22 MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF SYSTEMS EXAMPLE 2.8 Consider a cart with an inverted pendulum hinged on top of it as shown in Fig, 2.12. For simplicity, the cart and the pendulum are assumed to move in only one plane, and the friction, the mass of the stick, and the gust of wind are disregarded. The problem is to maintain the pendulum at the vertical position. For example, if the inverted pendulum is falling in the direction shown, the cart moves to the right and exerts a force, through the hinge, to push the pendulum back to the vertical position. This simple mechanism can be used as a model of a space vehicle on takeoff. Let H and V be, respectively, the horizontal and vertical forces exerted by the cart on the pendulum as shown. The application of Newton's law to the linear movements yields ay M un dt eo e Ce - H =m aly + 1sinB) = my + mlllcosd — mi(6)” sino 2 ne mg—V ma (1080) = ml[-6 sin@ — (6)? cos 8) ‘The application of Newton’s law to the rotational movement of the pendulum around the hinge yields mgl sin = mlé -1 + mil cos ‘They are nonlinear equations, Because the design objective is to maintain the pendulum at the vertical position, it is reasonable to assume 4 and to be small. Under this assumption, we can use the approximation sin @ = 6 and cos = 1. By retaining only the linear terms in & and é or, equivalently, dropping the terms with 6, (6), 94, and 66, we obtain V = mg and My — my — mlb Bb =16 +5 which imply My =u—mgd - 225) MIB = (M + m)g@ -u 2.26) Figure 2.12 Cart with inverted pendulum,2.5 Examples 23 Using these linearized equations, we now can develop the input-output and state-space descriptions. Applying the Laplace transform to (2.25) and (2.26) and assuming zero initial conditions, we obtain Ms°5(s) = it(s) — mg6(s) MIs76(s) = (M + m)gA(s) — ii(s) From these equations, we can readily compute the transfer function g,,.(s) from u to y and the transfer function gu(s) from u to 6 as To develop a state-space equation, we select state variables as xy = y, %2 = J. 3 and x4 = 6. Then from this selection, (2.25), and (2.26) we can readily obtain 01 0 re ° _|0 0 -mgm of] x 1/M =lo 0 0 tee eet Pi 0 0 (M+meg/M 0) Las =1/ML y=[1 00 Ox 2.27) This state equation has dimension 4 and describes the system when and 6 are very small. ExaMPLe 2.9 A communication satellite of mass m orbiting around the earth is shown in Fig. 2.13. The altitude of the satellite is specified by r(#), 8(t), and @(¢) as shown. The orbit, can be controlled by three orthogonal thrusts u,(), u9(¢), and u(r). The state, input, and output of the system are chosen as r() i Hi ro x(t) = 6) u(t) = | a(t) y= [2 ot) ug (t) v(t) ow) ‘Then the system can be shown to be described by ; 16? cos’ 6 + rd? — k/r? + u-/m how =|? i (2.28) ~278/r + 266 sin / cos + us/mr cos 9 —# cos d sing — 2Fb/r + ug/mr24 MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF SYSTEMS Satellite (mass m) L T ie L Figure 2.13 Satellite in orbit. One solution, which corresponds to a circular equatorial orbit, is given by X(t) = (ro 0 wot w OOF uy =0 with r3o? = k, a known physical constant. Once the satellite reaches the orbit, it will remain in the orbit as long as there are no disturbances. Ifthe satellite deviates from the orbit, thrusts must be applied to push it back to the orbit. Define X= MOF) UN =wiN+ GD ye +500) If the perturbation is very small, then (2.28) can be linearized as o 1 0 0 an) Buh 00 awry a) GC 4 o 0 RO = 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oo o 1 O00 66 -wf 0 a 0 o = 0 0 g 50 : .\|4 ar) 0 0 9 ° a2.5 Examples 25 OH oe o 0 jay=]O 9 1 0 0 0 |x eee ee : 1 0 This six-dimensional state equation describes the system. In this equation, A, B, and C happen to be constant. If the orbit is an elliptic one, then they will be time varying. We note that the three matrices are all block diagonal. Thus the equation can be decomposed into two uncoupled parts, one involving r and 8, the other . Studying these two parts independently can simplify analysis and design ExamPLe 2.10 In chemical plants, it is often necessary to maintain the levels of liquids. A simplified model of a connection of two tanks is shown in Fig. 2.14. It is assumed that under normal operation, the inflows and outflows of both tanks all equal Q and their liquid levels equal Hy and H2. Let u be inflow perturbation of the first tank, which will cause variations in liquid level x; and outflow yi as shown. These variations will cause level variation x» and ‘outflow variation y in the second tank. It is assumed that where R; are the flow resistances and depend on the normal height H and H». They can also be controlled by the valves. Changes of liquid levels are governed by Aids) =(¢—yidt and Aydxy = (y~ y)de where A; are the cross sections of the tanks. From these equations, we can readily obtain Pete Ls Ar ALRt x "SADR, ADR: Thus the state-space description of the system is given by a] ff -l/AaRe V/ArRy ayy VA i fa} | 1/A2Ry —(1/A2 Ry + 1/A2R2) | Le 0 y= (0 1/R)x Figure 2.14 Hydraulic tanks. Qe OtyAnswers to Selected Problems CHAPTER 2 2.1. (a) Linear. (b) and (c) Nonlinear. In (b). shift the operating point to (0, yo): then (u, 5) is linear where j = 2.3 Linear, time varying, causal 28. No, yes, no for x(0) # 0. Yes, yes, yes for x(0) = 0. The reason is thatthe superposition property must also apply to the initial states. 29 y(t) =O fort < Oandt > 4. 0.507 forO 0. 22 Gs) as aay lee | Dx(s) Dnls) Nu(s) Nats), 2.15 (a) Define x; = 9 and x3 = 6. Then #, = x2, 42 = —(g//) sin xy — (u/ml) cos.xy. If 4 is smal, then : bia : u =e/l 0. -I/mg Tei a linear state equation. (b) Define xy = 61, 43 = 61.43 = 8, and xy = 62. Then = (g/l) sin xy + (omag /my]) cos x5 sin(x3 ~ 24) + (1/1) sin x3 sin(xy — x1) ks = (g/l2)sin x5 + U/m2l2)(c0s x3)4 This is a set of nonlinear equations. If , * 0 and 8,4, ~ O, then it can be linearized as 321322 ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 0 TOF 0 0 g_ | mgm tmay/mil, 0 mg/ml 0 0 ae 0 OOo n 0 0 -g/h 0 I/mah 2.16 From mh = fi- fe = ki — kaw 16406 =(h4+h)fi-hh and taking their Laplace transforms can we can readily obtain a state equation. Assuming yield the transfer function. i 218 B1(s) = Si(s)/H(s) = 1/(AVRis + 1). 82(5) J(s)/8(S) = B1(5)§2(6). 2.20 0 0 cy [ 0 0 V/Cr x T/L, 1k, —(Ri+ R2)/Ly in ole HS)/Hs) = 1/(ArRas + D. Yes WL, Ri/ly ys(-l -1 -Rx+[l Ru x ls) s?-4(R2/Ly)s FAG) pica) eRe: Tey (AE) +lata)a ols) = (Ris + A/C Ms + (Ro/L)). BO RG) (Re RoR) (Ere)E PT PNG ta) i BES) = Bis )iei(s) + B2(S)42(5) 3.5 p(A)) = 2, nullity(Ay)=1; 3, 0; 3, 1