NATURAL SLOPE – is what we now refer to as the ANGLE OF REPOSE
1.1 INTRODUCTION Natural slopes of CLEAN DRY SAND AND ORDINARY EARTH were 31° and SOIL – is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and 45°, unit weights 18.1 kN/m3 and 13.4 kN/m3 decayed organic matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid particles - BERNARD FOREST DE BELIDOR published a book proposing a theory for lateral earth pressure on retaining walls that was a SOIL MECHANICS – is the branch of science that deals with the study of the follow-up to Gautier’s study. He also specified a soil classification physical properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to system various types of forces - FRANCIS GADROY conducted first laboratory model testing retaining walls, also observed the existence of slip planes in the SOIL ENGINEERING – is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to soil at failure practical problems - J. J. MAYNIEL summarized Gadroy’s findings - JEAN RODOLPHE PERRONET studied slope stability and GEOTECHINICAL ENGINEERING – is the sub discipline of civil engineering that distinguished intact ground and fills involves natural materials found close to the surface of the earth. 1.4 CLASSICAL SOIL MECHANICS – PHASE 1 (1776 – 1856) 1.2 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING PRIOR TO THE 18th CENTURY - CHARLES AUGUSTIN COULOMB used principles of calculus for maxima and - First use of soil as a construction material is lost in antiquity minima to determine the true position of sliding surface in soil behind a - Understanding of geotechnical engineering began in the early retaining wall, used laws of friction and cohesion 18th century - GASPARD CLAIRE MARIE RICHE DE BRONY published a textbook, - Ancient Civilizations NOUVELLE ARCHITECTURE HYDRAULIQUE that included - Lived on Rivers Coulomb’s theory - Nile (Egypt) - JACQUES FREDERIC FRANCAIS & CLAUDE LOUIS MARIE HENRI - Tigris and Euphrates (Mesopotamia) NAVIER studied special cases of Coulomb’s theory - Huang Ho (Yellow River, China) - JEAN VICTOR PONCELET added a graphical method to Coulomb’s - Indus (Indus) theory. He was the first to use the symbol φ for soil friction angle. - Early Structures He provided the first ultimate bearing-capacity for shallow - Dykes dating 2000 B.C. built in Indus to protect the foundations town of Mohenjo Dara - ALEXANDRE COLLIN provided the details for deep slips in clay - Dikes built for irrigation during the Chan Dynasty in slopes, cutting and embankments. He said that failure takes place China (1120 B.C. – 249 B.C.) when mobilized cohesion exceeds the existing cohesion of the - Isolated pad footings and strip-and-raft foundations soil. He observed that the actual failure surfaces could be in Ancient Greek civilizations approximated as arcs of cycloids. - Ancient pyramids used as tombs for Pharaohs and - This era of soil was ended by a book by WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN their consorts were built in Egypt (2700 B.C.) RANKINE. He provided a theory on earth pressure and equilibrium of earth - Pagodas were during the Eastern Han dynasty, China masses. It is a simplification of Coulomb’s. (68 A.D.) - Notable Structures Facing Soil-Bearing Capacity Foundation Problems Prior 1.5 CLASSICAL SOIL MECHANICS – PHASE 2 (1856 – 1910) 18th Century - Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy - This period involved many experiments on SAND - Construction began in 1173 A.D. - HENRI PHILIBERT GASPARD DARCY published the permeability of - Weighs 15,700 metric tons, circular base diameter of sand filters. Darcy defined the term, COEFFICIENT OF 20m PERMEABILITY (or HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY) of soil - Tilted east, north, west and finally south - SIR GEORGE HOWARD DARWIN conducted tests determining the - Weak clay layer underneath the overturning moment of a hinged wall retaining sand in loose and foundation was the problem dense states of compaction - Closed in 1990 due to fear of collapse - JOSEPH VALENTIN BOUSSINESQ developed the theory of stress - 70 metric tons of earth removed, tower now leans 5 distribution degrees - OSBORNE REYNOLDS demonstrated phenomenon of dilatency of - Garisenda Tower and Asinelli Tower in Italy sand - Garisenda Tower - JOHN CLIBBORN & JOHN STUART BERESFORD studied the flow of - 48 meters high, 4210 metric tons water through sand bed and uplift pressure - Tilted 4 degrees - Clibborn’s study was published in the TREATISE ON - Asinelli Tower CIVIL ENGINEERING, VOL. 2: IRRIGATION WORK IN - 97 meters high, 7300 metric tons INDIA, and TECHINICAL PAPER NO. 97 - Tilted 1.5 degrees - Beresford’s work on the uplift pressure on the Narora - Scientists and Engineers saw the problem and began to address the Weir on the Ganges River was documented in properties of soil TECHINCAL PAPER NO. 97 - From 1700 – 1927, geotechnical engineering can be split into 4 major periods 1.6 MODERN SOIL MECHANICS (1910 – 1927) - Preclassical (1700 – 1776 A.D.) - Classical Soil Mechanics, Phase 1 (1776 – 1856 A.D.) - This period research of CLAY’s properties and parameters were published - Classical Soil Mechanics, Phase 2 (1856 – 1910 A.D.) - ALBERT MAURITZ ATTERBERG defined CLAY-SIZE FRACTIONS as - Modern Soil Mechanics (1910 – 1927 A.D.) the percentage by weight of particles smaller than 2 microns in size 1.3 PRECLASSICAL PERIOD OF SOIL MECHANICS (1700 – 1776) - Realized the important role of clay in soil and the plasticity - Concentrated on NATURAL SLOPE AND UNIT WEIGHT OF TYPES OF SOILS - Explained consistency of soils by defining liquid, - French engineer, HENRY GAUTIER studied the natural slopes of plastic and shrinkage limits soils - Defined the plasticity index - JEAN FONTARD investigated the failure of a dam in Charmes, France. Determined the shear strength parameters of clay. - ARTHUR LANGLEY BELL developed relationships for lateral pressure and resistance in clay as well as bearing capacity of shallow foundations in clay - WOLMAR FELLINUS developed the stability analysis of saturated clay slopes. He established correct numerical solutions for the STABILITY NUMBERS of circular slip surfaces passing through the toe of the slope - KARL TERZAGHI developed the theory of consolidation for clays. It was published in the book ERDBAUMECHANIK
1.7 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING AFTER 1927
- ERDBAUMECHANIK AUF BODENPHYSIKALISHER GRUNDLAGE by Karl
Terzaghi started this era in the development of soil mechanics - Terzahgi was recognized as the leader of soil mechanics; he was the guiding spirit for soil mechanics and geotechnical engineer for the next quarter- century - He attended the first INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING (ISSMFE) - In 1997 ISSMFE was changed to ISSMGE (INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING)
1.8 END OF AN ERA
- RALPH B. PECK was the last of the early giants of modern soil mechanics - Died on February 18, 2008 - His last project was the Rion-Antirion Bridge in Greece - Authored more than 250 technical publications