Contents

(i) Introduction
(ii) Acknowledgement
(iii) Illustration
Chapter 1- Earliest evidence of Linga.
Chapter 2- Worship of Linga.
Chapter 3- Types of Linga.
Chapter 4- Linga and Cults.
Conclusion
Reference
 Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Associate professor S. Pratpchandran for guiding me through the project
and for providing me with a topic and accepting my request to do the project under his
guidance. I am thankful to my friend, Kalom for his help towards the project.
 Introduction

Since beginning of time man’s basic needs have been the same. The primary demand is of
satisfying hunger. After filling the belly with food man acknowledged the necessity of
controlling the elements that governs his hunger. From forests and mountain he settled in the
plains from scavenging and hunting he turned to tilling the land. Only after achieving excess
in production he began pondering upon forces that governed his satisfaction for excess.
Worship was an investment for hope and success, the two driving tonics which keep life on
the run despite its many failure and disappointments. Man began accepting and naturally
submitting to forces that governed his existence. Thus it is in such context that Linga seems
to represent the devotion of the early man towards the potent life giving energy that he and
his surroundings were part of.

The Indus civilization gives evidence of phallic objects that were symbolic representation of
the male and female reproductive organs. Because of their occurrence a cultic significance is
hard to establish. The presence of fertility cults is innumerably found in tribal societies that
flourished across the continent after the decline of the Indus civilization. Next we find the
mention of Skambha (pillar) in the Atharvaveda which glorifies the pillar as a source of life
and joy. The next development which marks the growth of cults that revered the linga
including the Saiva, Pasupata cults is important as their assimilation into the later Hindu
culture gives rise to a new deity and the diminishing of the earlier. Later Puranic literature
provides various lore and tales of the association of Siva with the linga. Assimilation of
aboriginal cults an integral part of the Hindu system is reflected in Puranic literature. Though
the innumerable forms of the Lingas break the barriers of dogma and religion as the forms
have association with various cults that were destroyed and only later to arise in various
forms.
Illustrations
 Chapter 1- Earliest evidence of Linga
Literary evidence

In the Vedas we do not find use of the word anywhere but only in early Upanishads and in the context
of smoke resultant of fire which ascribes the meaning of Linga as a symbol. This view has been
supported by Doniger. Mention of Linga is also found in Mahabharata Samhita in chapter vii where
Vyasa explains to Ashvatthaman the reason why Krsna and Arjuna could not be killed which is their
devotion towards the Linga form of Shiva. In the later section of Drona Parva the hundred names of
Shiva are mentioned. Although B.C. Mazumdar has pointed that these are later interpolations possibly
by Saiva sects. Later Puranic texts mention Linga in relation to Shiva, it is to be noted that this is the
first time where mention of Linga is made in relation to Shiva. In the third chapter of the LingaPurana
the word has been used in connection with Shiva connoting the meaning ‘mark’ or ‘symbol’
representing Shiva while the absolute form of Shiva which is beyond visible forms is called Alinga.
Similarly the DharmSamhita of the Shiva Purana also gives an explanation of Linga as an extension
of Shiva as interpreted by Doniger. Other Puranas such as Skanda, Kurma, Vamana also mention
Linga in a similar context as presented above.

Archaeological evidence-

 MS Wats in 1940 discovered three Lingas at Harappa. Due to the scarcity in their presence
and the context in which they were found George Dales has argued that they did not have a
cultic significance. The polished stones had lines on them thus they have been interpreted as a
tool for measurement in masonry or architecture. Marshall has suggested them as unfinished
weights or grinders. However a terracotta Linga with a Yoni base has been recently excavated
at Kalibangan.
 At the Gudimallam village in Chittur district Parasurmeshwara temple is located. This earliest
inscription found at the temple dates back to 802 AD assigning it to the third regnal year of
Nandivarman Pallava. The icon closely resembles to a phallus and measures up to 1.35
meters. There have been many additions to the main icon by various dynasties. An image of a
hunter has been carved out in the Linga which is anatomically accurate. In his left hand he
holds a deer by his hind legs, and his right hand holds a pot along with a battle axe which
rests on his shoulders. He stands on top of a creature who is said to be a yaksha. The creature
has horns, rests on his knees and his teeth are clearly visible. The head of the hunter has
braided hair arranged in a form of burden and wears ornaments in both of his shoulders and
neck.
 The Linga present at Kayavarohan in Baroda district has been mentioned in a commentary by
Nigamajnanadeva that speaks of the Swayambhuva Linga which the Bramheshvara Linga is a
part of. The Bramhesvara Linga has an image of Lakulisa holding a citron in his right hand
and a danda in his left hand. The image is also ityphallic in nature.
 A relief from Mathura shows a realistic Linga being worshipped under a tree which has been
dated to 1st to 2nd century BCE. It is presently kept in the Mathura museum.
 A free standing Linga has been found at Kankali Tila (Mathura) and now is housed in the
state museum. It is carved in red sand stone and is encircled with a wide band. The base of the
Linga is rectangular made for insertion in the ground.
  The manusha Linga of bhita dated to 1st century BCE, presently in Lucknow museum. Right
below the heads is carved a phallus in shallow relief. The inscription found reads that the
Linga was dedicated by Nagasri the son of Vasethi. This form has been identified with the
Sadashiva form with the urdvaretas (ityphallic). The Linga also has a shape of a male with
two arms carved into it. Below the bust four faces facing the four directions have been carved.

Theories regarding worship of Linga –

 The lingPurana mentions on the basis of snakhya philosophy that the primordial matter from
which the first matter evolved was Linga. Although all manifestations including Linga have
(guna) attributes and thus are destructible though the primordial reality which is Shiva has no
attributes and is thus eternal. The trinity of gods i.e. Bramha Vishnu and Shiva are
represented as the base (beeja), receptacle (Yoni) and the spherical column (nirbija) in the
Linga, thus ascribing Shiva as the seedless creation. Linga puarana mentions the worship of
Shiva in the ardhanareshwara form where the Linga is said to be the amalgamation of the
Shiva and Sakti wherein Shiva represents the top and sakti being the pedestral.
 Puranic literature has also interpreted Lingam as the union of Shiva and shakti , the male and
the female energy thus giving it a phallic nature.
 The Lingodbhav section represents the instance where Shiva took the form of Linga which is
midway between the abstract and the concrete form of Shiva wherein he is represented as a
prevailing column of light and devoid of any other anthropomorphic forms. The instance
where Shiva assumed the Lingodbhav form is mentioned in chapter 17 ff where a dispute
arises between Bramha and Visnu about their relative superiority, at that moment Shiva takes
the form a column of endless fire from which the sound of ‘Om’ emanates. The deities take
up the form of boar (Vishnu) and swan (Bramha) and move in opposite directions to find the
end of the column. After their failure at the attempt they realise the manifested form of Shiva
and their real positions. The reference to the Lingodbhava form occurs in the
Shivamahimmastotra of Puspdanta by Shankaracharya. The origin of Lingodbhava form
differs from Puran to Puran with minor variations. The account of the same is in Vayu and
Matsya remains almost the same, where as the 1907 version of the Venkateshwara press
mentions that Bramha mentions that he has seen the top of the column which resembles the
Ketaka flower and as it is a lie the latter is punished by Shiva by condemning the worship of
Bramha and the use of the Ketaka flower in Shiva’s worship. This version also mention of the
quarrel between Bramha and Vishnu which escalates into an actual fight with arms.
 The other story depicting the manifestation of Shiva in the form of Linga is found in Skand
Purana where it is mentioned that Shiva went to Daruvana in form of Guhavasin as a
Bhiksanata to lure the wives of the sages, the wives of the sages are attracted to Shiva , seeing
this the Bramhans cursed Shiva and his penis fell upon the earth and began engulfing the
entire universe. Realising their mistake the sages thus went to Bramha and asked for a
medium of penance for their mistake after being told by Bramha that it was Shiva himself
who had manifested the Bhiksanata form, they were asked to erect a symbol resembling to the
phallus of Shiva and worship it in a manner by chanting mantras and installing it in a
receptacle. A different version of the same story is mentioned in Kothi Rudra Samhita
wherein Shiva himself asks the Bramhin to pla his phallus in a receptacle until which the
world shall not find any peace. Another version states that Shiva took the form of a naked
wandering saint in order to check the devotional practises of the sages.
 The padma Purana mentions of an instance where sage Bhrigu goes to mount Kailasa to
ascertain the pre-eminence of the three gods where encounters nandi the doorkeeper who
 stops him and says if the former wants to preserve his life he should refrain from entering
Shiva’s abode as Shiva was busy in his amorous pursuits with Parvati. After waiting for quite
a time Bhrigu loses his patience and curses Shiva that he shall now be worshipped in the form
of Linga. Other versions include the same story with the replacement of Bhrigu by Vishnu
and Bramha, and other deities accompanying them who after reaching mount Kailasa
encounter Shiva in his amorous pursuits with his consort Parvati. Shiva immersed in the act
does not pay any heed to the guests at which, Bramha and Vishnu feel disrespected thus curse
Shiva to be worshipped in the form of Linga.
 The DharmaSamhita of the Shiv Purana reveals that during the Ekarnava state before
creation, Bramha approached Shiva and beseeched him to create the universe. Shiva agreed
and entered into the vast ocean in order to prepare himself for the enormous task. However he
did not come out of the water for a considerably long time. In the meantime, Bramha became
fretful; he could not wait any longer and therefore brought about his own creation. When,
later Shiva emerged from the water he realised the creation had already accomplished, thus
cut off his generative organ which were no longer necessary and threw it down the earth.
Since then the Linga became the form of Shiva which came to be worshipped. It is interesting
to note that in this and other versions of the same story as found in Mahabharata Shiva have
been referred as Rudra.

Interpretation by Wendy Doniger-

The author has interpreted these versions as an attempt to establish the worship of Linga, depending
upon the version it is the sages, deities or Shiva castrating himself. Few versions put the shame on the
sages for the lack of their recognition of Shiva thus using the sages as a metaphor for those who may
not recognise or believe the Linga to be a divine incarnation of Shiva. In the Vaishnav myth Bhrigu is
said to curse Shiva to take up the form of Linga and Yoni which establishes Linga as a form of
punishment conferred on Shiva thus something as shameful. The sectarian (vaishnav) text as
interpreted by Doniger says that worship of this form is done by heretics suggesting that initial
traditions were uncomfortable in accepting the symbol as a form of worship.

Other claims of the Linga theory :-

 Few scholars ascribe the origin of Linga to the Yupastambha sukta of the Atharvaveda though
it should be noted that no mention of Shiva or the word Linga is found in the hymn. It says
“In Skambha are the worlds, in Skambha is the tapas, in Skambha is the Rta compiled.
Skambha you are verily known, as compiled all in Indra. In indra are the worlds, in Indra is
the tapas, in Indra is the Rta compiled. Indra, you are verily known, as embodied all in
Skambha.” Among the scholars who profess this theory are mentioned C.V. Narayana Iyer,
author of origin and early history of Saivism in south India along with spiritual leaders such
as Swami Vivekananda.
 The worship of tree stomps referred as ‘Kandu’ in tamil is also said to have been later evolved
into the worship of Linga as the former resembles the form of a pillar.
 Chapter-3 Worship of Linga
 Pasupatavrata, a form of worship is mentioned in the Uttarbhag section of the Linga Purana.
The vrata consists of eschewing greed and anger, showing forgiveness and practising
meditation. The ash is smeared all over the body. In the list of the materials that are
worshipped, a Linga is mentioned which is to be made of considerable size and bathed with
sandal water. After doing homa the Linga is placed in the figure of a lotus that is drawn on a
sphatika base and studded with precious stones. The Linga is worshipped with thousands of
flowers. Offerings are made in the form of gandha and dhupa etc are done along with the
recitation of sadyojta and the other mantras. The Lingas are to be made of different months of
vajra, marakata, mauktika. In the absence of precious stones god or silver mayalso be used.
The vrata is done on the full moon day in all the months, fasting on the full-moon day or new
moon day. At the end of the year a cow is given as gift, a bull is let loose and bramhins
learned in Vedas are fed. Other materials including flowers of various kinds and offerings
such as ghee, milk, curd, pure water, sandal, guggul are to be used in its worship of the Linga.
 Chapter -3 Types of Linga
Proportions of the Lingam

 A description of the proportions of the Linga to be worshipped is also made which are, it
should be of the size of the thumb, circular having eight or sixteen sides, with the base double
the size of the Linga or of equal size and the Gomukhi is to be one third. The measurement of
the vedika (pedestal) should be three times and it should be round or square or hexagonal or
triangular.

It is mentioned in the liga that gods and other beings worship Linga made of different materials,
which the Puran divides into six-

 Made of stones, precious stones, minerals, wood, earth and perishable materials. The one
made out of precious stones brings prosperity, stones-all perfections, minerals provide wealth,
wood brings enjoyment, earth brings all perfections.

Types of Linga on origin-

Lingas are divided into three types on the basis of their origin which are manmade, the one made by
gods, swayambhuva (self-originating) and BanaLinga which by definition is a Linga found on the side
of a river.

Types based on shape-

On the basis of their design Lingas can be divided into three types first the pre arghya type that do not
use any pedestal and may or may not include a rounded top. This form includes the Linga found at
gudumallam, the Linga found at Mathura belonging to the pre-kusana period. The next form is where
a pedestal referred to as a Yoni base is included along with the Lingam. The third type is where faces
have been carved either on the Linga or on a metal sheath used to cover the Linga. The number of the
faces may range from 1 to 5.

The Lingas are divided into two broad division.ie. Cala (movable) and Acala ( immovable). The
Lingas which were in stable position (in the temples) were known as Acala those which could be
easily moved from one place to another or were small portable Lingas were known as Cala Lingas.
Their further classification are made on the basis of (i) Mythology, (ii) Raw-materials, and (iii)
Manufacture.

The Mythical Lingas are as follows:

(1) Svaymbhu (2) Daivika, (3) Arsa (4) Ganapa, (5) Bana Lingas, (6) JyotirLinga,

(7) Lingodbhava
  The Svayambhuva Lingas : They are supposed to have not been made by human beings; but
are found on hills or riversides and are generally formed of natural rocks. These Lingas are
called Svayambhuva or self developed or self-emerged. The Svayambhu Lingas are
considered to be uttamottama (finest) and others are of inferior.
 The Daivika Lingas : may be like a flame or resemble a pair of hands held in the Anjali pose.
The shaft may have scars like Tanka (chisel) and Sula (trident).
 The Arsa Lingas : are those set up and worshipped by Rishis. They are spheroid in shape. It is
interesting to note that according to Makutagama, the brahmasutra lines are not to be
carved on the Daivika and Arsa Lingas.
 Ganapa Lingas : They are believed to have been set up by Ganas, They are of the shape of
cucumber, citron, wood-apple or palm.
 Bana Lingas : Natural water-worn pebbles of Linga shape. They are picked up from the river
Narmada. According to Rupamandana, the bana Linga is obtained from Narmada, Varanasi,
Prayaga, Kuruksetra, Saraswati, Antarvedi, Kedar, Prabhas.
 JyotirLingas : Means "blazing pillars" or the pillar of fire surrounded by a circle of flame . In
its concrete form JyotirLinga should have the form of a pillar with flames issuing from it.
Shiva Purana describes twelve JyotirLingas existing in different parts of the country.
 Lingodbhava : In this form, mythology describes Shiva in the form of a 'blazing pillar'
(JyotirLinga) or Shiva's appearance' in the oval opening of the blazing pillar. The icon is
known as Lingodbhavamurti and the mythology of this form described in the Shiva Purana
appears to have been developed from the JyotirLinga

II. The Cala Lingas are further classified into six types on the basis of the raw-material from which
they are made.
 Mrnmaya or clay Lingas : Those made from the clay of River which are unbaked.
 Lohaj Lingas : The ones made of metals, namely, gold, silver, copper, Bell-metal, iron, lead,
brass and tin.
 Ratnaj Lingas : They are made of precious stones, i.e. pearls, coral, cat's-eye, quartz-crystal,
topaz, emerald and blue-stones.
 Daruja Lingas : They are carved in the timber of the Sami, Madhuka, Karnikara, manduka,
tinduka, arjuna, pippala and Udumbara trees. Besides these, Khadira, Chandana, Sala, Bihva,
Badara, and the Devadaru are also fit for making Lingas.
 Sailaj Lingas : Lingas made out of stone.
 Ksanika Lingas : Those made of sand, uncooked rice, cooked rice, cowdung, butter, unbaked
river clay, rudraksh seeds, sandal seeds, flowers etc.
III. The Acala or immovable Lingas :

 Simple Lingas : Cylindrical Lingas with flat or rounded top but they do not have three
sections and brahmasutra linings.
 Complex Lingas: Those made of three sections, known as Brahmabhaga, Visnubhaga and
Rudrabhaga. The lowest square part or base is called Brahmabhaga; the middle octagonal as
Visnubhaga, and the top round section is known as the Rudrabhaga or Pujabhaga, for the
offerings of water, flower and other objects are usually put on its top, the two other sections
are inserted inside the pedestal (pithika) and the ground.
 Saivadhika Lingas : Literally it means 'with the Saiva part of larger length' where in the
Bramhabhaga is elongated.
 Sarvadesika Linga : The Lingas whose measurements depend upon the length of the side of
the central shrine are called the Sarvadesika Lingas; they have different proportions which are
fractions';such as three-fifth, five-ninth or half of the length or breadth of the central shrine.
 Chapter 4- Linga and Cults
The findings of phallic objects in pre Aryan culture hint at fertility worship. The Lingayat cult
founded by Basava in the 12th century makes it compulsory to wear Linga around the necks of the
devouts which is hung from their heads through a cord instead of wearing a sacred thread. Their
worship is centred around ishta inga. The Lingdharane ceremony marks the intiaition of a person into
the Lingayat fold which can be performed at any age, though devout followers initiate the babies who
are in foetus by tying an ishta Linga to that of the mother and when the child takes birth he is made to
wear the same. The Lakulisa cult has also images that depict Lakulisa’s image being carved on the
Linga where in he is depicted as ityphallic and at the same time holding a citron in his right hand and
a stick in his left hand. Philosophical interpretation of such image is said to be related to the incident
when Lakulisa merged himself with the while meditating on the same.
 Conclusion

What a Linga represents is a matter of interpretation. It is considered that fertility worship was a
prevalent cult in the early societies and a worship of female goddess is generally done for prosperity.
A male deity is also worshipped in such societies is represented in a phallic form. If linear time is
considered as progression in ideas and development so has the Linga shown evolution in its form with
the later addition of Yoni base (pedestal) and in later times the top became completely plain and it
attains the shape of a hemispheric dome. What the Linga represents is a matter of complete
subjectivity as for a Sadhak it is an object which he meditates upon for another it may represent the
symbol that denotes the absolute form of Shiva. Theories are numerous that claim its origin, the
samkhya refers it to the first creation from the primordial reality, the Puranas refer to the fiery Linga
or the Lingodbhava form assumed by Shiva and other stories establish the worship of Shiva in a form
that was alien to the Aryan civilization. The cults that challenged that authority of the Bramhanical
cannons have been present since time immemorial and have their own set of rites that worship Shiva
in forms that were inconceivable to the Aryan mind. Thus the question of what the Linga stands for is
left open ended to as the attempt to interpret the unknown varies from a person to another.
 Reference
 B. Bhattacharya - Shaivism and the phallic world, Oxford & IBH publishing co., New Delhi,
Bombay, Calcutta.
 Lori Noel – The Gender and Sex of the Linga, December 12th 2018, Concordia University
 N. Gangadharan – LingaPurana: A Study, Ajanta Publications, 1980, New Delhi, Varanasi.
 Parekh Vasantkumar – The Iconography of Saiva deities from Gujarat.

Websites
 www.academia.edu
 www.jstor.org
 www.shodhganga.in
 www.wikipedia.com