Electrical Machine Design

Merlin Mon Mathew

Dept. of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering Trivandrum

1
 Magnetic Circuits
• The path of magnetic flux is called magnetic circuit.
• Following are some relations
𝐴𝑇
Φ=
𝑆

𝑙
𝑆=
𝜇𝐴
𝐵
𝐻 = 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝜇

2
 Magnetic Circuits
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑚𝑓, 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐻 × 𝑙 = (𝑎𝑡) × 𝑙
• In series magnetic circuit total reluctance, 𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 + ⋯
• The total mmf is 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇1 + 𝐴𝑇2 + ⋯ = 𝑎𝑡 1 𝑙1 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑙2 + ⋯
𝐴𝑇 = න 𝑎𝑡 . 𝑑𝑙

• In parallel circuit,
𝜙 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 + ⋯
• Effective reluctance can be calculated as
1 1 1
= + +⋯
𝑆 𝑆1 𝑆2
3
Magnetic Circuits

Fig 1. Magnetic Circuit of a DC Machine

4
 Magnetic Leakage
• Flux which strays away from main path is called leakage flux
• Leakage flux completes its circuit by paths which prevent its
utilization in the functioning of the apparatus or machinery.
• For magnetic circuit calculations a term leakage coefficient is
introduced in order to account for leakage flux.
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 + 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝐶𝑙 =
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
=
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

5
 Magnetic Circuit Calculations
• The calculation of total mmf required to establish requisite flux in a
magnetic circuit involves the knowledge of dimensions and
configurations of the magnetic circuit.
• The magnetic circuit is split into different parts.
• For example, the magnetic circuit of a DC machine consists of
➢Yoke
➢Pole
➢Air Gap
➢Armature Teeth
➢Armature Core

6
 MMF for Air Gap
• The iron surfaces around the air gap are not smooth and so the
calculation of mmf for the air gap by ordinary methods give wrong
result.
• The problem is complicated by the following

7
 MMF for Air Gap
1. One or both of the iron surfaces around the air gap may be slotted
so that the flux tends to concentrate on the teeth rather than
distributing itself uniformly over the air gap

8
Fig 2.
 MMF for Air Gap
2. There are radial ventilating ducts in the machine for cooling
purposes which affect in a way similar to the previous one.

Fig 3. Effect of radial ventilating ducts

9
 MMF for Air Gap
3. In salient pole machines, the gap dimensions are not constant over
the whole of the pole pitch

Fig 4. Salient pole Synchronous generator 10

 MMF for Air Gap
• Consider the iron surfaces on the two surfaces to be smooth
𝑦𝑠 - Slot pitch
𝑙𝑔 - Gap length
𝐿- Length of the core

Fig 5.
11
 MMF for Air Gap
• The flux is uniformly spread over the entire slot pitch and goes
straight across the air gap.
𝑦𝑠 - Slot pitch
𝑙𝑔 - Gap length
𝐿- Length of the core

Fig 5.

12
 MMF for Air Gap
• If we consider only one slot pitch, the
reluctance of the air gap is
𝑙 𝑙
𝑆𝑔 = =
𝜇0 𝐴 𝜇0 𝐿𝑦𝑠

Fig 5.

13
 MMF for Air Gap
• In slotted armature, the effective area of the flux path is substantially
decreased resulting in an increase in reluctance of air gap
• Consider the case of a slotted armature with a very small air gap
length.
𝑊𝑡 - Width of the tooth
𝑊𝑠 - Slot opening

Fig 6. Slotted armature

14
 MMF for Air Gap
• The flux in this case is only confined to
tooth width.
• Therefore, Effective or Contracted slot
pitch,
𝑦𝑠′ = 𝑊𝑡 = 𝑦𝑠 − 𝑊𝑠
• Reluctance of air gap of a slotted
Fig 6. Slotted armature
armature,
𝑙𝑔 𝑙𝑔
𝑆𝑔 = ′ =
𝜇0 𝑦𝑠 𝐿 𝜇0 𝐿 𝑦𝑠 − 𝑊𝑠

15
 MMF for Air Gap
• But, there will be some fringing of flux around the teeth edges in a
slotted armature.
• The flux penetrates down the slot as shown in the figure.

Fig 6. Slotted armature with fringing of flux

16
 MMF for Air Gap
• The reluctance of air gap in this case is more than that in the case of a
smooth armature, but lesser than that in the case where the whole
flux is assumed to be confined over tooth width.

Fig 6. Slotted armature with fringing of flux

17
 MMF for Air Gap
• The reluctance of air gap in this case is more than that in the case of a
smooth armature, but lesser than that in the case where the whole
flux is assumed to be confined over tooth width.

Fig 7. Slotted armature with fringing of flux

18
 MMF for Air Gap
• Effective or Contracted Slot Pitch,
𝑦𝑠′ = 𝑊𝑡 + 𝛿𝑊𝑠
= 𝑊𝑡 + 𝑊𝑠 + 𝛿𝑊

Fig 7. Slotted armature with fringing of flux

19
 MMF for Air Gap
• Effective or Contracted Slot Pitch,
𝑦𝑠′ = 𝑊𝑡 + 𝛿𝑊𝑠
= 𝑊𝑡 + 𝑊𝑠 + 𝛿𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑠
= 𝑦𝑠 − 1 − 𝛿 𝑊𝑠

𝑦𝑠′ = 𝑦𝑠 − 𝐾𝑐𝑠 𝑊𝑠
where 𝐾𝑐𝑠 is the Carter’s gap coefficient.
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
Fig 7. Slotted armature with fringing of flux • 𝐾𝑐𝑠 depends on the ratio
𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

20
 MMF for Air Gap
• The value of Carter’s coefficient can be taken from the following
figure.

Fig 8. Carter’s Air Gap Coefficient

21
 MMF for Air Gap
• An empirical formula which gives the value of 𝐾𝑐𝑠 directly is
1
𝐾𝑐𝑠 =
𝑙𝑔
1+5
𝑊𝑠
• Another useful relationship which can be used for calculation of
Carter’s coefficient for parallel sided open slot is
2 −1
1
𝐾𝑐𝑠 = tan 𝑦 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 + 𝑦 2
𝜋 𝜋
𝑊𝑠
where 𝑦 =
2𝑙𝑔

22
 MMF for Air Gap
• Reluctance of the air gap with slotted armature
𝑙𝑔 𝑙𝑔
𝑆𝑔 = ′ =
𝜇0 𝑦𝑠 𝐿 𝜇0 𝐿 𝑦𝑠 − 𝐾𝑐𝑠 𝑊𝑠
• Let the ratio of reluctance of air gap of slotted armature to reluctance of air
gap of smooth armature be 𝐾𝑔𝑠
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐾𝑔𝑠 =
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑦𝑠
𝐾𝑔𝑠 =
𝑦𝑠 − 𝐾𝑐𝑠 𝑊𝑠
• 𝐾𝑔𝑠 is called gap contraction factor for slots
23
 MMF for Air Gap
• Therefore, the reluctance of air gap with slotted armature is 𝐾𝑔𝑠
times that with smooth armature and 𝐾𝑔𝑠 has a value greater than
unity.

24
 MMF for Air Gap
• The provision of radial ventilating ducts results in contraction of flux
in the axial direction

𝑛𝑑 - number of radial ducts

𝑊𝑑 - Width of each duct

Fig 9. Effect of radial ventilating ducts

25
 MMF for Air Gap
• The effective axial length of the
machine is reduced owing to the
presence of ducts and this results in
an increase in the reluctance of air
gap.
• A similar expression can be derived
for ventilating ducts by treating
stacks of lamination as teeth and the
Fig 9. Effect of radial ventilating ducts ducts as slots.

26
 MMF for Air Gap
• Therefore, Contracted or effective
axial length,
𝐿′ = 𝐿 − 𝐾𝑐𝑑 𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑑
where 𝐾𝑐𝑑 is the Carter’s coefficient
for ducts.
• Values of 𝐾𝑐𝑑 can be taken from fig.8
by using ratio (duct width/gap
length) in place of ratio (slot
Fig 9. Effect of radial ventilating ducts width/gap length)

27
 MMF for Air Gap
• Let the ratio of reluctance of air gap with ducts to reluctance of air
gap without ducts be 𝐾𝑔𝑑
𝐿
𝐾𝑔𝑑 =
𝐿 − 𝐾𝑐𝑑 𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑑
• 𝐾𝑔𝑑 is called gap contraction factor for ducts

28
 MMF for Air Gap
• The effect of both slotting and ventilating can be combined in a single
expression.
• Consider one slot pitch,
• Reluctance of air gap for a smooth armature without ducts
𝑙𝑔
=
𝜇0 𝐿𝑦𝑠
• Reluctance of air gap of a slotted armature with ducts
𝑙𝑔
=
𝜇0 𝐿′ 𝑦𝑠′

29
 MMF for Air Gap
• We will define the ratio 𝐾𝑔 as
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
𝐾𝑔 =
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

𝑦𝑠 𝐿
𝐾𝑔 = ′ . ′
𝑦𝑠 𝐿
𝑦𝑠 𝐿
= ×
𝑦𝑠 − 𝐾𝑐𝑠 𝑊𝑠 𝐿 − 𝐾𝑐𝑑 𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑑

𝐾𝑔 = 𝐾𝑔𝑠 × 𝐾𝑔𝑑
• 𝐾𝑔 is called total gap contraction factor for slots and ducts
30
 MMF for Air Gap
• For induction motors, with slots on both sides of air gap, gap
contraction factors for both rotor and stator slots are calculated.
𝐾𝑔𝑠𝑠 - gap contraction factor for stator slots
𝐾𝑔𝑠𝑟 - gap contraction factor for rotor slots
Total gap contraction factor for slots,
𝐾𝑔𝑠 = 𝐾𝑔𝑠𝑠 × 𝐾𝑔𝑠𝑟

31
 MMF for Air Gap
• The expressions for 𝐾𝑐𝑠 used so far apply only to open parallel sided
slots of great depth.
• For semi enclosed slots 𝐾𝑐𝑟 depends on the ratio (slot opening/gap
length) instead of ratio (slot width/gap length)

𝑦𝑠′ = 𝑦𝑠 − 𝐾𝑐𝑠 𝑊0
𝑦𝑠
𝐾𝑔𝑠 =
𝑦𝑠 − 𝐾𝑐𝑠 𝑊0

Fig 10. Semi-enclosed slots 32

 MMF for Air Gap
• The expressions for 𝐾𝑐𝑠 used so far apply only to open parallel sided
slots of great depth.
• For semi enclosed slots 𝐾𝑐𝑟 depends on the ratio (slot opening/gap
length) instead of ratio (slot width/gap length)

𝑦𝑠′ = 𝑦𝑠 − 𝐾𝑐𝑠 𝑊0
𝑦𝑠
𝐾𝑔𝑠 =
𝑦𝑠 − 𝐾𝑐𝑠 𝑊0

Fig 10. Semi-enclosed slots 33

 MMF for Air Gap
• The reluctance of air gap with slotted armatures is higher than with
smooth armature.
• The ratio of reluctances is equal to 𝐾𝑔
• Therefore, the mmf required for the gap with slotted armature is 𝐾𝑔
times the mmf required for gap with smooth armature.
𝐵
𝐻=
𝜇
𝐵 𝐵
• Mmf per metre for air gap = = = 800,000𝐵
𝜇0 4𝜋×10−7

34
 MMF for Air Gap
• Mmf required for air gap having length 𝑙𝑔 metre with smooth armatures,
𝐴𝑇𝑔 = 𝑚𝑚𝑓/𝑚 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 800,000𝐵𝑙𝑔
• Mmf required for air gap, having length 𝑙𝑔 , with slotted armatures,
𝐴𝑇𝑔 = 800,000𝐾𝑔 𝐵𝑙𝑔
• The above equation can be written as
𝜙
𝐴𝑇𝑔 = 800,000𝐾𝑔 𝑙𝑔
𝐴𝑔
where
𝜙- flux per pole
𝐴𝑔 - Actual area of air gap per pole
35
 MMF for Air Gap
𝜙
𝐴𝑇𝑔 = 800,000 𝑙𝑔
𝐴𝑔 /𝐾𝑔

𝜙
= 800,000 ′ 𝑙𝑔
𝐴𝑔
where 𝐴𝑔′ = 𝐴𝑔 /𝐾𝑔
• This means that there is a contraction in the air gap area and the gap
area has contracted to a value, 𝐴𝑔′ = 𝐴𝑔 /𝐾𝑔

36
 MMF for Air Gap
• Area of gap per pole
𝐴𝑔 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ × 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑠
= × 𝑦𝑠 × 𝐿
𝑝
where 𝑠 is the total number of slots and 𝑝 the number of pole
• Contracted or effective gap area per pole
𝑠
𝐴 × 𝑦𝑠 × 𝐿
𝑔 𝑝
𝐴𝑔′ = =
𝐾𝑔 𝐿𝑦𝑠
𝐿′ 𝑦𝑠′
𝑠
= × 𝑦𝑠 ′ × 𝐿′
𝑝
37
 MMF for Air Gap
• The mmf required for a smooth armature is
𝐴𝑇𝑔 = 800,000𝐵𝑙𝑔
• For slotted armature, the air gap mmf is,
𝐴𝑇𝑔 = 800,000𝐾𝑔 𝐵𝑙𝑔 = 800,000𝐵(𝐾𝑔 𝑙𝑔 )
• The above relation may be interpreted as that the length of air gap is
increased 𝐾𝑔 times due to the provision of slots and ducts
• So, effective gap length is
𝑙𝑔𝑠 = 𝐾𝑔 𝑙𝑔
• Therefore, in this case 𝐾𝑔 is called gap expansion factor

38
 MMF for Air Gap
• Effect of Saliency
• In the case of salient pole machines, the length of air gap is not
constant over the whole pole pitch.
• This gives rise to different values of air gap density over the pole
pitch.
• To know the value of reluctance of the air gap, it is necessary to know
the flux distribution of magnetic field in air gap.

39
 MMF for Air Gap
• Figure 11 shows a typical flux distribution curve for a salient pole
machine

40
Fig 11. Flux density distribution in salient pole machine
 MMF for Air Gap
• Figure 11(a) shows the flux tubes passing from
field to armature.
• These flux tubes form a parallel magnetic
circuit.
• We have only to know the reluctance of one
flux tube and the flux flowing through it in
order to find the mmf required for air gap.
• Mmf required for air gap of a salient pole
machine
𝐴𝑇𝑔
= 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
× 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
Fig 11. Flux density distribution in salient pole
machine
41
 MMF for Air Gap
• Consider a flux tube at the centre of the pole
• Flux in the flux tube at the centre
= 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
= 𝐵𝑔 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
• Reluctance of flux at the centre
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒
=
𝜇0 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒
𝐾𝑔 𝑙𝑔
=
4𝜋 × 10−7 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒

𝐾𝑔 𝑙𝑔
𝐴𝑇𝑔 = 𝐵𝑔 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 ×
4𝜋 × 10−7 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒

𝐴𝑇𝑔 = 800,000 𝐵𝑔 𝐾𝑔 𝑙𝑔
𝐾𝑔 is the gap contraction factor for a gap length at the centre of the pole.

42
 MMF for Air Gap
• The flux tube at the centre of the pole is chosen because its actual
length is known.
• The length of the flux tube at the centre of the pole is exactly equal to
the length of the air gap there.
• The field form factor 𝐾𝑓 is defined as
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝐵𝑎𝑣
𝐾𝑓 = =
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝐵𝑔

43
 MMF for Air Gap
𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝜙 𝜙
𝐵𝑎𝑣 = = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝜏𝐿 𝜋𝐷
𝐿
𝑝
𝜋𝐷
𝜏 = pole pitch =
𝑝
• The value of 𝐵𝑔 can be calculated after determining the value of field
form factor 𝐾𝑓 . It can be obtained approximately as follows
𝐵𝑎𝑣 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝐾𝑓 = ≈ =𝜓
𝐵𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐

44
 MMF for Air Gap- Problems
1. The stator of a machine has a smooth surface but its rotor has open
type of slots with slot width 𝑊𝑠 = 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝑊𝑡 = 12𝑚𝑚, and
the length of the air gap 𝑙𝑔 = 2𝑚𝑚. Find the effective length of air
1
gap if the Carter’s coefficient = 5 𝑙𝑔. There are no radial ducts
1+ 𝑊
𝑠

45
 MMF for Air Gap- Problems
2. Calculate the mmf required for the air gap of a machine having
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 0.32𝑚 including 4 ducts of 10𝑚𝑚 each,
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐 = 0.19𝑚; 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = 65.4𝑚𝑚; 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 5𝑚𝑚;
𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 5𝑚𝑚; 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 52 𝑚𝑊𝑏. Given
𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔
Carter’s coefficient is 0.18 for = 1, and is 0.28 for =
𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑝
2.

46
 MMF for Air Gap- Problems
3. Estimate the effective gap area per pole of a 10 pole, slip ring induction motor with following
data:
stator bore=0.65m
core length=0.25m
no. of stator slots=90
stator slot opening=3mm
rotor slots=120
rotor slot opening =3mm
air gap length=0.95mm
Carter’s coefficient for ducts=0.68
Carter’s coefficient for slots=0.46
number of ventilating ducts=3 each on rotor and stator
width of each ventilating duct=10mm

47
 MMF for Air Gap- Problems
4. A 175 MVA, 20 pole water wheel generator has a core of length 1.72m
and a diameter of 6.5m. The stator slots (open) have a width of 22mm
the slot pitch being 64mm and the air gap length at the centre of the
pole is 30mm. There are 41 radial ventilating ducts each 6mm wide. The
total mmf per pole is 27000. The mmf required for the air gap is 87% of
the total mmf per pole. Estimate the average flux density in the air gap if
the field form factor is 0.7.
The Carter’s coefficient can be calculated from the following relationship
2 −1
1
𝐾𝑐 = tan 𝑦 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1 + 𝑦 2
𝜋 𝜋
Where 𝑦 = 𝑊𝑠 /𝑙𝑔 for slots
= 𝑊𝑑 /2𝑙𝑔 for ducts

48
 Net Iron Length
• The cores of magnetic circuits are built up with laminated steel plates
wherever required.
• These laminations or stampings are insulated from each other by
paper.
• The length of the core is divided into packets of about 40 to 80mm
width.
• They are separated by vent spacers. These vent spacers form the
ventilating ducts through which the air is circulated.
• These ducts are radial and their width normally varies from 8 to
10mm

49
 Net Iron Length
• Therefore, the whole length is not occupied by iron.
• Some part of the length is taken up by ventilating ducts and some
part by insulation between steel laminations and air spaces created
by the irregularities in the thickness of laminations.
• Therefore, a new parameter is defined called stacking factor
• Stacking factor is the ration of actual length of iron in a stack of
assembled core plates to total axial length of the stack.

50
 Net Iron Length
• Gross iron length
𝐿𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
= 𝐿 − 𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑑
• Net iron length
𝐿𝑖 = 𝐾𝑖 (𝐿 − 𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑑 )
where 𝐾𝑖 is the stacking factor

51
 Net Iron Length
• Stacking factor for iron depends upon the thickness of plates and the
type of insulating material employed
• The manufacturers specify the stacking factor for a single lamination.
• The stacking factor for built up cores is smaller and an average value
of 0.9 may be assumed for all practical purposes.

52
 MMF for Teeth
• The calculation of mmf necessary to maintain the flux in teeth is difficult
due to the following complex problems
• The teeth are wedge-shaped or tapered when parallel sided slots are used.
This means that the area presented to the flux path is not constant and this
gives different values of flux density over the length of teeth
• The slot provides another path for the flux, shunting the tooth.
• The teeth are normally worked in the saturation region and therefore their
permeability is low, and as a result an appreciable portion of the flux goes
down the depth of the slots
• The presence of two parallel paths, the reluctance of one part depending
upon the degree of saturation in the other, makes the problem intricate.

53
 MMF for Teeth
• Following methods are used for the calculation of mmf required for
tapered teeth
a) Graphical Method
b) Three Ordinate Method (Simpson’s rule)
c) Bt1/3 Method

54
 Graphical Method
• The mmf per metre for the whole
length of tooth is not uniform as the
flux density is not same everywhere.
• So, to obtain correctly the value of
total mmf, it is necessary to construct
a graph showing the manner in which
(𝑎𝑡) varies over the length of the
tooth.
• The mean ordinate of this graph gives
the equivalent (𝑎𝑡) for the whole of
the length.
• The total mmf for the teeth is given
by ‫𝐻 ׬‬. 𝑑𝑙, the integration being
carried out for the complete height of
the tooth

55
Fig 12. 𝐵 and (𝑎𝑡) curves of tapered tooth and calculation of 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
 Graphical Method
• The total mmf required for the tooth,
𝐴𝑇𝑡 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ
= 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 × 𝑙𝑡 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 × 𝑑𝑠
• The height of the tooth 𝑙𝑡 is equal to 𝑑𝑠 , the
depth of the slot.

56
Fig 12. 𝐵 and (𝑎𝑡) curves of tapered tooth and calculation of 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
 Three Ordinate Method
• This method can be applied to teeth of very simple form and of a
small taper
• It is based on the assumption that the curve relating (𝑎𝑡) with flux
density is a parabola.
• In this method, values of (𝑎𝑡) are obtained at three equidistant
points, the ends of tooth and its centre.

57
 Three Ordinate Method
• The mean value of (𝑎𝑡) is given by
𝑎𝑡 1 + 4 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑎𝑡 3
𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
6
where 𝑎𝑡 1 , 𝑎𝑡 2 , 𝑎𝑡 3 are the
values of (𝑎𝑡) for three sections
shown in figure.

Fig 13. Calculation of 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 for tapered tooth using Simpson’s rule 58
 Bt1/3 Method
• This method is applied to teeth of small taper.
• It is based upon the assumption that value of (𝑎𝑡) obtained for flux density
at a section 1/3 of tool height from the narrow end is mean (𝑎𝑡) for the
whole tooth.
• This method is most simple of all methods and results are sufficiently
accurate if the teeth are worked at low saturation.
• Let 𝐵𝑡1/3 , be the flux density at 1/3 height from narrow end
• Let 𝑎𝑡 1/3 be the value of mmf per metre for 𝐵𝑡1/3 as obtained from 𝐵 −
(𝑎𝑡) curve.
• Total mmf for teeth is given by
𝐴𝑇𝑡 = 𝑎𝑡 1/3 × 𝑙𝑡 = 𝑎𝑡 1/3 × 𝑑𝑠

59
 Real and Apparent Flux Densities
• Although flux entering an armature from the air gap follows path
principally in iron, the slot provides an alternate path for the flux to
pass.
• If the teeth density is high, the mmf acting across the teeth is very
large.
• Since the slots are in parallel with the teeth, this mmf also acts across
the slots.
• At saturation densities, the flux passing through the slots become
large so that it cannot be neglected.

60
 Real and Apparent Flux Densities
• So, the real flux passing through the teeth is always less than the total or apparent flux
• Therefore, the real flux density in the teeth is always less than the apparent flux density
• The apparent flux density is defined as
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝐵𝑎𝑝𝑝 =
𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
• The real flux density is
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 =
𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
• In an actual machine, taking the flux over one slot pitch, there are two parallel paths,
1. Iron Path
2. Air Path

61
 Real and Apparent Flux Densities
• Iron Path
Area of the iron path 𝐴𝑖 = 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ × 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑊𝑡 × 𝐿𝑖
• Air Path
Area of air path 𝐴𝑎 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 − 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ × 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ − 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ × 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
= 𝑦𝑠 × 𝐿 − 𝑊𝑡 × 𝐿𝑖
• If 𝜙𝑠 is the flux over one slot pitch, we have
𝜙𝑠 = 𝜙𝑖 + 𝜙𝑎
Where 𝜙𝑖 is the flux passing through iron over a slot pitch
𝜙𝑎 is the flux passing through air over a slot pitch

62
 Real and Apparent Flux Densities
• Therefore,
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝜙𝑠
𝐵𝑎𝑝𝑝 = =
𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝐴𝑖
𝜙𝑖 𝜙𝑎
= +
𝐴𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝜙𝑎 𝐴𝑎
= 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 +
𝐴𝑎 𝐴𝑖
= 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 + 𝐵𝑎 𝐾
where 𝐵𝑎 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝐻 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙
Where 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 is the mmf per metre across the tooth for tooth densiy 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙

63
 Real and Apparent Flux Densities
𝐴𝑎 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐿𝑦𝑠 − 𝐿𝑖 𝑊𝑡
𝐾= = =
𝐴𝑖 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐿𝑖 𝑊𝑡
• Therefore,
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝐵𝑎𝑝𝑝 − 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐾
= 𝐵𝑎𝑝𝑝 − 4𝜋 × 10−1 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 (𝐾𝑖 − 1)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐿𝑦𝑠
where 𝐾𝑖 = 1 + 𝐾 = =
𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐿𝑖 𝑊𝑡

64