A Industrial Training Report

ON
“National Academy of Broadcasting and Multimedia”

Submitted for Partial Fulfillment Of Award Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

Degree In

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

GALGOTIAS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

GREATER NOIDA

SUBMITTED TO - SUBMITTED BY-

Mrs. SHRISTHI PRIYA PAWAN TIWARI

ROLL NO-1509731062
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the industrial report entitled “National Academy of Broadcasting and

Multimedia” Submitted by us for the award of the degree of Bachelor of technology in Electronic and

communication Engineering to Galgotias College of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida

Affiliated to Dr. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow is a record of the bonafide work carried

out by us.

Place: Greater Noida

Date:

Signature of the Candidate

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

―It is not possible to prepare a summer training report without the assistance & encouragement
of other people. This one is certainly no exception. ― On the very outset of this report. I would
like to extend my sincere& heartfelt obligation towards all the personages who have helped
me in this endeavor. Without their active guidance, help, cooperation & encouragement . I
would not have made headway in the project .

I am highly indebted to ―Mr. A.K. GUPTA (DIRECTOR ENGINEERING)‖ for his

guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the
Industrial Training Report.
 Abstract

Generally, engineering student gets theoretical knowledge in their college through their books and teachers.
But theoretical knowledge is not sufficient for absolute command in any field. So, practical and theoretical
knowledge is different. Theoretical knowledge in our books is not much more without knowing its practical
implementation experienced that theoretical knowledge make solid information in our mind.

The concept off training has recently become a strategic option in development resource consequently; the
strategic developments which aim at improving and simplifying work method have been greatly required as
governmental bodies. The modern concept provides that training on the basis of the practical and theoretical
skills in way that copes with the latest represented in the ever changing work requirements. The effort of
training fundamentally channeled towards the construction and innovation of the efficiency in planning and
following up resource to achieve the aspired development more effectively, thus leading to improved
performance at work on basis……
 INDEX

1. Introduction Brief Detail about the

company
2. Technique used Amplitude
Modulation

2.1 AM Signal Representation

2.2 Spectrum of AM DSB
2.3 Generation of AM signal
• Low Level Modulation System
• High Level Modulation System
2.4 AM Transmitters
• High Level Transmitter 1
• Low Level Transmitter
2.5 Amplitude Demodulation
2.6 Frequency Modulation
• Representation of FM signal
• Frequency Deviation
• 1.7.3FM Bandwidth
2.7 Generation of FM signal
• Direct Method
• 1.8.2Indirect Method
2.8 FM receiver
2.9 Advantages of FM over AM
3. Microphone Classification
• Pressure Operated Type
• Velocity or Pressure Gradient Type

3.1 Types of Microphones

• Dynamic Microphone
• Ribbon Microphone
• Condenser Microphone
• Electric Microphone

3.2 Polar Patterns of Microphone

• Omnidirectional
• Bidirectional
• Cardioid
• Hypercardioid
 3.3 Polar Patterns of Microphone
• Omnidirectional
• Bidirectional
• Cardioid
• Hypercardioid
3.4 Special Microphones
• Lip Ribbon Microphone
• Lapel Microphone
• Contact Microphone
• Gun Microphone
• Cordless Microphone
• Stereo Microphone
3.5 Important Characteristics
• Frequency response
• Directivity
• Sensitivity
• Directivity
• Termination Impedance

3.6 Special Microphones

• Lip Ribbon Microphone
• Lapel Microphone
• Contact Microphone
• Gun Microphone
• Cordless Microphone
• Stereo Microphone
3.7 Important Characteristics
• Frequency response
• Directivity
• Sensitivity
• Directivity
• Termination Impedance

4. EARTH STATION

4.1 Satellite Communication

4.2 Geosynchronous Earth Orbit

4.3 Todapur Earth Station

4.5 Pitampura TV tower

• System Overview

• Application

• Introduction to 10+1 Satellite Transmitter

• Service Details

• Uplink and Downlink Parameters

5. Conclusion
6. Reference
1. Introduction Brief Detail about the Company

National Academy of Broadcasting and Multimedia is the apex in-house training

Academy of All India Radio & Doordarshan, primarily catering to the training needs of engineering
personnel of All India Radio & Doordarshan. The Academy conducts about 120 courses every year
and trains around 1,600 engineering personnel. Officials from broadcasting organizations of some
neighboring developing countries are regular participants in the academy‘s training programs.

National Academy of Broadcasting and Multimedia was established in 1948 and, over the years has
grown to a comprehensively staffed and equipped Academy in a premise sprawling over an area of
about 20,000 sq meters in Delhi.Earlier it was known as Staff Training Institute (Technical).Three
well-equipped regional Academies are also functioning at Bhuvaneshwar (Orissa), Shillong
(Meghalaya) & Mumbai (Maharashtra) to cater to the needs of regional training requirements.
 2. System Analysis

In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or

more properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating
signal that typically contains information to be transmitted.
In telecommunications, modulation is the process of conveying a message signal, for example a
digital bit stream or an analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be physically
transmitted. Modulation of a sine waveform transforms a baseband message signal into a
passband signal.

Three devices are used for modulation purposes :

 A modulator is a device that performs modulation.

 A demodulator (sometimes detector or demodulator) is a device that performs
demodulation, the inverse of modulation.
 A modem (from modulator–demodulator) can perform both operations.
Modulation is of two types :

1) CONTINUOUS WAVE MODULATION : In it the carrier is continuous in nature.

The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog baseband (or lowpass)
signal, for example an audio signal or TV signal, over an analog bandpass channel at a
different frequency, for example over a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV
network channel.

It is futher of two types :

 Amplitude Modulation : Here the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance
to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal
 Angle modulation, which is approximately constant envelope

 Frequency modulation (FM) : Here the frequency of the carrier signal is

varied in accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal
Phase modulation (PM) : Here the phase shift of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal

1) PULSE MODULATION : In it the carrier is pulse type waveform. The aim of digital
modulation is to transfer a digital bit stream over an analog bandpass channel, for example over the
public switched telephone network (where a bandpass filter limits the frequency range to 300–3400
Hz) or over a limited radio frequency band.
2.1 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

• Amplitude Modulation is a process where the amplitude of a carrier signal is altered

according to information in a message signal.

• The frequency of the carrier signal is usually much greater than the highest frequency of
the input message signal.

Fig 2.1. Amplitude Modulation

 Amplitude modulation (AM) is a modulation technique used in electronic communication,
most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. In amplitude
modulation, the amplitude (signal strength) of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the
waveform being transmitted. That waveform may, for instance, correspond to the sounds to be
reproduced by a loudspeaker, or the light intensity of television pixels. This technique
contrasts with frequency modulation, in which the frequency of the carrier signal is
varied, and phase modulation, in which its phase is varied.

AM was the earliest modulation method used to transmit voice by radio. It was developed during
the first two decades of the 20th century beginning with Reginald Fessenden‗s radiotelephone
experiments in 1900. It remains in use today in many forms of communication; for example it is
used in portable two way radios, VHF aircraft radio and in computer modems. ―AM‖ is often used
to refer to mediumwave AM radio broadcasting.

ssss
Fig 2.2. Amplitude Modulator

SPECTRUM OF AM DSB

RF bandwidth of an AM transmission is twice the bandwidth of the modulating or

―baseband‖ signal, since the upper and lower sidebands around the carrier
frequency each have a bandwidth as wide as the highest modulating frequency.

Bandwidth of an AM signal is narrower than one using frequency modulation (FM), it is

twice as wide as single-sideband techniques; it thus may be viewed as spectrally
inefficient.
 Fig 2.3. Spectrum of AM DSB-SC signal

Types of Amplitude Modulation:

1) Double Sideband, Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) : Double sidebands with suppressed

carrier. This is the most widely used type of AM modulation. In fact, all the radio
channels in AM band use this type of modulation. This method is used for transmission
of Chroma signals in TV and stereo signal in FM transmitter.

2) Double Sideband, Full Carrier (DSB-FC) : Double sidebands with full carrier. This is
used in MW and SW Transmitters.

3) Single Side Band (SSB) : In this, only half of the signal of the DSBSC is used. In this
method only one side band (without carrier) is utilised for transmission. There is
considerable saving in power and bandwidth. But as the carrier is not transmitted it
becomes difficult torecover the signal at the receiver end. Hence the receiver circuit is
complex. The use of this method is restricted to special purpose only, such as military
communications.

2.2 GENERATION OF AM SIGNAL

There are two methods of generation of AM signal:

• Low Level Modulation System

• High Level Modulation System

LOW LEVEL MODULATION SYSTEM

This modulation process generates many additional frequencies and requires filtering. To avoid loss of power in
filtering, it should be generated at low powe
HIGH LEVEL MODULATION SYSTEM

• This method does not give rise to many additional frequencies and so filtering is not
required. This is best suited for higher power amplification. Medium wave and short
wave transmissions use this method of modulation.

• High level modulator can be operated in class 'C', class 'D' higher configuration. As the
earlier stages operate at the carrier frequency only (or, in some cases at its sub-
harmonics), all these stages can also be operated in class 'C' higher modes.

Fig 2.4 High Level Modulation System

2.3 AM TRANSMITTERS

Transmitters that transmit AM signals are known as AM transmitters. These transmitters are used
in medium wave (MW) and short wave (SW) frequency bands for AM broadcast.The MW has
frequencies between 550 KHz and 1650 KHz and SW has frequencies ranging from 3MHz to
30MHz. The two types of AM transmitters that are used based on transmitting powers are :

1) High Level
2) Low Level
The basic difference between the two transmitters is the power amplification of the carrier and
modulating signals.

HIGH LEVEL TRANSMITTER

It is used for high level modulation. In broadcast transmitters, where the transmitting power may
be of the order of kilowatts, high level modulation is employed.

LOW LEVEL TRANSMITTER

It uses low level modulation. In low power transmitters, where only a few watts of transmitting
power are required, low level modulation is used

Fig 2.5. Low Level Am transmitter

 It is similar to high level transmitter except that the power of carrier and audio signals are not
amplified.

2.4 AMPLITUDE DEMODULATION

There are various ways to measure or detect the amplitude (as opposed to the power) of a waveform.
Here we'll consider one of the simplest, used by most portable radios, etc, the Envelope Detector.

Fig 2.5 Envelope Detector

This is essentially just a halfwave rectifier which charges a capacitor to a voltage equivalent to the
peak voltage of the incoming AM waveform, s(t). When the input wave's amplitude increases, the
capacitor voltage is increased via the rectifying diode. When the input's amplitude falls, the capacitor
voltage is reduced by being discharged by a ‗bleed‗ resistor, R. The main advantage of this form of
AM Demodulator is that it is very simple and cheap. Just one diode, one capacitor, and one resistor.
That's why it is used so often. However, it does suffer from some practical problems.

The circuit relies upon the behaviour of the diode — allowing current through when the input is
+ve with respect to the capacitor voltage, hence
‗topping up‗ the capacitor voltage to the peak level, but blocking any current from flowing back
out through the diode when the input voltage is below the capacitor voltage. Unfortunately, all
real diodes are non-linear. The current they pass varies with the applied voltage. As a result, the
demodulated output is slightly distorted in a way which depends upon the diode's I/V characteris
Fig 2.6 Ripple nd Clipping Effects of Envelope Detector
2.5 FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

Frequency modulation (FM) is the encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying the
instantaneous frequency of the wave. (Compare with amplitude modulation, in which the
amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the frequency remains constant).

Fig 2.7. Frequency Modulation

If the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the amplitude of the modulating signal
(information), it is called frequency modulation. Frequency modulation is widely used in VHF
communication systems e.g. FM broadcasting, transmission of sound signal in TV, Satellite
Communication etc.
 Fig 2.8 Frequency Modulator

 The modulating signal changes the freq. fc of the carrier signal.

 The bandwidth for FM is high.
 It is approx. 10x the signal frequency.
The total bandwidth required for FM can be determined from the bandwidth of the audio signal:
BFM = 2(1 + β)B. Where b is usually 4.

• Power in an FM signal does not vary with modulation

• FM signals do not have an envelope that reproduces the modulation

• The figure below shows a simplified FM generator.

• If the information to be transmitted (i.e., the baseband signal) is and the sinusoidal carrier
is , where fc is the carrier's base frequency, and Ac is the carrier's amplitude, the
modulator combines the carrier with the baseband data signal to Sinusoidal baseband
signal.
 • Mathematically, a baseband modulated signal may be approximated by a sinusoidal
continuous wave signal with a frequency fm.This method is also named as Single-tone
Modulation.

2.6 REPRESENTATION OF FM SIGNAL

If the information to be transmitted (i.e., the baseband signal) is and the sinusoidal carrier is

where fc is the carrier's base frequency, and Ac is the carrier's amplitude, the modulator combines
the carrier with the baseband data signal to get the transmitted signal:

Sinusoidal baseband signal :

Another term common to FM is the modulation index, as determined by the formula:

2.7 FREQUENCY DEVIATION (Δf)

The amount by which the frequency varies away from the average frequency (carrier
frequency) is called frequency deviation. It is proportional to the amplitude of modulating
signal. The peak difference between the minimum and maximum frequency is known as
carrier (frequency) swing. In FM broadcasting for 100 per cent modulation frequency
deviation is ±75 kHz i.e. carrier swing is 150 kHz.

Where, fm is modulating signal and is called the Modulation Index of the FM wave Thus
for a given frequency deviation modulation index varies inversely as the modulating
frequency

CARSON’S RULE :

• Calculating the bandwidth of an FM signal is simple, but tedious using Bessel functions

• Carson‗s Rule provides an approximation for determining FM signal bandwidth:

2.8 FM Bandwidth

The bandwidth of a stereo audio signal is usually 15 KHz. Therefore, an FM station needs at
least a bandwidth of 150 KHz. The minimum bandwidth is at least 200 KHz (0.2 MHz)

2.9 GENERATION OF FM SIGNAL

There are two methods of generation of FM signal:

• Direct Method of FM generation

 Fig 2.8. Frequency Modulated Transmitter

DIRECT METHOD OF FM GENERATION

VARACTOR DIODE MODULATOR: This modulator has been shown in fig. It makes use of
a varactor diode. The capacitance of this diode varies with the applied bias voltage (DC voltage
+ modulating voltage). The diode forms, at least partially the tuning capacitor of the tank circuit
that determines the frequency of the oscillator. The capacitance varies with the applied
modulating voltage and so does the frequency.

Fig2.9. FM Generation through Direct Method

INDIRECT METHOD OF FM GENERATION

ARMSTRONG METHOD : In this method frequency modulation is obtained through a phase

modulator. The modulating signal is integrated prior to modulating the carrier, so that the output
of the phase modulator becomes a frequency modulated signal as shown in fig. The required
phase modulated signal is generated with the help of a double side band – SC modulator. In this
method index of modulation is limited to 0.5.

Fig 1.15. FM Generator

Fig2.10 . FM Generation through Indirect Method

2.10 FM RECEIVER

Radio receiver design includes the electronic design of different components of a radio receiver
which processes the radio frequency signal from an antenna in order to produce usable
information such as audio. The term radio receiver mean any device which is intended to receive
a radio signal in order to generate useful information from the signal, most notably a recreation
of the so-called baseband signal (such as audio) which modulated the radio signal at the time of
transmission in a communications or broadcast system.
 Fig 1.15. Block diagram if FM Receiver

ADVANTAGE OF FM OVER AM

1) Amplitude and hence power of FM wave is constant and independent of depth of

modulation. But in AM, modulation depth determines the transmitted power. Thus
additional energy is not required as modulation is raised.

2) FM is more economical than AM due to following reasons:

(a) It is possible to have Low Level Modulation in FM as the intelligence is in the

frequency variations only and the modulated signal can be passed through class C
amplifiers. But, since the AM signal contains information in amplitude variations, only
high level modulation is possible in an AM transmitter.

(b) All the transmitted power in FM is useful, whereas in AM most of it is in the carrier
which contains no useful information.

(c) Antenna gain is possible in FM due to the reason that directive antennas are used in
VHF range where the physical dimensions of the antenna are very easy to manage.

3) Better Noise Performance.

Amplitude variations caused by noise are removed by having limiter in FM receiver. This
makes FM reception lot more immune to noise than AM reception.

Noise can further be reduced in FM by increasing the frequency deviation. This is

not possible in AM as modulation cannot exceed 100 % without causing severe
distortion.

4) Stereo transmission is possible with FM due to its wider bandwidth. Additional

information such as RDS, SCA can be sent along with the stereo signal.
 MICROPHONE

3. MICROPHONE

Microphone plays a very important role in the art of sound broadcasting. It is a transducer which
converts acoustical energy into electrical energy. In the professional broadcast quality
microphones are required to be capable of giving the highest fidelity of reproduction over audio
bandwidth.

3.1 MICROPHONE CLASSIFICATION

Depending on the relationship between the output voltage from a microphone and the sound
pressure on it, the microphones can be divided into two basic groups:

PRESSURE OPERATED TYPE

In such microphones only one side of the diaphragm is exposed to the sound wave. Moving coil
(Dynamic), carbon, crystal and condenser microphones are mostly of this type. In their basic
forms, the pressure operated microphones are omni-directional.

VELOCITY OR PRESSURE GRADIENT TYPE

In these microphones both sides of the diaphragm are exposed to the sound wave. Thus the
output voltage is proportional to the instantaneous difference in pressure on the two sides of the
diaphragm. Ribbon microphone belongs to this category and its polar diagram is figure of eight.
3.3TYPES OF MICROPHONES

There are many types of microphones. But only the most common types used in broadcasting
have been described here.

DYNAMIC OR MOVING COIL MICROPHONE

This is common broadcast quality microphone which is rugged and can be carried to outside
broadcast/recording etc. It consists of a strong permanent magnet whose pole extensions form a
radial field within a round narrow gap. A moving coil is supported within this gap and a dome
shaped diaphragm usually of aluminium foil is attached to the coil.

With sound pressure variations, the diaphragm and coil move in the magnetic field, therefore,
emf is induced in the speech coil, which is proportional to the incoming sound.

The output of the microphone is –65 to –68 dBv and various shapes of the body make it OMNI,
UNI or SEMI directional.

Output leads

Fig. 3.1: Dynamic Microphone (Moving Coil)

 RIBBON/ VELOCITY MICROPHONE

Corrugated aluminium foil of about 0.1 mm thick forms a ribbon which is suspended within two
insulated supports. The ribbon is placed within the extended poles of a strong horse shoe magnet.
The ribbon moves due to the difference in pressure (at right angles to its surface) i.e. from the
front or rear of the mike. There exists the maximum pressure difference between the front and
rear of ribbon because of maximum path difference.

Fig. 3.2: Ribbon Microphone

ELECTROSTATIC OR CONDENSER MICROPHONE

This consists of a thick metallic plate insulated from the body of the microphone and connected
to polarising voltage through a resistance. Another thin foil is fitted close to the above plate
forming a condenser.

The sound pressure variations on the foil change the capacitance due to increase and decrease of
distance between foil and the plate. With fixed DC voltages across the two, the quantity of
charge changes due to the variation of capacity. This microphone delivers around– 80 dBv
output with a very good frequency response.

The popular method of providing DC voltage of + 48 V to the condenser is via an audio console
or from the video camera and is known as ‗Phantom Powering‗. This +48 V is transported to the
mike through the audio cable as per the arrangement shown. Otherwise most of the condenser
mikes uses built in socket for an electric cell of specified voltage
3.4 ELECTRET MICROPHONE

It is a modified form of condenser microphone in which the polarising voltage is avoided. In fact
a plastic polymer containing metallic dust keeps the metal particles permanently charged within
the plastic insulation and such a polymer within the diaphragm foil or fixed plate delivers the
electrical signal on the principle of the condenser mike.

The hissing noise gets avoided since there is no external polarising resistor as a load. The
microphone has high impedance and is generally having FET pre-amplifier. The microphone
costs very little but develops excellent quality designs in many forms.

POLAR PATTERNS OF MICROPHONE

Microphones are designed for a particular polar pattern. Some of the important polar patterns are
–Omnidirectional, Bidirectional (figure-of- eight), cardioid, Hyper cardioid etc.

OMNIDIRECTIONAL PATTERN

The microphone designed for Omni pattern picks up sound equally from all directions. This ideal
polar pattern is shown in figure 4. The response is unity (1 i.e. equal in all directions).

BIDIRECTIONAL PATTERN

The output of the microphone designed for bidirectional polar pattern response is proportional to
the mathematical cosine of the angle of incidence. Since, cos 0o = 1 and cos 180o = -1 the pattern
will be figure-of- eight (as cos 90o = cos 270o = 0) is shown in figure.

The pick up from the front and rear will be equal but opposite in phase. There will be no pick up
exactly at 90o or 270o of the front rear.
HYPER CARDIOID PATTERN

it is a combination of omni attenuated by 6 dB and bidirectional. Its polar pattern is in between

cardioid and bidirectional as shown in figure 7. Its pickup angle is 110o at 3 dB.

Fig. 3.4: Hyper Cardioid patter

3.5 SPECIAL MICROPHONES

. Lip Ribbon Microphone

It is also called noise-cancelled mike since the ribbon even if held close, does not pick up
breathing noise due to a guard in between. The stainless steel mesh acts as a wind shield. The
design and other features resemble the ribbon mike. This microphone is used for cricket
commentary and also for voice over for TV post productions.
 .2.Lapel Microphone
Both carbon and ribbon types are available. The microphone is very small and light weight and is
suspended around the neck keeping the mike just below the chin. It is most suitable for TV News
reader, interview or during lecture.
Contact Microphone

It is generally a dynamic microphone of lower sensitivity. It is normally placed close to the source of
sound, when it is not desirable to pick up other stray noises.

Gun Mike
It has two forms, (short gun and long gun). A dynamic mike placed at the end of a perforated tube
extends its directivity in the front. The short gun about 18‖ long can pick up a sound from about 10
feet distance and a long gun with a tube of about 3 feet length can pick up sound from a distance of
about 20 to 25 feet. The quality suffers but is intelligible.

. RF or CordlessMicrophone
In this microphone no cable is used. The sound picked by microphone is modulated on a miniature
FM transmitter and a power of 100 mW or so is radiated. Such microphones do not have any
termination but an antenna and are called cordless or RF microphones or Radio Microphones. Sound
signal is available on demodulation at the receiver for mixing with other microphones.

Stereo Microphone
Stereo signal has two channels – Left and Right. Hence, in a stereo microphone, there are two
microphone capsules built into a single casing which give two outputs. One capsule is fixed and
the other one is rotatable for adjusting the opening angle between the two. Each capsule can be
switched to give any polar pattern by a remote unit.

AKG C426 B, Neumann SM69, Shure VP88 and Sound Field ST250 are some of the well-
known stereo microphones. AKG C426B has been supplied to many major stations of AIR. It is
a large diaphragm condenser microphone as shown in figure 8.

Fig.2.8:AKGC426BStereoMicrophone
 3.6 IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS

Important characteristics of microphones are as under:

 1 FREQUENCY RESPONSE

This characteristic indicates the relative signal output voltage of a microphone at different
frequencies for a constant acoustic level input at all the frequencies. Frequency response of a
microphone depends on:

o Direction of arrival of sound, and

o Distance between the source and the microphone
If a microphone covers the essential audio range 100 Hz to 7 kHz within + 1 dB it is considered
to be a broadcast quality microphone.

 . DIRECTIVITY

Microphones which respond equally at all angles are called omni- directional. The microphones
which pick up equally from front and rear and have very little pick up from sides are called Bi-
directional and have a polar diagram as figure of eight.

The microphones which pick up maximum from the front with slight reduction in the sides and
very less pick up from the rear are called Cardioid (means heart shape). Microphones directivity
is often a principal reason for choosing between different models for particular applications.

 SENSITIVITY

Microphone as a transducer converts pressure variation into electrical voltage. How efficient is
this conversion, decides its sensitivity. The ability to pick up weak sound and to deliver more
electrical signal determines the sensitivity.

It is measured in dBv with 1 volt as reference. It then becomes electrical output in dBv from a
microphone when a standard sound pressure of one microbar i.e. 1 dyne per sqr. cm. is applied at the
diaphragm of the microphone. The velocity or Ribbon mike gives an output of about –70 dBv,
dynamic mike –65 to –68 dBv and a condenser mike about -80dBv.
  DISTORTION

The distortion is not allowed to exceed beyond a specified value, typically less than 0.5% at 1000
Hz.

 TERMINATION IMPEDANCE

The microphone must have proper impedance and a balanced or unbalanced output suited to the
pre-amplifier. In the broadcast chain the microphone lines cover long distances, therefore, the
impedance is chosen in the range of 50 ohms to 60 ohms at the microphone terminals.

The commercial microphones in public address system do not require lengthy mike cables and
prefer high electrical output across high impedance which is generally above 5 k ohms.

It is measured in dBv with 1 volt as reference. It then becomes electrical output in dBv from a
microphone when a standard sound pressure of one microbar i.e. 1 dyne per sqr. cm. is applied at the
diaphragm of the microphone. The velocity or Ribbon mike gives an output of about –70 dBv,
dynamic mike –65 to –68 dBv and a condenser mike about -80dBv.

 DISTORTION

The distortion is not allowed to exceed beyond a specified value, typically less than 0.5% at 1000
Hz.

 TERMINATION IMPEDANCE

The microphone must have proper impedance and a balanced or unbalanced output suited to the
pre-amplifier. In the broadcast chain the microphone lines cover long distances, therefore, the
impedance is chosen in the range of 50 ohms to 60 ohms at the microphone terminals.

The commercial microphones in public address system do not require lengthy mike cables and
prefer high electrical output across high impedance which is generally above 5 k ohms.
 4.EARTH STATION

A ground-based receiving or transmitting/receiving station in a satellite communications system.

The counterpart to the earth station is the satellite in orbit, which is the "space station." Earth
stations use dish-shaped antennas, the diameters of which can be under two feet for satellite TV
to as large as fifty feet for satellite operators. Antennas for space exploration have diameters
reaching a hundred feet.

Multiplex, Modulate and Upconvert:

An earth station is generally made up of a multiplexor, a modem, up and down converters, a high
power amplifier (HPA) and a low noiseamplifier (LNA). Almost all transmission to satellites is digital,
and the digital data streams are combine d in a multiplexor and fed to a modemthat modulates a carrier
frequency in the 50 to 180 MHz range. An upconverter bumps the carrier into the gigahertz rang e,
which goes to theHPA and dish.

Downconvert, Demodulate and Demultiplex:

For receiving, the LNA boosts the signals to the downconverter, which lowers th e frequency and sends
it to the modem. The modemdemodulates the carrier, an d the digital output goes to the demultiplexing
device and then to its destination
s. See earth station on board vessel and base station.
 Earth Station
Earth stations use dishshaped antennas to transmit andreceive microw ave signals to and
from satellites.

4.1 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Satellite communication is the branch of telecommunication which establishes and

communication using satellites across the globe. We can divide the whole satellite
communication into two parts namely space segments and earth segments. These satellites are
specifically designed to relay information from a source to a receiver. Types of information that
can be transferred include: television, telephone, radio, internet, and military.

In order to communicate wirelessly, signals must be sent using electromagnetic

waves. However, these waves cannot bend around the curvature of the Earth. So, in order for
people to communicate over long distances, a satellite (or multiple satellites) must be used to
help redirect the signals.
There are two major classes of communications satellites:

1) Passive satellite: This type of satellite only redirects the signal coming from the source,
and points in the direction of the receiver. With passive satellites, the transmitting signal
has the tendency to be weak. This is because, as the electromagnetic wave moves through
the atmosphere, particles will interrupt the wave and cause it to be muffled.

2) Active satellites: on the other hand, allow for a signal that is much clearer. These
satellites can take a signal that they receive, and amplify it to make it clearer. However,
these satellites will often times amplify unwanted signals. Because of this, they also need
a processor on board. A processor will filter out any of the unwanted amplified signals
before sending it back down to earth.

There are three major ways in which communications satellites

orbit the Earth:

1) Geosynchronous orbit (GEO), which is 19,300 nautical miles from Earth‗s surface. This
orbit has the special characteristic in which satellites placed in this orbit can ―stand still‖
with respect to a certain location on earth. That is, if a viewer on Earth were to look up
into the sky and spot a satellite in GEO, it would seem as if it isn‗t moving.

2) Below GEO is medium Earth orbit (MEO). It ranges from 500-1200 nautical miles
above Earth.

3) Below MEO is low Earth orbit (LEO) and is about 200 nautical miles above Earth. MEO
and LEO are not able to keep satellites ―stationary‖ like GEO, so more satellites would be
needed to cover a certain area. However, they transmit clearer signals because of their
relativelysmalldistanceeath

Fig 4.1 : Different communication orbits

 The electromagnetic signals that communication satellites work with have a large
spectrum of wavelengths and frequencies.
To keep these waves from interfering with one another, the United States and other
international organizations have certain rules and regulations describing which
wavelength a certain company or group can use. By separating out wavelengths,
communication satellites will have minimal interference and be able to communicate
effectively.

Medium - altitude satellites (in early 1960s) (LEO & MEO) have the advantages of:
1. Low launching cost
2. Higher payloads
3. Relatively short radio - frequency propagation times.
4. Requires low transmitting power due to smaller Path loss
Medium - altitude satellites have the disadvantage of:

• Need to track the satellite in orbit with tracking Earth Station and to transfer operation from
one satellite to another. Therefore no single satellite link is available at all times for stations in
the network.

4.2 Geosynchronous Earth orbit

A geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) is an orbit whose orbital period is equal to Earth's
rotational period
If such an orbit were in the plane of the equator and circular, it would remain stationary with respect
to a given point on the equator.
For the satellite to have such an orbital velocity, it needs to be at a height of about 36000km,
35786km to be precise, above the surface of the Earth.

A geostationary satellite must fulfill the following conditions:

1. It must have constant latitude, which is possible only at 0° latitude. (GEO plane must lie
in equatorial plane)
2. The orbit inclination (with respect to equatorial plane) should be zero.
3. It should have a constant longitude and thus have a uniform angular velocity, which is
possible when the orbit is circular.
4. The orbital period should be equal to 23 hours 56 minutes 4.1sec, which implies that the
satellite must orbit at a height of 35786 km above the surface of the Earth.
5. The satellite motion must be from west to east.

With these make GEO a unique orbit.

The use of Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) was first suggested by ARTHUR C. CLARKEin the
mid1940s.
4.2 Geosynchronous Earth orbit

A geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) is an orbit whose orbital period is equal to Earth's
rotational period
If such an orbit were in the plane of the equator and circular, it would remain stationary with respect
to a given point on the equator.
For the satellite to have such an orbital velocity, it needs to be at a height of about 36000km,
35786km to be precise, above the surface of the Earth.

A geostationary satellite must fulfill the following conditions:

6. It must have constant latitude, which is possible only at 0° latitude. (GEO plane must lie
in equatorial plane)
7. The orbit inclination (with respect to equatorial plane) should be zero.
8. It should have a constant longitude and thus have a uniform angular velocity, which is
possible when the orbit is circular.
9. The orbital period should be equal to 23 hours 56 minutes 4.1sec, which implies that the
satellite must orbit at a height of 35786 km above the surface of the Earth.
10. The satellite motion must be from west to east.
With these make GEO a unique orbit.

The use of Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) was first suggested by ARTHUR C. CLARKEin the
mid1940s.

Clarke stated:

―An artificial satellite at the correct distance from the earth could make one revolution every 24
hours, i.e., it would remain stationary above the same spot and would be within optical range of
nearly half of the earth‗s surface. Three repeater stations, 120 degrees apart in the correct orbit,
could give television and microwave coverage to the entire planet.‖
 Fig. 4.2 : Clarke Orbit

Fig. 4.3 : Position of Geostationary Satellite with respect to Earth

Sequence of Events in Early Orbit Phase (INSAT launching by ARIANE)

Fig. 4.4 : Sequence of events in early phase of satellite

Fig 4.5 : Geostationary satellites of ISRO in service

Fig 4.6 : Location of Geostationary satellites of ISRO

FOOT PRINT

Fig 4.7 : Foot Print of INSAT 3B

 Fig 4.8 : Satellite Link

4.2 TODAPUR EARTH STATION

The Earth Station mainly consists of three parts :

3) PORTA CABIN (Earth Station)

4) Compression Room (Encryption)
5) Monitoring Room (Real-time flow)
 Fig. 4.9 : Todapur Earth Station Satellites

There are 3 transmitter antennas and 21 receiver antennas working in C- band in Todapur Earth
Station.
 4.4 PITAMPURA TV TOWER

Digital Earth station c-band

System Overview :

1) System is meant for providing DTH (Direct to Home) Service of 10 Video channel and
06 radio services to Andaman and Nicobar Island using C-Band Signal.

2) These channels have DVD quality signal as entire processing is in Digital domain. The
downlink signal is to be received by 1.2 m antenna.

3) INSAT 4B Satellite which has a footprint on Andaman and Nicobar island for the
purpose. Is shown.

INSAT 4B

Fig. 4.10 : INSAT 4B coverage area

 Application

HPT Pitampura Site has following Functions for Providing TV &RADIO

channels of DVD quality :

1) Reception of Turn around T.V channel from Insat 3A , and 4B and radio ASI stream from
F.M radio section.
2) Combine These TV Channels and radio channels in digital mode.
3) Modulate and Transmit above channels to Insat 4B.
4) Monitoring of channels Down linked by INSAT 4B using 1.2 meter Antenna.

Introduction of 10+1Satellite Transmission

 The system is meant for up-linking of multiple Digital video channels (10 channels)&
radio channels in C-band to the Insat 4B satellite. Doordarshan transmits 10 digital TV &
6 Radio Channels using one transponder bandwidth.

 This is achieved by providing a digital uplink facility for 10-channel system with major
equipments in sufficient redundancy configuration
i.e. IRDs in (10+1) configuration Encoders in (10+1) configuration, while multiplexer,
modulator, upconverter, equalizer and HPA in (1+1) configuration. The channels
uplinked are derived using a C-Band Receive antenna along with LNBC & professional
Digital Satellite Receiver (IRD).
 Fig 4.12 : INSAT 4B satellite

. Service Details

Doordarshan Radio

1. DD National AIR VBS

2. DD News AIR Rainbow

2. DD Sports AIR Hindi

4. DD Bharti AIR Tamil

5. DD Bangla AIR Bangla

6. DD Podhigai AIR Punjabi

7. DD Saptagiri

8. DD Portblair

9. DD Malayalam

10. DD urdu
 . UPLINK AND DOWNLINK PARAMETERS

4.5 . TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

The system is functionally divided into four sections as mentioned below.

1) Satellite receiving system for receiving Turnaround channels

2) Compression/Base band Equipments

3) RF/Transmission Equipments

4) Monitoring Equipments
Fig 4.13 : Block Diagram of Earth Station
 5 CONCLUSION

The six week of summer training at ‗National Academy of Broadcasting and Multimedia‘
Broadcasting and multimedia has generated a lot more interest in my subject.
It made me more aware of the scope of electronic and communication engineering. It has
also made me appreciative of work environment.
I feel that without this opportunity my own understanding of the subject also the motivation
acquire more knowledge would have remainder incomplete.
The well, regarding future scope I think my training has given me enough motivation and
an exposure.
 5 Reference

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_station
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphone
 Communication by Simon haykin
 Ppt from the doordarshan.
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation