Leture Impedance Control

Variable Stiffness Actuators
An introduction
Evolution of actuation
Rigid actuation (e.g.: servomotors)
Series Elastic Actuation
Variable Stiffness and
Variable Impedance
Actuation
Evolution of robotic actuators
Rigid actuators: servomotors
Standard of the robotic and automation industry
Power
Control input
input
Control Gearbox
board
Electric Output
motor Sensors shaft
Standard of the robotic and automation industry
Designed to be fast, precise, repeatable

rigid by design
Most of them close an internal position loop

designed to behave as ideal position actuators
given a desired position ௗ their output shaft moves to that

desired position
→ ௗ
Pro’s
Very easy to use
Very accurate
Con’s
Position sources do not handle constraints very well
When external constraints limit the output position
‫ݍ ≤ ݍ‬௟௜௠௜௧
but a position outside the limit is commanded ‫ݍ‬ௗ > ‫ݍ‬௟௜௠௜௧
BAD things happen:
very high interaction torques can arise
which can be very dangerous for the robot & the environment
Rigid robots II: torque controlled servomotors
One more
sensor:
A torque sensor
They measure the torque they apply on the load , and close a
feedback on that, to make it follow a desired torque ௗ
→ ௗ
Rigid robots II: torque controlled servomotors
Pros’s
Can be used to implement more advanced control strategies
e.g.: impedance control
Nicer behavior on slow interaction tasks
Con’s
The system is still rigid
fast interaction are still problematic
How fast is “fast” is determined by the controller speed
Rigid actuators
Rigid robots III (or Soft robots 0?): soft add-ons
A traditional rigid robot can be made soft using soft covers
and/or end-effectors
Remote Center of Compliance are the most famous and used
examples
History and evolution
Rigid actuators
Soft actuators 1: Series Elastic Actuators (SEAs)
Standard in research
Early industrial products
KUKA LWR
Rethink robotics - Baxter
Rigid actuators
Control Gearbox Sensors

input
−
Control
board q ௘௫௧
Power
input Output
Electric Physical shaft
motor Spring
Rigid actuators
A physical spring with elastic constant is put in series with
the motor to the external load
The position of the motor and the position of the output
shaft are no longer the same
A feedback loop can be closed on the motor position to let
the torque on the link ௘௫௧ follow a desired torque ௗ
The physical spring in series with the motor yields that even
when something happens at speeds that are faster than the
controller (e.g. impacts), the system still behaves as the spring.
Rigid actuators
Pro’s
At low frequencies the system can be torque controlled
At high frequencies the system behavior is elastic
Con’s
The spring (along with the link inertia) yields a natural oscillating
frequency of the system
This limits, in practice, the bandwidth of the torque which can be
transmitted from the motor side to the link side
Ultimately limits the performance of the control
Rigid actuators
Soft actuators 1I: Variable Stiffness Actuators (VSAs)
Advanced research stage
Lots of solutions studied and developed
Starting to exit outside creators’ laboratories
DLR Hand-Arm
system, 2012
AMASC – Hurst – Migliore, 2004
Rigid actuators
Since the stiffness of the SEA limits its maximum bandwidth
Since my bandwidth requirements are not the same every time
E.g.: soft in case of hits, or while pushing against a surface, rigid while
doing fast accelerations/decelerations or when precision is needed
The perfect solution would be to be able to change the
stiffness
Rigid actuators
First definition of a VSA:
an SEA-like system, where the stiffness can be changed online
VSA
−
௘௫௧
ௗ
Rigid actuators
We will be talking about VSA later.

…but since we are looking at the landscape,
let’s keep sightseeing for a little while…
Rigid actuators
Soft actuators III: Variable Impedance Actuators (VIAs)
Early prototypes
Hot research topic
Rigid actuators
Stiffness is not the only physical element which ca be put in
series with a motor
Damping is the very next thing that comes in someone's mind
variable damping actuators
Variable Inertia could be another possibility
Related work can be found in the field of energy harvesting: KERS and high
efficiency flywheels
Also non-linear SEA are classically included in this category
Multiple parallel SEA or SPEA
Rigid actuators
Soft structure:
Another hot topic
Rigid actuators
Soft structure: distributed softness robot
Soft joints
Soft links
Soft bodies
Rigid actuators
Soft structure: distributed softness robot
Focusing on VSAs
Models of VSAs
Models of VSAs
Previous definition of a VSA:
an SEA-like system, where the stiffness can be changed online
VSA
−
௘௫௧
ௗ
Can we do something more precise? Sure…

Generic model of a VSA
A mechanical system which relates the dynamics of three
bodies (two motors and the link)
VSA
A mechanical system which relates the dynamics of three
bodies (two motors and the link)
+ , = ௤ , ଵ , ଶ + ௘௫௧
Dynamics

ଵ ଵ + ଵ ଵ = ఏ , ଵ , ଶ + ଵ

ଶ ଶ + ଶ ଶ = ఏమ , ଵ , ଶ + ଶ
భ
ଵ = −ଵ ଵ − ଵ ଵ + ଵ ଵ
ଶ = −ଶ ଶ − ଶ ଶ + ଶ ଶ
State [, ଵ , ଶ , , ଵ , ଶ ]

A closer look.
+ , = ௤ , ଵ , ଶ + ௘௫௧

ଵ ଵ + ଵ ଵ = ఏ , ଵ , ଶ + ଵ

ଶ ଶ + ଶ ଶ = ఏమ , ଵ , ଶ + ଶ
భ
ଵ = −ଵ ଵ − ଵ ଵ + ଵ ଵ
ଶ = −ଶ ଶ − ଶ ଶ + ଶ ଶ Motors
dynamics
Robot
dynamics
Electrical
dynamics
The Electric part can be neglected
(it’s usually much faster)
+ , = ௤ , ଵ , ଶ + ௘௫௧

ଵ ଵ + ଵ ଵ = ఏ , ଵ , ଶ + ଵ

ଶ ଶ + ଶ ଶ = ఏమ , ଵ , ଶ + ଶ
భ
Configuration , ଵ , ଶ ∈ ଷ
Inputs ଵ , ଶ ∈ ଶ Disturbance
UNDERACTUATED!!! Inputs (2)
The Electric part can be neglected (it’s usually much
faster)
+ , = ௤ , ଵ , ଶ + ௘௫௧

ଵ ଵ + ଵ ଵ = ఏ , ଵ , ଶ + ଵ

ଶ ଶ + ଶ ଶ = ఏమ , ଵ , ଶ + ଶ
భ
Elastic torques
The partial The second derivative
derivatives of the ܷ௤௤ ‫ݍ‬, ߠଵ , ߠଶ = ߪ
energy function it is, by definition, the stiffness
ܷ(‫ݍ‬, ߠଵ , ߠଶ )
Categories of VSAs
Special models of VSAs

Explicit Stiffness Variation Actuators
, ௤ ଵ , ଶ ௘௫௧

ଵ ଵ ଵ ଵ ఏ ଵ , ଶ ଵ

ଶ ଶ ଶ ଶ ఏమ ଵ , ଶ ଶ
భ
One motor drives the equilibrium position alone (ଵ )

The other drives the stiffness change
Very similar to the original idea of a Variable SEA
Agonist-Antagonist VSA
, ௤ ଵ , ଶ ௘௫௧

ଵ ଵ ଵ ଵ ఏ ଵ , ଶ ଵ

ଶ ଶ ଶ ଶ ఏమ ଵ , ଶ ଶ
భ
Both motors act on the

output, in parallel
Both motors contribute
simultaneously to change
the stiffness and to move
the output shaft
Decoupled Agonist-Antagonist VSA
, ఏభ ଵ ఏమ ଶ ௘௫௧

ଵ ଵ ଵ ଵ ఏ ଵ ଵ

ଶ ଶ ଶ ଶ ఏమ ଶ ଶ
భ
Both motors act on the output in parallel

Each through a separate spring
The two motors are thus decoupled
A snapshot of the landscape
Summarizing
Rigid robotics
Traditionally rigid robotics – position controlled robots
Torque controlled robots – software impedance controlled
Summarizing
Rigid robotics
Soft Robotics
Soft Effectors - Remote Center of Compliance
Discretely soft robotics - Soft Actuators
Continuous soft robotics
Soft joints
Soft links
Soft bodies
Summarizing
Rigid robotics
Soft Robotics
Soft Effectors - Remote Center of Compliance
Discretely soft robotics - Soft Actuators
Continuous soft robotics
Soft joints
Soft links
Soft bodies
Summarizing
Soft Actuators
Series (linear) Elastic Actuators
Variable Impedance Actuators
Non-linear Series Elastic Actuators
Variable Damping actuators
Variable stiffness and damping actuators
Multi-parallel elastic actuators
Summarizing
Soft Actuators
Series (linear) Elastic Actuators
Variable Impedance Actuators
Non-linear Series Elastic Actuators
Variable Damping actuators
Variable stiffness and damping actuators
Multi-parallel elastic actuators
Summarizing

Variable Series Elastic
Agonist-Antagonist
Bidirectional
Coupled
Mono-directional
Hybrid
Summarizing
You can also categorize VSA based on the working
principle (see lesson of prof.Vanderborght, tomorrow)
E.g.:
Variable Spring pre-loading
Variable Spring geometry
Variable Transmission geometry
…
You are here!
The user point of view

The golden rule: abstraction
Black box model
VSA
௘ q ௘௫௧
u1
VSA
u2 dynamics
u
Black box model
Physical behavior
Performance parameters
What are the performance parameters of a VSA?
Let’s look at the bases:

How do you chose a “normal” motor?
How to chose a motor
Technology
Electromagnetic
Piezoelectric Costly, low power
Electro-active materials density
Pneumatic
Hydraulic Noisy
Very high power density,

dirty, dangerous
Technology
Electromagnetic
DC (brushed)
Good power density
Really easy to drive
Brushless
Lighter Best power density
Need less gears
Needs more electronics - More difficult to drive, more cumbersome boxes
We are getting lost again… do we need another map?

Technology
Technology
Power
Continuous operation requirements
Peak operation requirements
Torque – speed characteristic
torque
Max torque limit – e.g. due to gearbox (not always present)

Stall
torque
Continuous operation area
Thermal limit
Peak operation
No-load speed
speed
Technology
Power
Continuous operation requirements
Peak operation requirements
POWER = Torque x speed
Torque – speed characteristic
Remember there are gearboxes!
This two characteristics are relative to the same motor with
different gear ratios!
High gear
ratio
Low gear
ratio
Back to VSAs
What are the main parameters of a VSA?

Main parameters of a VSA
A VSA is primarily a motor so we still have

Torque
Speed
The core characteristic of a VSA is the variable stiffness

Stiffness range
Torque vs Speed
Same old story
Limited by
Motors power
Frictions
Gearboxes
Heat dissipation
…
Torque vs Stiffness range
The stiffness range can be, in general, affected by the load
Almost always the case

If the system has
non-linear springs
Has to be accounted
when controlling
Speed vs Stiffness range
The two previous plots, combined, yield a relationship also
between rotation speed and stiffness
3d working volume
Torque
Speed
Stiffness range
Working volume
Actuator vs Application
The application volume
must fit within the volume
of the actuator
Stiffness has a speed too
The real figure should be 4D
Difficult to visualize and to work with
What we really care about is the time to change stiffness
Given the previous points, this time could, in general, be

different when there is a load applied and when there is not,
thus the parameters to read are:
Nominal stiffness variation time with no load
Nominal stiffness variation time with nominal load
Important for rapid tasks

e.g.: bang-bang optimal control
(see lesson of Manolo Garabini Monday)
Elasticity means deflection
Variable stiffness variable deflection
Maximum deflection with minimum stiffness
Maximum deflection with maximum stiffness
Elasticity means storable energy

Maximum energy storable in the springs
Important for
Shock absorption
Exploiting natural oscillations
Everything after this point is a small detail
… the devil’s in the details

Other aspects of a VSA
Active rotation angle

Not all actuators can rotate continuously
Limits can derive from
Sensors
Type of transmission
Shape of system
Since the main application is robot joints this is usually not a
problem
For some application a limited rotation angle could be
problematic
In general, you should check that the range of the active
rotation angle is enough do perform your intended task
Hysteresis
Real systems have
friction
This implies some
hysteresis on the
torque-deformation
characteristic
It can be quantified in
terms of deflection
or in term of torque
Very important if you want precise torque and/or position actuation!

Transducers
Output shaft sensors
Position sensor: type,
resolution, precision…
Internal sensors
Usually at least other two
position sensors
(on the motor shafts)
Position, type, etc…
Torque sensor(?): type, range,
resolution…
An architecture made of components relies on
interfaces
interfaces
Mechanical interfaces:
Drawings
interfaces
Electrical interfaces:
Connectors
Voltage
…
interfaces
Control interfaces:
Protocol
How “deep” is deep enough?
Black box vs open box

Two control approaches for VSA
De-centralized
Pro’s
Distributed
Component oriented
less resources used on the
central control unit
Con’s
Less optimized
Two control approaches for VSA
Centralized
Pro’s
(can be) fully optimized
Centralized control has to be
aware of anything
Con’s
You have to go through a lot
of details
The darker the box…
VSA
Non-linearities
What is stiffness?
It is a differential quantity difficult to measure for real
(see lesson of F. Flacco, Tuesday)
…the bitter the chocolate
Good for cooking
Use as an ingredient
(component)
Prepared by others

ready to use
You have to adapt the
recipe (robot) to the
ingredients (actuators)
VSA
you find
Not as easy to eat

Difficult to achieve top control performance
Optimization requires fine calibration
Real optimization requires customization
How deep is deep enough?
Black box or open box?
How demanding is your task?
How much do you need to optimize your performance?
Do you really need a mathematical model?

Mathematical model
Recoil point function
௘ = ௘ (ଵ , ଶ ) or with another name:
equilibrium point!
Mathematical model
௘ = ௘ (ଵ , ଶ )
Energy function
(, ଵ , ଶ )
Mathematical model
௘ = ௘ (ଵ , ଶ )
Energy function
(, ଵ , ଶ )
Output torque function
డ௎
௤ , ଵ , ଶ =
డ௤
Mathematical model
௘ = ௘ (ଵ , ଶ )
Energy function
(, ଵ , ଶ )
డ௎
௤ , ଵ , ଶ =
డ௤
Output stiffness function
డ௎೜ డమ ௎
= ௤௤ , ଵ , ଶ = = మ
డ௤ డ௤
Mathematical model
௘ = ௘ (ଵ , ଶ )
Energy function
(, ଵ , ଶ )
డ௎
௤ , ଵ , ଶ =
డ௤
Output stiffness function
డ௎೜ డమ ௎
= ௤௤ , ଵ , ଶ = = మ
డ௤ డ௤
Spring torque functions
డ௎ డ௎
ఏభ , ଵ , ଶ = and ఏమ , ଵ , ଶ =
డఏభ డఏమ
Where do parameters come from?
Experimental characterization of a VSA

Characterization of a VSA
Quasi-static load-unload cycles with fixed stiffness preset
Experimental setup
raw data
Distilled parameters and data
Torque/deflection characteristic
Torque/stiffness characteristic
Maximum deflection with max & min stiffness
Max and Min stiffness
Hysteresis
Step command(s)
Experimental setup
Actuator in horizontal, with no added load
Step in output position
Step in stiffness reference
Actuator with nominal load (e.g. with same setup as before)

Step in stiffness reference
Step command(s)
Max speed
Step command(s)
Stiffness variation time with no load
Stiffness variation time with nominal load
Where do I put all these parameters?
The VSA datasheet

The VSA datasheet
Fruit of the VIACTORS project and updated within
SAPHARI, it is a 3-page template to collect all the plots
and parameters we went through.
The VSA datasheet
Page 1
Main characteristics and plots
The page you need to see to
choose
The VSA datasheet
Page 2
More complex details
3d working Volume
Experimental data with
Hysteresis
Sensor map and sensor data
The VSA datasheet
Page 3
For the NERDS
All the internal mechanics
The mathematical model
What you could need if you
want to squeeze the best
out of the device
An Example
The qbmove Variable Stiffness Actuator

The qbmove VSA
qbmove datasheet.pdf
VSA the user point of view
On print in IJRR
How do I use all these parameters?
Excercises!
Exercise 1
An oscillating saw using a VSA

force to cut the material
stroke of the cutting blade
maximum and minimum inertia of the tool-head ௠௔௫ and ௠௜௡
frequency requirement for the tool movement
Exercise 2
A hammering VSA
VSA the user point of view
Questions?

Leture Impedance Control

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Variable Stiffness Actuators

Designed to be fast, precise, repeatable

Most of them close an internal position loop

given a desired position ௗ their output shaft moves to that

Control Gearbox Sensors

We will be talking about VSA later.

Can we do something more precise? Sure…

State [, ଵ , ଶ ,  , ଵ , ଶ ]

Special models of VSAs

One motor drives the equilibrium position alone (ଵ )

Both motors act on the

Both motors act on the output in parallel

Variable Stiffness Actuators

Variable Stiffness Actuators

The user point of view

Let’s look at the bases:

Very high power density,

We are getting lost again… do we need another map?

Max torque limit – e.g. due to gearbox (not always present)

What are the main parameters of a VSA?

A VSA is primarily a motor so we still have

The core characteristic of a VSA is the variable stiffness

Almost always the case

Given the previous points, this time could, in general, be

Important for rapid tasks

Elasticity means storable energy

… the devil’s in the details

Active rotation angle

Very important if you want precise torque and/or position actuation!

Black box vs open box

Not as easy to eat

Black box or open box?

How demanding is your task?

How much do you need to optimize your performance?

Do you really need a mathematical model?

Experimental characterization of a VSA

Actuator with nominal load (e.g. with same setup as before)

The VSA datasheet

The qbmove Variable Stiffness Actuator

An oscillating saw using a VSA

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State [, ଵ , ଶ , , ଵ , ଶ ]

One motor drives the equilibrium position alone (ଵ )