EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

HYDRAULIC MACHINES

Hydraulic machines are devices that either extract energy from a fluid and convert it into mechanical
energy or that add energy to the fluid and convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
Machines which extract energy from a fluid are called turbines and machines which add energy to a
fluid are called pumps and fans. Both turbines and pumps are collectively called turbomachines as
they are connected to a rotating shaft (called rotor, runner or impeller).

CLASSIFICATION OF TURBOMACHINES

Fluid machines are separated into two broad categories:

(a) Positive-displacement machines, and

(b) Rotodynamic machines.

Positive-Displacement Machines

Positive-displacement machines operate by forcing fluid into or out of a chamber. Examples include
the bicycle tyre pump, the gear pump, the peristaltic pump, and the human heart.

Rotodynamic Machines

Rotodynamic machines involve the flow of fluid through rotating blades or rotors that remove or
add energy to the fluid. Examples include propellers, fans, water pumps, windmills, and
compressors.

Types of Rotodynamic Machines

A further distinction among types of rotodynamic machines is based on the geometry of the flow
path. Machines can be categorised as radial-flow, axial-flow and mixed-flow machines depending on
the path of flow. In radial flow machines, the flow path is essentially radial, with significant changes
in radius from inlet to outlet (Such machines sometimes are called centrifugal machines). In axial-
flow machines, the flow path is nearly parallel to the machine centreline, and the radius of the flow
path does not vary significantly. In mixed-flow machines the flow-path radius changes only
moderately. The table below provides a classification of rotodynamic machines.

ENERGY ADDING DEVICES ENERGY EXTRACTING DEVICES

Axial Machines Axial pumps, propellers, axial Axial turbine (Kaplan), wind
fans, axial compressors turbines, gas turbines
Radial Machines Centrifugal pumps, centrifugal Impulse turbine (Pelton wheel),
fan, centrifugal compressor Reaction turbine (Francis
turbine)

ENERGY EXTRACTING MACHINES

Machines that extract energy from a fluid in the form of work (or power) are called turbines. In
hydraulic turbines, the working fluid is water, so the flow is incompressible.

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 EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

The two most general classifications of turbines are impulse and reaction turbines. Impulse turbines
are driven by one or more high-speed free jets. The classic example of an impulse turbine is the
Pelton wheel. In a Pelton wheel, the jets of water are driven by gravity; the kinetic energy of the
water is transferred to the wheel, resulting in work; work is extracted as a result of the large
momentum change of the fluid. Pelton wheels are used for very high heads and low flows.

In reaction turbines, the available potential energy is progressively converted in the turbine rotors
and the reaction of the accelerating water causes the turning of the wheel. Reaction turbines
generally produce more power for a given overall size than impulse turbines. Examples of reaction
turbines are the Francis, Kaplan and Propeller turbines.

The figure below shows three typical examples of hydraulic turbines.

MECHANICS OF HYDRAULIC DEVICES

The common feature of hydraulic machines is that they have a rotating element called a rotor. In
turbines this rotor is called runner.

Another common feature is that the fluid has a component of velocity and therefore, momentum in
a direction tangential to the rotor, and the rate at which this tangential momentum is changed
corresponds to a tangential force on the rotor. The rotor is an assembly of vanes/blades or buckets,
and there is a transfer of energy between the fluid and the rotor.

THE PELTON WHEEL

This consists of a nozzle or a number of nozzles at the end of a pipe from which a jet or jets of fluid
strike on to a series of ‘buckets’ on the periphery of a wheel. The ‘buckets’ are spoon-shaped and
seldom less than 15. Down the centre of each bucket is a ‘splitter’ ridge, which divides the oncoming
jet into two equal portions. The buckets are so designed that if stationary they deflect the jets
through a maximum possible angle (about 165o), consistent with the departing jet, neither
interfering with the oncoming jet nor striking the back of another bucket.

A sectional view of a Pelton wheel turbine is shown in the figure below.

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 EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

Now, consider a single jet Pelton wheel. Fluid at a total head H is applied to the nozzle. The net head
available at the nozzle is the difference of the total (gross) head and the head losses hf in the
pipeline leading to the nozzle. Thus,

h  H  hf

In order to determine the force exerted on the bucket, the power extracted from the water, the
head extracted, and the various efficiencies, the following parameters should be known:

V1 = absolute velocity of the jet before striking bucket

V2 = absolute velocity of fluid leaving bucket

ω = angular velocity of wheel

u = absolute velocity of bucket = ωr

r = radius from axis of wheel to axis of jet striking bucket

Vr1 = relative velocity of oncoming jet

Vr2 = relative velocity of fluid leaving jet

Vw1 = tangential velocity of V1 (also known as whirl velocity)

Vw2 = tangential velocity of V2

θ = angle through which fluid is deflected by bucket

The velocity diagram for Pelton wheel is shown in the figure below:

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 EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

Vr2

VECTOR DIAGRAMS

In the study of hydraulic machines, the construction and interpretation of vector diagrams is
important. For the Pelton wheel, the inlet and outlet vector diagrams should be constructed and
analysed as follows:

Inlet vector diagram

V1

u Vr1

Vw1

Thus, the relative velocity Vr1 at the moment when the fluid meets the bucket is given by

Vr1  V1  u

And V1  Vw1

If the net head is known, then V1 can be obtained from the following expression

V1  Cv 2 gh

where Cv is the velocity coefficient and its value is between 0.97 and 0.99. For a well designed
nozzle, Cv = 1.

Outlet vector diagram

Vw2 u

θ
V2
Vr2

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 EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

The velocity vector triangles show that the peripheral (absolute) vane velocity at outlet is the same
as that at inlet, i.e.

u1 = u2 = u

The relative velocity Vr2 with which the fluid leaves the bucket is somewhat less than the initial
relative velocity Vr1. This is due to losses due to friction on the surface of the bucket, and as the fluid
strikes the splitter ridge. Therefore,

Vr 2  KVr1  K V1  u 

where K is a fraction slightly less than unity.

The velocity of whirl at outlet, Vw2 is the component of V2 in the direction of the bucket movement.
The direction of u is taken as positive. Thus

Vw2  u  Vr 2 cos 

Or Vw2  u  Vr 2 cos(   )

FORCE EXERTED ON THE BUCKET

By momentum equation, the force exerted on the bucket in the x-direction (i.e. in the initial
direction of the jet) is given by

F  QVw1  Vw2   QV1  u  Vr 2 cos  (since Vw1 = V1, and Vw2  u  Vr 2 cos  )

But Vr 2  K V1  u 

Therefore F  QV1  u  K V1  u cos   QV1  u 1  K cos 

POWER EXTRACTED

Power transmitted to the bucket = Power extracted. Thus, power extracted is given by

P  F  u  Qu V1  u 1  K cos 

Also P  QVwu  QVw  r (since u = ω x r)

Where QVw r is the torque on the wheel.

HEAD EXTRACTED

The power extracted can also be obtained using the following expression:

P  gQH e

Where He = head extracted

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 EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

Qu V1  u 1  K cos   u

 V1  u 1  K cos  
P
Thus, H e  
gQ gQ g

EFFICIENCIES

Hydraulic efficiency,

Power developed by the runner H

H   e
Power supplied at the inlet of turbine h
u V1  u 1  K cos  

gh

Mechanical efficiency,

Power available at the shaft Shaft Power

m  
Power developed by turbine runner Bucket Power
Shaft Power

Qu V1  u 1  K cos  

SPEED RATIO

The ratio of peripheral velocity u to ideal velocity, V1 is known as the speed ratio or speed
factor,  . It is given by the following expression

u u
 
V1 2 gh

For most efficient operations  depends upon the specific speed and is found to be in the
range 0.43 to 0.47. Maximum efficiency is achieved at theoretical value of  = 0.5. In
practice the value obtained is about 0.46.

Example

In a Pelton wheel the diameter of the bucket circle is 2 m and the deflecting angle of the bucket is
162o. The jet is of 165 mm diameter, the pressure behind the nozzle is 1000 kN/m 2 and wheel
rotates at 320 rev/min. Neglecting friction find the power developed by the wheel and the hydraulic
efficiency.

DESIGN OF A PELTON WHEEL

In the design of a Pelton wheel, two parameters are of particular importance:

(i) The ratio of the bucket width to the jet diameter, and
(ii) The ratio of the wheel diameter to the jet diameter, D/d

If the bucket width is too small in relation to the jet diameter, the fluid is not smoothly deflected by
the buckets and, in consequence, much energy is dissipated in turbulence and the efficiency drops

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 EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

considerably. On the other hand, if the buckets are unduly large, friction on the surface is
unnecessarily high. The optimum value of the ratio of the bucket width to jet diameter has been
found to be between 4 and 5. The ratio of the wheel diameter to jet diameter has in practice a
minimum value of about 9; smaller values involve either too close a spacing of the buckets or too
few buckets for the whole jet to be used. The larger its value the more bulky is the entire
installation.

Suppose it is desired to design a Pelton wheel with n jets to develop a power P at N rev/min when
the input head is h of the fluid. Then

P  gQhn o

Where Q is the flow per jet and ηo is the overall efficiency.

But Q  aV1  a 2 gh

And a  r , if the nozzles give circular jets of radius r. So that

2

P  gr 2 2 gh  hno

1/ 2
 P 
r
And

 g 2 g  h n o
3/ 2




The size of the jets is therefore fixed mainly by the power required and the head available.

Next consider the speed of the machine. It is clearly advantageous to work the wheel at its
maximum efficiency. If R is the radius of the wheel, then

2RN
u
60

At maximum efficiency, u  0.46V1

But V1  2 gh

2RN
So that  0.46 2 gh
60

0.46  30 2 g  h1 / 2
R
 N

The wheel size is therefore fixed by the available head and the required speed.

The design of a Pelton wheel is well summarized by the ratio of the jet radius to wheel radius, and by
the number of jets, i.e.

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 EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

r 0.0765 N P
 1/ 2 5 / 4 1/ 2 1/ 2 5 / 4
R n h o  g

It is found that the overall efficiency  o is rarely out of the range 85 – 90%; so that for a water-
operated wheel under the earth’s gravitational field, the term  o1 / 2  1 / 2 g 5 / 4 is a constant of value
0.00195. Thus

r 0.000149 N P

R n1 / 2 h 5 / 4

It is found in practice that the largest r/R ratio that can be used is about 1/9, larger ratios leading to
the difficulties that either the whole jet is not intercepted by the buckets or that the flow to one
bucket is interrupted by the next, giving a low efficiency.

LIMITATIONS OF THE PELTON WHEEL

Although the Pelton wheel is efficient and reliable when operating under large heads, it is less suited
to smaller heads. To develop a given output power under a smaller head the rate of flow would need
to be greater, with a consequent increase in jet diameter. The increase of jet diameter in turn
requires an increase of wheel diameter. Since, moreover, the jet and bucket velocities are reduced
as the head is reduced, the machine becomes very bulky and slow-running. For lower heads,
turbines of the reaction type are more suitable.

Example

Find the jet and wheel diameters, and speeds, for single jet Pelton wheels of the most compact
design, to work respectively under total heads of 625, 256, 81, 16 and 5 m, and each to develop
10000 kW. Water is the working fluid and the efficiency is 90% for all machines.

REACTION TURBINES

A Francis turbine is one example of reaction machines. There are two types of this kind of turbine,
the inward flow and the outward flow. In the inward flow type, flow of fluid is towards the runner
centre from the guide vanes which surrounds the runner. In the outward flow type, the fluid enters
the guide vanes at the centre and would flow radially outwards into the runner surrounding the
guide vanes.

Consider an inward-flow Francis turbine

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 EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

The following notations are employed:

V1 = absolute velocity of the fluid at entry

V2 = absolute velocity of the fluid at exit

Vr1 = relative velocity of fluid with respect to the blade at entry

Vr2 = relative velocity of fluid with respect to the blade at exit

u = peripheral velocity of the blade = r  2rN

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N = rotational speed in revolutions per minute

 = angle made by the absolute velocity vector V1 with the positive direction of the peripheral
velocity u. Known as guide vane angle.

 = angle made by the relative velocity vector Vr1 with the negative direction of the peripheral
velocity u; Known as blade angle.

Vw1 = tangential component of absolute velocity, V1

Vw2 = tangential component of absolute velocity, V2

Vf1 = radial component of absolute velocity, V1

Vf2 = radial component of absolute velocity, V2

b = width of flow passage

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 EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

Vr1

Vr2

The total head available to the machine is h and the water velocity on entering the guide vanes is Vo.
The velocity leaving the guide vanes is V1 and is related to Vo by the continuity equation, i.e.

AoVo  A1V f 1

But V f 1  V1 sin 1 so that

AoVo  A1 V1 sin 1

Also V f 1 A1  V f 2 A2  Q

But A1  2r1b1 and A2  2r2b2

 Q  2r1b1V f 1  2r2 b2V f 2

Power delivered to the runner is given by:

P  T

Where T is the torque on the axis of the runner

 T = rate of increase of angular momentum about the axis

T  Qr1Vw1  r2Vw2   Euler’s equation

 P  Qr1Vw1  r2Vw2   Qu1Vw1  u2Vw2 

Head utilised by the turbine, He is given by:

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 EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

P  gQH e  Qu1Vw1  u2Vw2 

u1Vw1  u 2Vw2
 He 
g

Hydraulic efficiency  H is given by:

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐻𝑒 (𝑢1 𝑉𝑤1 − 𝑢2 𝑉𝑤2 )

𝜂𝐻 = = =
𝑛𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ℎ 𝑔ℎ

Mechanical efficiency  m is given by:

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡

𝜂𝑚 =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟

Overall efficiency  o is given by:

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝜂𝑜 = =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑔𝑄ℎ

Or ηo = ηm x ηH

Example

An inward flow reaction turbine has inlet and outlet diameters of 1.2 m and 0.6 m respectively. The
breadth at inlet is 0.25 m and at outlet it is 0.35 m. At a speed of rotation of 250 rpm, the relative
velocity at entrance is 3.5 m/s and is radial. Calculate the

(i) Absolute velocity at entrance and the inclination to the tangent of the runner
(ii) Discharge, and
(iii) The velocity of flow at the outlet

Example

A Francis turbine has an inlet diameter of 2 m and an outlet diameter of 1.2 m. The breadth of the
blades is constant at 0.2 m. The runner rotates at a speed of 250 rpm with a discharge of 8 m 3/s. The
vanes are radial at the inlet and the discharge is radially outwards at the outlet. Calculate the angle
of guide vane at the inlet and blade angle at the outlet.

SPECIFIC SPEED FOR TURBINES

For a turbine the most important relationship is between the head of water and the output power
that can be generated with various rates of flow. The term specific speed, Ns, is used to denote the
performance characteristics of different types of turbines, or turbines of different size. Ns is the
speed of a turbine (in rpm) needed to develop 1 kW when operating with a head of 1 m. By
comparing the specific speeds of different types of turbines under similar conditions it is possible to
determine which type is best suited to a particular site or duty (for this reason it is also called the
type number). Thus

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 EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

N P
Ns 
H 5/ 4

With N in rpm, P in kW and H in m, the specific speed range of the turbine types is:

TURBINE TYPE SPECIFIC SPEED

Pelton wheel 12 - 60 High head, low discharge
Francis 60 - 500 Moderate head, moderate discharge
Kaplan 280 - 800 Low head, high discharge

PERFORMANCE OF MACHINES FROM MODEL TESTS

Scale models are often used in designing and other studies relating to turbines. The model and
prototype characteristic relationships are usually expressed in terms of the following relationships
between the variables.

N m Dm N P DP

Hm HP

Qm QP

3
N m Dm N P DP3

Pm P
3 5
 3P 5
N m Dm N P DP

From the above, the specific speed Ns is the same for both the model and the prototype.

Example

At a location investigations yielded the following data for the installation of a hydro-plant. Head
available = 200 m, power available = 40000 kW. The speed chosen was 500 rpm. A model study was
proposed. In the laboratory, head available was 20 m. It was proposed to construct a 1/6 scale
model. Determine the speed and power capacity required to test the model. Also determine the
flow rate required in terms of the prototype flow rate.

CAVITATION IN TURBINES

Cavitation is the formation, growth and rapid collapse of vapour bubbles in flowing liquids. Bubbles
form at low pressures when the absolute pressure drops to the vapour pressure and the liquid
spontaneously boils. When the bubbles are swept into higher pressure regions they collapse very
rapidly, with large radial velocities and enormous short term pressures. The problem is particularly
acute at solid surfaces.

Cavitation may cause performance loss, noise, surface pitting and, occasionally, major structural
damage.

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 EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

Since cavitation begins when the pressure reaches too low a value, it is likely to occur at points
where the velocity or the elevation is high. In reaction turbine the point of minimum pressure is
usually at the outlet end of the runner blade.

For the flow between such a point and the final discharge into the tail race the energy equation may
be written as follows:

Pmin u 2 P
  zc  h f  atm
g 2 g g

Where hf is the head lost to friction in the draft tube.

Rearranging the equation gives

u2 P P
 h f  atm  min  zc
2g g g

For a particular design of machine operated under its design conditions, the left-hand side of this
equation may be regarded as a proportion of net head h across the machine i.e.

Patm Pmin
g  g  zc
C 
h

For cavitation not to occur Pmin must be greater than the vapour pressure of the liquid, Pv, i.e.

Patm PV
g  g  zc
   C where  
h

σ is known as Thoma’s number.

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 EC 310: HYDRAULICS LECTURE NOTES

If either zc (the height of the turbine runner above the tail water surface) or h is increased, σ is
reduced. To determine whether cavitation is likely in a particular installation, the value of σ may be
calculated. If it is greater than the tabulated value of σC for that design of turbine, cavitation should
not be experienced.

The expression is also used to determine the maximum elevation zmax of the turbine above the tail
water surface for cavitation to be avoided:

Patm PV
z max   Ch
g g

Example

A turbine with σC = 0.08 is to be installed at a site where h = 60 m and a water barometer stands at
8.3 m. What is the maximum permissible impeller setting above tail water if the vapour pressure is
1.2 m?

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