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of Fire Sciences

The combined effect of epoxy nanocomposites and phosphorus flame retardant

additives on thermal and fire reaction properties of fiber-reinforced composites
Charalampos Katsoulis, Everson Kandare and Baljinder K. Kandola
Journal of Fire Sciences published online 22 February 2011
DOI: 10.1177/0734904111398785

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Article
Journal of Fire Sciences
The combined effect 0(0) 1–23
! The Author(s) 2011

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DOI: 10.1177/0734904111398785
and phosphorus flame jfs.sagepub.com

retardant additives on thermal

and fire reaction properties of
fiber-reinforced composites
Charalampos Katsoulis
Institute for Materials Research and Innovation, University of Bolton, UK

Everson Kandare
Institute for Materials Research and Innovation, University of Bolton, UK; RMIT University, Australia

Baljinder K Kandola
Institute for Materials Research and Innovation, University of Bolton, UK

Abstract
This study investigates the thermal stability of an aerospace grade epoxy resin containing a
silicate-based nanoclay modified by an organophosphorus moiety (vinyl triphenyl
phosphonium bromide; VTP), double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWCNTs) and/or
conventional phosphorus containing flame retardants (FRs) at weight fractions up to 20% using
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). When FR additives (15 wt%) or VTP containing nanoclay
(5 wt%) are used independently, the overall thermal stability enhancement of the epoxy resin
follows the order; ammonium polyphosphate (APP) > nanoclay VTP > resorcinol bis-(diphenyl
phosphate) (RDP) > tris-(tribromoneopentyl) phosphate (TBP). The addition of DWCNTs
alone did not significantly alter the thermal stability of the epoxy resin matrix. The
concomitant addition of VTP together with RDP, APP, and TBP at a cumulative weight fraction
of 20% led to synergistic improvements in the thermal stability of the resin. The fire reaction
properties of the glass fiber-reinforced laminates prepared from modified resin formulations were
measured under cone calorimetry conditions at an incident heat flux of 50 kW/m2. The addition
of conventional FRs with or without the nanoclay significantly reduced the peak value heat release
rate and total heat release relative to the control sample. DWCNTs alone did not show a
significant effect on the fire reaction properties of the epoxy resin composites. The burning
behavior of the flame-retarded samples as evaluated by cone calorimetry correlated very well

Corresponding author:
Baljinder K Kandola, Institute for Materials Research and Innovation, University of Bolton, UK
Email: b.kandola@bolton.ac.uk

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2 Journal of Fire Sciences 0(0)

with TGA and differential thermal analysis (DTA) data. The depolymerization intensity as
measured from DTA data agreed with PHRR from cone calorimetry while the TTI showed a
direct correlation to the onset of thermal degradation as determined from TGA data. According
to a fire risk assessment based on cone calorimetry data, nanocomposites containing APP
achieved the highest fire safety rating.

Keywords
flame-retarded composites, thermal stability, fire reaction properties, fire safety rating

Introduction
Since the 1990s, polymer nanocomposites obtained by the addition of nanoparticles such as
organoclays, nano-silica and carbon-based nanotubes into polymers have attracted
considerable interest due to their ability to improve the physical and mechanical
properties of polymeric materials while also enhancing their thermal stability and fire
reaction properties.1–11 It is, however, now well accepted by the fire science community
that while the nanoparticles enhance the thermal stability and hence, reduce the
flammability of the polymers to a certain extent, on their own they are not effective
enough to enable the polymers to pass stringent fire tests for legislative requirements,
including commercial quality control fire tests such as the UL-94.12 With relevance to this
study, in our recent publication we investigated the effect of different organically modified
layered silicate nanoclays, nano-silica and double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWCNTs) on
the thermal stability and fire reaction properties of two aerospace grade epoxy resins of
different functionalities (tetra- and bi-functional).13 While all nanoparticles but DWCNTs
improved the thermal stability of both resins and showed fairly good cone calorimetric
results, the effect was not so pronounced. Moreover, only one nanoclay containing the
phosphorus element in the organic modifier (5 wt%), DWCNTs (0.5 wt%), and nanosilica
(30 wt%) resulted in the tetra-functional epoxy resin achieving a V-1 rating in UL-94 test.
None of the nanoparticles were effective in improving the fire behavior of the bi-functional
epoxy resin, which did not achieve any UL-94 rating.13 It is widely known that nanoparticles
in presence of conventional fire retardant chemical additives containing phosphorus,
nitrogen and halogens can have a synergistic effect in reducing the flammability of
polymer-based materials.12,14,15 Previous research in our laboratories16 has also shown
that the addition of octadecyl ammonium ion-modified montmorillonite clay, Nanomer
I.30EÕ , and a conventional flame retardant (FR) resorcinol bis-(diphenyl phosphate)
(RDP), in an epoxy resin tetraglycidyl-4,40 -diaminodiphenylmethane, at certain loading
fractions leads to improvements in the thermal stability and fire reaction properties of
that resin matrix.
The addition of two or more additives to the resin matrix at the same time may lead to
antagonistic or synergistic interactions between the composite constituent components
which may have either detrimental or beneficial effects, respectively. Phosphorus-
containing conventional FRs are active in the condensed phase wherein they decompose
to form polyphosphoric acids, which are known to promote char formation. On the other
hand, the thermal exposure of silicate-based clays may lead to the formation of a thermally
insulative glassy surface char that act as a physical barrier inhibiting heat and mass transfer

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Katsoulis et al. 3

to the pyrolysis zone therefore slowing down the depolymerization process. Hsiue et al.17
demonstrated synergistic interactions between silica and phosphorus additives in improving
the thermal behavior of thermosetting resins. They attributed the improvement in the
thermal stability to a possible migration of silica to the surface of the charring material
effectively trapping the phosphorus in the condensed phase where it reacts to form
by-products that slow down char oxidation. Similar improvements in the thermal stability
and fire performance were also observed in our laboratories when VTP was used together
with conventional FRs in an unsaturated polyester matrix.18
In this study, the combined effect of nanoclay, VTP, or DWCNTs, and conventional FRs
on the thermal and fire properties of glass fiber-reinforced epoxy laminates was evaluated.
FRs were chosen which contain (i) phosphorus RDP, (ii) phosphorus and nitrogen
(ammonium polyphosphate; APP), and (iii) and phosphorus together with bromine
(tris-(tribromoneopentyl) phosphate; TBP). All the FRs used in this study contain
phosphorus which is effective in promoting char formation in the condensed phase. The
combination of silica-based nanoclay, VTP, and phosphorus-containing additives is
envizaged to result in interactive or synergistic physical interactions with possible
improvements in the flame retardation mechanisms. During pyrolysis, the polymer matrix
burns away leaving behind the aluminosilicate clay, which forms thermally insulative layer.
The formation of a physical char barrier traps phosphorus and its derivatives in the
condensed phase where they react with polymer radicals effectively enhancing thermal
stability and fire reaction properties of the polymer nanocomposites. For the same reason
that nanoclays may show synergistic physical interactions with conventional FRs, carbon
nanotubes were also added to the resin matrix together with APP. In addition, this study
explored and successfully demonstrated the feasibility of producing advanced fiber-
reinforced epoxy resin composites with enhanced thermal stability and fire reaction
properties.

Experimental
Materials
A low-viscosity and room temperature curing base epoxy resin containing 1,4-butanediol
diglycidylether, (Araldite LY5052) and a hardener based on modified cycloaliphatic amines
(HY5052) (Huntsman Corporation, Switzerland); vinyl triphenyl phosphonium bromide
(VTP) nanoclay, a result of organic-based quaternary ammonium salt modification of
CloisiteÕ Naþ (A sodium salt of VTP was dissolved in 500 mL of water to which 25 g of
CloisiteÕ Naþ was added followed by mechanical stirring at room temperature for 6 h. The
resultant modified clay was collected via filtration, washed and extracted with ethanol. The
clay was dried under vacuum for 24 h at 120 C and finally ground into a fine powder);
DWCNTs (Nanocyl, Belgium); RDP (Chemtura, UK); APP (Rhodia, UK); TBP (DSBG,
Israel) and woven roving E-glass fiber (300 g/cm3) (Glasplies, UK) were used in this study.

Preparation of epoxy resin formulations

Pre-determined mass fractions of FRs (15 wt%), VTP nanoclay (5 wt%) and carbon
nanotubes (0.5 wt%) were gradually added to the resin/hardener (LY5052/HY5052)
mixture, while stirring with a mechanical mixer under high shear (900 rpm) for 30 min at
room temperature. Air bubbles were removed by degassing in a vacuum oven at room

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4 Journal of Fire Sciences 0(0)

temperature (22 C). The control sample (unmodified epoxy resin) was prepared using the
same methodology with the exception of additive inclusions. Small amounts of samples were
taken from the mixture for simultaneous DTA–TGA analysis before using the rest for
making laminates. The percentages of various components in the formulations are given
in Table 1. The samples are identified as LY followed by the identity and the mass
percentages of respective additives. For example, a sample containing the epoxy resin,
RDP and VTP is identified as LY–RDP–VTP.

Preparation of fiber-reinforced epoxy composites

Glass fiber-reinforced epoxy composites with/without additives were fabricated via a wet lay-
up method. Woven roving glass fabric layers were impregnated by an appropriate amount of
the resin mixtures given in Table 1 to achieve composites containing 50 wt% of the
reinforcement; i.e., 1 : 1 matrix to reinforcement weight ratio. In order to achieve
composites with a desired thickness of approximately 3 mm, eight layers of glass
fabric were stacked upon each other. The composite lay-up was sealed in a vacuum
bag and cured at 80 C for 7 h under an applied pressure of 1 bar. The glass fiber-
reinforced epoxy composites are identified in a similar manner to the cast resin laminates;
i.e., a sample containing fiber-reinforcement, epoxy resin, RDP and VTP is identified as
GF–RDP–VTP.

Thermogravimetric and differential thermal analysis of cast resin formulations

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential thermal analysis (DTA) of epoxy
formulations were performed on an SDT 2960 simultaneous DTA–TGA instrument in the
temperature range 30–800 C using 15  1 mg samples heated at a constant rate of 10 C/min
in flowing air (100  5 mL/min). The experiments were performed in triplicates and showed
good reproducibility. Averaged data are presented.

Table 1. Compositions of epoxy resin formulations

Mass fractions (%)

Sample Epoxy FR Nanoclay DWCNTs

LY 100 0 0 0
LY–VTP 95 0 5 0
LY–RDP 85 15 0 0
LY–APP 85 15 0 0
LY–TBP 85 15 0 0
LY–VTP–RDP 80 15 5 0
LY–VTP–APP 80 15 5 0
LY–VTP–TBP 80 15 5 0
LY–DWCNT 99.5 0 0 0.5
LY–DWCNT–APP 84.5 15 0 0.5

The glass fiber-reinforced composites contain 50 wt% of the reinforcement and an equal mass fraction of the resin matrix.

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Katsoulis et al. 5

Cone calorimetry measurements

A cone calorimeter (Fire Testing Technology Ltd, UK) was used to measure the
flammability parameters of the flame-retarded fiber-reinforced epoxy composites.
Composite panels measuring 75  75 mm2 with an average thickness of approximately
3 mm were fire tested in the horizontal mode with an ignition source at applied heat fluxes
of 50 kW/m2. Before testing, the bottom surface and the edges of the samples were wrapped
with aluminium foil to achieve standard boundary conditions. A minimum of three tests
were performed for each formulation. The limitation in the quantity of materials available
led to the use of specimens reduced in size rather than using the normal 100  100 mm2 sizes
as outlined in ISO 5660 and ASTM E 1354. Previously in our laboratories, it was noted that
the use of 75  75 mm2 gave similar relative trends to those observed using 100  100 mm2
specimens.19 Moreover, all samples are compared with a control sample with the same
geometrical dimensions.

Results and discussion

Thermal analysis
In our previous publication,13 we reported the effect of three silicate-based organoclays
(octadecyl ammonium ion-modified montmorillonite clay (Nanomer I.30E); alkyl
quaternary ammonium modified montmorillonite (CloisiteÕ 30B); VTP clay) on the
thermal stability and fire reaction properties of the same epoxy resin matrix utilized in
this study using TGA, cone calorimetry, limiting oxygen index and UL-94 techniques.
While all polymer nanocomposites exhibited the same microstructure (intercalated), VTP
was found to be the most effective nanoclay with respect to improvements observed in
the thermal and fire reaction properties of this resin. VTP was therefore, for this reason,
chosen as the organoclay to be used in a study investigating the combined effect of
nanoclays and conventional FRs on the thermal and fire reaction properties of resin
formulations and glass fiber-reinforced epoxy composites. While DWCNTs were poorly
dispersed in the resin, they were chosen herein to see whether they would improve the
performance of glass fiber-reinforced laminates, as seen with cast resin formulations
containing these nanoparticulate inclusions, which achieved the V-1 UL-94 rating.13
As mentioned earlier, we also explored combining a silicate-based nanoclay (Nanomer
I.30E) with different concentrations of a conventional FR, RDP, in a high-temperature
curing tetra-functional epoxy resin and it was observed that the addition of 5 wt%
nanoclay and 15 wt% RDP gave the best fire reaction properties.16 Hence, in this
study, resin formulations containing a combination of VTP (5 wt%) together with
conventional FRs (RDP, APP, and TBP) at 15 wt% were analyzed via TGA.
Furthermore, a sample containing APP (15 wt%) and DWCNTs (0.5 wt%) was
prepared in order to evaluate the effectiveness of carbon nanotubes when used in
combination with a conventional FR that contains phosphorus. The overall thermal
stabilities of the samples containing two additives were compared against those of the
samples in which the same additives were used independently. Thermal stability term
used in this article refers to the ability of a polymeric material to withstand elevated
temperature exposure without significant mass loss due to the degradation of the polymer
or additive chemicals.

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6 Journal of Fire Sciences 0(0)

Effect of RDP and/or VTP on thermal stability of epoxy resin. Figure 1(a) shows the mass
loss profile of the unmodified resin together with those of composites containing VTP and/or
RDP. The thermal degradation of the unmodified resin occurs primarily over three physical
stages as described in our preceding publication:13

. first, a dehydration stage (30350 C) in which up to 8% mass loss is observed;

. second, a rapid thermal degradation stage (350475 C) leading to a 55% mass loss which
is attributed to the depolymerization of the polymeric chains to form a primary
carbonaceous char; and,
. third, a char oxidation stage (475650 C) amounting to 37% mass loss leaving negligible
residual char at 800 C.

The addition of RDP to the epoxy resin leads to a significant reduction in the onset of
thermal degradation; i.e., T10, which is defined as the temperature at which 10% of the
original mass of the sample has been lost, is 356 C for the unmodified resin and 301 C
for LY–RDP, Table 2. The thermal stability of the epoxy resin is compromised at low
temperatures by the addition of RDP. Phosphorus-based molecular groups in RDP have
a lower thermal stability when compared to the epoxy resin hence they decompose at

(a)100 (b)100
LY LY
LY-VTP LY-VTP
80 LY-RDP 80
LY-APP
LY-VTP-RDP LY-VTP-APP

60
Mass (%)

60
Mass (%)

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
(c)100 (d)100
LY LY
LY-VTP LY-APP
80 LY-TBP 80 LY-DWCNT
LY-VTP-TBP LY-APP-DWCNT

60 60
Mass (%)

Mass (%)

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 1. TGA mass loss-temperature profiles of all resin composite formulations

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 Katsoulis et al.

Table 2. TGA–DTA data for cast epoxy resin composites

DTA 1st DTA 2nd DTA 3rd

exotherm exotherm exotherm

*Temperature *Temperature *Temperature

T10
T10 Char at Temperature ( C): (Intensity) Temperature ( C): (Intensity) Temperature ( C): (Intensity)
Sample ( C) ( C) 800 C (%) range ( C) ( C/mg) Range ( C) ( C/mg) Range ( C) ( C/mg)

150–485 393,460: (3,6) 485–610 543: (12)

LY–VTP 354 3 3 150–450 400: (4) 450–630 540: (13)
LY–RDP 301 56 0 150–380 363: (1) 363–640 547: (6) 640–750 730: (2)
LY–APP 309 47 0 150–400 340: (1) 400–620 530: (3) 620–750 740: (3)
LY–TBP 274 83 0 150–370 305: (1) 370–645 526: (8)
LY–VTP–RDP 300 57 8 150–410 362: (1) 362–750 555: (6)
LY–VTP–APP 309 48 13 150–385 340: (1) 385–610 500: (4) 610–750 705: (2)
LY–VTP–TBP 288 69 4 150–375 305: (2) 375–680 547: (7)
LY–DWCNT 349 8 0 150–485 415,468: (6,7) 485–615 542: (15)

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LY–DWCNT–APP 317 39 1 150–400 340: (1) 400–620 486,530: (4,3) 620–750 734: (3)

*The temperature corresponding to the centre of a peak.

7
8 Journal of Fire Sciences 0(0)

relatively lower temperatures than the later. The decomposition of RDP, however, leads to
the formation of solid phase by-products (polyphosphoric acid) which promote char
formation therefore enhancing the thermal stability of the polymer composite at higher
temperatures, (475 C). When VTP was used alone at a loading fraction of 5 wt%, it
enhanced the thermal stability of LY at temperatures above 400 C. When RDP is used
together with VTP there is a slight shift in degradation temperatures to higher values.
A more direct comparison of these two samples with respect to thermal stability
in accordance with measured mass retention is illustrated in mass difference curves,
Figure 2(a). Mass difference curves were constructed by subtracting the mass percentage
of the unmodified resin from that of the modified resin composite and plotting the resultant
values against the thermal degradation temperatures. The char enhancement effects of RDP
alone (LY–RDP) or when used together with VTP (LY–VTP–RDP) at temperatures above
400 C are obvious.
DTA data can be used to establish mechanisms of interaction between different
components in the modified resin formulation. The DTA profiles of the samples
containing RDP and/or VTP are shown together with that of the unmodified epoxy resin

(a) 20
(b)
30
LY–VTP LY–VTP
10 LY–RDP LY–APP
LY–VTP–RDP LY–VTP–APP
20

0
Δ Mass (% )

Δ Mass (% )

10

–10
0

–20
–10

–30 –20

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

(c) 10 (d) 20
LY–APP
0 LY–DWCNT
10 LY–APP–DWCNT
LY–VTP
LY–TBP
–10 LY–VTP–TBP
Δ Mass (% )

Δ Mass (%)

–20

–10
–30

–40 –20

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 2. TGA mass difference-temperature profiles of all resin composite formulations

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Katsoulis et al. 9

in Figure 3(a). The DTA curve of the unmodified epoxy resin features a broad exothermic
peak between 150 C and 485 C with spikes at 393 C and 460 C (Table 2). This event is
consistent with the decomposition of the epoxy chains to form a primary carbonaceous char.
A more pronounced exothermic peak is observed between 485 C and 610 C with the
maximum intensity occurring at 543 C. This feature corresponds to the oxidation of the
primary carbonaceous char to leave a negligible char residue. The addition of VTP or RDP
leads to a reduction in DTA response of the epoxy resin at temperatures between 300 C and
550 C indicating a retardation of the exothermic process responsible for that feature. This
DTA observation corresponds to a reduction in mass loss as seen in Figure 2(a) over the
same temperature range confirming the slowing down of resin depolymerization.
Concomitant inclusion of RDP and VTP causes the main decomposition peak to slightly
shift towards higher temperatures (543–555 C) suggesting a delay in the depolymerization
process and/or an improvement in stable char formation.

Effect of APP and/or VTP on thermal stability of epoxy resin. TGA mass loss profiles of
the unmodified resin and those of its composites containing VTP and/or APP are shown in
Figure 1(b). When APP is used alone, the onset temperature of thermal degradation, T10, is
reduced by up to 47 C with reference to the unmodified epoxy sample. From literature,18

(a)
14
(b)
14
Temperature difference (mg/ C)
o

Temperature difference (mg/ C)

12
o

12
10
10
8
8
6
6
4
LY
4
LY-VTP LY
2 LY-RDP LY-VTP
LY-VTP-RDP 2 LY-APP
LY-VTP-APP
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0
Temperature (°C) 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature (°C)
(c) 14 (d) 16
Temperature difference (mg/ C)

Temperature difference (mg/ C)

o

12 14

12
10

10
8
8
6
6
4
LY 4 LY
LY-VTP LY-APP
2 LY-TBP LY-DWCNT
LY-VTP-TBP
2
LY-APP-DWCNT
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 3. DTA profiles of all resin composite formulations

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10 Journal of Fire Sciences 0(0)

APP begins to decompose at temperatures below 300 C to form polyphosphoric acid with
the release of ammonia. As a result, polyphosphoric acid catalyzes the dehydration process
of the epoxy network promoting the formation of unsaturated compounds with subsequent
charring. The addition of APP significantly increases char formation at temperatures above
500 C as clearly seen in the mass difference curve in Figure 2(b). When APP is used in
conjunction with VTP, there is a significant shift in the thermal degradation temperatures
to higher values. This observation may suggest a synergistic interaction between elements
and/molecules of APP, VTP and their degradation products leading to the enhancement in
char formation. Similar synergistic interactions between phosphorus and silica were
observed by Hsiue et al.17 as already mentioned and discussed in the introduction section.
The same effect following the addition of nanoclay and APP has previously been observed in
our laboratories albeit for unsaturated polyester resin composites.18
The DTA profiles of the samples containing APP and/or VTP together with that of the
unmodified epoxy resin are shown in Figure 3(b). The profiles suggest that the addition of
APP alone or together with VTP reduces the rate and extent of thermal degradation of the
epoxy resin. A reduction in intensity of the main exothermic peak intensity by up to 9 C/mg
units over the temperature range 350590 C suggests that the presence of APP alone or
together with VTP significantly alters the degradation pathway of the epoxy matrix with
char formation being the favored pathway. In addition, a third exothermic event is recorded
between 620 C and 750 C for the sample containing APP alone (LY–APP). This feature
suggests further oxidation of the secondary char previously formed during the main
decomposition stage leading to negligible or little char remaining at 800 C as seen in
Figure 2(b).

Effect of TBP and/or VTP on thermal stability of epoxy resin. Figure 1(c) shows the TGA
mass profile of the control sample together with those for composites containing the FR
additive tris-tribromoneopentyl phosphate (TBP) and/or VTP. A significant reduction in the
onset of thermal degradation is observed (T10 ¼ 274 C), suggesting an adverse effect of TBP
on the thermal stability of the epoxy resin. This phenomenon was observed when RDP and
APP were added to the epoxy resin, however, in the case of LY–TBP; the destabilization
effect is more pronounced and occurs over a wider temperature range, up to 560 C. The
mass difference curves shown in Figure 2(c) reveal that the addition of TBP alone or together
with VTP compromises the overall thermal stability of the epoxy resin and does not promote
char formation at temperatures below 485 C. This behavior is attributed to the presence of
bromine (Br) groups that tend to initiate radical chain reactions causing premature
decomposition to form hydrogen bromides (HBr). As it is well known, bromine is
effective only in the gaseous phase, hence will not improve char formation or inhibit
oxidation of the final residual char.20 The effectiveness of halogenated FRs can better be
evaluated by studying the fire reaction properties under flaming and combustion
environments such as cone calorimetry.
The DTA profiles of samples containing TBP and/or VTP are compared with that of the
control sample, LY in Figure 3(c). The addition of TBP alone or together with VTP leads to
a shift in the position of the first DTA spike observed for the unmodified resin from 393 C to
305 C. This observation corroborate the premature thermal degradation revealed by the
TGA mass loss profiles and mass difference curves in Figures 1(c) and 2(c). The intensity
of the second and most pronounced exothermic peak corresponding to the main degradation
process of the epoxy matrix is reduced in the presence of TBP alone (12 C/mg to 8 C/mg) or

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Katsoulis et al. 11

when TBP is used together with VTP (12 C/mg to 7 C/mg). Halogenated FRs are most
effective in the gaseous phase where they reduce the burning efficiency of the combustible
volatiles hence they are not expected to promote char formation.

Effect of DWCNT and/or APP on thermal stability of epoxy resin. The TGA mass loss
profiles of the unmodified resin together with those of its composites containing APP and/or
DWCNTs are shown in Figure 1(d). DWCNTs alone do not have any significant effect on
the thermal stability of the epoxy resin as can be seen from the mass difference curve in
Figure 2(d). Various reasons as to why DWCNTs may not have significant effects on the
thermal degradation of LY including poor nanoparticulate dispersion in the matrix were
discussed in detail in a separate publication.13 Simultaneous addition of APP and DWCNTs
does not significantly alter the thermal degradation behavior of LY–APP. The mass
difference profiles of these samples are superimposed for the whole thermal degradation
temperature range (Figure 2(d)). Thus, the physical and chemical properties of DWCNTs
alone or in combination with APP have no significant effect on the thermal degradation
pathway of this epoxy resin under investigation.
The DTA profiles of the samples containing APP and/or DWCNT are shown together
with that of the unmodified epoxy resin in Figure 3(d). Although TGA mass loss profiles
show that DWCNTs have no effect on the thermal stability of the resin, the DTA graph
suggests otherwise. There are no significant differences in the intensities of DTA profiles of
the unmodified epoxy resin and LY–DWCNT suggesting similarities in the degradation
mechanisms of the two samples. The DTA profile of LY–DWCNT–APP is similar to that
of LY–APP suggesting that there may not be any physical or chemical interactions between
DWCNTs and APP which would have otherwise led to significant changes in the
degradation pathway of the epoxy resin. As already discussed for LY–APP, the presence
of APP in LY–DWCNT–APP also leads to the emergence of a third exothermic peak in the
DTA profile. This is attributed to the oxidation of secondary char formed during the main
decomposition stage.

Overall thermal stabilization effect of additives on the epoxy resin. Different additives
have different effects on the thermal degradation of the epoxy resin matrix at different
temperatures. To quantitatively describe the overall thermal stability of the epoxy
composites, it is important to define a thermal analysis parameter that captures both the
destabilization and stabilization magnitudes. Thus, the overall stabilization effect (OSE) for
epoxy composites was calculated via integration of the area under the mass difference versus
temperature curves shown in Figure 2:
X
800  
OSE ¼ ðmass percent of nanocompositeT Þ  ðmass percent of neat epoxyT Þ ð1Þ
T¼30

where T is the degradation temperature. Negative OSE values indicate an overall

thermal destabilization while the opposite is true for positive OSE values. The magnitudes
of the OSE values define the extent of a reduction or enhancement in the thermal stability of
the base resin. The OSE values calculated for epoxy resin composites investigated are
presented in Figure 4. When conventional FRs alone were added to the epoxy resin
matrix at 15 wt%, APP gave the most overall improvement in thermal stability giving
an OSE value of 5905%. The addition of APP alone significantly enhances the thermal

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12 Journal of Fire Sciences 0(0)

25000

Overall thermal stabilisation effect (%)

20000

LY–APP–DWCNT
LY–VTP–RDP
15000

LY–APP
10000

LY–VTP–TBP

LY–DWCNT
LY–VTP

LY–RDP

LY–TBP
5000

LY–VTP–APP
–5000

–10000

–15000

Figure 4. The OSE for all composite formulations

stability of the epoxy resin over a wider temperature range especially at elevated
temperatures. The halogenated FR, TBP had the most deleterious effect on the thermal
stability of the epoxy resin giving an overall thermal destabilization value of 10933%.
Similarly, DWCNTs had a negative impact on the thermal stability of the base resin
albeit at a less profound level. VTP (2908%) and RDP (1930%) when used independently
showed moderate overall improvements in the thermal stability of the resultant composite
over the temperature range investigated. The simultaneous addition of VTP with
conventional FR RDP resulted in more than additive (synergistic) effect on overall
thermal stability of the epoxy resin. A measured OSE value of 6809 is higher than the
calculated value of 4813 suggesting synergistic interactions between degradation products
of VTP and RDP.
When APP is used together with VTP, the thermal stability of the resin is improved even
further. An OSE value of 22,970 which is almost three times higher than the value that would
have been obtained if the thermal stabilization effects of APP and VTP were additive is
calculated from the mass difference data for LY–VTP–APP. This observation suggests
possible synergistic interactions between the by-products of thermal degradation of the
resin and the two additives. Bourbigot et al.21 reported similar observations and proposed
plausible flame retardancy mechanisms following the addition of conventional FRs to
polymer matrices in the presence of nanoclays. The presence of VTP clay in the polymer
nanocomposite promotes the formation of a stable and thermally insulative surface char at
elevated temperatures which acts to protect underlying material.17 The combination of VTP
and TBP resulted in an OSE value (5658) higher than that calculated from the summation
of OSE values for LY–VTP and LY–TBP (8025%). Possible synergistic interactions
between the constituent components are implicated for this observation. On the other
hand, the combination of APP and DWCNTs led to a reduction in the overall thermal
stability of the epoxy resin suggesting possible antagonistic interactions in this
formulation. An OSE value of 5022% was calculated for LY–APP–DWCNT while the
summation of respective OSE values for LY–APP and LY–DWCNT yield a higher OSE
value of 6932%.

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Katsoulis et al. 13

Fire reaction properties of glass fiber-reinforced composites at 50 kW/m2

To fabricate structural composites, reinforcement fibers or fabrics are impregnated with
epoxy resins. These fiber-reinforced composites, when used in fire prone environments,
have to pass the fire safety regulations which include meeting allowable requirements such
as the time to self-sustained ignition (TTI), the heat release rate (HRR) and its peak value
heat release rate (PHRR), the total heat release (THR), and the amount of smoke generated.
The fire reaction properties of glass fiber-reinforced composites fabricated using the flame-
retarded resin mixtures discussed above were assessed using a cone calorimetry operating in
the horizontal mode at an incident heat flux of 50 kW/m2. An incident heat flux of 50 kW/m2
was chosen in order to simulate a typical room fire wherein the surface temperature of the
composite member structure can reach temperatures as high as 700 C.

Fire reaction properties of epoxy nanocomposites containing RDP and/or VTP. The HRR
and mass profiles as a function of exposure time for the composites prepared with
unmodified resin (control sample, GF) and resin containing VTP and/or RDP are shown
in Figure 5 while the extracted data is presented in Table 3. The PHRR of the GF–VTP
composite (571 kW/m2) is 20% lower than the same value measured for the unmodified resin
(713 kW/m2), Figure 5(a). The addition of VTP alone increases the TTI from 47 to 52 s and
reduces the total heat release by 15% from 40 to 34 kW/m2. On the other hand, the peak
HRR value for the sample containing 15 wt% RDP (GF–RDP) is reduced by 34% relative
to the control sample (Figure 5(a)). The reduction in the PHRR value correlates very well
with a significant reduction in the intensity of the exothermic feature attributed to the main
decomposition stage from DTA data (Figure 3(a)). If the addition of RDP promotes char
formation, this may retard polymer chain scission, hence the amount of combustible
volatiles produced from GF–RDP.
GF–RDP ignites earlier (36 s) than the control (47 s) probably due to the fact that the
RDP molecules in the resin mixture volatilize at lower temperatures causing the critical mass
flux to be reached much quicker hence premature self-sustained ignition. The same
phenomenon was observed in the TGA of LY–RDP, where its thermal stability was
compromised at low temperatures possibly due to volatilization of RDP. The initial
accelerated decomposition of RDP is, however, essential in the condensed phase flame
retardation mechanism for phosphorus containing additives as it leads to the formation of
phosphoric acids which then act to promote char formation. The char formed then acts as
a thermal and physical barrier protecting the underlying polymer material from the
flaming combustion at the exposed surface of the sample resulting in a higher residual
char (Figure 5(b)). A 15% reduction in the THR as well as a reduction in the average
mass loss rate (AMLR) relative to the control was observed for GF–RDP. While the
addition of RDP to some improvements in the fire reaction parameters, these data as
derived from cone calorimetry raw measurements cannot be used to define the overall fire
performance of the composite. From this viewpoint, the fire growth index (FIGRA) defined
as a ratio of PHRR to the time it takes to reach that event is often used to qualify fire
reaction properties of different materials. FIGRA gives an indication of the burning
propensity of a material; i.e., a low FIGRA value suggests improved fire performance
with respect to a time event of the fire intensity reaching the peak value. The FIGRA
value of GF–RDP is reduced by about 25% relative to the control because of respective
reductions in the PHRR and the time to reach that value.

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14 Journal of Fire Sciences 0(0)

(a) 750

Heat release rate (kW /m ) 600

2

450

300

GF
150 GF-VTP
GF-RDP
GF-VTP-RDP

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s)
(b) 100

90

80
Mass (%)

70
GF
GF-VTP
GF-RDP
GF-VTP-RDP
60

50
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s)
Figure 5. The (a) HRR and (b) mass profiles for GF, GF–VTP, GF–RDP, and GF–VTP–RDP at 50 kW/m2,
respectively

The combination of RDP and VTP clay in GF–VTP–RDP leads to significant reductions
in the PHRR (39%), the THR (15%), and the TTI (from 47 to 30 s). From TGA, the
concomitant presence of VTP and RDP in an epoxy resin matrix led to a retardation of
the main decomposition process (see DTA profile in Figure 3(a)) leading to substantial

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Katsoulis et al. 15

Table 3. Cone calorimeter data for glass fiber-reinforced composites at 50 kW/m2

TTI PHRR (kW/m2) tPHRR FIGRA (kW/sm2) THR (MJ/kg) EHC AMLR CY
Sample (s) (% reduction) (s) (% reduction) (% reduction) (MJ/kg) (g/sm2) (%)

GF 47 713 94 8 (–) 40 23 15 54
GF–VTP 52 571 (20) 94 6 (25) 34 (15) 22 13 56
GF–RDP 36 474 (34) 84 6 (25) 34 (15) 20 12 55
GF–APP 34 190 (73) 56 3 (63) 32 (20) 20 5 61
GF–TBP 29 493 (31) 76 6 (25) 27 (33) 15 15 53
GF–VTP–RDP 30 440 (39) 82 5 (37) 34 (15) 20 12 56
GF–VTP–APP 35 262 (63) 98 2 (75) 32 (20) 20 5 63
GF–VTP–TBP 32 586 (18) 78 7 (13) 30 (25) 16 15 54
GF–DWCNT 44 682 (5) 94 7 (13) 40 (0) 23 14 56
GF–DWCNT–APP 26 230 (68) 116 2 (75) 30 (25) 20 5 61

increase in residual char at elevated temperatures. A synergistic interaction between VTP,

RDP, the epoxy resin, and their degradation products including polyphosphoric acids and
silicate platelets was postulated as leading to the formation of a stable char. The
enhancement in char formation at the end of the flaming combustion process is not
observed when fire reaction properties are measured under cone calorimetry probably due
to differences in the heating rates and atmosphere. However, the reduction in PHRR can be
attributed to a lesser volume of combustible volatiles produced during fire exposure.
All other flammability properties of GF–VTP–RDP such as the FIGRA value, effective
heat of combustion (EHC), AMLR and residual char are similar to those measured for
GF–RDP (Table 3).

Fire reaction properties of epoxy nanocomposites containing APP and/or VTP. The HRR
and mass profiles as a function of exposure time for the unmodified resin and composites
containing VTP and/or APP are shown in Figure 6(a) and derived parameters are given in
Table 3. The addition of APP alone leads to significant reductions in (i) the TTI (47 to 34 s),
(ii) the PHRR (73%), (iii) the time it takes to reach PHRR (94 to 56 s), and (iv) the total heat
release (20%). The reduction in the PHRR values can also be related to the retardation in
the decomposition process observed from a reduced intensity of the main exothermic peak
when compared to the control (see DTA profiles in Figure 3(b)). The addition of VTP or
APP alone leads to significant reductions in the FIGRA values of 25% and 63%,
respectively. These reductions in the FIGRA values relative to the control sample suggest
significant improvements in the fire reaction properties of the composite following the
addition of VTP or APP with respect to the burning propensity.
The cone calorimetry mass profiles of GF–VTP and GF–APP as a function of exposure
time shown in Figure 6(b) reveal that the addition of VTP or APP promotes stable char
formation during combustion. Phosphorus containing additives have been shown to
promote the formation of a stable char network which in turn slows both heat and mass
transfer into the pyrolysis zone. This proposition is supported by the reduction in the AMLR
following the addition of APP (15 to 4 g/sm2) leading to an eventual increase in residual
char from 54% for the control to 63% for GF–APP. The EHC, however, remains
unchanged with either the addition of VTP (21 MJ/kg) or APP (24 MJ/kg) in comparison

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16 Journal of Fire Sciences 0(0)

(a) 750

Heat release rate (kW /m2) 600

450

300
GF
GF-VTP
GF-APP
150 GF-VTP-APP

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s)
(b) 100

90

80
Mass (%)

GF
GF-VTP
GF-APP
70 GF-VTP-APP

60

50
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s)
Figure 6. The (a) HRR and (b) mass profiles for GF, GF–VTP, GF–APP, and GF–VTP–APP at 50 kW/m2,
respectively

to the control (22 MJ/kg). The combination of APP and VTP in GF–VTP–APP resulted in
slight improvements in some of the fire reaction properties in comparison to data measured
for GF–APP. This observation suggests a similar synergistic effect under these flaming and
combustion conditions as observed from the thermogravimetric studies.

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Katsoulis et al. 17

Fire reaction properties of epoxy nanocomposites containing TBP and/or VTP. The
halogenated FR, TBP acts mainly in the gas phase via the liberation of free Br radicals which
then combine with hydrogen (H) and hydroxyl radicals (OH) produced during the combustion
process, effectively ‘snuffing out’ the flaming combustion process. This flame retardation
mechanism usually leads to reductions in the PHRR and THR. The HRR profiles as a
function of exposure time for the unmodified resin and composites containing VTP and/or
TBP are shown in Figure 7(a) while the mass profiles for these samples are presented in
Figure 7(b). The addition of TBP alone at 15 wt% leads to significant reductions in both the
PHRR (31%) and the THR (33%) values. The TTI is, however, reduced from 47 s for the control
to 29 s for GF–TBP. It has been shown from TGA that the epoxy resin matrix containing the FR,
TBP, has an inferior thermal stability at low temperatures when compared to the unmodified
resin. A significantly reduced PHRR value for GF–TBP which contradicts its DTA behavior
confirms that this particular additive is effective in the gaseous phase. The reduction in PHRR
coupled to a slight reduction in the tPHRR value suggests an improved fire resistance of GF–TBP
relative to the control; i.e., a lower FIGRA value. It is worthy mentioning here that GF–TBP has
one of the lowest EHC values (18 MJ/kg) of samples studied suggesting a less efficient
combustion flaming process which translates to enhanced flame retardancy.22
The cone calorimetry results for GF–TBP–VTP reveal that the combination of TBP and
VTP has little beneficial effect on the flame retardancy of the epoxy when compared to the
sample containing TBP alone. The HRR and mass profiles in Figure 7, show that the flaming
combustion of GF–TBP and GF–VTP–TBP follow a similar pattern with the only notable
difference being a slightly higher PHRR value for the later. The subtle changes in the HRR
profiles may indicate that, in addition to the gas phase mechanism of TBP there is also some
interaction taking place in the condensed phase due to the presence of phosphorus.
In particular, a protective char layer may be formed as a result of the presence of silica in
VTP which may prevent combustible volatiles from being transferred to the pyrolysis zone.
The combined action of both TBP and VTP leads to improved combustion efficiency as
indicated by a very low EHC value (16 MJ/kg) measured for GF–VTP–FR in comparison to
23 MJ/kg measured for the control.

Fire reaction properties of epoxy nanocomposites containing DWCNT and/or APP. The
HRR and mass profiles for GF, GF–APP, GF–DWCNT, and GF–DWCNT–APP as a
function of exposure time are shown in Figure 8. The addition of 0.5 wt% DWCNTs
reduces the PHRR by only 5% but has no effect on the THR suggesting that the amount
of combustible materials burned at the completion of the test is the same as that for the
control composite. The slight reduction in the TTI relative to the control may be attributed
to the increase in the radiation absorbance efficiency and the catalytic action of black carbon
nanotubes.22,23 No significant changes in the rest of the flammability parameters are
observed in comparison to the control composite. The combination of DWCNTs and
APP shows no further improvement in the fire reaction properties when compared to the
composite containing APP alone in the resin formulation (GF–APP). This confirms the
dominant role of APP on the fire performance of the resin and an almost negligible flame
retardation role played by DWCNTs. These results are in agreement with those observed for
an epoxy formulation containing DWCNTs and APP (LY–DWCNT–APP) from the TGA.

Correlation of cone calorimetry to TGA data. Figure 9 shows the variation of TTI at an
incident heat flux of 50 kW/m2 with the onset of thermal degradation temperatures obtained

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18 Journal of Fire Sciences 0(0)

(a) 750

Heat release rate (kW /m2) 600

450

300

GF
150 GF-VTP
GF-TBP
GF-VTP-TBP

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s)
(b) 100

90

80
Mass (%)

70
GF
GF-VTP
GF-TBP
60 GF-VTP-TBP

50
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s)

Figure 7. The (a) HRR and (b) mass profiles for GF, GF–VTP, GF–TBP, and GF–VTP–TBP at 50 kW/m2,
respectively

from thermogravimetric analyzes. There is a linear relationship between TTI and the onset
of thermal degradation temperatures. Following the initial depolymerization, combustible
volatiles accumulate in the headspace and once the critical mass flux is reached, the presence
of a pilot flame will cause self-sustained ignition to occur. From this mathematical
relationship, the ignition behavior of composites in fire can be qualitatively evaluated

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Katsoulis et al. 19

(a) 750

600
Heat release rate (kW/m2)

450

300
GF
GF-APP
GF-DWCNT
GF-APP-DWCNT
150

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s)
(b) 100

90

80
Mass (%)

GF5052
GF-APP
GF-DWCNT
GF-APP-DWCNT
70

60

50
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s)

Figure 8. The (a) HRR and (b) mass profiles for GF, GF–APP, GF–DWCNT, and GF–APP–DWNCT at
50 kW/m2, respectively

from laboratory scale TGA experiments. This could save time and costs associated with
large scale evaluation of new composite materials.

Fire safety rating. The relative overall fire performance of glass fiber-reinforced composites
can be evaluated by plotting the total heat release against the fire growth rate values
calculated by dividing PHRR by TTI. The THR values represent the total heat output
evolved up to a certain point during a fire burn; otherwise known as the fire load. Fire
spread rates on the other hand cannot be determined directly from cone calorimetric data.

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20 Journal of Fire Sciences 0(0)

80

70
Cone calorimetry: 50 kW/m2
Cone calorimetry time-to-ignition (s) 60

50

40

30

20
TGA: Heating rate = 10°C/min
10 Atmosphere = Air
Flow rate = 100 mL/min

0
260 280 300 320 340 360
TGA Onset temperature of degradation (°C)

Figure 9. Cone calorimetry measured TTI vs the TGA measured onset of thermal degradation

GF
40
GF-VTP-RDP
Total heat release (MJ/m2)

GF-VTP-APP

36
GF-DWCNT-APP
Short fire duration

GF-VTP-TBP
GF-DWCNT
GF-RDP
GF-VTP

32
GF-APP

GF-TBP

28

Fire safe
Slow fire growth
24
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

PHRR/TTI (kW/m2s)

Figure 10. A 2-D fire safety risk assessment grid in accordance to a plot of total heat release (fire
duration) and PHRR/TTI (propensity to cause a rapidly growing fire) for fire-retarded composites exposed at
an incident heat flux of 50 kW/m2

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Katsoulis et al. 21

Hence a plot of the total heat released after a complete burn against the ratio PHRR/TTI is
usually used to provide a comprehensive assessment of the fire hazard.24 Fire safe materials will
have low THR and PHRR/TTI values; i.e., these samples should fall close to the coordinates (0;
0) on a 2-D plot. Figure 10 shows a plot of the total heat released on the y-axis and flame spread
on the x-axis. Despite samples GF–TBP and GF–VTP–TBP having some of the lowest THR,
their fire safety rating is relatively lower than that of the control since their fire spread rates
(PHRR/TTI) are significantly larger than calculated for GF. The fire safety ratings of the rest of
the samples are superior to that of the control with samples containing APP the slowest fire
spread rate. GF–APP has a fire growth rate 2.7 times slower than the control and a significantly
reduced flaming time. The concomitant addition of VTP together with APP, however, does not
result in a higher fire safety rating as would have been expected from TGA data. The
interpretation of cone calorimetry data in this manner is crucial in the assessment of fire
performance of polymer composites with respect to fire loads and fire spread.

Conclusions
Low temperature curing epoxy resin composites with/without glass fiber reinforcement
were successfully prepared and investigated under cone calorimetry or TGA conditions,
respectively. While epoxy resin formulations containing RDP, APP and/or a VTP containing
nanoclay had a slightly reduced thermal stability during the early degradation process, they had
a pronounced overall thermal stabilization effect on the matrix over the entire TGA temperature
range. The addition of TBP and DWCNTs had an overall thermal destabilization effect on the
epoxy resin matrix with TBP being the more profound of the two. The simultaneous addition of
the VTP nanoclay together with RDP and APP significantly increased the overall thermal
stability of the epoxy resin. The overall thermal stabilization effect observed with the
combination of VTP and RDP or VTP and APP is more than a mere addition of the
enhancement observed when each component is used independently. This suggests that there
may be synergistic physical and/or chemical interactions that serve to improve the overall
thermal stability of the epoxy resin matrix when the additives are used together. On the other
hand, the addition of TBP and DWCNT compromised the thermal stability of the resin
resulting in a negative overall thermal stability; i.e., there is a net destabilization effect.
Nonetheless, when TBP and DWCNTs are used with APP, there are some significant
improvements in the thermal stability of the composites in comparison to when the additives
are used independently.
Cone calorimetric measurements performed for the glass fiber-reinforced laminates show
that the addition of conventional FRs and/or VTP improves some of the fire reaction
properties of the composites. The PHRRs for all flame-retarded laminates are lower than
that of the control with the exception of GF–VTP. While the TTI is compromised for all
flame-retarded laminates with the exception of GF–VTP, the overall burning propensities of
the composites at an incident heat flux of 50 kW/m2 are generally lower or similar to that the
control. There is a fairly linear correlation between the time-to-ignition and the onset of
thermal degradation as measured by TGA. The strong agreement between TGA and cone
calorimetry data suggests that observations from the former can be used in some case to
predict the fire reaction properties of polymeric materials. The residual char from the cone
calorimetry studies is higher for flame-retarded composites when compared against the
control except for samples containing TBP or DWCNTs and these data are in agreement
with observations made in TGA.

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22 Journal of Fire Sciences 0(0)

Acknowledgments
This research was performed as part of an Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
(EPSRC)-funded PhD program for one of the authors (Charalampos Katsoilis) within the Institute
of Materials Research and Innovation (IMRI) (formerly Centre for Materials Research and
Innovation; CMRI) at the University of Bolton.

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Charalampos Katsoulis Charalampos Katsoulis received his Bachelor of Engineering in

Mechanical Engineering in 2004 from the University of Bolton, Master of Science in
Advanced Technology Management in 2006 from the University of Wolverhampton and,
a PhD in 2010, in the area of flame-retarded composites from the University of Bolton.
During his PhD, Katsoulis explored the use of conventional FRs together with nanoclays

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Katsoulis et al. 23

and carbon nanotubes in order to enhance the fire and thermo-mechanical performance of
fiber-reinforced polymer composites. His other research interests include quality and
environmental management, safety assessment and design for marine and aviation systems.

Everson Kandare Everson Kandare is jointly employed by RMIT University and the
Co-operative Research Centre for Advanced Composite Structures (CRC-ACS) as a
Research Fellow in Composite Materials. Kandare received his PhD in Chemistry from
Marquette University in 2006. Prior to his appointment at RMIT University, Kandare
was a Post-doctoral Research Fellow in Polymer Chemistry in the Centre for Materials
Research and Innovation at the University of Bolton, where he participated in a large
EPSRC-funded project on modeling the structural integrity of flame-retarded composites
simultaneously loaded and exposed to fire. He is the author of more than 50 refereed
publications including journal articles, book chapters, and conference proceedings in areas
of nanostructured materials, polymer nanocomposite thermal degradation, thermal–
mechanical response of composites and aluminium alloys under fire. Kandare has broad
knowledge and research experience in the fabrication of flame-retarded fiber-reinforced
composites, development and application of heat transfer models. He has presented his
work at various international conferences and seminars.

Baljinder K Kandola Baljinder Kandola is a Professor of Materials Fire Science at The

University of Bolton. She has 25 years experience in the area of Fire Science and is
internationally recognized as an expert in FR fiber-reinforced composite materials.
Kandola received her PhD in Chemistry in 1985 in India. She pursued an advanced
research career at the University of Salford before joining University of Bolton in 1992.
Kandola’s work is underpinned by the aim of developing novel FR materials. The major
achievements of Kandola have been the development of novel FR strategies for fiber-
reinforced composites used in aerospace and marine applications. Her recent research
interests include modeling of combustion and mechanical properties of fire-induced
composite materials. An author of over 100 refereed publications, including book
chapters, Kandola has given a number of keynote and invited lectures.

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