Chapter – 1

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
A computer is an electronic device that can store and process information. Computers help
perform a variety of tasks such as receiving and sending messages to family and friends, making
presentations, and maintaining records. Computers are also used in education, research,
broadcasting news, making weather forecasts, and for various other business and recreational
activities.

A computer is an electronic device, which accepts data (input), process the data
according to specified rules, produce information (output), and store the information
for future use.

Full form of Computer

Commonly Operated Machine Particularly Used for Trade, Education and Research

INPUT
Any data that is sent to a computer for processing is called input.

Input devices are used to provide information to a computer, such as typing a letter or giving
instructions to a computer. Some examples of input devices are as follows:
• Mouse: A standard mouse has a left and a right button. You use the left button to select
items and provide instructions by clicking an active area on the screen. You use the right
button to display commonly used menu items on the screen.
• Keyboard: A set of keys that resembles a keyboard on a typewriter. You use the keyboard
to type text such as letters or numbers into the computer.
• Microphone: A device that you can use to talk to people in different parts of the world. You
can record sound into a computer by using a microphone. You can also record your speech
and let the computer convert it into text.
• Scanner: A device that is similar to a photocopy machine. You can use this device to transfer
an exact copy of a photograph or document into a computer. A scanner reads a page and
translates it into a digital format that a computer can read. For example, you can scan
photographs of your family using a scanner.
• Webcam: A device that is similar to a video camera. It allows you to capture and send live
pictures to other users. For example, a webcam allows your friends and family to see you
when you are communicating with them.
OTHER INPUT DEVICES ARE:
1. Joystick 2. Light Pen 3. Touch Pad 4. OMR
5. OCR 6. MICR 7. Barcode Reader 8. Smart Card
1. Magnetic Strip

OUTPUT
The result or information that is displayed on the screen or sent out from a computer
after processing is called Output.

OUTPUT DEVICES:
 Monitor: A device that is similar to a television. It is used to display information in visual
form, using text and graphics.
 Printer: A device that you use to transfer text and images from a computer to a paper or to
another medium, such as a transparency film. You can use a printer to create a paper copy of
whatever you see on your monitor.
 Speaker/Headphone: A device that allows you to hear sounds. Speakers may either be
external or built into the computer.

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HARDWARE
Hardware refers to all the physical components of a computer. It includes all input devices,
processing devices, storage devices, and output devices. The keyboard, mouse, motherboard,
monitor, hard disk, cables, and printer are all examples of hardware.

SOFTWARE
Software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and instructions, often
broken into two major categories: system software and application software

System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual
hardware components of a computer system. Generally, system software consists of an
operating system and some fundamental utilities such as disk formatters, file managers, display
managers, text editors and networking and device control software.

Application software is used to accomplish specific tasks other than just running the computer
system. It is generally a program or collection of programs used by end users.
Examples Of Application Software Are: Word processing software, Database programs,
Business software, Educational software, Computer-aided design(CAD) software, Spreadsheet
software etc.

MEMORY
Memory is where information is stored and retrieved by the CPU. There are three main types of
memory.
• Random access memory (RAM): It is the main memory and allows you to temporarily
store commands and data. The CPU reads data and commands from RAM to perform specific
tasks. RAM is volatile, which means it is available only while the computer is turned on. The
contents of RAM must be copied to a storage device if you want to save the data in the RAM.
• Read only memory (ROM): It is the memory that retains its contents even after the
computer is turned off. ROM is nonvolatile, or permanent, memory that is commonly used to
store commands, such as the commands that check whether everything is working properly.
• Flash memory: It is a nonvolatile memory that retains data even after a computer is turned
off. Unlike in ROM, you can erase or modify stored information.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
1. Speed: Computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we
take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform
millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.
2. Accuracy: The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is
performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7.
3. Diligence: A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can
work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be
performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to
this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.
4. Versatility: It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You
may use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for
inventory management or to prepare electric bills.
5. Storage: The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of
data. You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be
kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER
According to functionality, Computers are classified as:
Analog Computer
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as
electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.
Digital Computer
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as
digits, usually in the binary number system
Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)
A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital
and analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective method of
performing complex simulations.
On the basis of Size: Computers are classified as:
Super Computer
The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical
calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of
supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, and petroleum exploration.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer
channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe
uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.
Mainframe Computer
A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of
users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for
example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below
supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because
they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program
faster than a mainframe.
Mini Computer
A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie
between workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large
minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between
small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing
system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.
Micro Computer or Personal Computer
• Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.
• Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard. It
is generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer.
• Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops
have no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device.

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GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
First Generation: Vacuum Tubes (1940-1956)
The first computer systems used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. These computers were very expensive to
operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, the first computers generated a lot of
heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming
language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one
problem at a time. It would take operators days or even weeks to set-up a new problem. Input
was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices.

Second Generation: Transistors (1956-1963)

The world would see transistors replace vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers.
The transistor was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers
until the late 1950s.
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation
predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the
computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation
computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

From Binary to Assembly

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic,
or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-
level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions
of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in
their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation: Integrated Circuits (1964-1971)

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors,
which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the
device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored
the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they
were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation: Microprocessors (1971-Present)

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room
could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls—on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many
areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation
computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

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Fifth Generation: Artificial Intelligence (Present and Beyond)
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The
use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a
reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

PORT

A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be

connected to the computer.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PORTS
A port has the following characteristics

 External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.

 Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.

 Examples of external devices attached via ports are the mouse, keyboard, monitor,
microphone, speakers, etc.

Let us now discuss a few important types of ports

Serial Port
 Used for external modems and older computer mouse

 Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model

 Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

Parallel Port
 Used for scanners and printers

 Also called printer port

 25 pin model

 IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

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PS/2 Port
 Used for old computer keyboard and mouse

 Also called mouse port

 Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for the mouse and keyboard
 IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port
Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
 It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer,
scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc.
 It was introduced in 1997.
 Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
 Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds.
 USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port.
VGA Port
 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.

 It has 15 holes.
 Similar to the serial port connector. However, serial port connector has pins, VGA port
has holes.
Power Connector
 Three-pronged plug.

 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket.
Firewire Port
 Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.

 Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.

 Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds.
 Invented by Apple.
 It has three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector, and
9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.
Modem Port

 Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.

Ethernet Port
 Connects to a network and high speed Internet.

 Connects the network cable to a computer.

 This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
 Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network
bandwidth.
Game Port
 Connect a joystick to a PC

 Now replaced by USB

Digital Video Interface, DVI port
 Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high-end video graphic cards.

 Very popular among video card manufacturers.