1.

Student’s t-test, in statistics, a method of testing hypotheses about the mean of a small sample
drawn from a normally distributed population when the population standard deviation is
unknown. It is usual first to formulate a null hypothesis, which states that there is no effective
difference between the observed sample mean and the hypothesized or stated population
mean—i.e., that any measured difference is due only to chance.

T-Test Assumptions are:

a. Scale of measurement. The assumption the data collected follows a continuous or
ordinal scale, such as the scores for an IQ test.
b. Simple random sample. The data is collected from a representative, randomly selected
portion of the total population.
c. The data, when plotted, results in a normal distribution, bell-shaped distribution curve.
d. Assumption that is a reasonably large sample size is used.
e. Homogeneity of variance. Homogeneous, or equal, variance exists when the standard
deviations of samples are approximately equal.

2. P value is a statistical measure that helps determine whether or not the hypotheses are correct.
To calculate p-values, the following steps should be followed:
a. Determine your experiment's expected results.
b. Determine your experiment's observed results.
c. Determine your experiment's degrees of freedom
d. Compare expected results to observed results with chi square.
e. Choose a significance level.
f. Use a chi square distribution table to approximate your p-value.
g. Decide whether to reject or keep your null hypothesis.

3. A deterministic mathematical model is meant to yield a single solution describing the outcome
of some "experiment" given appropriate inputs. A probabilistic model is, instead, meant to give
a distribution of possible outcomes (i.e. it describes all outcomes and gives some measure of
how likely each is to occur).

4. A. Null Hypothesis
A null hypothesis is a hypothesis that says there is no statistical significance between the
two variables. It is usually the hypothesis a researcher or experimenter will try to
disprove or discredit.

B. Significance level
The significance level for a given hypothesis test is a value for which a P-value less than
or equal to is considered statistically significant. Typical values for are 0.1, 0.05, and
0.01. These values correspond to the probability of observing such an extreme value by
chance.

C. Tails of test
In statistical significance testing, a one-tailed test and a two-tailed test are alternative
ways of computing the statistical significance of a parameter inferred from a data set, in
terms of a test statistic. A two-tailed test is appropriate if the estimated value may be
 more than or less than the reference value, for example, whether a test taker may score
above or below the historical average. A one-tailed test is appropriate if the estimated
value may depart from the reference value in only one direction, for example, whether a
machine produces more than one-percent defective products. Alternative names are
one-sided and two-sided tests; the terminology "tail" is used because the extreme
portions of distributions, where observations lead to rejection of the null hypothesis,
are small and often "tail off" toward zero as in the normal distribution or "bell curve",
pictured on the right.

D. Two types of Error

In statistical hypothesis testing a type I error is the rejection of a true null hypothesis
(also known as a "false positive" finding or conclusion), while a type II error is the failure
of accepting a false null hypothesis (also known as a "false negative" finding or
conclusion)

5. A. Sign Test
The sign test is a statistical test to compare the sizes of two groups. It is a non-
parametric or “distribution free” test, which means the test doesn't assume the data
comes from a particular distribution, like the normal distribution. The sign test is an
alternative to a one sample t test or a paired t test.
B. Kruskal Wallis H-Test
The Kruskal-Wallis H test (sometimes also called the "one-way ANOVA on ranks") is a
rank-based nonparametric test that can be used to determine if there are statistically
significant differences between two or more groups of an independent variable on a
continuous or ordinal dependent variable.
C. Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test
A nonparametric alternative to the two- sample t-test which is based solely on the order
in which the observations from the two samples fall.
D. Friedman F-Test
The Friedman test is the non-parametric alternative to the one-way ANOVA with
repeated measures. It is used to test for differences between groups when the
dependent variable being measured is ordinal.