Circuit Concept 1
1-1. INTRODUCTION
1
l Dt11e/opment of tire Circuit Concept I Cir. 1
2The symbol i for current is taken from the French word intensite.
4 Development of the Circuit Concept I Ch. I
External circuit
Charge flow
w = r~ p dt (l-6)
1 Equation (1-6) and those to follow can be written in terms of the dummy
variable x as
w = L .,., p(x)dx
The use oft to mean two things in one equation should not cause confusion.
' Development of the Circuit Concept / Ch. 1
(l-7)
In this equation, Fis the force in newtons directed from point charge
to point charge, r is the separation of the point charges in meters,
E is the permittivity, having the free-space value of 8.854 x 10- 12
farad per meter in the MKS system, and q 1 and q 2 are the charges
measured in coulombs. It should be understood that this equation
applies strictly to point charges only. However, the equation may be
applied to any geometry of known charge distribution by vectorially
adding all forces .
(l-11}
(l-13)
wards). The quantity C (or the quantity D), which characterizes the
system under study and permits the simple relationship between
v and q to be written, is known as a circuit parameter, the capacitance
ofa system.
To reach our objective, a relationship between voltage and
current in a capacitive system, there remains the task of studying
the relationship of charge and current given by the equation
. do
l = ::.J.
dt
(1-14)
(1-17)
q = f
0
_,.
i dt + J' i dt = q + f' i dt
0
0
0
(1-18)
In arriving at this result, we note that the current for t < 0, or equiva-
lent information, is ordinarily given as part of the problem, while
the current fort > 0 is unknown and to be found. Actually, we are
not concerned with the current in the time interval, - oo < t < 0,
but only in the integral of this current which is the charge accumulated
on the plates of the capacitor as a result of all past current at the time
t = 0. This constant quantity is designated q0 •
Returning once more to the relationship q = Cv, current and
voltage are related by the equation
dq =; = !!..(cv) (l-19)
dt dt
If the capacitance C docs not vary with time (or with charge), then
i = cdv (l-20)
dt
If, however, C is not constant but varies as a function of time, the
Sec. 1-4 /The Capacitance Parameter 9
11 = D
f
l
_,. i dt = C1 J'_,. dt
i (l-22)
Equations (1-19) and (l-22) relate the voltage and current in the
(G)
capacitive system through the circuit parameter C.
EXAMPLE 7
The sketch of Fig. 1-S(a) shows two plates, one of which is driven
by a constant-speed motor so that the capacitance between the two (bJ
plates varies according to the equation
C(t) = C0 (1 - cos rot) (1-23)
If the battery potential remains constant at V volts, the current as
a function of time may be found from Eq. 1-21 as
(c)
r------
' 2 fpossibleJ
I
q(t) = q0 + s: I dt (1-25)
lim
r- o
J'o i dt = 0, (l-26)
where (J is the angle between the surface of integration and the field (b)
density B. If the currents in each of N conductors, represented in
Fig. 1-9. Magnetic field and flux
Fig. l-9(b), are in such a direction that the fluxes add, then Nef> flux
conventions for current directed
linkages 4 are said to exist. If, however, t/> 1 lines of flux link N 1 conduc- out of the page.
tors, t/>2 lines link N 2 conductors and so forth, the total number of
flux linkages is found by algebraic summation as
(l-30)
Assuming that all lines link all conductors, Eq. (1-29) may be modified
v = k <!!!...
dt
(l-32)
Note, incidentally, the similarity of this expression and the one for
charge in terms of current,
( 1-35)
(1-36)
v = !!_(Li) (I-39)
dt
(where M replaces Lin appropriate cases). If the inductance docs not
vary with time, Eq. (1-39) becomes
v = Ldi (l-40)
dt
Equation (1 ~39) can be integrated to give
i = -1
L f'
-~
vdt <1-41)
case) Greek letter gamma. The henry (after the American scientist
Joseph Henry) is the MKS unit for inductance.
In the case of the capacitive system, we found that charge and
the product Cv could not change instantaneously. We might be led
to suspect that there is a similar relationship for an inductive system
in view of the analogies that have been pointed out. Indeed there is
such a relationship, which may be found with the help of Eq. (1 -34),
in the following form :
l/f = IJlo + J' vdt (l-42)
'"' 0
From arguments given in the last section about capacitance, the
integral in this equation has zero value for t = 0, assuming that v is
finite. Thus, in a system altered instantaneously- say, by the closing
of a switch-the flux linkages must be the same before and after the
system is altered, but only for a very small interval of time. In terms of
Eq. (1-42),
If/ = lflo = a constant (1-43)
which is to say that the flux linkages cannot be changed instantaneous-
ly in a given system. This conclusion is descri bed as the principle of
constant flux linkages. If we let the subscript 1 refer to the time j us.!
before the system is altered and 2 refer to the same system after it is
altered, our statements can be summarized by the equations
1/1 1 = '1'2.
or L 1i 1 = L 2i2 (1-44)
The principle of constant flux linkages is similar to the principle
of conservation of momentu m in mechanics. The analogy is helpful
because it is sometimes easier to visuaiize changes- in a mechanical - - - - -
system than in an electric circuit. Newton's force law is
F = dt M v ( l-45)
d
where Fis force, Mis mass, and v is velocity. The product Mv is
known as momentum ; the momentum of a system cannot change
instantaneously. In a system such as a missile where mass is lost as
a function of time, velocity must change in such a way that momentum
remains constant. We see that there are a number of analogous
conservation laws :
(l) The conservation of charge :
q1 = qi a nd C,v 1 = C2V2, i ;t= =
(2) The conservation of flux linkages :
lf/ 1 = 'l'z and L 1i 1 = L2i2 , v ;t= oo
(3) The conservation of momentum:
p1 = Pz and M 1v 1 = lvf2Vz, F ;t=. oo
Sec. 1·5 / The J11ducta11ce Parameter 15
EXAMPLE 2
V1 = L I di
di
1 + M di2 + M 11 di3
12 dt dt
(151)
•
(l-52)
(1-53)
f
i = s J cos 0 dS = JS (l-55)
where S is the cross-sectional area. For the samf! simple geometry,
the electric field is uniform and directed along the length of the wire;
that is,
t1 = El (1-56)
as a special case of the more general relationship
t1 = f E cos 0 di
1
'
1,
(l-57)
Small uniform
section"'-.,
' ' ../J
s
'
' "'f~)~~~-v~~~~}--+i
E
(al lb)
6 Strictly speaking, Eq. (1-54) is a special case valid only for isotropic sub-
stances. Similarly, a is independent of the magnitude of E only for the linear range
of operation.
11 D~elop~nt of the Circuit Concept / Ch. 1
Substituting Eqs. (l-55) and (1-56) into the field form of Ohm's law,
Eq. (l-54), gives
(l-58)
Power, p
v><i
v"",./ ~c"'""
u--=--R--X--i
/~~ ~/!~
2w,-vxq I ~d/ I 2w,.-ix¥t
Stored electric cl /di~ LI Stored magnetic
energy ~ / / energy
II /• • II
I/
q
~I ~
Charge Flux
Basic
Relation-
Parameter ship Voltage-Current Relationships Enerty
R
1 "= Ri ""' -= Ri..i i..i = Gv1t W..i = r.1J..ii..idt
G=R
c
1
D=c
q=Cu Vc = c lr __ iedt .
ie = cdve
di We""' !C1J 2
Ullit
.Eq11ivaltnt A.bbre~ia-
Q11111ttity Symbol• Uttit Uttiti tion
Charae q coulomb c
Cum:nt i, I ampere coulomb/second amp
Flu:ic linkqes ~ weber-tum Wb
EneflY w,W joule newton-meter J
Voltqe "• v volt joule/coulomb v
Power p,P watt joule/second w
Capacitance c farad coulomb/volt F
Inductance L,M henry weber/ampere H
Resistance R ohm volt/ampere Q
Conductance G mho ampere/volt u
Time I second sec
Frequency I hertz cycles/second Hz
Frequency Q) radian/second Q) = 2'1r/ none
•in the cases of voltap, C\lrrcnt, ener&Y. and power, a lower-cue letter usually implies
a tlmt·'ltlTiablt quantity, an upper-case letter a timt-/1muia1tt quantity (such as averap:).
TUle 1-3.
Device
-
i
~R
0 I
• (CJ)
s
(a) (SOutCt )
id
d
+
lo vd•
II
{ l>)
id
g+~---------.~-~1-----..--~.._~
Fig. 1·20. A metal-oxide-semi·
conductor field effect transistor v,. 1
'T' c6 ,
Cad
+d
oc
npn pnp
(a)
~ ~
::__...h
•
1 ~±c•___.__+··~'k•:~
j_s
( i>)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 1·21. The symbols for the npn and pnp bip<>Jar transistors are
shown in (a), and successively more complicated models of the
bipolar transistor shown in (b), (c) and (d).
FURTHER READING
PROBLEMS
c~
1 2 Fia. Pl-4.