Mechanical Waves

2/8/2019
Mechanical Waves
(Physics for Engineers)
Reynold V. Luna
Physics Instructor, College of Science
• Waves and Its Classifications

• Types of Mechanical Waves
• Characteristics of Some Mechanical Waves
reynold.luna@gmail.com 1
2/8/2019
Wave is a disturbance or Waves

oscillation that travels through
Properties Characteristics
matter or space, accompanied
by transfer of energy. Electromagnetic Matter/ Gravitational
Mechanical
Probability
Particle’s motion Propagation Medium Form/Shape
Transverse Sound Pure Mixed
Longitudinal Ocean Pulse Music Noise
Seismic Periodic Standing

Combined
Fourier
3
Particle’s Properties vs. Wave’s Properties

 No size or dimension  Size depends on its amplitude
 Localized and discrete  Has pattern and spreads out
 Does not super impose  May super impose
 All energies are allowed  Has quantization of energy
 Described by position  Described by phase, frequency
 Governing Equation: and wavelength
Newton’s Second Law of Motion  Governing Equations:
⃗ Wave Equation (depends on
⃗ ⃗, = mode of energy transfer)
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Classification of waves based on the method of

transferring energy
Wave Description Equation Applications
 Requires source of disturbance,
Mechanical medium for its propagation, and Linear Mechanical
Waves physical mechanisms through which Wave Equation
elements can influence each other.
 Produced by accelerated charges.
 Do not require any material medium Maxwell’s EM Wave
EM Waves
for propagation. Equation
 Transverse in nature.
Schrödinger’s
Matter  All microscopic particles, whether
Matter Wave and
(Probability) massless (i.e. photons) or having mass
Dirac’s Relativistic
Waves (i.e. electrons) have wave properties.
Wave Equations
Gravitational  Result of vibration or movement in Einstein’s General
Waves gravitational field Relativity Equation
5
Mechanical waves based on

the particle’s motion
Description Illustration
Longitudinal
The particle’s oscillation
(Compressional)
is parallel to the wave’s
Waves
propagation.
(e.g. sound wave)
Transverse Waves The particle’s oscillation
(e.g. wave in is perpendicular to the
string) wave’s propagation.
Surface waves have both
Surface Waves
transverse and
(e.g. water wave)
longitudinal properties.
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Superposition Principle
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Types of linear wave based on its form, profile or shape

Linear Wave – wave which obeys superposition principle
Wave Description Generated Wave
It is a single disturbance that moves
Wave pulse through a medium from one point to
another point
Sinusoidal The disturbance oscillates periodically
wave with a fixed frequency and wavelength
Periodic Wave
It is the superposition of two waves of

Standing
wave the same frequency, wavelength, and
amplitude travel in opposite directions
Fourier It is composed of superimposed
wave sinusoidal waves
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Fourier Wave
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Parts of a Transverse Wave

direction of
propagation Cycle
or crest
equilibrium – the undisturbed state of the medium

crest – the highest point on a wave
trough – the valley between two waves (lowest point) 11
Parts of a Longitudinal Wave
direction of
propagation A A
compression – a region with increased pressure and density

rarefaction – a region with decreased pressure and density
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Quantity/ Characteristic Description in Transverse Wave

Wavelength Distance between two successive in-phase particles of the medium
Amplitude Distance of the crest (or trough) from equilibrium state of the wave.
Frequency The number of crest that pass a fixed point per second. (SI unit: hertz)
Period = 1/ The time (in second) it takes a wave to travel a wavelength.
Angular
Frequency
=2 The rate of change of the phase of sinusoidal waveform.
The spatial frequency of a wave, either in cycles per unit distance or
Wave number =2 / radians per unit distance.
Phase ∓ The particle’s spatial and temporal location in the wave
Epoch The initial phase or phase constant.
Wave speed = The distance traveled by wave crest in one cycle divided by the period
(Propagation or
Phase speed) = or the rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in space.
The rate at which the overall shape of the waves’ amplitude spreads
Group speed = through space
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Sample Problem
The graph represents the displacement of particles in a rope with
time as a wave passes. Calculate the ff. characteristics of the wave:
(a) its amplitude;
(b) its period;
(c) its frequency;
(d) its wavelength;
(e) its speed;
(f) its wave number; and
(g) its angular frequency. 14
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Phase Relationships between Reflected and Transmitted Pulses,

with respect to Incident Pulse when it meets various boundaries
Fixed end Free end Light medium to Heavy medium to

heavy medium light medium
• Inverted • Non-inverted • Inverted • Non-inverted
reflected pulse reflected pulse reflected pulse reflected pulse
• No transmitted • No transmitted • Non-inverted • Non-inverted
pulse pulse transmitted transmitted
pulse pulse
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Geometry of a Wave: Wave Fronts
Radial Propagation Rectilinear Propagation
Circular Waves Straight Waves

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Properties of Linear Waves

Reflection
It is the change in propagation direction It is the changing of wave propagation

at an interface between two different direction due to change in its transmission
media thus the wave returns to the medium.
medium from which it is originated. 17
Properties of Linear Waves
It is the bending of wave It is the superposition of waves that encounter

propagation when it encounters an each other to create a new wave called
obstacle or a slit. an interference pattern.
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Linear Mechanical Wave Function

Wave function – the mathematical description of a wave’s position of any
particle in the medium at any time.
Given: ,0 • velocity of the particle v
= , • acceleration of the particle a
• shape (profile) of the wave
Governing equation:
1 (1 Dimensional Linear Wave Equation)
=
Ansatz: , = cos − (Sinusoidal Wave Function)

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Particle Velocity and Acceleration in a

Sinusoidal Wave
Consider a specific particle in the wave. The displacement of this particle at
any time t is given by the wave function:
, = cos( − )
Velocity is the partial derivative of y with respect to time (x is constant).
( , )
( , )= = sin( − )
Acceleration is the partial derivative of with respect to time (x is constant)
,
, = =− cos − =− ( , )
The maximum velocity and maximum acceleration are:
, = and , =−
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Wave Equation
Obtaining the second partial derivative of , with respect to ,
( , ) [− sin( − )]
= =− cos − =− ( , )
The ratio of the temporal and spatial second partial derivatives of , :

( , )/
= =
( , )/
Rearranging,
( , ) 1 ( , )
=
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Function of a Sinusoidal Wave

Transverse Wave Longitudinal Wave
• Wave speed on a string • Speed of sound wave

• Wave intensity • Sound intensity
• Wave function of standing wave • Beats
on a string • Doppler Effect
– Normal modes and harmonics
• Shock wave
– Laws of string
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Speed of Mechanical Waves

General Form:
Restoring force
=
Inertia
Wave Medium Speed Equation Symbol
Pulse string = / = tension in the string
solid rod = linear mass density of string
= /
= Young′s modulus
Sound fluid = / = Bulk′s modulus
= volume mass density of string
gas = 331 m/s 1 + /273 = temperature in degree Celsius
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Speed of Wave in Various Media

Wave Type Medium Speed (m/s)
carbon dioxide 260
air 331
hydrogen 1290
Sound
pure water 1410
salt water 1450
glass 5550
2000 (surface wave)
crust 3500 (transverse – S wave)
8000 (longitudinal – P wave)
Earthquake
6500 (transverse)
mantle
11 000 (longitudinal)
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Wave Intensity
Intensity, I – the time average rate at which energy
is transported by the wave, per unit area, across a
surface perpendicular to propagation’s direction:
power
= =
surface area 4
SI Unit: watts per square meter (W/m2)
Inverse-square law for intensity:
=
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Chirping bird
A chirping bird sits at the top of a tree, and
the chirping sound has an intensity of at a
certain distance from the bird. If the distance
to the bird is increased by a factor of three,
what will be its new intensity?
A. /3
B. /9
C.
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Standing Wave
Node – point in a standing wave that always
undergoes complete destructive interference
and therefore is stationary
Antinode – point in a standing wave, halfway
between two nodes, at which the largest
amplitude occurs
, = cos − − cos +
Simplifying,
, = sin( ) sin( )
where: =2
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Normal Modes of a String

The length of the string fixed at both end:
= where: = 1, 2, 3, …
Fundamental Frequency or 2nd Harmonic or Standing wave’s wavelength:

1st Harmonic (n=1) 1st Overtone (n=2)
= where: = 1, 2, 3, …
Standing wave frequency or Harmonics:

3rd Harmonic or 4th Harmonic or
2nd Overtone (n=3) 3rd Overtone (n=4)
= = where: = 1, 2, 3, …
where: = fundamental frequency

5th Harmonic or 6th Harmonic or
, , ... = overtones
4th Overtone (n=5) 5th Overtone (n=6)
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Mersenne’s Law of String Instruments

For string instruments, the
frequency of vibration of a
particular string is given by:
=
2
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Mersenne’s Laws of String Instruments

Law of Lengths – for a vibrating string, its frequency 1
is inversely proportional to its length. ∝ =
Law of Diameters – for a vibrating string, its

1
frequency is inversely proportional to its ∝ =
diameter.
Law of Densities – for a vibrating string, its 1
frequency is inversely proportional to the ∝ =
square root of its linear density
Law of Tensions – for a vibrating string, its frequency
∝ =
is directly proportional to the square root
of the tension.
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Concept Problem
1. Would the thinnest or thickest strings
have the slowest wave speed? Would the
thinnest or thickest strings have the
lowest fundamental frequency?
2. In order to play a larger variety of

different notes, a finger will hold down a
string at a certain point between its
ends. What is the effect of decreasing the
length of a string (a) to its wave speed?
(b) to its fundamental frequency?
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Sample Problem
Standing-wave patterns are formed on a 30-m string and has a
mass per length of 9.00  10–3 kg/m, and is stretched to a
tension of 20.0 N. Determine the following:
(a) Fundamental frequency;
(b) First overtone; and
(c) Propagation speed.
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Melde’s Experiment
In the arrangement shown in the figure, an object can be hung from a
string ( = 0.00200 kg/m) that passes over a light pulley. The string is
connected to a vibrator (of constant frequency ), and the length of
the string between point P and the pulley is = 2.00 m. When the
mass of the object is either 16.0 kg or 25.0 kg, standing waves are
observed; however, no standing waves are observed with any mass
between these values.
(a) What is the frequency of the vibrator? (Note: The greater the tension in
the string, the smaller the number of segments in the standing wave.)
(b) What is the largest object mass for which standing waves could be
observed?
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Sound: The physical sensation that stimulates the ear.
Source Medium for Sound Receiver

Propagation
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Sound Waves
Psychological
Physical Measurement Unit
Measurement
Pitch frequency hertz (Hz)
pressure fluctuation,
Loudness decibel (dB)
amplitude or intensity
quality of sound or harmonic
Timbre or content (related to the
waveform
tone color number and relative
amplitude of overtones)
35
Everyday Sound Frequency

Human Hearing (Audible) Range:
20 Hz – 20, 000 Hz
Infrasound Ultrasound
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Sinusoidal Sound Wave as Pressure

The pressure fluctuation is:
( , )
, =− =−
Recall,
, = cos −
Then,
, = sin −
Bulk modulus:
( , ) =
=−
/
37
Sound Intensity Measurement

Sound intensity level, :
(unit: decibel, dB)
= 10 log = 10 log
Where:
= 1.00 × 10 W/m
= 2.00 × 10 Pa
(threshold for human hearing)
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Everyday Sound Intensity
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Beats
Beats is the variation of loudness caused by amplitude variation.
Beat frequency is the frequency with which the loudness varies.
Type equation here.
Consider two waves:
= sin 2
= sin 2
The total wave + is:

[2 sin 2 − ] cos 2 +
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Everyday Quality of Sound
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Musical Instruments
Type Examples Mechanism
When the strings are disturbed by either
plucking or strumming, they vibrate and
String produce sound. This sound is enhanced by
the hollow body of the instrument.
One end of the instrument is blown, air
Winds inside it vibrates and produces sound.
They have metal reeds which produce

Brass/Reed sound when air is blown through them.
They produce sound by being struck,

Percussion shaken, scraped or clashed together.
Bass: E2-E4 Alto: G4-F5

Vocal Baritone: F2- F4 Soprano: C4-C6
Tenor: C3-C5 Treble: >C7 42
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Ear as Pressure Detector

Your eardrum vibrates with the incoming
2 sound and sends the vibrations to three tiny
bones in your middle ear.
4 Your auditory
nerve carries
electrical signal
Sound waves enter your outer ear and to the brain,
1 travel through the ear canal to your
eardrum.
which translates
it into a sound
you can
understand.
3 The bones in your middle ear amplify the sound vibrations and send
them to your inner ear (cochlea). The sound vibrations activate tiny hair
cells in the inner ear, which in turn release neurochemical messengers.
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Human Perception of Sound Wave

Unless there is a 3 dB difference in SPL,
humans can not distinguish the
difference in the sound. Sound is
perceived as doubled in its loudness
when there is 10dB difference in the SPL.
(Remember 6dB change represents
doubling of sound pressure!!)
Ear is not equally sensitive at all

frequencies:
highly sensitive at frequencies between
2kHz to 5kHz, and less sensitive at other This sensitivity dependence on frequency is
frequencies. also dependent on SPL.
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Noise: the combination of all random frequencies

contains random sounds from all across
the frequencies human can hear (20 Hz to 20kHz).
Pink noise contains random sounds where all octaves

are represented evenly and the volume of higher
frequencies is dampened.
Brown noise contains random sounds but saps more

volume from the higher frequencies compare to pink
noise.
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Doppler Effect
′ +
=
−
Note: + if towards each other
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Sample Problem
A super-train moving past a station at a
speed of 180 km/h sounds its whistle as it
comes into the station. The velocity of
sound in still air is 341 m/s. If the
frequency of the whistle on a stationary
train is 320 Hz, what would be the
frequency heard by the station-master
standing on the platform if:
(a) the train was approaching the platform;
(b) the train was moving away from the
platform?
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Sonic Boom: Breaking the sound barrier

Mach Number, :
Hypersonic: > 5.0

Supersonic: > 1.0
Transonic: = 1.0
Subsonic: < 1.0
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Seismic Waves An earthquake produces several types of seismic

waves, each causing expensive degrees of damage.
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Ocean Waves
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STEM Integration
Necessity Beneficiality Practicability
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Tuning Fork Calibration

Table 10.1: Accuracy of Tuning Fork’s Frequency
Rated Measured
Tuning Percentage
Frequency Frequency
Fork Error (%)
(Hz) (Hz)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Speed of Sound Wave

Table 10.2: Speed of sound in air at ______ °C
Set 1 Set 2 Set 3
Frequency (Hz)
Wavelength (m)
Sound By Resonance (m/s)
Wave By air temperature (m/s)
Speed Percentage Difference (%)
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References
1. Young, H., Freedman, R. and Ford, A. (2016) University Physics with Modern Physics, 14e,
Pearson
2. Fischer-Cripps, A. (2015) The Physics Companion, 2ed, CRC Press
3. Serway, R. and Jewett, J (2014) Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics,
9e, Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.
4. Hewitt, P. (2013) Conceptual Physics, 12e, Addison-Wesley
5. Giancoli, D. (2013) Physics: Principles with Application, Addison-Wesley
6. Bloomfield, A. (2013) How Things Work: The Physics of Everyday Life, 5e, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
7. Ostdiek, V. and Bord, D. (2013) Inquiry into Physics, 7e, Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.
8. Radi, H. and Rasmussen, J. (2013) Principles of Physics for Scientists and Engineers,
Springer.
9. Munson, B. et al. (2013) Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 7e, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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2/8/2019

• Waves and Its Classifications

Wave is a disturbance or Waves

Particle’s motion Propagation Medium Form/Shape

Transverse Sound Pure Mixed

Longitudinal Ocean Pulse Music Noise

Seismic Periodic Standing

Particle’s Properties vs. Wave’s Properties

Classification of waves based on the method of

Mechanical waves based on

Types of linear wave based on its form, profile or shape

It is the superposition of two waves of

Parts of a Transverse Wave

equilibrium – the undisturbed state of the medium

Parts of a Longitudinal Wave

compression – a region with increased pressure and density

Quantity/ Characteristic Description in Transverse Wave

Phase Relationships between Reflected and Transmitted Pulses,

Fixed end Free end Light medium to Heavy medium to

Geometry of a Wave: Wave Fronts

Radial Propagation Rectilinear Propagation

Circular Waves Straight Waves

Properties of Linear Waves

It is the change in propagation direction It is the changing of wave propagation

Properties of Linear Waves

It is the bending of wave It is the superposition of waves that encounter

Linear Mechanical Wave Function

Ansatz: , = cos − (Sinusoidal Wave Function)

Particle Velocity and Acceleration in a

The ratio of the temporal and spatial second partial derivatives of , :

Function of a Sinusoidal Wave

• Wave speed on a string • Speed of sound wave

Speed of Mechanical Waves

Speed of Wave in Various Media

Inverse-square law for intensity:

Normal Modes of a String

Fundamental Frequency or 2nd Harmonic or Standing wave’s wavelength:

Standing wave frequency or Harmonics:

where: = fundamental frequency

Mersenne’s Law of String Instruments

Mersenne’s Laws of String Instruments

Law of Diameters – for a vibrating string, its

2. In order to play a larger variety of

Sound: The physical sensation that stimulates the ear.

Source Medium for Sound Receiver

Everyday Sound Frequency

Sinusoidal Sound Wave as Pressure

Sound Intensity Measurement

Everyday Sound Intensity

The total wave + is:

Everyday Quality of Sound

They have metal reeds which produce

They produce sound by being struck,

Bass: E2-E4 Alto: G4-F5

Ear as Pressure Detector

Human Perception of Sound Wave

Ear is not equally sensitive at all

Noise: the combination of all random frequencies

Pink noise contains random sounds where all octaves

Brown noise contains random sounds but saps more

Sonic Boom: Breaking the sound barrier

Hypersonic: > 5.0

Seismic Waves An earthquake produces several types of seismic