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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM  Mucous covers almost the entire luminal surface of the
3 Principal Functions: conducting portion
 Air Conduction  Produced by goblet cells and mucous secreting glands
 Air Filtration
 Gas Exchange (Respiration) NASAL PASSAGES
 paired chambers
Other Functions:  separated by a bony and cartilaginous septum
 Endocrine Functions  communicated anteriorly through anterior nares; posterior
 Hormone Production & Secretion with nasopharynx though the choanae; laterally with
 Regulation of Immune Responses paranasal sinuses and nasolacrimal duct

LUNGS DIVISIONS OF THE NASAL CHAMBER:

 ventral evagination of foregut thus the epithelium of the 1. NASAL VESTIBULE
respiratory system is ENDODERMAL in origin - stratifies squamous epithelium
 - contains sebaceous glands
Initial respiratory diverticulum grows into the thoracic mesenchyme 2. RESPIRATORY REGION
- bronchial cartilages, smooth muscle and other - lined by respiratory mucosa
connective tissue are derived - conchae / turbinates
- increases surface area causing turbulence in airflow to
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM allow air conditioning
Consists: 3. OLFACTORY REGION
 Paired lungs - lined by specialized olfactory mucosa
 Series of air passages
 Conducting Portion 5 CELL TYPES OF RESPIRATORY MUCOSA
 Air passages that leads to the site of respiration 1. CILIATED CELLS
 Has air conditioning function: - tall columnar cells with cilia
 Warming inhaled air
 Moistening 2. GOBLET CELLS
 Removal of particulate matter - synthesize and secrete mucus
 Respiratory Portion
3. BRUSH CELLS
CONDUCTING PASSAGES - general name for cells in the respiratory mucosa
1. NASAL CAVITIES - short, blunt microvilli
- 2 large airfilled spaces
4. SMALL GRANULE CELLS (Kulchitsky Cells)
2. NASOPHARYNX - contain secretory granules
- lies behind nasal cavities and above the level of soft
palate 5. BASAL CELLS
- stem cells where other cell types arise
3. LARYNX
- hollow tubular organ with cartilaginous framework, LAMINA PROPRIA OF RESPIRATORY MUCOSA
responsible for producing sounds  Rich vascular network
 Allows the inhaled air to be warmed by blood flowing
4. TRACHEA through the loop
- flexible air tube extending from larynx to the thorax COMMON COLD –same vessels engorged and become leaky;
- conduit for air marked swelling of the mucous membranes
 Contains mucous glands
5. MAIN BRONCHI  Supplements the goblet cells
- enters the roof of the right and left lung
OLFACTORY REGION
6. BRONCHIOLES  located on the dome of each nasal cavity and the
- represents the terminal part of the conducting system contiguous lateral and medial nasal walls
 lined by specialized olfactory mucosa
7. BRONCHIAL TREE  in humans, total surface area is 10cm2 while in dogs it’s
- collective term for internal bronchi and bronchioles 150cm2
 lamina propria is directly contiguous with periosteum
RESPIRATORY PORTION  connective tissue contains numerous blood and
1. RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES lymphatic vessels, unmyelinated olfactory nerves,
- air conduction and gas exchange myelinated nerves, olfactory nerves
 no goblet cells
2. ALVEOLAR DUCTS
- elongated airways formed from confluent openings to CELL TYPES OF OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM
alveoli 1. OLFACTORY RECEPTOR CELLS
- bipolar neurons with cilia
3. ALVEOLAR SACS - the collection of axons from olfactory receptor cells
- spaces surrounded by clusters of alveoli form cranial nerve I
- the only neurons of the nervous system that are
4. ALVEOLI replaced in the postnatal life
- primary site of gas exchange
2. SUPPORTING / SUSTENTACULAR CELLS
 Blood vessels enter the lung with the bronchi. - columnar cells similar to neuroglia cells, lipofuscin
 Mucous and Serous secretions plays a major role in granules
conditioning process - provides mechanical and metabolic support to the
 Prevents dehydration of the underlying epithelium olfactory receptor cells
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- synthesize and secrete odorant binding proteins
(OBP) TRACHEA
 small water soluble proteins acting as  short flexible air tube
molecular carriers delivering it to the  2.5cm diameter, 10cm length
olfactory receptors  Assists in conditioning inspired air
 Extends from the larynx to the middle of thorax
3. BASAL CELLS
- stem cells, progenitor of mature cell types 4 LAYERS OF THE TRACHEAL WALL
- small rounded cells located close to basal lamina  MUCOSA
- nuclei are invaginated lying below the nuclei of the  Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium
olfactory receptor cells  Elastic, fiber-rich lamina propria
- cytoplasm contain few organelles  SUBMUCOSA
 Slightly denser connective tissue than the lamina propria
4. BRUSH CELLS  CARTILAGINOUS LAYER
- same as that of the respiratory epithelium  C-shaped hyaline cartilages
- columnar cells specialized for transduction of general  ADVENTITIA
sensation  Connective tissue that binds trachea to adjacent structures
- large blunt microvilli at apical surface  Outer layer contains largest blood vessels, nerves and
- basal surface is a synaptic contact with nerve fibers lymphatics
 terminal branches of Trigeminal nerve CN V Fibroelastic tissue and smooth muscle (trachealis muscle) bridge
the gap between the free ends of the C-shaped cartilage
GLANDS OF OLFACTORY MUCOSA
 OLFACTORY GLANDS (Bowman’s Glands) PRINCIPAL CELLS OF THE TRACHEAL EPITHELIUM
 Characteristic feature of the mucosa  CILIATED CELLS
 Serous glands that deliver proteinaceous secretions via  Most numerous extending the full thickness epithelium
ducts unto the olfactory surface  Mucociliary escalator
 Lipofuscin granules are prominent  Important protective mechanism in removing small
 Gives the yellow brown coloration of the mucosa inhaled particles from the lungs
 MUCOUS CELLS
PARANASAL SINUSES  Similar appearance to intestinal goblet cells
 extension of the respiratory region of nasal cavity  Interspersed among ciliated cells
 lined by respiratory epithelium  Contains mucinogen granules in cytoplasm
 ethmoid, frontal, sphenoid, maxillary  BRUSH CELLS
 numerous goblet cells  Columnar cells with blunt microvilli
 Basal surface is an epitheliodendritic synapse
PHARYNX  Regarded as a receptor cell
 Connects the nasal and oral cavities to the larynx and  SMALL GRANULE CELLS (Kulchitsky Cells)
esophagus  Enteroendocrine cells
 Passageway for air and food  Occur singly in the trachea
 Acts as resonating chamber for speech  Difficult to distinguish from basal cells without doing silver
2 DIVISIONS: staining
 Nasopharynx  Secretes catecholamine and polypeptide hormones:
 Oropharynx  Serotonin
 Calcitonin
AUDITORY OR EUSTACHIAN TUBE  Gastrin Releasing Peptide
- connects the nasopharynx to the middle ear  BASAL CELLS
PHARYNGEAL TONSIL  Reserve cell population
- lymphatic nodules at the junction between superior  Tend to be prominent because its nuclei to form a row in
and posterior pharyngeal wall close proximity to basal lamina

LARYNX TRACHEAL BASEMENT MEMBRANE

 air passage between the oropharynx and the trachea
 formed by irregularly shaped plates of hyaline and elastic
cartilage
 organ for sound production
 lined by stratified squamous and pseudostratifies
ciliated columnar epithelium
 thick basement membrane
 appears as a glass of homogenous light staining layer
 consist of densely packed collagenous fibers
In Smokers:
- Chronic coughing, this layer becomes thicker as a
response to mucosal irritation

VOCAL FOLD TRACHEAL LAMINA PROPRIA

- structure controlling airflow through the larynx  loose connective tissue
- vibrated to produce sound  very cellular containing numerous lymphocytes, plasma
- Vocal Cords cells, mast cells, eosinophils, fibroblast
 2 folds of mucosa projecting into the  lymphatic tissue (both diffuse and nodular form) are
lumen present
- Vocalis Muscle TRACHEAL CARTILAGE AND TRACHEALIS MUSCLE
 A supporting ligament and skeletal - these separates the submucosa from adventitia
muscle TRACHEAL CARTILAGE
- 16 – 20 in number
ACUTE LARYNGITIS - Provides flexibility and maintains patency of the lumen
- inflammation of the larynx - With age, hyaline cartilage maybe partially replaced
- manifest as hoarseness to total loss of voice by bony tissue
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 this structure is a distal branch of respiratory bronchioles
 the number of alveolar openings in the bronchiolar wall
BRONCHIAL TREE AND THE LUNG increases as it proceeds distally
BRONCHI  both alveolar ducts and alveoli are lined with extremely
 from the trachea divides into 2 branches left and right attenuated squamous alveolar cells
RIGHT BRONCHI LEFT BRONCHI  Lamina propria surrounding the alveolar rim is a thin
 3 lobes  2 lobes network of smooth muscle cells which disappear at the
 3 lobar bronchus  2 lobar bronchus distal end of the alveolar ducts
 10 bronchopulmonary  8 bronchopulmonary  A rich matrix of elastic and collagen fibers provides the
segments segments only support of the duct and alveoli
 10 segmental bronchi  8 segmental branches  Open into the atria of 2 or more alveolar sacs
 each primary bronchus progressively until it becomes  Elastic and reticular fibers from a network encircling the
smaller reaching a diameter of 5mm opening of the atria
 mucosa of larger bronchi is structurally similar to the
trachea except fot he organization of the cartilage and ALVEOLAR DUCTS AND SACS
smooth muscle cartilage rings completely encircle the  Elastic Fibers
lumen in the primary bronchi but is gradually replaced with  Enable the alveoli to expand with inspiration and to contract
isolated plates of hyaline cartilage passively with expiration
 abundant mucous and serous glands with ducts opening  Reticular FIbers
into the bronchial lumen  serves as support that prevents over distention and
 bronchial LP damage to the delicate capillaries and thin alveolar septa
 a layer of crisscrossing bundles of spirally arranged
smooth muscle becoming more prominent in ALVEOLI
smaller branches  saclike evaginations about 200mm in diameter
 responsible for the spongy structure of the lunds
BRONCHIOLES  in this structures, O2 and CO2 are exchanged between the
 intralobular airways with a diameter of 5mm or less formed air and the blood
after the 10th generation of branching  air in the alveoli is separated from capillary blood by 3
 no cartilage or glands components referred collectively as respiratory
 in larger bronchioles, the mucosa is still ciliated membrane / blood air barrier”
pseudostratifies columnar and decreases in height and  surface lining and cytoplasm of alveolar cells
complexity to become simple columnar or cuboidal  fused basal laminae of the closely opposed alveolar
epithelium cells and capillary endothelial cells
 contains numerous columnar cells = exocrine / clara  cytoplasm of endothelial cells
cells
 CLARA CELLS
 Secretes surfactant component and have various ALVEOLAR CELLS
important defensive roles  CAPILLARY ENDOTHELIAL CELLS
 also contains neuroendocrine cells producing serotonin  extremely thin and can be easily confused by type 1
and other peptides that helps control the tone of the local alveolar epithelial cells
smooth muscle  clustering of the nuclei and other organelles allows the
 Neuroepithelial bodies are also found in the bronchioles remaining areas of the cell to be extremely thin
and the bronchial tree increasing the efficiency of gas exchange
 Innervated by the autonomic and sensory fibers and  the most prominent feature of the cytoplasm in the
some of these cells functions as chemosensory receptors flattened portions of the cells are the numerous
in monitoring air O2 levels pinocytic vesicles

BRONCHIOLAR LAMINA PROPRIA  TYPE 1 ALVEOLAR CELLS

- composed largely of smooth muscle cells and
elastic fibers
- innervated by the vagus nerve and the sympathetic
nervous system in addition to the neuroendocrine
peptides
 Vagal Stimulation decreases diameter
of bronchioles
 SN ending Stimulation increases
diameter of bronchioles
RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES
 each terminal bronchiole subdivides into 2 or more
respiratory bronchioles that serves as transition region
between the conducting and respiratory portion of the
respiratory system
 mucosa is the same as the terminal bronchiole except that
the walls are interrupted by the saclike openings called
alveoli
 at the rim of the alveolar openings, the bronchiolar
epithelium becomes continuous with the squamous
alveolar lining cells
 ALVEOLAR CELLS TYPE 1
 Smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue lies
between the epithelium of respiratory bronchioles
ALVEOLAR DUCTS
 Type 1 pneumocytes / squamous alveolar cells
 Main role: to provide a barrier of minimal thickness
that is readily permeable to gases
 Lines alveolar surfaces; covers 97%
 Very thin 25mm
 Organelles (golgi apparatus, ER, mitochondria) are
grouped around the nucleus leaving large areas of
cytoplasm
 Have occluding junctions that prevents leakage of
tissue fluid into the alveolar air space
 TYPE 2 ALVEOLAR CELLS
 Rest on the basement membrane and are part of the
epithelium
 Histologically: exhibit a characteristic vesicular or
foamy cytoplasm because of (+) of lamellar bodies
 Lamellar Bodies contains:
 Phospholipids, Glycosaminoglycans and Proteins
 Give rise to material that provides extracellular
coating od the alveolar surfaces that lowers
surface tension  pulmonary surfactant
 ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES
 Also called dust cells / heart failure cells
 Found in alveoli; interalveolar septum

 In the lung: cells appear slightly darker due to the
content of dust, CO2 from air and hemosiderin
PULMONARY VASCULATURE AND NERVES
 circulation in the lungs includes both nutrient (systemic)
and functional (pulmonary) vessels  arteries and veins
 arteriole leaves
Thin walled due to low pressure about
25mm systolic and 5mm diastolic
 within the lung: pulmonary arterial branches accompanies
the bronchial tree
 at the alveolar duct level: supplied by the branches of
the artery from the capillary network in the interalveolar
septum and in the alveoli
 the lymphatic vessels originates in the connective tissue
of bronchioles
 they follow the bronchioles, bronchi and pulmonary
vessels and all drain into the lymph nodes in the hilum
DEEP NETWORK: lymphatic network
SUPERFICIAL NETWORK: lymphatic vessels in the visceral pleura
URINARY SYSTEM
 filtration of cellular wastes from the blood
 selective reabsorption of water and electrolytes
 excretion of wastes and excess water as urine
 endocrine function: synthesis and secretion of:
 Erythropoietin
 Renin
 25 OH Vitamin D3
KIDNEYS
 posteriorly located on each side of the vertebral column
 Right Kidney is slightly inferior than the left
 11cm in length, 6cm breadth, 3cm in AP diameter
 Weighs an average of 150g in men; 135g in women
 Concave medial border = hilum
 Convex lateral surface covered by thin fibrous capsule
 The expanded upper end of the ureter (renal pelvis)
divides into 2- 3 renal calyces further subdivides into minor
calyces
 Renal sinus – area surrounding the calyces containing
adipose tissue
 Cortex
 outer part
 Medulla
 inner part
 consists of 8 -15 conical structures called the renal
pyramids separated by cortical extensions known as
renal columns
 Renal Lobe
 Pyramid
 Cortical tissue at the base
 Each kidney contains 1.5 – 2 million functional units called
nephron
MAJOR PARTS OF THE NEPHRON
 RENAL CORPUSCLE
 PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE
 THIN AND THICK DESCENDING LIMB
 DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE
 COLLECTING TUBULE
RENAL CORPUSCLE
 Contains a loose knot of capillaries = Glomerulus
 Surrounded by a double walled epithelial capsule known as
the Bowman’s Capsule
 Internal visceral layer envelopes the glomerular
capillaries
 External parietal capsule forms the outer surface of
the capsule
 Lined by simple squamous epithelium supported
by basal lamina and thin layer of reticular fibers
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 Capsular / urinary space
 The structure in between the two capsules
 Receives the fluid filtered though the capillary wall and
visceral layer
 each renal corpuscle has a
 VASCULAR POLE
 Where the afferent arteriole enters and efferent
 TUBULAR POLE
 Where the proximal convoluted tubule begins
 Simple cuboidal epithelium characteristic of the
PCT
 the cells of the parietal / visceral layer are called
podocytes
 have cell bodies that subdivides into:
 PRIMARY FOOT PROCESSES
 SECONDARY FOOT PROCESSES (pedicels)
 Lies in contact with the basement
membrane spaces called filtration slits
Spanning adjacent processed and bridging filtration slits is a thin
semipermeable diaphragm of uniform thickness = slit diaphragms
SLIT DIAPHRAGMS
- highly specialized intercellular junctions in which large
transmembrane protein nephrin is important both
structurally and functionally
between the highly fenestrated endothelial cells of the capillaries and
covering podocytes is the thick glomerular basement membrane
GLOMERULAR BASEMENT MEMBRANE
- most important part of the filtration barrier separating
the blood in the capillaries from the capsular space
- selective macromolecular barrier which acts as a filter
and as a barrier against negatively charged particles
Medical Application:
When the glomerular filter is altered, its becomes more
permeable to proteins resulting to release of proteins in the urine.
Proteinuria = seen in DM and Glomerulonephritis
 Glomerular capillaries are uniquely situated between the afferent
and efferent arterioles, the muscles of which allows hydrostatic
pressure favoring movement of plasma across the glomerular
filter
 Glomerular Filtration Rate = 125 ml/minute = 180 liters/day
 Regulated by neural and hormonal inputs
 Renal Corpuscle
 Also have mesanglial cells in addition to podocytes and
endothelial cells
 Mesanglial Cells
 Difficult to distinguish from podocytes
 These cells fill the interstices between capillaries that lack
podocytes
MESANGLIAL CELLS
Functions:
 Physical Support and contraction of the glomerulus
 Phagocytosis – eat up protein aggregates that adhere to the
glomerular filter
 Secretion – synthesize and secrete cytokines, prostaglandins
and other important factors for immune defense and repair of
the glomerulus
PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE
 longer than the distal convoluted tubule
 cells have acidophilic cytoplasm due to (+) of abundant
mitochondria
 cell apex have abundant long microvilli forming a prominent
brush border used for reabsorption
 abundant capillaries and other microvascular components
 apical cytoplasm has numerous pits and vesicles near the
base
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 long basement membrane invaginations and lateral  Basal Cells
interdigitations with neighboring cells  Na, K, ATPase  Single layer resting on very thin basement membrane
pump  Columnar Cells
 cells can also move substances from the peritubular  Intermediate region
capillaries to the tubular lumen  tubular secretion  Superficial Cells
Tubular Secretion  Umbrella cells (large, polyhedral or bulbous cells)
- organic anions like choline, creatinine and some  Well developed in the bladder where contact with urine is
compounds like penicillin are excreted in this manner greatest
Main Role of PCT:
- active reabsorption of all glucose and amino acids and BLADDER, URETHRA
85% of the NaCl and other ions  The bladders lamina propria and dense irregular
connective tissue are highly vascularised
NEPHRON LOOP OF HENLE  The muscularis contains 3 layers: detrussor muscle
 U shaped structure with a descending limb and ascending  Urethra – mucosa have large longitudinal folds giving it a
limb distinct appearance
 Simple cuboidal in the cortex becoming squamous in the  In men, the 2 ducts for sperm transport join the urethra at
medulla the prostate gland
 1/8 of all nephrons are located in the corticomedullary 3 SEGMENTS OF MALE URETHRA
junction and are therefore called juxtamedullary nephron  Prostatic
(important in the production of concentrated, hypertonic  Lined by urothelium
urine)  3 – 4 cm long
 Cuboidal cells of the ascending limb actively transport NaCl  Membranous
out of the tubule against a concentration gradient  Short segment
 Squamous cells of the descending limb are freely  Striated muscle lined by columnar and pseudostratified
permeable to water but not to salts and opposite for the epithelium
ascending limb  Spongy
 The flow of filtrate in these 2 loops establishes a gradient of  15cm long
osmolarity in the medullary pyramids  Stratified columnar and pseudostratified epithelium

LOOP OF HENLE URETHRA

 high interstitial osmolarity draws water from the collecting  In women: urethra is exclusively a urinary organ
ducts making a concentrated urine  4 – 5 cm long
 water permeability of the collecting ducts is increased by  Transitional Epithelium
ADH when body water is low  Middle part surrounded by external striated muscle
 Countercurrent multiplier effect sphincter
 Role of the nephron loop and vasa recta in
establishing conditions for urine concentration

DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE

 simple cuboidal cells but differ from PCT because smaller
and no brush border
 cells have basal membrane invaginations and the
associated mitochondria similar to the PCT indicating
similar ion transport function
 the rate of Na+ absorption and K+ secretion is regulated by
aldosterone and is important for the body’s water salt
balance
 also secretes H+ and NH4 into tubular urine essential for
maintaining acid-base balance
 the straight part of the DCT makes contact with the
vascular pole of the renal corpuscle and forms part of a
specialized structure called juxtaglomerular apparatus
 function: autoregulation of the GFR controlling BP
 juxtaglomerular apparatus:
 columnar cells closely packed with apical nuclei, golgi
complex, ion channels and transporters

COLLECTING TUBULES AND DUCTS

 Urine passes from the DCT to collecting tubules which join
together to form larger straight collecting ducts
 Collecting ducts runs to the tip of the medullary pyramid to
empty into the minor calyces
 Simple cuboidal epithelium
 Composed mainly of weakly staining principal cells with
microvilli
 Cells are rich in aquaporins
 Cell membrane proteins that functions as selective
pores for passage of water molecules

URETERS, BLADDER, URETHRA

 Calyces, Pelvis, Ureter, Bladder have same histological
structure becoming thicker closer to the bladder
 Transitional epithelium / urothelium
3 LAYERS OF UROTHELIUM