quality of that information
are relatively clear. Books can be in print or electronic (e-books).

Books are a relevant source of information when looking for an overall background on an issue,
when you want to put your topic in context with other important issues, and when you want to
find summaries of research to support an argument.
2.5.2 Periodicals

These are publications such as journals, newspapers, or magazines published on a regular basis -
daily, weekly, bi-weekly, monthly, bimonthly, quarterly or yearly. The information in periodicals
covers a wide variety of topics and is very up-to-date. Periodicals are available in both print and
electronic formats. Common examples of periodicals include popular magazines (or general
interest magazines), professional and trade magazines, scholarly journals, newsletters, and
newspapers. The two basic types of periodicals are: journals and magazines

(i) Magazines

a) Popular Magazines

Popular magazines are periodicals of a non-specialist nature. The published articles are usually
written by staff writers, and chosen by the editor of the publication. Magazine articles are usually
shorter, written in non-technical language, and designed for the general population. Articles in
popular magazines are reviewed by one or two members of staff of the organization where they
are published. Popular magazines have a glossy appearance, contains many photographs and
advertisements in order to enhance commercial profitability.

Examples of popular magazines are:

1. Fashion Trends

2. Readers Digest

3. People

4. Time Magazine

b) Trade Magazines

These are magazines that present information about a profession or a particular trade. They are
written for members of a specific business, industry or organization. Trade magazines cover
industry trends, new products or techniques, and organizational news written by staff or
contributing authors.

Examples of trade magazines are:

1. The Economist

2. APA Monitor

3. Computer World
4. The Farmer

(ii) Journals

Journals are written by experts or specialists in a particular field/discipline and targeted towards
other scholars. The purpose of scholarly publications is to report research or advance knowledge.
The articles are usually longer and may contain charts, graphs and statistics as well as extensive
bibliographies. The articles usually involve extensive research and in-depth studies. The writing
style is more complex and the language may be technical. Examples of this type of periodical are
academic journals and professional journals. Academic journals are written by members of an
academic community and are reviewed by their peers while professional journals are written by
members of a professional body including librarians, lawyers, doctors and engineers.

Examples of academic journals are:

1. African Journal of Political science

2. Journal of Applied Science and Technology

3. Obstetrics and Gynecology Forum

4. Zambezia: The Journal of Humanities of the University of Zimbabwe

2.5.3 References Sources

These are authoritative works that provide specific answers or information. There are many types
of reference sources, including atlases, dictionaries, encyclopedias, thesauri, almanacs, manuals,
biographies, and handbooks, among others. Each type is available either in print, on CD-ROMs
and the Internet. Reference information sources can be general or subject specific. For example,
The Encyclopedia Britannica is general while The Encyclopedia of Mammals, The New
Encyclopedia of Birds and The Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine are subject encyclopedias. Other
reference sources such as dictionaries, atlases, directories also have both general and subject
categories.

References are a good information source for an overview of a subject area as well as for facts,
figures, addresses, statistics, definitions and dates.

2.5.4 Databases

A database is a collection of information in electronic form that is organised in a manner that

allows a user to easily retrieve information about its individual entries. They are usually
collections of citations of articles in journal, magazines, newspapers, dissertations, reviews and
abstracts. The content of databases has undergone a review process and the information is more
reliable than information found on the Internet. Often databases provide access to full-text
magazine and journal articles whilst some contain abstracts or brief summaries.

2.5.5 The Internet

The Internet is a network of computers which inter-connects computers globally. By inter-

connecting computers globally, the Internet has made it possible to share information with others
globally. Information found on the Internet goes beyond plain text as it includes sounds, fixed
and moving images and video.

Anyone with an Internet account can post information on the Internet; therefore it offers a wealth
of information. However, the ease with which information can be made publicly available also
means that special care must be taken when using information that is freely available on the
Internet.

2.5.6 Bibliographies

These are publications that consist of a list of books, articles and other works on a particular
topic. Sometimes bibliographies are annotated, that is they include brief abstracts summarising
the important features of the works.

2.5.7 Abstracts

An abstract is a brief synopsis or summary of the most important points that the author makes in
the paper. It is a highly condensed version of the paper itself. After reading the abstract, the
reader knows the main points that the authors have to make. The reader can then evaluate the
significance of the paper and then decide whether or not she or he wishes to read the full paper.
If one elects to read the full paper, further detail is given about each of the significant topics, but
no new topics of importance are introduced. If one decides not to read the paper, that decision is
based on knowledge of the paper’s content. Although the abstract appears first in a paper, it is
generally the last part written. Only after the paper has been completed can the authors decide
what should be in the abstract and what parts are supporting detail.

2.5.8 Indexes

Indexes are a finding guide to the contents of particular journals. They provide subject, author,
and/or title indexing to a particular set of periodicals and give a full citation for each article. The
citation includes the title of the periodical, date, volume, pages, as well as the author and title of
the article. Some indexes include abstracts
2.5.9 Theses and Dissertations

These are research projects submitted by former students, presenting their research findings in
support of their academic degrees or professional qualifications.

Activity

1. Differentiate the following information sources

(a) Electronic

(b) Print

2. Identify various sources of information found in the UZ library

3. List or bring different types of sources and ask students to categorise them by format
(practical exercise)
Unit 3

Information Organisation

3.1 Introduction

In order to retrieve the needed information, it is really important to know how the information is
organised. Organization provides access to information or a collection. There are several ways to
organize information in order to find it easily. Libraries use organization schemes to classify
information according to the academic discipline or area of knowledge (class) the information
fits into.

3.2 Learning Objectives

• To become familiar with how information is organized in the library.

• To understand the different characteristics of information.

• To identify the two approaches to information organisation.

3.3 Why is it important to organize information?

In order to retrieve the information you need, it's really important to know how the information is
organised. Organisation is thus the key to easy retrieval of information or accessing a library’s
collection.

3.4 How information is organized in the library

The Library uses two main approaches to organise information sources namely content and
format. The content is composed of the subject and the characteristics of information. Format
refers to the medium used to present or store information. Therefore materials will be located in
different physical locations based on subject or physical format type.

3.5 Organisation by Content

3.5.1 Subject

Libraries use various classification systems to organise their materials by subject on the shelves
within the library stack rooms. Every book in the library has a specific label with a call number
that is unique to that book. This allows users to browse the shelves and find similar books
grouped together by subject.

The University of Zimbabwe Library (UZLib) uses the Library of Congress Classification
System to organise its collection by subject. The Library of Congress Classification System is an
alphanumeric classification system in that it uses a combination of letters of the alphabet and
numbers.

Example: HG 1385 THO where HG is general subject (Commerce)

1385 is specific subject (WTO)

THO is author (Thomas)

3.5.2 Characteristics of Information

Knowing the character or type of information can help one to identify its origin, use and its
relevance to one’s information need. Where one searches and finds information therefore entirely
depends on what type of information one needs.

E.g. Does one need a quick fact or a critical analysis?

Does one like unbiased information or someone's opinion?

Would current information answer one’s question, or does one need historical
information?

(a) Factual vs. Analytical

Factual Information

Presents information which is simple, brief, straightforward and not arguable (indisputable). No
analysis or interpretation is needed.

Factual information is mostly found in short answer sources such as:

Dictionaries

Atlases

Handbooks

Directories

Encyclopedias

Analytical Information

Presents information that is detailed and usually the result of much research and interpretation of
factual information (analysis) often by experts in a field.
Analytical information is mostly found in longer format sources such as:

Books

Journal articles

Subject Encyclopedias

(b) Objective vs. Subjective Information

Objective Information

Presents unbiased information that represents multiple points of view. It features non-
judgmental, balanced, neutral reporting of facts.

Objective information is mostly found in sources such as:

Encyclopedias

Handbooks

Journal articles

Subjective Information

Presents information from one point of view. It features opinion and personal viewpoints. Whilst
subjective information can be based on fact, it is one person’s interpretation of the fact.

Subjective information is mostly found in sources such as:

Newspapers (mostly editorial columns)

Advocacy web sites

Reviews

(c) Primary vs. Secondary Information

Primary Information

Presents original material such as first- hand account of an event or a work of literature or art that
has not been interpreted, analyzed, condensed or changed by anyone other than its creator.

Primary information is mostly found in sources such as:

Diaries
Letters

Interviews

Professor’s lecture

Secondary Information

Presents information that is one or more steps removed from the original research or event.
These sources often analyze and interpret primary sources drawing upon them to explain events
of the past or explore the meaning of works of art. They are often produced well after the events
or primary sources they comment upon, and their authors tend to be modern scholars or
commentators rather than eyewitnesses of what they write about.

Secondary information is mostly found in sources such as:

Journal articles

Books

Biographies

Documentaries

Review articles

(d) Current vs. Historical

Another characteristic of information to consider in selecting sources is whether it is current or

historical. It is very important to look at the date of a publication or web site depending on your
topic or the type of information need. If one is reviewing the latest cancer treatments, current
information will be of utmost importance. If one is reviewing attitudes toward cancer in the
1960s, one will probably need to review historical information.

Current and historical sources may be both required for a thorough understanding of a topic. It is
therefore important to look at the publication date and think critically about whether needs the
most current information, historical information or both. Also consider the discipline.

E.g. In the science, the most up-to-date information is required.

In the humanities, historical information may be the most important.

In the social sciences, historical and current information are often consulted.

3.6 Organisation by format

When information is recorded and stored, it exists in a physical form called a format. There are
three broad categories of format:

Print materials: these are information sources in paper form like books, journals and magazines,
newspapers, government documents, maps and atlases.

Electronic (digital): this is information that is recorded, stored and retrieved using computer
technology. Examples include E-books, E-journals, Websites, databases, CD-ROMS and DVDs.
Storage of digital materials is usually on a server accessible through the Internet or local server.

Audio-visual: These can be analog or digital materials in specialized formats. For example,
music CDs, DVDs, VHS tapes, reel-to-reel tapes, cassettes.

In most libraries, materials are arranged by format, with books in one area, magazines and
journals in another. When one identifies an information source, it is important to note its format.
If it is digital and on the Web, one may have easier access than if it's a print source which is only
available when the library is open.

Within the different formats are different source types that may be located separately.

3.7 Source Types:

Printed books for check out are primarily available in the stack rooms and on Reserve.

Printed Journals and Newspapers are available on the 2nd floor of the New Wing of the library.

Reference books are found in the Lower and Upper Reading Rooms and are not available for
checkout. They are for use in the library only.

Government and International publications are located on the 1st floor of the New Wing of the
library.

Printed Thesis and Dissertations, African Writers, Art, Astor, Doke and Godlonton Collections
are available in Special Collections on the first floor of the New Wing of the library.

Electronic (digital) information is accessible via the library website

(http://www.library.uz.ac.zw).

Activity

1. Compare the following characteristics of information

(a) Factual v analytical

(b) Objective v subjective

(c) Primary v secondary

2. Given a journal article and magazine which one will you use when writing an
assignment? Give reasons

3. Why do we need to organize information?

UNIT 4

The Internet

Introduction

The Internet has greatly changed teaching, learning, research and communication methods today.
Many Internet terms have become part of everyday language in the academic environment. The
libraries use the internet as a means of access to both electronic and print information sources.
Therefore, following unit will introduce you to the Internet and the tools you need to explore it in
your information seeking and learning activities.

Objectives

To define and distinguish the Internet and the World Wide Web.
To identify applications and services available on the Internet.
To highlight the various uses of the internet in the academic environment.

4.1. Definition
The Internet is a global system of networked computers that allow user-to-user communication
and transfer of data files from one computer to another on the network. A network of networks,
today, the Internet serves as a global data communications system that links millions of private,
public, academic and business networks via an international telecommunications backbone that
consists of various electronic and optical networking technologies (Information Superhighway).

Decentralized by design, no one owns the Internet and it has no central governing authority. As a
creation of the US Defense Department for sharing research data, this lack of centralization was
intentional to make it less vulnerable to wartime or terrorist attacks.

4.2. Overview (Brief History)

The Internet started in the 1960s as an information sharing tool among government researchers.
Computers in the '60s were large and immobile and in order to make use of information stored in
any one computer, one had to either travel to the site of the computer or have magnetic computer
tapes sent through the conventional postal system. On 29 October, 1969, computers at Stanford
and UCLA connected for the first time and became the first hosts on what would one day
become the Internet.

Another catalyst in the formation of the Internet was the heating up of the Cold War. The Soviet
Union's launch of the Sputnik satellite spurred the U.S. Defense Department to consider ways
information could still be disseminated even after a nuclear attack. This eventually led to the
formation of the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), the network that
ultimately evolved into what we now know as the Internet. ARPANET was a great success but
membership was limited to certain academic and research organizations who had contracts with
the Defense Department. In response to this, other networks were created to provide information
sharing.

January 1, 1983 is considered the official birthday of the Internet. Prior to this, the various
computer networks did not have a standard way to communicate with each other. After the 1974
proposal to link Arpa-like networks together into a so-called "inter-network", which would have
no central control and would work around a transmission control protocol, a new
communications protocol was established called Transfer Control Protocol/Internetwork Protocol
(TCP/IP). This allowed different kinds of computers on different networks to "talk" to each
other. ARPANET and the Defense Data Network officially changed to the TCP/IP standard on
January 1, 1983, hence the birth of the Internet. All networks could now be connected by a
universal language.

4.3. What do you need to connect to the Internet?

To make use of the wide variety of services the Internet provides, the following is
required:

4.3.1. Computer

A computer with;
An up-to-date operating system
A minimum of 64 Megabytes RAM. RAM is a microchip that stores data for brief
periods of time to enable the computer to run programmes and access data.
A minimum of 10 Megabytes free disk space. A disk is the magnetic hard drive
that stores data long term. Free disk space is unused space on the hard disk that is
available for downloading information from the Internet.
As a minimum a 486 or Pentium processor. The faster the processor speed, the
faster information can be downloaded.
A sound card and speakers or headphone to enable you to access sound and
multimedia files.

4.3.2. Software

Besides the need to have an up-to-date operating system you also need the following
software:
Connection software to allow the computer to dial into the computers of the
Internet Service Provider. The Internet Service Provider normally supplies this
 software as part of the subscription fee. Connection software must be compatible
with the computer.
A browser to access the information on the World Wide Web. If the computer’s
operating system does not have a built-in browser your Internet Service Provider
would give you a choice of browser software to use. The two most known
browsers are Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator.
Plug-ins are added software that extends a browser’s capabilities. Plug-ins allows
you to access multi-media files (e.g. audio or video files) without having to exit
the browser to access another application to open the files.

4.3.3. Internet Connection

An Internet connection should be as fast as possible to enable one to download

information as quickly as possible. The following types of connections are available. You
should speak to the Internet Service Provider about finding the best connection option for
you specific circumstances.

Dial-up connection
A dial-up connection is an Internet connection over a standard telephone line
using a modem. A modem is a device that translates the computer’s digital signals
into analogue signals. This enables the signals to travel over a standard telephone
line.

Broadband
Broadband is a dedicated network connection through a local area network that
has an Internet gateway to connect to other systems on a network. This connection
can remain connected to the Internet so that you don’t need to dial up when you
want to access the Internet.

Cable
Cable Internet is where the computer uses the same network cable as the
television to access Internet. To access cable Internet one needs a cable modem as
well as an Ethernet card for the computer. A cable modem is much faster than a
normal telephone line modem with a dial-up connection. A cable modem is a
modem that operates over an ordinary TV cable.

Satellite
Satellite connections allow you to download Internet files via satellite connection,
but you would still need a modem to use the other features of the Internet.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a type of digital phone line that
transmits data many times faster than a modem on a normal telephone line. ISDN
allows voice and data to be transmitted simultaneously using end-to-end digital
 connectivity. An ISDN connection requires an ISDN adapter and a telephone line
that can send and receive digital signals.

Wireless Connection
Wireless Internet access, is a local area network (LAN) run by radio waves rather
than wires. Wireless Internet access is broadcast from a central hub, which is a
hard-wired device that actually brings in the Internet connection. The hub, located
at the main computer system or server, broadcasts Internet connectivity to clients,
which is basically anyone within receiving range who is equipped with a wireless
LAN card. Access is through wireless devices such as a laptop computer, cellular
telephone or personal digital assistant (PDA). Any machine that wishes to get
wireless Internet access must first complete a "handshake" with the LAN, in
which the password is requested. If the proper password is not supplied, access is
denied. Security protocols for wireless Internet access have improved with Wi Fi
Protected Access (WPA) and Wi Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2) options.

4.4. The World Wide Web (WWW)

Being the most widely used service on the internet, The World Wide Web (abbreviated as
WWW or W3, commonly known as the Web or the "Information Superhighway"), is a system of
interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one can view
web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia, and navigate between
them via hyperlinks.

The World Wide Web consists of the visible or public web i.e. the part that is available for
search engines to crawl and index, and the invisible web or deep web, in other words that part
of the web that is password protected or is protected against web crawlers and that are not
indexed by search engines.

4.4.1. The Visible or Public Web

The public web consists of electronic pages containing documents, art, music, graphics,
videos, etc. These can be political, cultural, educational, informational, religious,
governmental, etc. in nature. These pages normally have a graphical interface and are
viewed with a web browser.

4.4.2. The Invisible Web or Deep Web

Most of the invisible web is made up of searchable databases that can be searched via
the web. Results are delivered in web pages generated in response to the queries that are
launched. These pages are not stored anywhere - they are dynamically generated because
it is cheaper to store information in databases than in pre-defined pages with all possible
 answers to all possible queries. Many search engines offer separate options for locating
these databases.

4.5. Web browsers

A browser is a programme used to locate, display, browse and view information on a website.
When you request a web page by entering the URL in the location field of the browser, the
browser contacts the web server and asks for a copy of the page. The most common browsers are
Firefox, Google Chrome, Internet Explorer and Opera.

4.5.1 Plug-ins
The functionality of browsers can be extended by adding software known as plug-ins for
handling special types of data like videos and sound files. A common plug-in used by
web browsers is Adobe Acrobat Reader that allows you to read portable document
format (PDF or .pdf) files.

4.6. URLs

Uniform Resource Locators or URLs are addresses that point to specific resources or files on the
World Wide Web. URLs are unique for each resource. URLs are necessary to enable web
browsers to know where to find a website, web page and/or specific file.

A URL contains the protocol of the resource, a domain name for the resource, and if
pointing to a specific file, the hierarchical name of the file.

E.g. the website address of the UK National Archives is

http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk. An URL that points to a specific file or document
published on this website would look like this:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/recordsmanagement/pdf/news_oct03.pdf.
The first part remains as explained above. The last part after the forward slash
(/recordsmanagement/pdf) points to the specific directory where the file is located on the
specific computer and the last part (/news_oct03.pdf) is the file name and extension of
the file. The extension indicates the format of the file.

The URL could then be explained as follows:

http:// indicates to the browser that the resource contains hypertext and that it
would be found on the World Wide Web
www points to a specific computer on the World Wide Web
.nationalarchives is the domain name
.gov is the top level organizational domain
.uk is the top level geographical domain
/records management indicates the directory in which the files resides
/pdf indicates a subdirectory – most probably one in which all .pdf documents
are kept
/news_oct03.pdf is the file name and file extension

The most common organizational domains are:

.com - Commercial
.edu - Educational
.ac- Academic
.gov - Government
.org - Non-profit organization
.mil - Military
.info - Information services
.web - Entities related to the web
.net - All sites that do not fit under one of the above

The geographical origins are indicated by a two letter code derived from an International
Standard ISO 3166 Country Codes.

A few examples are:

.zw- Zimbabwe
.za- South Africa
.au - Australia
.in - India
.fr - France
.uk - United Kingdom

The most common file extensions that you would encounter are the following:
Extension Definition

.html Web page written in hypertext mark-up language

.asp Web page generated by a system called active server pages.

Active server pages are used to create interactive websites.

.gif Picture stored in the .gif format. The GIF format is widely
used on the World Wide Web for still images and
animation.
 .jpg Picture stored in the JPEG format. JPEG can compress
images to very small sizes. It transfers faster because of
the small size.
.wav A sound or music file

.txt Plain text file

.rtf Rich text file

.zip Compressed collection of files

.exe An executable programme file

.doc A MS Word document

.pdf A portable document format file

4.7. Websites

A website is a collection of web pages (documents that are accessed through the Internet). A web
page is what you see on the screen when you type in a web address, click on a link, or put a
query in a search engine. A web page can contain any type of information, and can include text,
color, graphics, animation and sound.

4.7.1. Types of Websites

Personal Websites
Your Internet Service Provider may offer you free server space for you to create
your own website that might include some family photos and an online diary. This
type of site is useful for a family, teenagers, grandparents, etc. to stay in touch
with each other.

File Sharing Websites

File Sharing websites do exactly what their title says; they provide space for
people to post files like photos or videos so other people may view them, save
them and sometimes buy them. Some good example of File Sharing websites are
YouTube, Shutterfly, Flickr, and Google's Picasa.
Social Websites
These websites build online communities of people who want to interact with
other people socially or meet people who share their interests. These community
sites usually contain a lot of personal and private information about its' members.
Some examples of social websites are Facebook, Twitter and MySpace.

Mobile Device Websites

Although in its infancy, the use of mobile devices (cellphones, PDAs, iPods,
iPhones, etc) will become much more widespread and prevalent. One problem is
that standard websites are difficult to view and take a long time to download on
some of these devices with their small screens and wireless connections. Websites
whose pages are narrower in width and take up less bandwidth work much better
for mobile devices. A new domain designation has been created to identify
websites that are "mobile friendly". That is .mobi, as in www.xislegraphix.mobi.
Mobile Device websites are extremely useful and are becoming more and more
popular because they can reach audiences that are on the go and do not have the
time or access to a regular computer.

Blogging Websites
Blogs (or Web Logs) can be categorized as online journals or editorials that give
regular people the power to tell the world what is on their mind - whether it be
their view on a political issue or what they had for lunch. There are many free
Blogging sites out there, but Blogger by Google is probably the most popular, as
of now. With Blogger you can create an account and Blogging page for free and
post as many times a day as you want.

Informational Websites
A lot of informational websites are usually opinion based, so be careful when
using another site as a source. A good example of a situation like this is the site
called wikipedia.org, which is an online encyclopedia. It is unique, because it
allows visitors to contribute and edit articles.

Online Business Brochure/Catalog Websites

In the days before the Internet, people used the print, radio, and television media
to spread the word about their businesses. Now we can cast a large net, reaching
literally millions of people with just one website. With your online brochure or
 catalog, you can show anyone who looks for and finds your website, photos and
descriptions of your products or services.

Ecommerce Websites
E-Commerce means On-line Shops, Commercial and Auction Websites. Just
about anything you can think of in today’s world is sold on the World Wide Web.
In order to be a competitor with other businesses on the Internet you must have an
E-Commerce Website that stands out from all of the rest. There are millions of
businesses who use their ecommerce websites to sell their products over the
Internet.

4.8. Internet Services

Email – E-mail is an electronic message containing information sent from one

computer to another over networks. E-mails can contain attachments such as
pictures, sound files, documents, etc. E-mail is a cheaper and faster method of
communication than normal post, fax or telephone calls. E-mail functions
independently of location and time zones. It allows you to send messages to and
receive messages from anyone who is connected to the Internet.

Telnet - The Telnet protocol is an application that allows a remote connection to

another computer. Both computers must be connected in a network, either a local
area network or the Internet.
Usenet news - Usenet News is a global electronic bulletin board system in which
millions of computer users exchange information on a vast range of topics. The
major difference between Usenet News and e-mail discussion groups is the fact
that Usenet messages are stored on central computers, and users must connect to
these computers to read or download the messages posted to these groups.

LISTSERVs- A listserv is a facility that allows participation in ongoing

discussions via e-mail. Listservs provide a discussion forum to share information
on specific topics. Joining listservs are free. Listservs link people with common
interests. Subscribers to a listserv receive email from people who have an interest
in a particular subject field. With a Listserv, one message is sent to a single
address and then the message is resent to subscribers around the world. Most
listservs are moderated. The moderator is the person who decides which messages
are sent out. This ensures that the discussions stays focused.
FTP and downloading- FTP (File Transfer Protocol) allows you to copy files
from one computer connected to the Internet to another computer connected to the
Internet. It allows you to download information, upload web pages and transfer
information between computers.

Video conferencing- Video conferencing allows you to chat with one or more
people in real time and/or to see live images as you speak or type. Besides the
normal equipment appropriate equipment to use this service would be a
microphone, speakers and a video camera. A video conference can therefore be a
true video conference or only audio and text based.

Blogs and Wikis- Blogs or web logs are personal web pages that contain personal
thoughts and links to other sites that are of particular interest to a blog owner.
Blogs are used as a publishing mechanism and sometimes contain personal
opinions and commentaries on the events of the day. Wikis are collaborative
websites where the communities participate in writing a publication, like an
encyclopedia or a general purpose website. Wiki publications are normally of
high quality because the participants edit the errors out. An example of an
encyclopedia written in this fashion is the Wikipedia.

Podcasting- Podcasting is a way of making audio or video files available on the

internet that can either be listened to or viewed on a PC or downloaded to a hand-
held device such as an iPod or mp3 player. A podcast will be treated as a sound
recording (audio podcasts) or a film (video podcasts, as known as vodcasts).
Podcasts may also include images, including PowerPoint presentations.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) - Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is one of the most
popular activities on the Internet. It is a means of having a conversation with
many people on a variety of topics in real time; in other words, all the parties to
the conversation are participating simultaneously regardless of the time zone they
are in.

Search Engines- Search Engines are specialised programs that assist you in
locating information on the Web and the Internet. The search engine compares
your entry against its database and returns a list of hits, or sites that contain the
keywords. The information may consist of web pages, images, information and
other types of files. Details on search engines will be discussed in the next
chapter.
 Web 2.0
Web 2.0 is a term used to describe cultural trends like social networking,
blogging, podcasting, and streaming media; it describes a landscape in which
users control their online experience and influence the experiences of others. Web
2.0 has influenced a generation of students that prefers speed and interactivity; it
is a generation that not only wants to access information, it also wants to
disseminate it. There are a number of different types of web 2.0 applications
including wikis, blogs, social networking, folksonomies, podcasting & content
hosting services. Many of the most popular websites are Web 2.0 sites such as
Wikipedia, YouTube, Facebook, MySpace, Flickr.

4.9. Common uses of internet

Communicating is by far the most popular internet activity. You can exchange e-
mail with your family and friends almost anywhere in the world. You can join and
listen to discussions and debates on a wide variety of special-interest topic
Searching for information has never been more convenient. You can access some
of the world’s largest libraries and databases directly from your home computer.
You can find the latest local and international news, research reports and books.
Education or e-learning is another rapidly emerging Web application. You can
take classes an almost any subject. There are courses for fun, high school, college
and graduate school. Some cost nothing and others cost a lot.
Shopping is one of the fastest growing internet applications. You can window
shop, look for the latest books, fashion, search for bargains and make purchases.
Entertainment options are nearly endless. You can find music, movies, magazines
and computer games. You will find live concerts, book clubs and interactive live
games.

4.9.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of using the Internet

There are a number of advantages and disadvantages of using the Internet. The following
list is not exhaustive;
Advantages Disadvantage

Rich source of information All information not necessarily credible

Anybody can publish online No quality control and validity check

Fast and powerful search engines Information overload

Immediate communication Speed takes precedence over credibility

 Global communication of information Emphasizes the digital divide

Ease of use Viruses, hackers, logic bombs, etc.

Cost effective Doesn’t reach people not connected

Information available on any You have to have a computer with an

computer connected Internet connection

Information can be found quickly Information can also disappear quickly so

that you cannot find it again

NB: People commonly use the words "Internet" and "Web" interchangeably. This usage is
technically incorrect. The Internet is the large container, and the Web is a part within the
container.

The Internet is named for "interconnection of computer networks". It is a massive hardware

combination of millions of personal, business, and governmental computers, all connected like
roads and highways. However, the World Wide Web, or "Web" for short, is that large software
subset of the Internet dedicated to broadcasting HTML pages. The Web is viewed by using free
software called web browsers.

No single person owns the Internet. No single government has authority over its operations.
Some technical rules and hardware/software standards enforce how people plug into the Internet,
but for the most part, the Internet is a free and open broadcast medium of hardware networking.
In contrast, the WWW is made up of billions of public own websites and web pages.

ACTIVITIES AND EXERCISES

1. Write down the steps you have to follow to start the Web browser on your computer.
What’s the name of the Web browser that you use? What Web page is displayed when
you start the browser? What is its URL?
2. How would you go about creating an e-mail account?
3. Using your e-mail account; Read your email. Reply to at least one message. Delete two
messages and forward one message.
4. Name one example for each of the following types of websites;
Blogging website
Social website
Informational website
Unit 5

Access Tools and Information Retrieval

5.1 Introduction

There are various access tools available for information retrieval in both print and electronic
formats. These include Online Public Access Catalogue (OPACS), search engines, portals,
gateways, databases, institutional repositories and library websites. The main focus of this
chapter is to demonstrate how these tools aid in information retrieval.

5.2 Learning Objectives

1. To define access tools

2. To identify various access tools
3. To be able to formulate a search strategy
4. To retrieve accurate and relevant information based on the access tools

5.3 Library Websites

Academic library websites function mainly as gateways to sources and resources and they
resemble characteristics of a portal. Being able to use these resources will help you in your
studies.

5.3.1 UZ Library Website

The UZ library website http://library.uz.ac.zw/ is the gateway sources and resources in the
University of Zimbabwe Libraries. Via the UZ library website one can access OPAC, past exam
papers database, e-journals, e-books and e-thesis databases, subject based gateways and the UZ
Institutional repository.

5.3.2 The Library Catalogue

The Library Catalogue is a database of all the information resources in the library. It is a general
tool for locating or searching information resources. It will help one to identify and locate books
in the collection including reference sources and periodicals. The catalogue could be a paper card
book or computerized catalogue often referred to as Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC). In
most universities the catalogue is computerized and searchable on the Internet.

5.3.3 Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC)

The OPAC is an online bibliographic database of all the information resources in the library.
These resources include both print and electronic.

The most basic function of the OPAC is the ability to browse the entire library collection. It can
be used to look for something specific or general. The default mode is the basic search function,
but there is also an advanced search option. The advanced search screen allows one to conduct a
multiple term search while the basic search only offers one entry box. Multiple term searches are
helpful if one is searching for something specific and one wants to be as precise as possible.

5.3.4 OPAC Search Options

To search the database, click on Search OPAC then choose on the available search points/ access
points you, the search options are: Author, Title, Keyword, Journal, ISSN/ISBN, and Call
Number searches

(a) Keyword

Type keyword(s) or phrase(s) and click on Go to search. This type of search retrieves the largest
number of results because the system searches all indexes at once. For example, the phrase
CHEMISTRY will retrieve records with the words CHEMISTRY in any field, and also the
words in any field in the same record.

(b) Author

If one knows the author’s full name, one can conduct an Author (last name first) search.
Always enter the author’s last name, followed by the first name. For example, if one wants to
search the Online Catalog for works by Shimmer Chinodya, one would select Author (last name
first) on the drop down menu and type Chinodya Shimmer in the search box.

If no matching author name is found in the catalog, the system will provide an alphabetical
listing of authors nearest the spelling entered.

(c) Title
Each information source has got a title which is also used to locate the information source using
the OPAC. Select title from the drop down menu and enter all or part of the title into the search
box.

(d) Subject

The subject refers to some form of controlled keyword. Librarians do not just assign keywords
to cover certain disciplines; they use some form of agreed and standardized keywords or
phrases which are known as subjects or subject headings. Enter a subject phrase or a subject
word(s) in any order and select subject from the drop down menu. The system will return
records which include the search term(s) in the subject headings attached to those records. If the
word(s) or phrase is not found in any subject headings, the system will return an alphabetical list
of subject headings nearest the spelling entered.

BELOW IS AN EXAMPLE OF A CATALOGUE ENTRY IN THE UZ LIBRARY OPAC

5.3.5 Other functions of OPAC

• My Millennium

• Suggest a purchase

• Make a general suggestion

5.3.6 Advantages of Using OPAC

1. it is specific i.e. shows the actual location of the item

2. it shows the status of the book (is it available or not)
3. it is fast and efficient
4. it enables you to carry out simultaneous searches
5. no geographical boundaries (remote access)
6. It enables you to limit your search to a particular section of the library

Activity
1. Give a title and ask students to retrieve a class number, location and status of the given
title
2. Using their assignments, make students retrieve relevant sources to answer the question

5.4 Search Engines

A web search engine is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web. The search
results are generally presented in a list of results often referred to as search engine results
pages (SERPs) or hits. The information may consist of web pages, images, information and other
types of files.
5.4.1 How does a search engine work?
A search engine operates in the following order:
• Web crawling
• Indexing
• Searching
Web search engines work by storing information about many web pages, which they retrieve
from the internet. These pages are retrieved by a Web crawler (sometimes also known as a
spider) — an automated Web browser which follows every link on the site. The contents of each
page are then analyzed to determine how it should be indexed (for example, words can be
extracted from the titles, page content, and headings). Data about web pages are stored in an
index database for use in later queries. The purpose of an index is to allow information to be
found as quickly as possible. When a user enters a query into a search engine (typically by
using keywords), the engine examines its index and provides a listing of best-matching web
pages according to its criteria, usually with a short summary containing the document's title and
sometimes parts of the text.
NB: It is important to remember that when one is using a search engine, one is NOT
searching the entire web as it exists at this moment. One is actually searching a portion of
the web, captured in a fixed index created at an earlier date.
Popular Known Search Engines
• Google (www.google.com)
• Altavista (www.altavista.com)
• Yahoo (www.yahoo.com)
 • Ask (www.ask.com)
• MSN Search (www.msn.com )
• Exalead (www.exalead.com )
• Gigablast (www.gigablast.com

5.4.2 Types of search engine

Search engines can be classified according to structure, content and or size. For the purposes of
this module search engines are classified according to content.
a) General Search Engines
A general search engine is a search engine that covers the overall Web, using its own spider to
collect Web pages for its own index.

When to use a general search engine

• When one has a well-defined topic or idea to research
• When one’s topic is obscure
• When one is looking for a specific site
• When one wants to search the full text of millions of Web pages
• When one wants to retrieve a large number of Web sites on one’s topic
• When one wants to search for particular types of documents, sites, file types, languages,
date last modified, geographical location, etc.

Examples of general search engines

General search engines have been popular and newsworthy for many years.
• Google ( www.google.com )
• Bing ( www.bing.com )
• Yahoo! ( www.yahoo.com )
• Gigablast (www.gigablast.com)
• Exalead (www.exalead.com)

When one explores these search engines, notice that each one has something special to offer.
Google retrieves results as you type your search in real time. (Google also features all kinds of
specialty searches and services - just check out its More Google Products page.) Bing is
Microsoft's contribution to general search, and helps one find things by showing one topics
related to their search. Yahoo! is an entire portal of information services.

The screenshot below shows one a typical results page on a general search engine, in this case
Bing. The search for "g l ob al w ar mi n g" brought back a list of relevant results. Note that the
top three results are "Sponsored sites", another name for advertisements. More sponsored sites
appear in the right column. Bing gives one the added bonus of related search ideas in the left
column.
 Activity
• List any 10 other general search engines found on the Internet.

b) Meta Search Engines

A Meta search engine searches multiple search engines from a single search page.

Meta search engines enable users to enter search criteria once and access several search engines
simultaneously.

Meta search engines operate on the premise that the Web is too large for any one search engine
to index it all and that more comprehensive search results can be obtained by combining the
results from several search engines. This also may save the user from having to use multiple
search engines separately

Meta search engines work in various ways. With some, a single, simultaneous search retrieves
results from multiple sources, usually with the duplicates removed. Others offer a separate search
of multiple content sources, allowing you to select the source(s) you want for each search.

Results retrieved by these engines can be highly relevant, since they are usually grabbing the first
items from the relevancy-ranked list of results returned by the individual search engines. Keep in
mind that complex searches, such as field searches, are usually not available.

When to use a meta search engine

• When one wants to retrieve a relatively small number of relevant results
• When one’s topic is obscure
 • When one is not having luck finding what you want
• When one wants the convenience of searching a variety of different content sources from
one search page

Examples of meta search engines

• DogPile ( www.dogpile.com)
• Metacrawler (www.matacrawler.com)
• Search .com (www.search.com )
• Clusty (www.clusty.com )
• Mamma (www.mamma.com )

Each one is a little different, though you'll find that many use the same sources, for example
Google, Bing, Yahoo! and Ask. It makes sense that meta engines use the most famous, well-
indexed and comprehensive sources for their results. The difference is often in the search
interface or in the presentation of the results.

Let's look at an example. Let's say one is interested in the effect of television violence on
children. Here is a search for vi ol en ce tel evisi on c hil d re n. Notice how the sources of the
results are placed with each page returned with this search.

NB: It's well worth trying out meta engines, especially if one is not having luck with
Google, Bing, and other famous search engines. Sometimes a meta engine will turn up
results that aren't as easily found when one uses one engine at a time.

c) Directories
 Directories use subject headings to categorize their information, e.g. business management
could be a heading. Examples of web directories are Lycos and Yahoo. Directories usually
contain links (pointers) to sites that have got the information one is looking for.

Examples:
• Yahoo Directory (www.yahoo.com)
• Open Directory (www.dmoz.org)
• Open Science Directory (www.opensciencedirectory.net/)
• Directory of Institutional Repositories ( www.opendoar.org)
• Directory of Open Access Journals (www.doaj.org )

d) Specialist/Vertical Search Engines

A specialist searches a specific subject, industry, topic, type of content (e.g., travel, movies,
images, blogs, and live events), piece of data, geographical location, and so on.

It may help to think of vertical search as a search for a particular niche.

Some of this content cannot be found, or is difficult to find, on general search engines. To find a
vertical/specialist search engine, one can use a general search engine and try to find a search site
dedicated to a particular type of content, for example med i ca l s e arch , job se ar ch , and so
on.

When to use a specialist/vertical search engine

• When one’s topic is focused on a specific topic, industry, content type, geographical
location, language, etc.
• When one is having difficulty locating what they want on general, meta, or concept
categorizing search engines

Examples of specialist/vertical search engines

There are so many examples out there on so many topics - it's endless!
Notice how some cover broad topics while others are of narrower interest.

Health Sciences PubMed (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.pubmed)

Sciences World Wide Science (http://worldwidescience.org )
Full Text Google Scholar http://scholar.google.com/schhp?hl=en)
Scholarly articles

Images search Picsearch (www.picsearch.com )

News search Newslookup.com (http://www.newslookup.com/)
engines

Social networking FriendFeed Search (http://friendfeed.com/search )

A screen short for

5.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of using search engines

Advantages
1. Best Suited for complex keyword/concept searches
2. Currency of information made possible by regular addition
3. Searches can be limited to a period of time , fields , source type, etc
4. Currency of information, made possible by regular addition by web spiders
5. Exhaustive information can be retrieved (with a lot of patience )
Disadvantages
1. False positives
2. Dead links/ redundant links
3. Spamming
4. Search engines vary in terms of searching techniques
5. Higher ranking of paying sites
 6. Time consuming

Activities
• What do you think are the advantages of using specialized /vertical search engines such
as Google Scholar?
• Look up for information on Climate Change on both Google Search Engine and Google
Scholar. What are the differences in the types of sources on these engines?
• Where would you start looking for search engines specifically for general reference
works?

5.5 Gateways

Gateways are websites that serve as a single point of access to collections of information sources
and resources or pathways to definite Information. Portal and gateway are often used
interchangeably; however gateways do not always have the same features as portals.

5.5.1 Common features of a gateway

• Quality controlled catalogues of online resources
• Subject based entrances to quality assessed internet resources
• Classified subject keywords
• You can browse by subject or search by keyword
• Information gateways are going for online resources what librarians do for books.
• They are built by humans

Examples of Gateways
Subject Website address
Language http://www.ilovelanguages.com/
Health Information http://medlineplus.gov
Sciences information http://worldwidescience.org/

A screen shot on the UZ library Information Subject Based gateway

WorldWideScience.org is a global science gateway—accelerating scientific discovery and
progress through a multilateral partnership to enable federated searching of national and
international scientific databases and portals.
Activity
• Explain why a student should use an information subject based gateway rather than a
search engine.

5.6 Portals
A portal is website that serves as a gateway or a main entry point ('cyber door') on the internet to
a specific field-of-interest or an industry.

A portal provides at least four essential services:

(1) search engine(s)
(2) email
(3) links to other related sites
(4) Personalized content.

It may also provide facilities such as chat, members list, free downloads, etc.

Examples of Portals
AOL http://www.aol.com/
iGoogle http://www.google.com/ig
HINARI http://www.who.int/hinari/en/
UNESCO Portals http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-
URL_ID=1501&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
5.7 Databases

5.7.1 What is a database?

A database is a collection of data or information that is stored in records in electronic format.

These maybe representation of information or they may contain full text of the source as well.

Databases are organized in ways that support the finding of information from books, journal
articles people and conferences.

Records in databases have fields such as title field, author field, and language field

The UZ OPAC is a typical example of an online database.

5.7.2 Types of Online/Specialized/Research Databases

• Bibliographic Databases
Bibliographic databases contain records/representations of information sources. It
does not include a complete text of the publication. A record typically includes the
bibliographic information that enables you to retrieve or trace the information source
such as a book. Some bibliographic database also gives you an abstract. E.g. OPAC

• Full-Text Databases
A full-text database contains a complete text of journal articles, chapters and etc.
When searching full text databases you do not need to make any further effort to trace
the publication. You can print or save the copy. E.g. Springer Link

• Numeric Databases
These databases provide mostly numeric data (numbers) in chart or table format. In
some cases, they provide raw data (survey results, scientific studies, etc.) that can be
downloaded to your computer, so that you can analyze it and create your own reports.

• Hybrid
Quite often databases contain more than one data type, such as a combination of
bibliographic records with full-text, or a directory with multimedia (audio or image
files).

5.8 Online Journal

Online journals are available in electronic format on the WWW and usually on a subscription
basis. Some of the online journals can have a print counterpart.

5.8.1 Types of Online Journals

Subscription journals
 University of Zimbabwe Library subscribes to hundreds of online journals on a variety of
topics. These are accessible via library.uz.ac.zw. These are very useful information
sources since they are peer-reviewed and usually of an acceptable academic quality.
Access to subscription journals via the UZ website is limited to UZ students what about
staff? only.

Free Open Access (OA) Journals

These are free online peer-reviewed journals. (OA) refers to publications where the
authors and copyright holders grant free access to a publication on a world wide basis.
You can copy, distribute, transmit and display these journals in any digital medium for
any responsible purpose.
Sometimes open access journals are stored in an online repository.

The browser interface page on DOAJ website containing, full text, and quality
controlled scientific and scholarly journals, covering all subjects and many
languages

5.8.2 How to Access Online Journals and Databases

Step 1: Go to Online Databases Homepage

The gateway to the online database is the University of Zimbabwe Library website. Open the
University of Zimbabwe Library website using the address http://www.library.uz.ac.zw/. On the
University of Zimbabwe Library website homepage, go to the E-Resources link and select either
of the options on the dropdown menu as shown below;
Step 2: Accept Appropriate Use Policy
Step 3: Open a Database of your Choice
Open any database of your choice by clicking on the name e.g. Taylor and Francis as illustrated
below;

Step 4: Searching the Database

Once one reaches the database homepage, there is no need for one to sign in through user name
and password. One has direct access since one is logged in automatically as University of
Zimbabwe. Locate the search box and type in your search phrase to begin your search. Or
browse click browse by subject.
Step 4: Open a Journal Article

From one’s list of search results, click on the titles of an article of one’schoice or the Download
Full Text option. NB: Onecan only have full access to articles with a Green Icon. See the
illustration below;
Step 5: Take Note of the Bibliographic Details for Citation
5.9 Other resources on UZ Library Website

UZLib offers access to various other resources on its web page. These include:
a. E-books
b. Past Examination Papers
c. UZ Institutional Repository
d. E-thesis
e. Open access resources

NB: Ask your faculty librarian on how to access the above listed resources

5.10 Search Strategies

5.10.1 Introduction

The web is a huge information resources characterized by rapid dissemination of information

which leads to information overload. It is critical to develop searching skills of constructing and
refining information searches in this era of information overload. In this chapter you will learn
how information is represented and the principles and techniques for constructing effective and
efficient searches. You will learn how to construct a search query by choosing correct search
terms and combining search terms using Boolean logic.
5.10.2 Search strategy
A search strategy is a systematic plan of conducting a search.

5.10.3 Planning your Search

Before you start to search for information, it is essential to think about what you want to actually
find. Taking time to plan your search will improve the accuracy of your search and the quality of
the information you find. The primary aim in planning a search is to describe a clear
unambiguous question in order to define the topic.

The process of planning a search strategy will help clarify your thinking about
your topic, and ensure that you are looking for information appropriate to your
task.

You are more likely to search efficiently if you take a methodical

approach:

5.10.4 Concept identification

Retrieval of information involves matching your information needs with the information that is
available in search engines, databases etc. So when you are searching for information, you are
trying to match the words you are using to describe your information need with the words in a
document on the web.

If the words in your query do not match the words in the document or document representation,
then the document will mot be retrieved or a wrong document will be retrieved.

The following is a step by step process of conducting a search:

Step 1: Define your information need

First look at the question or project specification you have chosen/been given and make
sure you fully understand it. Before you can find any information for your project or
question you must understand fully what is being asked. Are there any unfamiliar terms?
If you're not sure about the meaning of any word, name, place etc then look it up before
you start. The library has a range of subject dictionaries and encyclopedias for you to use.
Alternatively, discuss the project with your friend/Supervisor.
• Example: You have been asked to find information on the topic: “Health
implication on water pollution!

Step 2: Identify the main concepts or ideas in your topic

Once you are sure you know the meaning of the question/project specification, one of the most
important steps is to work out which are the main words or phrases, known as keywords or key
phrases. Keywords and key phrases indicate what the project or question is really about. They
provide initial search terms for finding information. It is important to spot them all if you are
going to answer questions correctly.
• using the wrong keywords means you will get the wrong information
• not using all the keywords means you will not get enough information, or you get
the wrong type of information
When identifying keywords, look for the major concepts, but not the other, extraneous words
used in the original question/topic, e.g. “investigate”, “cause by”, “compare” etc

Example: Health implications on water pollution?

Health Water Pollution

Diseases Rivers Contamination

Step 3: Find alternate words for your main concepts

Identifying the major concepts is an excellent start, but there’s no guarantee that the database
will have indexed using the words that you have identified, even if they are on exactly the topic
you’re interested in. Therefore, to ensure you find all the information about your topic, for each
concept, you need to identify as many different words and phrases that might be used to describe
it as you can.
• Think of broader terms which will help you find more general information
• Think of narrower terms to help you find more specific information
• Think of synonyms or related terms to make sure you don't miss any
information by ignoring words that mean the same or related things.

N.B. You can use the database to Help (look at the Thesaurus, Controlled
Vocabulary, Keywords used in useful articles etc.)

Example: a) Health …diseases….illness…..bacterial infection

• Water……Dams………Rivers……Wells

Synonyms and Related Terms

Thinking of synonyms and related terms makes sure you don’t miss out on any potentially useful
articles e.g. the database may have indexed a relevant article using a different term form the one
you initially thought of. Not all words have synonyms e.g. where a term is so specific it is the
only term that can be used to describe the subject. However, most terms have synonyms or
related concepts.
• synonyms include foreign terms or variant spellings, such as American English
• they also include technical terms, jargon or acronyms
Related terms may be branches of the same topic, or can be similar but quite separate topics.
These may or may not be relevant, depending on the focus of your research.
If you don't take the time to think of all the possible synonyms or related terms for your
subject you may miss much relevant information.

It's a good idea to keep track of all your terms, e.g. in a structured table or perhaps using a ‘mind-
map’ you would then decide which of these terms, if any, you want to use.

5.10.5 Mind Map

• Mind Map is a diagram used to represent words & ideas
• An image-centred diagram that helps to generate, visualize, structure and classify ideas
• Linked and arranged radially around a central key word or idea (or as branches stemming
from a central key word)
• Represents semantic or other connections between portions of information.
• It encourages a brainstorming approach
• Helps you identify what you know & classify knowledge

Diagram of a mind map

Mind mapping helps to identify:

• Key terms / phrases associated with ‘problem’
• Broad words / phrases or terms
• Narrow words / phrases or terms
• Link to Synonyms (interchangeable words)
• Alternative spellings
• Plurals and etc

Step Four: Creating your search statement

5.10.6 Truncation and Wildcards

When you want to search for multiple forms of the same root/stem word, or for different
spellings of words, then you may be able to use truncation/wildcards in your search statement.
You will have to check with the individual resources, as symbols, implementation and
availability will vary, however, commonly * is used to indicate many characters and? Is used to
indicate a single character e.g.:

• a search for comput* searches for all forms of the word with comput at the root, including
compute, computable, computer, computers, computing, computation…

• a search for organi?ation, would search for both organisation and

Organization some resources will truncate terms automatically (e.g. in Inspec ‘auto-stemming’)
which means that a search for ‘management’ will also find results with managing, managed,
manager, manage, managers, etc. Remember to de-select this option if this is not what you want.

5.10.7 Boolean logic

Search terms may be combined using Boolean logic, so that the most relevant results are
returned. Most online catalogues and databases will have a default operator, and if you type in
keywords without specifying an operator/s, it will automatically use the default. Three logical
commands/operators are available in most search software – OR, AND, NOT. Some databases
uses other operators, check the Help facilities.

(i) OR

The Boolean OR command can be used in the search statement to expand retrieval by including
synonyms and closely related terms.

• OR: Returns results that contain either of the words you enter

This may be given as an “any of the words” option

(ii) AND

The AND command is used to narrow search results. Each time another concept is added using
"and" the search becomes more specific.

• AND: Returns results that contain all the words you enter

This may be given as an “all of the words” option

(iii) NOT
The NOT command is used to exclude unwanted records from search results. It is useful for
differentiating two unrelated uses of the same keyword

It can help to explain how these work graphically. In the diagrams, below, the box represents all
the articles in the database, whilst circles “a” and “b” represent articles that include keyword “a”
and “b”, respectively. Retrieved results are shown in the shaded area.

Diagram:

5.10.8 Phrase searching

You may also be able to search for an exact phrase. This may be done by selecting the “exact
phrase” option, or by specifying the phrase yourself (this is usually denoted by the use of
quotation marks).

“Operating system” – returns records that contain both operating and system immediately
adjacent to each other

5.10.9 Stop words

In order to save space or to speed up searches, most search engines don't store extremely
common words (e.g. the, an, in etc.). These are known as "stop words." If you need to search for
a topic that contains stop words consult the resource help.

5.10.10 Your search statement

It is not often the case that you will have to type in your actual search statement; rather you will
use the fields available in the search interface to formulate quite complicated searches.

Databases come with a range of tools that make preparing thorough searches an easier task, but
there is no standard method by which searchable resources interpret your search terms, this may
vary with each resource. You should always check with the resource help facilities.
Step Five - start searching

What sort of information do I need?

There are various ways of searching for information on a topic. Once you have your search
statement/s, it is worth thinking again, exactly what you are looking for:
• Previous research in the area? • A range of viewpoints on your topic?
• Work by a particular author? • A definition?

Asking yourself these questions can help you to decide what sort of resource is most appropriate
for you to search.
Furthermore, the nature of your query will determine how you proceed with your initial search.
• If you know exactly the record/document/article you wish to retrieve, then using all the
information you have will save you time searching unwanted results
• Alternatively, if you want an overview of all information relevant to a certain topic, then it may
be beneficial to use no more than two of your search terms. The results from the initial search
will be a good indication on how to proceed.

Step Six – evaluate your search results

As results are retrieved, search statements can be modified to expand retrieval by including
broader terms and related terms or to reduce retrieval by the substitution of narrower terms, or by
using the databases filtering features.

Every time you run a new search evaluate the results and improve the search again.

5.10.11 Too many articles?

Use more specific phrases to narrow the search down to exactly what you need
Limit your search to restrict retrieval to entries that meet specific requirements.
E.g. specify which fields the search is performed in, or specify the:
• author name journal name
• title keywords
• abstract full text
• volume document type
• issue a specific date or date range
Certain resources will offer more advanced search options, which offer more features to
limit/target your search.

5.10.12 Too few articles?

Use some more general search terms or
Add more synonyms for search terms (use the Thesaurus for help)
This should give you a much better chance of finding articles with the keyword you’re looking
for.

Step Seven - saving searches/creating alerts

Once you are happy with your search results, you may want to save your search.

This has two possible benefits:

• Next time you visit the resource, you can run your saved search/s. This will save
you time.
• If the resource offers an ‘email alert’ facility, you will automatically be emailed
when new articles, which match your search criteria, have been added to the
database (you will have to register for this service as you will need to provide
details of your email address).
Each resource will differ, so please consult the Help facility for further guidance.

Step Eight - taking references

Note all references in full as you find them, even if you are not sure how useful they might be

● some resources offer a ‘download’ facility, which allows you to export selected references
either as .txt files, or to various reference management software
● it may be helpful to familiarise yourself with such software (e.g. endnotes).
Keep a note of where you find your references - you may need this if you apply for an inter-
library loan or when you want to suggest a book for purchases to the library

If you take a photocopy, make sure that you keep a note of the publication details (journal title,
issue and volume number) from which it was taken, in case you wish to cite it. It can be very
difficult to check back late.

5.10.13 Points to Remember

It takes time and effort to find information

DO

• Define your subject and your objectives.

• Decide how comprehensive the search will be. Do you want everything on your subject? Do
you require information form a specific time period only?
• Choose the right search tool for your purposes.
• Consult the online Help to produce the best search results.
• Keep a systematic record of the search terms and searches you carry out and revise your search
strategy until you find the information you want.
• Remember that just because an article is on the database it doesn’t mean that it is in the Library
and that we have access to the full-text online. But also, just because a database does not link to
the full-text online, does not mean to say we do not have access to the full-text online – always
check the Library Catalogue if you are unsure, or ask a member of Library staff.
DON'T

• Use vague keywords - it will take a very long time to process your query, and will not give you
much targeted results. Choosing a more precise topic, and appropriate keywords, will retrieve a
more manageable and targeted set of results
• Misspell keywords. Don't expect to find the information you need if you search for things like
"technical" or "committee"
• Overlook alternative spellings. For example, if you want to find out about an American
Organisation, this is likely to be Organization

Activity

1. Why is it important to analyze an information need in great detail before constructing a

query?
2. Why is it important to use Boolean operators correctly? What are the implications of
confusing the “AND” and the “OR” operators?
3. What is the best way to truncate the word "computer" in order to search for variant
words: computers, computing, computerized?
Give an example of a mind mapping software.

5.11 Search Tools in a Document

5.11.1 Table of Contents

It is a list of the parts of a book or document organized in the order in which the parts appear in
the document. The contents usually includes the titles or descriptions of the first-level headers,
such as chapter titles in longer works, and often includes second-level or section titles within the
chapters as well, and occasionally even third-level titles. Printed tables of contents indicate page
numbers where each part starts, while online ones offer links to go to each part.

In some cases, tables of contents contain a high quality description of the chapter's but usually
first-level header's section content rather than subheadings. Therefore, the contents page provides
an excellent overview of the usefulness of a book. It is helpful not only for pointing on the
specific location (pages) where to get the required information but also for the detailed
information on what the book has.

5.11.2 Index

It is a list of words or phrases ('headings') and associated pointers ('locators') to where useful
material relating to that heading can be found in a document. In a traditional back-of-the-book
index the headings will include names of people, places and events, and concepts selected by a
person as being relevant and of interest to a possible reader of the book. The pointers are
typically page numbers, paragraph numbers or section numbers. If you have got some keywords
already, the index becomes a very useful tool – you can look up your keywords in the index and
go to the specific pages where the information is.

Activity

a. What are the major differences between a gateway and a portal?

b. List any 3 e-journal databases covering various disciplines found on the UZ
online databases homepage.
c. Outline the steps necessary to retrieve a chemistry article in the Springer database.
UNIT 6

Evaluation of information sources

6.1 Introduction

This unit highlights the foundation needed in the evaluation of Information Sources. Evaluation
is meant to assess whether information accessed meets the needs of the reader or is able to help
the reader to accomplish a task at hand. Therefore, critical evaluation of the information found is
essential in conducting quality research. With so much information available, in different
formats, from so many different sources, each piece of information that selected must be
carefully reviewed to ensure the quality, authority, perspective, and balance that best support the
research.

6.2 Learning Objectives

• To understand the importance of evaluating information sources.
• Identify the criteria used to evaluate information sources.
• To be able to apply the evaluation criteria on various information sources.

6.3 Why evaluate information sources

Information sources are evaluated for the following reasons:

• To decide whether the Internet source should be linked to a resource guide or library
website.
• To judge the quality and appropriateness of information for a particular query or user.
• To determine the authenticity of the source
• To verify the validity and reliability of the information

6.4 Evaluation Criteria

Academic information suitable for academic research comes in many formats, but there are some
common criteria used to determine the credibility of information in print and Internet
information. Consider the following when deciding whether to use the information you find:

Key: indicates criteria is for Web

Authority: The source of the information.

• Who is the author/publisher/source/sponsor?

• What are the author's credentials or organizational affiliations?
• Is the author qualified to write on the topic?
• Is there contact information, such as a publisher or email address?
 Does the URL reveal anything about the author or source? What does the URL tell you?
Is this a personal site? Government site? Education site? examples: .com .edu .gov .org
.net
Are they well-known in the field? What other writings have they published? These
questions can be answered by using biographical sources and Goggling the name.
• Book reviews can also give important information concerning an author and the opinion
other scholars have of him and his works. If you need a scholarly perspective, be sure to
use reviews published in scholarly journals rather than popular magazines

Objectivity: The clarity and factualness of the content or subject.

• What is the purpose of the information? Is it to inform, teach, sell, entertain or persuade?
• Do the authors/sponsors make their intentions or purpose clear?
• Is the information fact, opinion or propaganda?
• Does the point of view appear objective and impartial?
• Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional or personal biases?
• Check a table of contents (or the index of a book) to see if it covers the information you
need. Scan the introduction, for more clues to a source's content and purpose
Does the site include advertisements or product promotion?

Coverage: The scope and relevance of the information to your needs.

• Does the information relate to your topic or answer your question?
• Who is the intended audience?
• Is the information at an appropriate level (i.e. not too elementary or advanced for your
needs)?
• Have you looked at a variety of sources before determining this is one you will use?
• Would you be comfortable citing this source in your research paper?
Is there a clear statement of the purpose of the web page?
Does the site tell you if the information is limited by time period, geographical area,
demographic group, etc.?

Accuracy: The reliability, truthfulness and correctness of the content.

• Where does the information come from?
• Is the information supported by evidence?
• Has the information been reviewed or refereed?
• Can you verify any of the information in another source or from personal knowledge?
• Does the language or tone seem unbiased and free of emotion?
• Are there spelling, grammar or typographical errors?
What is the overall purpose of the particular web page and the particular web site? Why
does it exist--for entertainment, to sell an idea, or product, to persuade, to inform? If it is
not a scholarly site, is it still an appropriate source for your research?
Compare the information in the web site to information on the same topic from other
sources. Do you see differences, or agreement?

Currency: The timeliness of the information.

 When was the information published or posted?
Has the information been revised or updated? Is it a date appropriate for the subject
matter?
Does your topic require current information, or will older sources work as well?
Are the links functional?

6.5 Periodicals

To evaluate a periodical, you must determine if it is suitable for the type of information you
need. There are general information magazines, trade or business journals, and scholarly
journals. A scholarly or academic journal has the following characteristics:
• It is often published by a learned society or professional organization.
• It usually publishes original research.
• It is usually published quarterly or monthly rather than weekly.
• It is usually a "refereed" journal", which means an independent expert assists the editor in
evaluating the
• Articles submitted for publication-- a process called "peer reviews".
• Scholarly articles have footnotes and references of works cited-- this is the single most
important visual clue.

6.6 Summary:

This unit looked at five key aspects that an information user has to consider when evaluating
information. These are;
• Authority
• Objectivity
• Accuracy
• Currency
• Coverage/Scope
Time was also taken to highlight the methods that one can employ when evaluating periodicals
or scholarly journals.

6.7 Activities:

• Identify a website and apply the criteria for evaluation

• Evaluate print sources of your choice e.g journals, textbooks, magazines etc
• List and explain the 5 criterion used to evaluate internet information
• Evaluate a commercial and a social website using the evaluation criteria discussed/
learn
UNIT 7

Plagiarism, Referencing and Citation

7.1 Introduction
At university we advance knowledge by building on the work of other people. Academic
integrity means that we are honest and accurate in creating and communicating all academic
products. Therefore this unit is going to focus on how best the University of Zimbabwe can
uphold “Academic Integrity through a number of ways discussed below. Acknowledgement of
other people’s work must be done in a way that does not leave the reader in any doubt as to
whose work it is.
Academic integrity means trustworthy conduct such as not cheating on examinations and not
misrepresenting information.
(Academic integrity is the pursuit of scholarly activity in an open, honest and responsible
manner.
Academic integrity is a basic guiding principle for all academic activity”
http://academicintegrity.dal.ca/Files/Syllabus_Statement_%28Aug_2011%29.pdf)

In a nutshell, the Unit focuses on the legal and ethical aspects that surround the use of
information.

7.2 Learning Objectives

• To define academic integrity in terms of plagiarism, referencing and citation.

• To explain reasons for citing and referencing information.
• To explain what constitutes plagiarism and how to avoid it.
• To elucidate citation and citation styles that are recommended at the University of
Zimbabwe

7.3 Plagiarism defined

According to the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, to "plagiarize" means
• to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own
• to use (another's production) without crediting the source
• to commit literary theft
• to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source.
In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone else's work and
lying about it afterward.

According to the University of Manchester Definition, “Plagiarism is the theft or use of someone
else's work without proper acknowledgement, presenting the material as if it were one's own.”
• “the adoption or reproduction of ideas, words, or statements of another person as one’s
own without proper acknowledgment.” Nova Southeastern University NSU Law Code, p.
2.
 • Let’s look at a few other definitions for plagiarism.
– Being dishonest.
– Lying.
– Stealing someone’s idea.
– Cheating.
– Disrespecting yourself and the academic community.
– Copyright infringement (Nova Southeastern University NSU)

“To use another person’s ideas or expressions in your writing without acknowledging the source
is to plagiarise. Plagiarism, then constitutes intellectual theft and often carries severe penalties,
ranging from failure in a course to expulsion from the school” [Modern Language Association),
from the MLA handbook for Research Papers, 4th ed.]

One should understand that it is possible to inadvertently plagiarise and not realise that one is
doing so.

Conclusion
Plagiarism is the antithesis of critical thinking, in that you’ve eliminated any intellectual work
for yourself when you are plagiarizing. But when you think critically, you have to do the tough
intellectual work of formulating and clarifying your own thoughts and integrating them with
another point of view in a substantive fashion, as well as evaluating the credibility of sources.

7.4. Types of plagiarism

There are two broad categories of plagiarism under which other types fall into, these are
intentional/semi aware and unintentional/accidental plagiarism
7.4.1 Unintentional
This is when one fails to acknowledge sources of information consulted in a write-up
unknowingly.
Main reasons include
• poor understanding/ignorance of referencing and plagiarism
• “surface” conceptions of learning as reproduction of knowledge
• failure to understand role of academic tasks in preparing them for future professional
work
• carelessness (in note taking)
• Careless paraphrasing
• Poor documentation
• Quoting excessively
• Failure to use your own voice

7.4.2 Intentional
This is when one fails to acknowledge sources of information consulted in a write-up
unknowingly.
Main reasons include
• Time constraints- too much pressure (time/workload)
• easier to plagiarise than do the work over-assessment
• poor time management
• pressures to succeed
• lack of language proficiency
• fear of failure
• laziness peer complicity
• competitiveness
• belief that will not be caught
• perception that offence/consequences not serious
• indifference to the course or topic (unmotivated)
• temptation due to internet (but few use essay services)
• Copying a friend’s work
• Buying or borrowing papers
• Cutting and pasting blocks of text from electronic sources without documenting

7.5 Types of plagiarism

7.5.1 Copy and paste

• Where one copies a sentence and fail to cite source
• Where one copies significant phrase and fail to acknowledge or give credit to the
author
• Failure to wrap borrowed words with quotation marks and source details

7.5.2 Style plagiarism

• “When you follow a Source Article sentence- by- sentence or paragraph-by
paragraph, it is plagiarism, even though none of your sentences are exactly like those
in the source article or even in the same order. What you are copying in this case is
the author’s reasoning style”

7.5.3 Word switch

• Changing a few words in a sentence and failing to give credit to the source
• Making use of synonyms to cover up for copied words

7.5.4 Metaphor plagiarism

• “Metaphors are used to give clear picture or analogy that touches senses or emotions”
• Are an important part of an author’s creative style if you cannot come up with your
own metaphor to illustrate an important idea, then use the metaphor in the Source
Article, but give the author credit for it

7.5.5 Idea plagiarism

• Failing to attribute an author for their idea
• If the author of the source article expresses a creative idea or suggests a solution to a
problem, the idea or solution must be clearly attributed to the author.

7.5.6 "The Potluck Paper"

• The writer tries to disguise plagiarism by copying from several different sources,
tweaking the sentences to make them fit together while retaining most of the original
phrasing.

7.5.7 "The Poor Disguise"

• Although the writer has retained the essential content of the source, he or she has
altered the paper's appearance slightly by changing key words and phrases.

7.5.8 "The Labour of Laziness"

• The writer takes the time to paraphrase most of the paper from other sources and
make it all fit together, instead of spending the same effort on original work.

7.5.9 "The Self-Stealer"

• The writer "borrows" generously from his or her previous work, violating policies
concerning the expectation of originality adopted by most academic institutions.

7.5.10 "The Forgotten Footnote"

• The writer mentions an author's name for a source, but neglects to include specific
information on the location of the material referenced. This often masks other forms
of plagiarism by obscuring source locations.

7.5.11 "The Misinformer"

• The writer provides inaccurate information regarding the sources, making it
impossible to find them.

7.5.12 "The Too-Perfect Paraphrase"

• The writer properly cites a source, but neglects to put in quotation marks text that has
been copied word-for-word, or close to it. Although attributing the basic ideas to the
source, the writer is falsely claiming original presentation and interpretation of the
information.

7.5.13 The Resourceful Citer"

• The writer properly cites all sources, paraphrasing and using quotations appropriately.
The catch? The paper contains almost no original work! It is sometimes difficult to
spot this form of plagiarism because it looks like any other well-researched
document.
7.6 How to avoid plagiarism

• Always start by stating your own research questions or thesis or by restating your
assignment clearly and completely in your own words
• Keep accurate records of the sources you use, noting all the pertinent information
about each source and whether you have quoted from it, summarized it, paraphrased
it, or commented on it.
• It is advisable not to “over quote” in one’s paper. Remember the paper should be
made up of one’s own ideas and arguments
• Clearly understand how to quote, paraphrase, and summarise information you borrow
and understand how to integrate this information in your paper
• If one does not understand the source material, one must not use it in their paper
• Find out which style guide one should use and use it consistently
• Review one’s final written paper looking for changes in one’s writing style or
thinking that might signal that one is using a borrowed source
• If one is not sure whether to cite a source, one should cite it. Good note taking – keep
track of your sources and the notes that come from each
• Keep your bibliography constantly current - add each and every source you find to
your bibliography the very first time you use it
• Number each item in your bibliography and put the same number alongside (or
before and after) each corresponding quote, summary or paraphrase in your notes

7.7 Referencing

7.7.1 What is Referencing?

It is the procedure used to acknowledge the sources of information used to complete your
own work; the source you refer to must be referenced.

Except for pure fiction, nearly all writing is based to some extent on other sources. Ethics
and the laws of copyright require authors to identify their sources citations within the
body of an assignment and a reference list at the end. The purpose is to allow the reader
to locate the original material and to examine it. Accuracy and consistency is very
important when citing.

There are various ways of referencing material. While one method is not necessarily
better than the other, you must choose one and be consistent.

7.7.2 References are used to:

• Enable the reader to locate the sources you have used;

• Help support your arguments and provide your work with credibility;
• Show the scope and breadth of your research;
 • Acknowledge the source of an argument or idea. Failure to do so could result in a
charge of plagiarism.

7.8 Citation

7.8.1 What is a citation?

A citation is a reference to a published work or source of information. A citation provides

identifying information to enable the reader to locate the source document. Below are
examples of the same citation as it appears in the print and electronic versions of Social
Sciences Index.

7.8.2 Why do we Need to Cite Sources Used?

• In one’s assignments, research papers or projects, one usually consults the works of
others for several reasons:
• To learn from them
• To help formulate your own opinion
• To support your ideas
• To show what has been done previously on a topic

Whether one quotes from the sources or consult them for ideas, one needs to cite them for
several reasons
• To give credit to the authors or creators of those sources or ideas
• To allow your readers to find and benefit from the exact sources you used
• To let your lectures know how you arrived at your conclusions
• To protect you from charges of plagiarism and copyright infringements

7.8.3 What to cite

• Anytime one incorporates someone else’s ideas or words into their assignments or
presentations, they must cite them
• If one quotes directly from a source, be sure to enter the quote using quotation marks,
and also provide the citation
• If one paraphrases or summarises someone’s else’s work, one must provide a citation
• If one reads about a source from within another source, one still needs to cite the
secondary source for example if one reads about American scholarships on the UZ
website, cite UZ unless if one gets the original copy about the scholarships
 7.9 Media and images

Citing does not only apply on to the printed word. If one includes an image, or video in
one’s paper, one’s power point presentation, or on a Web site, one must acknowledge the
source through citation

In fact, in many cases, one will need to get permission from the creator to use it. Always
read the copyright permission statements before using an image or other media item

Don’t assume that because it’s on the Internet, one can use it without permission or
citation

7.10 What NOT to cite

Certain information does not need to be cited. For example:

• One’s own work
• Common Knowledge and other factual information that is easy to confirm (e.g. Cde
Robert Mugabe was the Zimbabwean first president after independence)
• Knowledge common to one’s topic and one’s readers (e.g. in an English literature paper
one needs not to cite this statement: Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet.)
• Common expressions (e.g. Don’t wash your dirty linen in public)

7.11 How to Cite

Use the title page, not the book cover, for the reference details. Only include the edition where it
is not the first. A book with no edition statement is most commonly a first edition

7.11.1 Components of a standard citation

In order for one’s readers to be able to find the sources used, one needs to supply the citation
information

7.11.2 The basic components of a citation

Books: Author (or editor), (Year) Title, Publisher, Place of publication

Journal Articles: Author, Year, Article Title, Journal Title, Volume No., Issue No.,
Pages

Web sites: Author (or Company or Organisation), web page Title, URL, Date (posted or
revisited) Date retrieved

Images: Artist name, Title of the work, Date it was created, repository (or museum or
owner) City or country of origin, Dimensions of the work, Material or Medium (such as
oil on canvas, marble, found objects)
• If the image is in a book you will need full book citation with the page for the image
• If its online, you will need the web citation in addition to the image number or other
identifier

7.12 Citation styles

Various citation styles exist. They convey the same information, only the presentation of that
information differs.

Whichever citation style one uses, it is important that one is consistent in its application.

Different disciplines use different citation styles. This module discuses most commonly used
citation styles in various disciplines.

Keep in mind that there are many other citation styles

APA Citation Style

Basic Format for books

Author’s surname, First Initial. (Year). Book title: Subtitle. (Edition) [if other than the
1st]. Place: Publisher.

BOOKS

One Author

Brader, T. (2006). Knowledge management: information organisation and sharing.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Two Authors

Wilson, S., & Smith, J. (1994). Art of gardening: A look at wild flowers in Zimbabwe.
Gweru: Mambo Press.

Book article or chapter

Joyce, U.M (1970). Tales of the wild: Stories according to Rhodes. In W.Stone (Ed.),
Wonders of the world (pp 300-306)

E-Book from Ebrary

Kjaer, P. (2007). Mediating business the expansion of business journalism. Copenhagen:

Copenhagen Business School Press [Ebrary Online Reader version]. Retrieved from
http://www.ebrary.com
 Journals

Basic Format for Journal Articles

Author’s surname, First Initial. (Year). Article title. Magazine/Journal/Newspaper Title.

Volume number, (Issue number), Page numbers.

Ndebele, S. (1992). Women in Zimbabwe: A Case Study: Studies in African Culture,

14(3), 61-64

Magazine Article, Monthly

White, C. (2006, April). The spirit of disobedience. Atlantic, 312(1871), 31-40.

Magazine Article, Weekly

Tumulty, K. (2006, April 10). Should they stay or should they go? Time, 167(15), 3-40.

Newspaper Article (use pp. for page numbers of newspaper articles)

Moyo, L. (2012, May 30). Spunk bling, at Kingston gigs. Herald, pp. C1.

Articles from Online Databases

Journal, Magazine, or Newspaper Article from an Online Database

Basic Format for an Online Database Article

Author’s surname, First Initial. (Year, Month Day). Article title.

Magazine/Journal/Newspaper Title, Volume number (Issue number), Page numbers.
Retrieved from URL of database home page

Specific Example (from Emerald database)

Armistead, C. (2009). Knowledge management and process performance. Journal of

Knowledge management, 3(2), 143 -157. Retrieved from http://www.emeraldinsight.com

• To cite the electronic journals follow the appropriate citation format (journal, magazine,
or newspaper).
• Then after the page numbers, add the following information:

1. The words “Retrieved from”

2. The URL for the homepage of the article database
Internet sources

Troy, S. (1980). Genocide and psychological healing. Retrieved October 20, 2010, from
Annual Psychological Review
Web site:http://www.iowa.edu/index.html

MLA Citation Style.

The MLA citation style refers to the rules and conventions established by the Modern
Languages Association for acknowledging sources used in a research paper.

BOOKS

Basic format for books

Author’s surname, First name. Title of Book. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of
Publication.

Book with one author

Smith, John. The culture of Zimbabweans. Gweru: Mambo Press, 1972.

Book with two or three authors

Francis, P. Douglas, Bernard Jones, and David E. Smith. Tourism: A challenge for
developing countries. New York: Harcourt, 2001.

Book with more than 3 authors

Atkins, David et al. Feminism in the marital home. London: Oxford University Press,
2001.

Book by a corporate author

Associations corporations, agencies and organizations are considered authors when there
is no single author.

British Psychological Society. Teaching psychology: Some issues.

London: BPS, 1990.

E-Book

Author’s Surname, First name. Title of Book. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year. Title
of Database or Website. Date accessed.
Frey, Bruno S. Economics and Psychology: A Promising New Cross Disciplinary Field.
Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007, Ebrary. Web, 28 June 2012

JOURNAL ARTICLE (PRINT):

Author’s Surname ,First name. "Title of Article." Journal title Volume. Issue (Year):
Pages.

Article in a journal

Doyle, Deirdre,ed. “The art of ballet. Lessons from the school.” Modern Dance Bulletin
4.5 (1999)

JOURNAL ARTICLE (electronic):

Basic format

Author. "Title of the Article." Journal title. Volume. Issue (Year): Pages. Medium.
Accessed Date.

Martensson, Maria. “A critical review of knowledge management as a management tool”

Journal of knowledge Management. 4.3 (2000): 1998 -2016. Web. 28 June 2012

WEB SITES

Author Surname, First name (if available). “Title of Page.” Name of Site. Name of
institution/organization affiliated with the site (sponsor or publisher), date (if
available).Medium.
Date you accessed it.

Rose, Crystal. “How to Write Citations and Bibliographies in MLA Style (7th Edition).”
Memorial University Libraries. Memorial University of Newfoundland, 12 Dec. 2011.
Web. 9 Jan 2012.

Chicago citation style

Book with one author

Clayton, Roger. 1964. Paradise revisited. Los Angeles: Threshold Publications

Book with two to three authors

Collins, Geoffrey, and Walter E. Samuels, eds.1963. The collected works of Jane Austen.
Boston: Boston Press
 Journal Article – Online Version

Polomkai. Mauri J. and Allen G. Noble. “Greenhouse Horticulture and Economic

Transition.” Geographical Review 85, no. 2 (1995): 173-84.
http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/stable/216061.

Harvard Style.

Basic format for books

Author(s) of book - surname and initials Year of publication, Title of book - italicised,
Edition, Publisher, Place of publication

Book with one author.

Achebe, Chinua. (1995), Things fall apart, Mambo Press, Gweru.

Book with two or three authors

Hilton, D. J., White, S & Peters, J. (1997) Business Accounting, Butterworths, London.

Book with more than three authors

Bond, WR. et al. (1996), Management of small firms, McGraw-Hill, Sydney

Edition.

Mustill, P.T. & Boykes, Z.T. (2001) Women and the law, 3rd ed, Blackwells, London.

E-book

Megill, K. A. (2005) Corporate Memory: Records and Information Management age,

KG. Saur, Berlin, available from EIFL Ebrary e-books. [Accessed 28 June 2012]

Chapter in an edited book.

Butler, J. (1934), The Vegetative region of Congo, in: Cesar, E. and Piano, M. (eds.) The
Economy of Congo, 2nd ed, Garland, New York pp.231-342.

Thesis.

Ncube, T. (2000), Children and the family, Phd Thesis, University of Zimbabwe.
Article in a journal.

Elements of the citation

Author(s) of article -surname and initials Year of publication, 'Title of article - in single
quotation marks', Journal title - italicised, volume number, issue number, page number(s)

Journal Article – print version.

Kongle, C & Crago, S. (1999) “Pacemakers and related determinants”, Medical Journal
of North America, vol. 85, no. 2, pp71-77.

Journal article – Electronic version

Duffy, J. (2000). “Knowledge management: to be or not to be”, Information Management

Journal, Vol.34, No. 1, pp. 64- 67. Available from emerald Group of Publishing Limited.
[Accessed 28 June 2012]

Internet sources

Holland (1997) Agrarian reform [online]. Bourn Mouth University. Available from
http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk
[Accessed 24 July 2001]

Practical Exercises on Citation

Which of the following statements are correct? Choose as many answers as you think are
correct. Where are the statements?

Choose 3 of the following options.

There is only one system of writing references.
There are several systems of writing references.
The Harvard system is a commonly used system of referencing.
Using a known referencing system prevents a reader from tracing the original item.
A bibliography is important as you must give credit to other people's work and thoughts.

2) According to the Harvard system, what is the correct order of information for citing a
book? Choose one answer only.

One answer only.

Book title and subtitle; Author or editor; Edition; Place of Publication; Publisher; Date
Author or editor; Book title and subtitle; Edition; Place of publication; Publisher; Date
Author or editor; Date; Book title and subtitle; Edition; Place of publication; Publisher
3) You use the abbreviation et al. when there are more than how many authors? Choose
one answer only.

One answer only.

1 author
2 authors
3 authors

4) What does the abbreviation ibid. mean? Choose one answer only. Where are the
options?

One answer only.

See below - (that is, it refers to something later on in the work)

The same - (used instead of an author's name, when quoting two separate references by
the same author in one citation)
In the same place - (the same place as the previous reference by that same author)

5) If one is citing an electronic source, one needs to give the

Accessed date. What does this mean? Choose one answer only.

One answer only.

The date that the information was published.

The date that the information was last updated.
The date you looked up/downloaded the information.

6) In which of the following cases could you be accused of plagiarism if one does not
refer to one’s source?

Choose 3 of the following options.

Give your own opinion?? Or Gives one’s own opinion??

Make a direct quotation from a book
State a fact
Paraphrase another person's ideas
Use information found on the Internet
7) Below is a reference to a journal article that is not in Harvard form. Create your
own reference in Harvard style from the example.

Journal Reference

Sibanda, Cephas and Peter Chanakira. International Journal of Environmental Studies.

May 2001 Vol 7 Number 3. Land degradation. Pages 44-48

Book reference

The art of etiquette by Geraldine Wilson published in London by the Institute of

Marketing 1999

8) Create a citation for the following Web Page using the Harvard format

http://www.corpwatch.org/globalization/bretton/index.html Beyond street tactics: tha

anti-corporate globalization movement after Washington.Kenny Bruno, April 17-18,
2000