Ce121l Fluid Mechanics Laboratory Manual

LABORATORY MANUAL
FLUID MECHANICS
CE121 L
College of Engineering and Architecture
Civil Engineering
TABLE OF CONTENTS
No. Laboratory Exercise Page
1. PRESSURE VARIATION WITH DEPTH 1

2. FALLING SPHERE VISCOMETER 7
3. MEASUREMENTS OF DENSITIES AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY 13
4. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON PLANE SURFACES 23
5. BUOYANCY 30
6. BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION 35
7. FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE WITH CONSTANT HEAD 41
8. TRAJECTORY OF FREE FLOW JETS 46
i
LABORATORY EXERCISE NO. 1
PRESSURE VARIATION WITH DEPTH
CE121 L – Fluid Mechanics Lab

Laboratory Exercise No. 1
INTRODUCTION/THEORY
The static pressure caused by a fluid varies with depth according to: P= ρgh
Where:
P is the pressure in pascals; 1 pascal = 1 newton /meter2
ρ is the density of fluid in kilograms/meter2
g is the gravitational acceleration, 9.81 meters/second2
h is the depth below the surface of the fluid, in meters
In this experiment, the pressure is measured at several depths. Then, to rest the equation above,
pressure is plotted versus depth (pressure on the y-axis, depth on the x-axis) A best linear fit
gives the slope. From the equation, P= ρgh, the slope should equal the product ρg, which
theoretically equals to (1000kg/m3)(9.81m/s2)=9810N/m3)
OBJECTIVES
 To demonstrate the variation of pressure with depth using simple instruments. (CO1,CO2)
 To discuss qualitatively how pressure varies with depth. (CO2,CO4)
CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 2

EXPERIMENT 1-A
Martials and equipment:
Plastic cylinder (a plastic pipe with a rubber stopper), Large glass cylinder, Ruler, 9 small gram
masses (4 pcs of 50gram masses, 5 pcs of 20 gram masses), Vernier caliper , Water.
Procedure:
1. Fill the glass cylinder about half full of water. Float the plastic
cylinder vertically in the water and record the depth of the
bottom of the cylinder (from bottom of cylinder to water level).
2. Add a small gram mass to the floating cylinder and record the
depth of the bottom of the cylinder.
3. Repeat steps 2 until all ten gram masses have been added.
4. Remove the floating cylinder, measure its diameter with a
Vernier caliper, and weigh it (when empty).
5. Make 3 trials for this experiment.

Analysis:
1. From the measurements of step 4 calculate the area of the bottom of the floating cylinder.
2. When the cylinder is floating, from the first condition of equilibrium, the force of the water
pushing up on the bottom of the cylinder must exactly balance the weight of the cylinder
and its contents. Then the pressure at that depth (at the bottom of the cylinder) can be
found from:
Pressure = upward force of water / area of bottom
of cylinder and consequently:
Pressure = weight of cylinder and contents / area of bottom of cylinder
For each amount of added load, calculate total mass, total weight = (mass)(g), and
pressure, and complete the attached table, showing all units.
3. Plot the pressure versus depth, obtain a best linear fit, and from it the slope.
4. Compare the slope with the theoretical value as explained in the introduction.
EXPERIMENT 1-A DATA SHEET
Mass of cylinder: _________ End area of cylinder: _________

Diameter of cylinder: _________
Added Total Mass Load and Total Mass Depth Pressure

Depth (m) Force (N)
Load (g) Cylinder (g) (kg) (cm) (N/m2)
0
50
100
150
200
220
240
260
280
300

EXPERIMENT 1-B
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT:
3 containers with different shape (mineral water bottle, plastic bottle, milk carton, etc.), Rags,
Nail or any pointed material, Ruler, Water
Procedure:
1. Punch holes in side of the container at 5 cm

intervals for the large container and 2 cm intervals
for smaller container. Make sure that there are no
other openings.
2. Fill the container with water and don’t let the water
leak until the level of water passed the last opening.
3. After satisfying a certain level of water, remove the
cover on the openings and observe what happen.
(Note: Take a picture for documentation.)
4. Measure the distance from the container that the water squirts out of each hole.
5. Make 3 trials for every container.
6. Plot a graph of depth (distance of opening from top of water level) versus distance water
squirts from can.
Experiment 1-B Data Sheet
Cross-sectional area of container 1: _________


Depth (cm) Distance of Water Jet (cm)

(measured form top of water level) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Container 1
opening 1
opening 2
opening 3
Container 2
opening 1
opening 2
opening 3
Container 3
opening 1
opening 2
opening 3

FALLING SPHERE VISCOMETER

INTRODUCTION/THEORY
Consider a sphere with diameter d, and specific weight γ, falling at a constant velocity V through
a liquid with viscosity μ, specific weight γl, and density ρ. The forces acting on the sphere are
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Free-body diagram of falling sphere
Note that the expression given in Figure 1 for the drag force is derived from Stoke’s Law and is
valid only for small Reynolds number.
According to Newton’s Second Law (since the sphere is not accelerating):
F=0
FD + FB – W = 0
Algebraic manipulation yields an expression for μ in terms of γs, γl, d and V:
(Equation 1)

Equation 1 is valid for a sphere falling far from a wall. The ‘wall effect’ occurs when the falling
sphere is close to a wall. The ‘wall effect’ affects the sphere when:
(Equation 2)
The observed fall velocity VO must then be corrected using:
(Equation 3)
In this experiment: After measuring the terminal velocity of spheres falling through a fluid, the
viscosity of a liquid will be determined according to equation 1.
OBJECTIVES
 To determine the specific weight and viscosity of certain liquid. (CO2,CO3)
Large cylinder or tube, small cylinder or tube, volumetric container or beaker, Ruler, Vernier
caliper, Thermometer, Tweezers, Stopwatch, 3 Spheres of varying density and/or diameter
(example: marbles with different sizes), Test liquid (dishwashing liquid)

PROCEDURE:
1. Record the temperature of the test liquid.

2. Calculate the specific weight of the liquid by
weighing a known volume.
3. Weigh each sphere and measure its diameter with a
micrometer (to account for out-of-round conditions,
take several measurements at various diameters and
average the result). Calculate the specific weight of
each sphere.
(NOTE: if the specific weight of the sphere is not
greater than that of the liquid, it will float and not
fall, choose another sphere.)
4. Measure and record the inside diameter of the
cylinders/tubes.
Figure 2. Example set-up for
falling sphere viscometer test
5. Measure and record a vertical fall distance on each tube (the distance need not be the
same for each tube) . Use a scribed line or masking tape to locate the distance. There
should be ample liquid above and below the lines so that the sphere will not be influenced
by the bail bucket and to allow the person with the stopwatch an adequate distance to
visually identify the sphere dropping.
6. Drop a sphere into the liquid using the tweezers and time the descent through the
marked distance using the stopwatch. Record the travel time. The sphere should be
dropped just at the fluid level so that the sphere will achieve terminal velocity prior
to the marked distance.
7. When all spheres have been dropped, remove the spheres from the cylinder, cleaning
them thoroughly with towels or rags.
8. Repeat item 6 for each sphere. Make three trials for each sphere.
9. Repeat 6 to 8 for each tube.

ANALYSIS:
1. Calculate the viscosity, μ, for each drop. The consistency of the calculated data indicates
the quality of the observed data.
2. Compare your calculated values of viscosity and specific weight with an authoritative
source.
Unit Test Liquid (___________________________)
Volume
Mass of container
Mass of container + liquid
Mass of liquid
Specific weight
Temperature
Volume Specific Weight [

Sphere No. Sphere Diameter [ ] Mass [ ]
[ ] ]

Time
Tube Sphere Fall Terminal Corrected
Test Sphere of Viscosity
Diameter Diameter Distance Velosity Velosity
Liquid No. Fall [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ]

MEASUREMENTS OF DENSITIES AND
SPECIFIC GRAVITY

MEASUREMENTS OF DENSITIES AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
THEORY
Liquid density is an important characteristic used to provide information concerning

composition, concentration, mass flow in fuels, and caloric content. Density is expressed as mass
per unit volume but is often expressed in terms of specific gravity (SG liquid) . Specific gravity
is a dimensionless unit defined as the ratio of density of the material to the density of water (1
g/cm3) both taken at the same temperature and pressure.
In this experiment, two instruments of measuring specific gravity of liquids will be used, namely,
the hydrometer and U-tube manometer, which will be compared to the conventional method
using the mass-volume ratio.
A hydrometer is an instrument whose function is based on Archimedes principle. This principle

states that a body (the hydrometer) immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the
weight of the displaced fluid. The hydrometer measures the weight of the liquid displaced by the
volume of the hydrometer.
A manometer is a tube containing fluid of known density in which its surface move
proportionally to changes of pressure.
OBJECTIVES
 To determine the specific gravities and densities of certain liquids. (CO1,CO3)

 To determine the discrepancies of the results of the different methods used. (CO3)

EXPERIMENT 3-A
Specific Gravity Determination Using Hydrometer

Hydrometer, Thermometer, 2 Cylinders or tubes, Distilled water Test liquids: dishwashing liquid
and shampoo
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill one cylinder or tube about ¾ of water.
2. Measure the temperature of the water.
3. Insert the hydrometer slowly. Do not drop it in!
4. Give the hydrometer a spin with your thumb and
index finger. This will dislodge any bubbles that may
have formed.
5. Once the hydrometer comes to a rest, observe the
plane of the liquid surface. Your eye must be
horizontal to this plane. Figure 1. How to read correctly
in the hydrometer scale
6. Read the point at which the horizontal line cuts the hydrometer. Check that the scale
marking corresponding to depth of immersion reads 1.00.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 for the different liquids to be tested. The scale reading in the
hydrometer for each liquid will be their specific gravities.

ANALYSIS:
1. From the obtained specific gravity of the test liquids, determine their densities.
2. Compare the calculated densities of all the test liquids to the calculated densities using
the conventional mass-volume ratio.
Experiment 3- A Data Sheet
Liquid Temperature Hydrometer Density Density

(oC) Scale Reading (g/ml) (kg/m3)
Dishwashing
Liquid
Shampoo

EXPERIMENT 3-B
Specific Gravity Determination Using U-tube Manometer

U-tube manometer, Distilled water, Ruler, Test liquids: cooking oil and motor oil
PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare 10 ml of the test liquid and a

quantity of distilled water.
2. Measure the temperatures of distilled
water and the test liquid.
3. Fill the U-tube with distilled water, then a
quantity of oil in the left and right legs as
shown in Figure 2.
4. Number the level in contact (interface) as
shown in the figure.
5. Record the vertical heights (h1, h2, h3) Figure 2. Set-up for the U-tube
manometry of the test liquids
measured.
6. Make 3 trials in each test liquid by varying the heights of h1, h2, and h3
ANALYSIS:
1. Determine the specific gravity of the test liquids. Starting with zero gage pressure head at
top level of h2 as shown in the figure, write the equation of heads in meter of water
progressing through the tube to zero gage head at top level of h1.
2. Compare the calculated densities of the test liquids to the calculated densities using the
conventional mass-volume ratio.

Experiment 3-B Data Sheet
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

Liquid 1 (Cooking oil)
Temp (oC): _______
h1(cm)
h2(cm)
h3(cm)
Liquid 2 (Motor oil)
Temp (oC): _______
h1(cm)
h2(cm)
h3(cm)
Water
Temp (oC): _______

EXPERIMENT 3-C
Density Determination Using Mass-Volume Ratio

Volumetric container or beaker, Digital mass balance, Distilled water
Test liquids: dishwashing liquid, shampoo, cooking oil and motor oil
PROCEDURE:
1. Weigh the empty volumetric container or beaker.

2. Fill a certain amount of water in the container and record its volume.
3. Measure the temperature of the water.
4. Weigh the container with water.
5. Check if the calculated mass-volume ratio (density) of water is equal to 1 g/ml.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 4 for all the test liquids.
7. Make 3 trials in each test liquid by varying the amount to be filled in the container.
ANALYSIS:
1. Determine the density of the test liquids.

2. Compare the calculated densities of the test liquids to the calculated densities using
the hydrometer and U-tube manometer.

Experiment 3-C Data Sheet
Liquid Temperature Mass Volume Density Density

(oC) (g) (ml) (g/ml) (kg/m3)
Water
Dishwashing Liquid
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Shampoo
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Cooking Oil
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Motor Oil
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3

EXPERIMENT 4
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON PLANE
SURFACES
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ON PLANE SURFACES
THEORY
When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the surface due to the fluid. The
determination of these forces is important in the design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and other
hydraulic structures. The pressure of a fluid in equilibrium condition varies directly with the
depth (or elevation) measured from the surface of the fluid.
In this experiment, the center of pressure apparatus (shown in Figure 1) will be used to
investigate the pressure acting on a submerged surface and determine the position of center of
pressure. Figure 2 shows the schematic diagram of center of pressure apparatus
Figure 1. Center of Pressure Apparatus

Figure 2. Schematic Diagram of Center of Pressure Apparatus
From the experimental set-up shown in Figure 3, consider the forces which result in turning
moments of the beam and submerged part of the model about the knife edged fulcrum. Liquid
pressures on the curved surfaces act at right angles to the curved surfaces, and the design of the
model ensures that these forces pass through the line of action of the knife edges and therefore
do not exert any turning moment. The hydrostatic pressure on the vertical end surface exerts a
force F at the center of pressure which is at depth Hp below the surface. The resulting turning
moment about the knife edge from the hydrostatic forces is therefore given by:
F(a+d-y+Hp)
The resulting moment is resisted by the weight of the mass M on the balance arm at distance L
from the knife edge by:
MgL
Figure 3. Experimental Set-up of Center of Pressure Apparatus

Now considering the cases of partial immersion and complete immersion separately:
I. PARTIAL IMMERSION
Figure 4. Partially Submerged Surface
Figure 4 shows the schematic diagram of a partially submerged surface. When the vertical end
face of the quadrant is only partially immersed, the geometric properties of the wetted portion of
the end face are:
Area: A=by
Depth of center: H=y/2
Second moment of area: Io=by3/12
Depth of center of pressure:
The force acting on the submerged part of the end surface of the model is:
F= ρgHA= ρg(y/2)(by)= (1/2) ρgby2

Taking moments about the knife edge: MgL= F(a+d-y+Hp)
Substituting for and rearranging the above equation shows that the force acting on the wetted end
surface can be calculated from the experimental results of M and y:
Which can then be compared with the theoretical result: F = (1/2) ρgby2
II. COMPLETE IMMERSION
Figure 5. Fully Submerged Surface
Figure 5 shows the schematic diagram of a fully submerged surface. When the end surface is fully
immersed, the properties of the submerged end face are:
Area: A=bd
Depth of center: H= y-d/2
Second moment of area: Io=bd3/12
Depth of center of pressure:

The force acting on the end surface is:

F= ρgHA= ρg(y-(d/2))(bd)
Taking the moments about the knife edge:
MgL= F(a+d-y+Hp)
Substituting for Hp and rearranging the above equation shows that the force acting on the wetted
end surface can be calculated from the experimental results of M and y:
Which can be compared with the theoretical result calculated from:
OBJECTIVES
 Investigate the pressure acting on a submerged surface. (CO3)
 Determine the position of center of pressure and its magnitude. (CO3)
EQUIPMENT:
Center of Pressure Apparatus, Ruler, Vernier caliper, Gram Masses (2 pieces each of 200-g, 100-
g and 50-g)
PROCEDURE:
1. Measure the dimensions a, b and d of the quadrant, and the distance between the pivot
and the weight hanger L. Lightly apply wetting agent to reduce surface tension effects.
2. Insert the quadrant into the tank locating the balance arm on the knife edges. Adjust the
counter-balance weight until the balance arm is horizontal, as indicated on the datum
level indicator.

3. Add all the weights supplied to the weight carrier. Fill the tank with water until the
balance beam tips lifting the weights then drain out a small quantity of water to bring the
balance arm horizontal, do not level the balance arm by adjustment of the counter
balance weight or the datum setting of the balance arm will be lost. Record the water
level shown on the scale. Fine adjustment of the water level may be achieved by over-
filling and slowly draining, using the drain cock.
4. Remove one or more weights from the weight carrier and level the balance arm by
draining out more of the water. When the arm is level, record the depth of immersion
shown on the scale on the quadrant.
5. Repeat reading for reducing masses on the weight carrier.
ANALYSIS:
Calculate the force on end surface and determine the position of pressure for partially and fully
submerged surface using the equations given.

Experiment 4 Data Sheet
L = __________ mm a = __________ mm
d = __________ mm b = __________ mm
I. PARTIAL IMMERSION
Trials 1 2 3
Total weight on arm M
(grams)
Depth of Water y
(mm)
Force on end Surface (experimental)

(N)
Force on end Surface (theoretical)

(N)
F= (1/2) ρgby2
Depth of Center of Pressure

(mm)
Hp = (2y)/3

I. COMPLETE IMMERSION
Trials 1 2 3
Total weight on arm M
(grams)
Depth of Water y
(mm)
Force on end Surface (experimental)

(N)
Force on end Surface (theoretical)

(N)
Depth of Center of Pressure

(mm)

EXPERIMENT 5
BUOYANCY
Laboratory Exercise No.5
BUOYANCY
THEORY
Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyant force experienced by a submerged object is equal
to the weight of the liquid displaced by the object. Similarly, the volume displaced by the object
when submerged in a liquid is also equal to the volume of the object. Experimentally this appears
in the fact that the submerged object apparently weighs less by an amount equal to the weight of
the liquid displaced. The buoyant force can be expressed as:
Fb = Wair – Wliquid = dgv
where:
Wair is the weight of the object in air
Wliquid is the weight of the liquid displaced
d is the density of the liquid
g is the acceleration of gravity
v is the volume of the immersed object (or the immersed part of the body if it floats)
Also, the apparent change in mass when submerged is:
mair – mapparent = dliquidv

OBJECTIVES
 To determine the density of an object by submerging it in a liquid of known density.

(CO2,CO4)
 To determine the density of an unknown liquid by submerging an object of known
volume and mass. (CO2,CO4)

BUOYANCY

Graduated cylinder, Digital balance, Spring balance, Beaker, String (yarn), 3 gram masses (200-
g, 100-g, and 50-g), Test liquids (Vinegar, Soy Sauce, Dishwashing Liquid, Water)
1 Light-colored and 1 dark-colored rocks
PROCEDURE:
Determination of Object’s Density by Archimedes’ Principle:
1. Carefully determine the mass of each rock with the digital balance. The mass
determination should be made while the rocks are dry (they will pick up a significant
mass of water when wet.
2. Tie a light string on each rock so that they can be suspended from the hook of the spring
balance.
3. Fill one beaker with enough water.
4. Submerged 1 light-colored rock and use Archimedes’ principle to determine the density
of the rock. Do the same procedure for the dark-colored rock.
5. Determine the volume of the 200 -gram mass by water displacement method. Calculate
its density.
6. Repeat step 5 for the 100-gram and 50-gram masses.
Determination of Liquid Density by Archimedes’ Principle:

1. Measure the mass of an empty beaker. Fill the beaker about half full of vinegar. Measure
the mass and volume of the vinegar. Determine its density using mass-volume ratio.
Make another two trials considering different volumes of vinegar.
2. Repeat step 1 using soy sauce and dishwashing liquid as test liquids.
3. Suspend the 200-gram mass in the vinegar and measure its apparent mass when
submerged.
4. Measure the displaced volume of the gram mass in the vinegar.
5. Use Archimedes’ principle to determine the density of the vinegar.
6. Repeat steps 3-5 using 100-gram and 50-gram masses.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 using soy sauce and dishwashing liquid as test liquids.

BUOYANCY
ANALYSIS:
1. Calculate the density of the light-colored and dark-colored rocks. Which of them is
denser? Why?
2. Compare the density of the test liquids obtained using mass-volume ratio and using
Archimedes’ principle. Compare these values to the existing literature value.
Determination of Object’s Density by Archimedes’ Principle
Test Object Actual Mass Displaced Volume Density

( ) ( ) ( )
Light-colored Rock
Dark-colored Rock
Trial 1 2 3
Mass of the gram mass (g) 200 100 50
Displaced Volume of Water ( )
Density of gram mass ( )

BUOYANCY
Determination of Liquid Density by Mass-Volume Ratio

Trial (gram masses) 1 2 3
Mass of Dry and empty beaker ( )
Mass of beaker and vinegar ( )
Mass of vinegar ( )
Volume of vinegar ( )
Density of vinegar ( )
Mass of beaker and soy sauce ( )
Mass of soy sauce ( )
Volume of soy sauce ( )
Density of soy sauce ( )
Mass of beaker and dishwashing liquid ( )
Mass of soy dishwashing liquid ( )
Volume of soy dishwashing liquid ( )
Density of soy dishwashing liquid ( )
Determination of Liquid Density by Archimedes’ Principle

Trial (gram mass) 1 (200g) 2 (100g) 3 (50g)
Actual Mass of the gram mass ( )
Apparent Mass of the gram mass in vinegar ( )
Displaced volume of vinegar ( )
Density of vinegar ( )
Apparent Mass of the gram mass in soy sauce ( )
Displaced volume of soy sauce ( )
Density of soy sauce ( )
Apparent Mass of the gram mass in dishwashing liquid ( )
Displaced volume of dishwashing liquid ( )
Density of dishwashing liquid ( )

EXPERIMENT 6
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
DEMONSTRATION
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM DEMONSTRATION
THEORY
Bernoulli’s theorem gives the relationship among pressure, velocity, and elevation in a moving
fluid (liquid or gas) considering that the compressibility and viscosity (internal friction) of the
fluids are negligible and the flow is steady or laminar. The theorem states that the total
mechanical energy of the flowing fluid, comprising the energy associated with fluid pressure, the
gravitational potential energy of elevation, and the kinetic energy of fluid motion, remains
constant.
The Bernoulli Equation, shown below, can be considered as a statement of the conservation of
energy principle appropriate for flowing fluids. This equation implies that if the fluid flows
horizontally so that no change in gravitational potential energy occurs, then a decrease in fluid
pressure is associated with an increase in fluid velocity. If the fluid is flowing through a
horizontal pipe of varying cross -sectional area, for example, the fluid speeds up in constricted
areas so that the pressure the fluid exerts is least where the cross section is smallest. This
phenomenon is sometimes called the Venturi Effect.
Figure 1. Illustration of Bernoulli’s Theorem.

Bernoulli’s equation can be rewritten in terms of head quantities as follows:
Where:
If the fluid’s viscosity is not negligible then there will be a small loss of head due to friction
within the fluid and between the fluid and the walls of the passage. Bernoulli's equation can then
be modified by the inclusion of the frictional head loss.
OBJECTIVES
 To verify Bernoulli's equation by demonstrating the relationship between pressure head
and kinetic head (CO1,CO2,CO4)
EQUIPMENT:
Bernoulli’s Apparatus, Hydraulic Bench, Stopwatch

Figure 2. Bernoulli’s Apparatus

PROCEDURE:
1. Start the pump and initiate a flow of water through the test section. Regulate the flow to
the inlet head tank so that there is a small but steady overflow from inlet tank. Adjust the
swivel tube of the outlet tank to obtain a differential head of 50mm.
2. Measure the height of the water level in each manometer tube by marking the paper
positioned behind the tubes and record on the test sheet. Measure the time taken to fill the
bench measuring tank from zero to 10 liters and record.
3. Increase the differential head between the inlet and outlet head tanks by 5O mm
increments, until the water level in the center manometer tubes drops off the scale. For
each condition, record the heights of liquid in the manometer tubes by once again
marking the paper positioned behind the tubes and measure the flow rate.
ANALYSIS:
1. Calculate the flow rate for each set of results.
2. For each set of results calculate at the cross-section adjacent to each manometer tube and
the flow velocity.
3. Plot a graph of head against distance and also H =(v2) / (2g) against distance.

Quantity of Water collected = _________ L Time/peroiod to collect water = _________s

Volumetric flow rate (Q) = __________m3/s
Point Diameter Flow Area Static Head, H Velocity (m/s) Total Head
No. (mm) (mm2)
1 21.4 633.47
2 22.5 397.61
3 14.0 153.93
4 17.2 232.35
5 24.2 459.96
6 28.4 633.47
Note:
For plotting the Head vs. the distance just indicate points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 in the x-axis

EXPERIMENT 7
FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE WITH
CONSTANT HEAD
FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE WITH CONSTANT HEAD
THEORY
An orifice is an opening in the side or base of tank or reservoir through which fluid is discharge
in the form of a jet. The discharge will depend up on the head of the fluid (H) above the level of
the orifice. The term small orifice means that the diameter of the orifice is small compared with
the head producing flow. The analysis of the quantity of water which can be discharged through
an orifice is arrived at in a simple, straightforward manner by the application of Bernoulli's
equation.
Consider a small orifice in the side of a vessel with the head of water above the orifice kept
constant.
Figure 1. Discharge through an orifice

Applying Bernoulli's theorem between the surface of the water 1 and the orifice O yields:
However P1=Po= atmospheric pressure, v1= 0 and Z1-Zo=Ho. Therefore, substituting these into
Bernoulli’s equation gives:
In other words, the theoretical velocity of the water passing through the orifice is given by:
Therefore, the quantity of water being discharged through the orifice is given by:

However in practice the discharge is always less than this theoretical amount due to the viscosity
of the fluid, to surface tension and due to resistance of the air. The disparity between the
theoretical discharge velocity and the actual discharge velocity is allowed for by introducing a
factor known as the coefficient of velocity so that
If the discharge from a sharp edged orifice is examined closely, it will be observed that the
minimum diameter of the jet of water discharging from the orifice is smaller than the orifice
diameter. The plane at which this occurs is known as the vena contracta, which is the plane
where stream lines first become parallel. Applying the discharge equation at the vena contracta
Which can be written as:
Where: Cc = Coefficient of contraction

or more simply as
Where: Cd=CcCv= Coefficient of discharge
Typical values of Cd range from 0·6 to 0·65, i.e. the actual flow through a sharp edged orifice is
approximately 60% of the theoretical value. The value of the coefficient of discharge may be
determined by measuring the quantity of water discharged over a period of time while the head is
maintained at a constant level.
OBJECTIVES
 To investigate the discharge characteristics of circular orifices subjected to a constant
head. (CO2,CO3)
EQUIPMENT:
Constant Head Inlet Tank, Hydraulic Bench, Circular Orifice

Figure 1. Constant head inlet tank with circular orifice
PROCEDURE:
1. Fit the 3 mm diameter orifice into the side of the inlet head tank. Start the pump and
adjust the overflow extension pipe to set up an inlet head of 40 cm. Measure the flow rate
using the volumetric measuring tank.
2. Repeat step 1 with an inlet head of 30 cm and 20 cm. Measure the flow rates.
ANALYSIS:
1. For each result calculate the flow rate.

2. Plot a graph of square root of the head against the flow rate for each orifice diameter, the
results should lie on a straight line passing through the origin to confirm that:

3. Measure the slope of each graph and calculate the coefficient of discharge for each orifice
from:
Diameter of Orifice (mm) 3

H (cm) 40 30 20
√
Volume (L)
Time (sec)
Qactual (m3/s)

EXPERIMENT 8
TRAJECTORY OF FREE FLOW JETS
THEORY
Consider the trajectory of a jet formed by the discharge of water through an orifice mounted in
the side of a tank. The jet will be subjected to a downward acceleration of g due to gravity.
Figure 1. Trajectory of horizontal jet
Taking the origin of co -ordinates at the vena-contracta and applying the laws of motion in the
horizontal and vertical planes then ignoring any effect of air resistance on the jet.
In the Horizontal Direction: x = Vt

In the Vertical Direction: y = (1/2)gt2
Solving simultaneously by eliminating t,
V = x/t and t = √
V=√ and V = Cv √
Therefore:
Cv = √
The typical values of Cv range from 0.92 to 0.97.

OBJECTIVES
 To determine the coefficient of discharge for a small circular orifice subjected to a

constant head. (CO2,CO3)
 To measure the trajectory of a horizontal jet issuing from an orifice and hence determine
the coefficient of velocity for the orifice. (CO2,CO3)
EQUIPMENT:
Constant Head Inlet Tank, Hydraulic Bench, Circular Orifice
Figure 1. Constant head inlet tank with circular orifice

PROCEDURE:
1. Fit the 3mm diameter orifice into the side of the inlet head tank. Start the pump and
adjust the overflow extension pipe to set up an inlet head of 40 cm.
2. Measure the trajectory of the jet using the hook gauge. Record the horizontal and vertical
distances.
3. Repeat steps 1 to 3 with an inlet head of 30 cm and 20 cm.
ANALYSIS:
1. Draw a graph of x against √ and draw the best straight line through the points to
represent the results.
2. Measure the slope of the line and calculate the coefficient of velocity from:
Diameter of Orifice 3
(mm)
H (cm) 40 30 20
X (cm) Vertical distance below the orifice centerline, y (cm)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Slope of the graph

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LABORATORY MANUAL

No. Laboratory Exercise Page

1. PRESSURE VARIATION WITH DEPTH 1

CE121 L – Fluid Mechanics Lab

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 2

Martials and equipment:

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 3

EXPERIMENT 1-A DATA SHEET

Mass of cylinder: _________ End area of cylinder: _________

Added Total Mass Load and Total Mass Depth Pressure

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 4

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT:

1. Punch holes in side of the container at 5 cm

Experiment 1-B Data Sheet

Cross-sectional area of container 1: _________

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 5

Depth (cm) Distance of Water Jet (cm)

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 6

CE121 L – Fluid Mechanics Lab

Figure 1. Free-body diagram of falling sphere

Algebraic manipulation yields an expression for μ in terms of γs, γl, d and V:

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 8

The observed fall velocity VO must then be corrected using:

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT:

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 9

1. Record the temperature of the test liquid.

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 10

Unit Test Liquid (___________________________)

Volume Specific Weight [

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 11

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 12

CE121 L – Fluid Mechanics Lab

Liquid density is an important characteristic used to provide information concerning

A hydrometer is an instrument whose function is based on Archimedes principle. This principle

 To determine the specific gravities and densities of certain liquids. (CO1,CO3)

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 14

Specific Gravity Determination Using Hydrometer

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT:

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 15

Liquid Temperature Hydrometer Density Density

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 16

Specific Gravity Determination Using U-tube Manometer

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT:

1. Prepare 10 ml of the test liquid and a

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 17

Experiment 3-B Data Sheet

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 18

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT:

1. Weigh the empty volumetric container or beaker.

1. Determine the density of the test liquids.

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 19

Experiment 3-C Data Sheet

Liquid Temperature Mass Volume Density Density

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 20

Figure 1. Center of Pressure Apparatus

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 22

Figure 2. Schematic Diagram of Center of Pressure Apparatus

Figure 3. Experimental Set-up of Center of Pressure Apparatus

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 23

Figure 4. Partially Submerged Surface

CE121L – FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY 24

Taking moments about the knife edge: MgL= F(a+d-y+Hp)

II. COMPLETE IMMERSION

Mass of cylinder: _ End area of cylinder: _

Quantity of Water collected = _ L Time/peroiod to collect water = _s