Surname

Nursing and pharmacology

Name
Institutional affiliation
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Contents
Chapter 3 ......................................................................................................................................... 3
Drug-Induced Liver Injury .......................................................................................................... 3
Nurse intervention ................................................................................................................... 3
Drug-induced Kidney diseases .................................................................................................... 4
Nurse intervention ................................................................................................................... 4
Drug induced vascular diseases................................................................................................... 4
Nurse intervention ................................................................................................................... 5
Drug-induced lung injury ............................................................................................................ 5
Nurse’s interventions ............................................................................................................... 5
Drug-associated renal dysfunction and injury............................................................................. 5
Interventions of the nurse................................................................................................................ 6
Assessment of patients receiving drug therapy ........................................................................... 6
Nursing focus: patient receiving warfarin (Coumadin) ........................................................... 6
Chapter 4: nursing process in drug therapy and patient safety ....................................................... 6
Plan for hypertension medication and anti-cholesterol medication ............................................ 6
Chapter 5: dosage calculations........................................................................................................ 8
Measuring systems used in drug therapy .................................................................................... 8
Reasons why children need different dosages of medication than adults ................................... 9
Pharmaceutical dosage calculations examples .......................................................................... 10
Pediatric calculation .................................................................................................................. 12
Common medication errors ....................................................................................................... 12
Solutions for the medication errors ........................................................................................... 13
Chapter 7: introduction to cell physiology.................................................................................... 13
How cell membrane helps control homeostasis ........................................................................ 13
Diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion ............................................................................. 14
Diffusion and facilitated diffusion ......................................................................................... 14
Osmosis ................................................................................................................................. 16
Cites .............................................................................................................................................. 17
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Chapter 3

These are disorders and conditions which arise as a result of consumption of certain medicine for
a long time. The following are examples of the disorders which are commonly found to affect
human beings and are associated with the consumption of certain curing, or prevention drugs.

Drug-Induced Liver Injury

The main functions of the liver in humans and other animals are to break down food, beverages
and other substances like medicine. Medicines include the drugs which are ingested in order to
cure, prevent diseases, and also for other purposes like weight loss. In some cases, liver damages
occur with intake of medicines of a certain kind or even when an overdose is taken. This comes
out because of damage which occurs in the liver cells making them to unmorally work or even
stop to work becoming a problem to a patient. However, in some cases, it is found that liver
injury occurs even with normal dose intake.
There are two types of known hepatotoxicity:
One is predicted which is also found to be dose dependent while the other is unpredicted which
is found to be drug dependent. The danger behind this kind of injury is that the tissue sometimes
sustains injury before even your body starts to show any malfunctioning. Symptoms include
yellowing of skin (jaundice) and itchy rash. Hepatotoxicity symptoms may share common
characteristics with other liver diseases like liver cirrhosis and many others.
Your liver tissue often sustains injury before your body shows signs of malfunction. Symptoms
may include jaundice (yellowing of the skin) and an itchy rash. Hepatotoxicity symptoms may
share common characteristics of other liver diseases, such as cirrhosis. People are therefore
warned not to take liver cell destroying medicines like the over counter pills which may destroy
the liver cells. This comes out after it has been found that most over the counter drugs are taken
in overdose.
The following are the medicines which are found to often cause liver diseases:
These drugs are Antibiotics, Antidepressants, Chemotherapy agents, Herbal supplements,
Dietary supplements, Muscle-enhancing supplements, and Weight-loss pills.
It has been very hard for many years to diagnose Drug-induced liver injury. The condition is
often mislabeled as another liver condition. Symptoms can appear in ways which has led to
mislabeling of the conditions with other conditions like hepatitis C and other diseases. With this
regard, patients are therefore advised to pinpoint their conditions in order to make sure that there
is no further liver injury which may worsen the situation in hand.

Nurse intervention

1. Monitor the liver condition after every 1-2 hours of drug administering. This is done in
order to know how the patient is fairing after every treatment. From the conditions
observed in every monitoring period, the nurse will be able to take any positive action in
order to make sure that the patient is under control.
2. Advice the client to avoid taking alcohol, and smoking because smoking and alcoholism
may lead to severe conditions of the same. It is then very advisable for the patient to
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make sure that he or she leaves the consumption of these drugs in order to start
recovering.
3. Advice the client of the caretaker on the measurement of drugs to avoid over dosage or
under dosages. This is very important to do in order to make sure there is considerable
progress seen. Most of the times, it is found that the patients of their care takers misuse
the drugs by taking under dose or overdose. This will thus bring about the true imp[act of
the drugs administered on the patient and hence the required judgment is produced for the
goodness of the patient.
Drug-induced Kidney diseases
With the increase in the number of drugs produced and the presence of a wide variety of over-
the-counter drugs, there are increased numbers of kidney diseases which can be associated to this
factor. The nephrotoxicity caused by these drugs are found to be fatal and it has caused death of
many.
These kidney diseases can be associated with overdose or frequent use of certain medications
which compromises the working effect of the human kidneys thus leading to the disorders which
arise. It is a complicated situation but people are advised not to misuse drugs and also to avoid
usage of over the counter drugs which may bring them problems in the process.

Nurse intervention

1. Monitor the kidney status every 3 hours of active titration. In the same way, this is done
in order to make sure that any changes which take place sure noticed in time and the
patients progress is managed all through the medication time thus the chances of the
disease getting out of control will be minimized.
2. Advise the client to avoid the use of unnecessary drugs. Some patient is found to use
other drugs which they believe supplement the medication process. Doing this may
worsen the kidney problems which the patient is going through and may lead to loss of
life. The nurse should make sure that he intervenes correctly through advice and
counseling in order to make sure that the patient leaves consumption of such products to
control the state of his or her health.
3. Encourage the client to take a lot of water. Water is one of the requirements which is
needed for transportation of the drugs taken faster. Sufficient water should therefore be
taken in order to make sure that the patient will become well easily.
4. Advice the client to avoid excessive drinking of alcohol. Consumption of alcohol may
worsen the condition or even lead to other kidney conditions. The client should therefore
be made to understand the meaning of alcohol to his health at the stage where he or she is
in.
Drug induced vascular diseases
Vascular conditions sometimes found to present themselves in a complicated way. This is
whereby; it may be associated to various things which happen. These diseases are known
clinically as pulmonary edema which may cause various damages to other tissues of the body of
a person. In a worse state, the problem may also present itself in form of other diseases like
pulmonary vascular occlusion, hypertension and so on. These conditions are widely associated
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with prolonged use of over the counter and prescription medicines. It is very dangerous when
someone finds himself or herself in such a condition.

Nurse intervention

1. Note the changes in the pulmonary system every 3 hours of active drug administration in
order to make sure that the patient is faring well and if the contrary is taking place,
appropriate communication should be done between his or her office and that of the
senior doctors.
2. Encourage the patient to take maximum rest after a physical exercise in order to make
sure the patient gets healthier with time and that the patient’s drugs are absorbed well into
the system of the body.
3. Maintain the BP at required limits to avoid hypertension and cardiac output. This can be
done by the use of the pressure measuring instruments well in order to control the
conditions under which patients go through. This is required because if the patient gets
out of control and the pressure goes above the limit required, bursting of the veins may
occur which is a bad experience and the patient may be lost.
4. Advice patient to avoid drinks that contain caffeine, coke and chocolates
5. Teach the patient and the parent the correct measurement of drugs so to promote drug
efficiency
Drug-induced lung injury
Lung injury has increasingly become a cause of death to students who undergo treatment by the
use of various drugs in the hospitals. In that regard, it is found to be very important to diagnose
these injuries in order to bring in therapy and make sure that the patient is saved from death. The
diagnosis process is done using highly indexed devices which give very accurate and fine results.

Nurse’s interventions

One of the ways in which the nurse can make sure that there is proper intervention is by making
sure that he or she puts in the right monitoring and follow up on progress of the client in place in
order to make sure that there is no loss of direction and control of the patient. This can be done
by making sure that he or she gives visiting the patient in a regular basis and also by making sure
that there is continuous assessment of the wellbeing of the patient.
Another way of making sure that there is progress in the patient’s life is by making sure that he
puts in quality monitoring on the patient’s administration of medication and also making sure
that there it is taken on time. This will make it a good fight against the disease.
Drug-associated renal dysfunction and injury

Renal injury after medication has been found to be common. This can lead to the failure of the
renal itself. Some drugs lead to loss of filtration capacity and perfusion. Other drugs injure
associated disuses like the tubular tissues which lead to specific loss of renal functions. This
therefor endangers the lives of the patients in hand and it needs to be dealt with on time.
Detection should be done in early stages of this disorder in order to make sure that there is no
loss of their patient and that the patient is will have a chance of stabilizing again.
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Interventions of the nurse

Nurses should make sure that they bring the situation into attention of the doctors when they
notice the symptoms while they are still taking care of the patients under them. This will make
sure that the patients receive quick checkups to ascertain what they are going though and thus
make them get the situation in control.

Another nursing intervention is to make sure that they monitor the progress of the patient while
they are undergoing therapy. This will at the end make sure that there is continuous improvement
of the patient and at the end; the patient will be able to stabilize.

Assessment of patients receiving drug therapy

Nursing focus: patient receiving warfarin (Coumadin)

Assessment
The complete history of the patient is
acquired in case of allergies, the history of
drugs and the history of how the body
reacts to medications
Access available coagulation studies to
provide guidelines on the levels of albumin
Identify any history of bleeding in case of
developed bleeding disorder
Find and understand histories of
medication in order to base administration
of drugs on the same history and change
drugs if resistance occurs.
Rationale
Keep a closer eye on the patient in case of
bleeding provide the necessary aid
Monitor the blood pressure and pulse rate
and ensure that the two are maintained at
the acceptable limits normal or almost
normal
Ensure proper administration of drugs
Advice patients on the correct dosage and
measurements and monitor continuously
the medication done the patients
themselves.

Chapter 4: nursing process in drug therapy and patient safety

Hypertension is high blood pressure that exposes the body to the risk of heart disease and kidney
disease. Factors that normally result in hypertension include alcoholism, smoking, history of
hypertension in the family and obesity. Hypertension is normally treated using beta blockers.
While on the other hand ant cholesterol medications are the medicines that are used to lower
cholesterol levels in the body (Shaw, and Leslee 1283-1291)
Plan for hypertension medication and anti-cholesterol medication
ASSESSMENT DIAGNOSIS PLANNING INTERVENTION EVALUATION
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Subjective: X Hypertension STG: this Monitor blood There was no

Objective: rate is should be pressure changes elevation in
1)To decrease lowered and administered every 2-3 hours blood pressure
cardiac output cardiac after 5 hours and during active after 6 hours of
which may output is of nursing titration of drugs nursing
eventually reduced as a intervention BP should be intervention.
cause cardiac result of at this point monitored every 5 The client
arrest decrease in the patient minutes blood pressure
2)To decrease stroke will have Monitor ECG for is above normal
the chances of volume blood changes in heart and maintaining
stroke Cholesterol pressure beating rates. within the
3)To increase level of the above the The client is require limits is
the resistance client is normal and suggested acceptable by
of peripheral reduced can be frequent position the nursing
vascular maintained changes team.
4) to control within the The patient is The cholesterol
and maintain required advised not to level is
the BP at limits. take drinks decreased and
normal rate LTG containing is maintained
5) reduce the administration caffeine, cola and within the
level of is done after chocolates normal limit.
cholesterol 3days of Administer drugs The objective
The results nursing as prescribed by is finally
taken for the intervention the physician achieved
VS and the this Advice parents
T: 37.4 will lower and the client on
PR:82 hypertension the measurement
RR;17 and cardiac of the client in
BP:182/99 output order to be certain
. anti- about the dose.
cholesterol Encourage the
administration client to promote
is done after 5 quick healing
hours of nurse When fluid
intervention retention
decreases the
cardiac output can
improve in case
of restriction
taken by the
client.
Encourage client
to take drugs
seriously to
promote drug
effectiveness dose
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Encourage client
to reduce the
consumption of
too much oils
Advice the client
to do a lot of
physical exercise

Chapter 5: dosage calculations

Measuring systems used in drug therapy

The first measuring system that is used in drug therapy is the apothecary system. Apothecary is
a Greek word which refers to the first person who discovered drugs and dispensed the drugs as
well. This system was first introduced in England in 1700s. The liquid measurements such as
pint, quart and gallon are examples of apothecary that are still used until today. The drug doses
used in apothecary measurement include scruple, grain, minim and the dram. The average weight
of wheat is the factor that determines the standard grain of the drug doses to be administered. In
apothecary systems roman numbers are usually used in hand written prescriptions. The
apothecary system has been replaced by metric system because it is less complicated and less
cumbersome compared to the apothecary system. However, this system is still used in the
measurement of both pharmaceutical and non-pharmaceuticals products especially in the
measurement of fluid ounce and gallon.
The second measuring system is the metric system. This is a system that is used to measure
weights and it is used for universal scientific use. One assumption of the metric system is that
light travels in a vacuum. The international system of units used in metric measuring system is
meter. The weight unit is the gram measured in cubic centimeters. The volume unit is liters or
cubic decimeter. Metric system is commonly used in pharmacy because of the use of decimal
system and other measurements used in the system can be easily generated as a 10nth basic unit
that can be multiplied. The process of converting larger units to smaller units and vice versa can
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be done by just moving the decimal point to the required number of decimal places from left
towards the right direction and moving from right to left when converting from the small units to
the large units of measurements.
The third measuring system is known as the avoirdupois system. This system is only used in the
measurement of weight. The basic unit of the avoirdupois is the grain. Apothecary system is
similar to the avoirdupois system because the basic unit of both the systems is the grain but the
difference is that the pound weight and symbols are not the same. The avoirdupois system is
used to measure the weight of chemicals that are bought and sold in the pharmaceuticals. The
most appropriate reason for weighing chemicals using the avoirdupois system is for prescription
and medication orders made in the pharmaceuticals.
The fourth measurement system is the imperial British system. This is a tradition measuring
system that was first developed in Britain in 1824. This system was commonly used until the
metric system took over. The imperial system was developed as a result of the weights and
measures Act of 1824 so that it can be used in the definition of existing specific units that are
commonly used in the British pharmaceuticals. The common basic units of the imperial system
of measurements are the imperial standard yard and the troy pound and the two basic units were
used specifically in the measurement of the weights of drugs and metals. This measuring system
was useful in weighing drugs before the existence of the metric measuring system.
The most preferred measuring system of the four systems is the metric system. This is mainly
because the system allows the use of decimals points unlike the other systems. Another thing that
makes the metric system to be more preferable over the others is the fact that it allows changes to
be made in the decimal point to the number of decimals needed by the pharmaceuticals. The
number of decimals is in the form of 10nth so changing from large units to smaller units is
possible. It is also less cumbersome compared to other system and conducting measurements
using the metric system is easy and it takes less time for the results to be ready. Metric
measurement system also allows for easy and quick conversion of units between different types
of measures at a given time, this factor makes it more useful than the other measurement
systems.
Reasons why children need different dosages of medication than adults
There is a very huge gap between children and adults in the response to drugs that is why a lot of
care is required to ensure that drug prescription for children is done so keenly and accurately to
prevent negative response or the development of complexity in the child’s body. When a child is
too young it is proper to give the correct dosage of medication. From the look of things it is clear
that children response to drugs is so sensitive and it requires constant observation by the parent,
nurse or guardian.
The disposition of drugs in children is found to be affected by some factors as follows. The first
factor is the oral absorption of the drugs and this factor also happens to be one of the reasons
why different dosages in medication are given to children. This affects disposition of drugs
because gastric emptying in children is likely to be prolonged in children than in adults also and
as a result the gastric ph. value in children is lower than that in adults this reason requires the
pharmaceuticals attention in prescribing drugs to children. Because of low gastric ph. level over
dosing may lead to ulceration in children due to corrosion caused by the drugs administered.
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Corrosion in children is faster than in adults because gastric emptying in children is slow and
their gastric ph. Level is also low.
Another reason why children require different dosages of medication is the fluid distribution in
the body. The water and extracellular fluids normally decreases as one grows old that is why
children require different dosages of soluble drugs than adults. It is also a fact that the amount of
plasma protein in children is little because of the presence of low levels of albumin and globulins
this will cause drugs displacement in children body due to the low level of albumin and as a
result children require different dosages of medication that will work positively in their system.
Metabolism rate is higher in children than in adults yet enzyme take time to mature. Normally
enzymes are absent at birth or are there in very little amounts. Some drugs may appear to
interfere with the normal body metabolism of children that is why children Enzyme systems
mature at different times and may be absent at birth, or present in considerably reduced amounts.
Children therefore require a high level of doses and they should be given dosages of medication
more frequently than adults.
Another factor that leads to children having different dosage of medication than adults is
excretion. The excretory system of children is less developed than that of adults. Prescribing
children with the wrong drugs may cause complications that can be difficult to cure it is therefore
necessary to prescribe children with the right dosages that will help in the development of the
renal system. The fluid form of drugs o tablets in children because tablet may require the
addition of liquids to dissolve and the child might not be able to finish the whole content and will
result in under dosage which can be dangerous to the child.
Pharmaceutical dosage calculations examples
a.) Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan) 50 mg tablets are used in the treatment of neoplasms (abnormal
growths or tumors) and have a recommended dose of 5 mg/kg of body weight to be given in a
single dose daily. How many tablets should be dispensed to a 110-lb patient as a ten-day
regimen? (NOTE: A regimen is a treatment plan.).MD0802 3-3
(1)Find the dose for the patient in milligrams:
(5 mg X mg)/1 kg (2.2 lbs) = 110 lbs
2.2X = 550X
= 550 /2.2X =250 mg per dose
NOTE: 1 kg was changed to 2.2 lbs. so that corresponding units of the proportion are the same.
(2) Find the number of tablets to be dispensed per day:
1 tab/50 mg = X tab/ 250 mg
X = 250/50 = 5 tablets per day
(3) Times 10 days:
10 x 5 tablets = 50 tablets required for a ten day regimen.
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b) The dosage ordered is 0.1 mg once a day. Dosage strength is 50 mcg per tablet.
Find the desired dose.
The drug is measured in milligrams on the drug order and
Micrograms on the drug label. The units for the desired dose must match those found on the drug
label, which means that we must convert 0.1 mgto micrograms.
Follow the steps of Procedure
1. Start by converting units to micrograms, micrograms must appear in the numerator of the
conversion factor. The conversion factor is 1000 mcg/1 mg
2. The other fraction for our proportion has the unknown D for a numerator. The value that is
being converted, 0.1 mg, or the dosage ordered, must appear as the denominator. The conversion
factor is
D/0.1 mg
3. Setting the two fractions into a proportion gives us the following equation:
D/0.1 mg=1000 mcg/1 mg
4. Cancel units.
D/0.1 mg=1000 mcg/1 mg
5. Cross-multiply and then solve for the unknown.
1* D=1000 mg* 0.1
D=100 mcg =desired dose
Using Conversion Factors
c) The order reads “aspirin gr v PO daily.” The drug label indicates 325-mg tablets.
Find the desired dose.
Again, the drug order and the drug label use different units. In this case, we must convert the
dosage ordered (O) (5 grains) to milligrams to find the desired dose (D).
Follow the steps of Procedure
1. Since we are converting to milligrams, our conversion factor is
65 mg/1 gr
2. The other fraction for our proportion is:
D/5 gr
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3. Setting the two fractions into a proportion gives the following equation:
D/5 g=65 mg/1gr
4. Cancel units.
D/5gr=65/1gr
5. Cross-multiply and then solve for the unknown.
1* D=65mg*5
D =325 mg =desired dose
Pediatric calculation
Children are proven to be more sensitive to drugs than the adults it is therefore the responsibility
of nurses to ensure that patients especially children they administer are getting the correct
medication and the correct dose. Nurses are supposed to determine and identify errors in dosage
calculation while the responsible for prescribing medication are the physicians.

The writer met with a nurse from the Methodist Hospital (San Antonio) and asked about
calculation methods used in the facility. This is what the nurse had to say about the pediatric
dosage. Pediatric calculations is done to ensure that correct dose is administered to children so
that the six rights of drug administration such as the administration of drugs to the right patient,
the correct route of administering time of administering, dosage of medication and
documentation are respected. The pediatric medication is calculated using the weight of the
child in kilogram this is because with them, they have small weights and heights. Another thing
which makes this difference apply is the fact that the body density is small as compared to adults
(Koestenberger, Martin, et al 116-121). Companies have established doses for children and they
are being administered by the nurses to children according to their weights and height. In
general, pediatric calculations are used because pediatric doses are rounded to tenth for normal
adults but for children and infants doses are found to be rounded to hundredths.
Common medication errors
There are so many errors related to medicine that many health facilities normally experience.
The most common error is the administration of wrong dosage. This is normally an error which
is fatal and it may cause a lot of problems if not taken into consideration. Administering wrong
dosage to a patient may cause death or disease resistance to the drugs.
Another error that nurses do while administering drugs is giving dosage medication to the wrong
person this error is also very dangerous as it may respond negatively in the subject’s body. And
on the other hand the right patient for the drugs will suffer from under dose and as a result
lowering the content of the drugs needed in the body to fight disease and the disease might end
up being resistant to the medication thus leading to changes in type of drugs and starting a new
dose.
Thirdly time of administering drugs should be followed strictly but you find that most nurses or
anybody responsible for administering drugs don’t follow the time table properly. A patient
might be given drugs at the wrong time. This can cause under dosing or over overdosing. Under
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dosing will occur when the intervals between two prescribed times is too long while over dosing
happens when the intervals between prescribed times is too short. This error normally occurs
when the patient is being nursed at home.
Another ways comes when a nurse or a doctor is alcoholic. This factor makes the alcoholic
doctor to be careless when diagnosing, and prescribing the medication required. This will thus
lead to errors in the process and the client in place falls as a victim of the same. The same
happens when a nurse is a drug addict. This will make the nurse to be less sensitive and be poor
when it comes to caring for the patients and it may lead to loss of lives.
Another error which may occur in the medical industry is the one of poor measuring and
machinery which aids in diagnosis of diseases. This can lead to inaccuracies in the outcome and
thus the whole process will be a failure. With this fracture and inaccuracies therefore the hospital
will be a victim of errors
Solutions for the medication errors
Although most of the errors are fatal there are always solutions for example patients should be
aware of the names of the drugs and the purpose so that they may help the nurse in case he or she
forgets the drugs or confuses with the drugs of another patients. The ability of patients to know
the name of the drugs they are taking will help reduce the chance of administering drugs to the
wrong person or the wrong drugs for the right person.
Secondly, nurses should always carry their pharmaceutical dosage dictionary or any handbook
that shows the dose given to any patient depending on their height and weight. This will remind
them of the dose needed by the patient always this will ensure that the correct dose is given to
the patient and the six rights of drug administration is well maintained.
Thirdly nurses or doctors who take alcohol are advised not to drink when giving dosage
medicine to the patients. A sober person does things right unlike a drunk person.
The forth solution is the use of new machines which are up to date this will ensure that any tests
carried on a patients is correct and accurate and therefore always the correct drugs and dose will
be prescribed due to a certain disease and it will be healed.
Another solution is teaching patients the importance of taking medication time seriously to avoid
the drugs being ineffective. Drugs should be taken strictly the times prescribed by the physician
or the producer and no changes should be made whatsoever.
Lastly the pharmacist should teach the parent of the patient how to measure drugs using teaspoon
or any other thing that is appropriate. Teaching will enable the parent to give the child right dose
throughout the medication period and this will enhance healing.

Chapter 7: introduction to cell physiology

How cell membrane helps control homeostasis

Homeostasis is a biological process that regulates and maintains things like temperature at a
stable level. Cell membrane is the organelle that is found outside the cell. It only allows only
useful substance inside the cell and prevents harmful substance from entering the cell because it
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is selectively permeable. Cell membrane helps maintain homeostasis my controlling the

movement of substance inside or outside the cell and entering substance or leaving the cell.
One of the characteristics of the cell membrane is the presence of phospholipid bilayer this layer
helps in controlling the transition processes of water and ions. Cell volume is maintained because
the cell membrane reduces the speed of water entering and leaving the cell. Charged molecules
are prevented by the cell membrane from entering the cell unless there is specialized transport
for instance proteins used by the cell membrane can facilitate the movement. Diffusion and
movement of ions and proteins are actively controlled by the cell membrane.

Diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion

Diffusion and facilitated diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of gases from regions of high concentration gas to a region of low
concentration and occupies the available space. Facilitated diffusion is majorly used as a
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biological means of transport of gases in human body

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Osmosis

Osmosis is applicable in medicine sector the implication osmosis can be so fatal and it therefore
requires medical attention at all times. In the storage of red blood cell plasma solutions which is
isotonic to the cell and has salts and proteins in it is needed in the processes. When red blood
cells are kept in hypotonic solution then the cell will burst because the concentration inside the
cell is higher than the concentration outside the cell which is the solute concentration. Osmosis
draws water into the red blood cell in case the cell is placed in pure distilled water and causing
the cell to eventually burst.
In the laboratory red blood cells are stored in plasma solution which is hypertonic relative to the
red blood cells to prevent swelling and bursting of the cell instead it will draw water from the
cell hence the cell will shrink. Doctors use slightly hypertonic saline to the patients’ red blood
cells when performing injection.
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Work cited

Koestenberger, Martin, et al. "Reference values of tricuspid annular peak systolic velocity in
healthy pediatric patients, calculation of z score, and comparison to tricuspid annular plane
systolic excursion." The American journal of cardiology 109.1 (2012): 116-121.

Shaw, Leslee J., et al. "Optimal medical therapy with or without percutaneous coronary
intervention to reduce ischemic burden results from the Clinical Outcomes Utilizing
Revascularization and Aggressive Drug Evaluation (COURAGE) trial nuclear substudy."
Circulation 117.10 (2008): 1283-1291.