CCB-581: Computer Architecture

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 Text-Books
William Stallings, “Computer Organization and Architecture –
Designing for Performance”, Ninth Edition.

Morris Mano, “Computer System Architecture”, Sixth Ed.

David A. Patterson and John L. Hennessy, “Computer

Organization and Design: The hardware/software interface”,
Fifth Edition.

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 Computer Architecture
 The architecture is concerned with the attributes (structure and behaviour) of the
computer visible to the programmer
 Instruction Set
 Instruction Formats
 Specific Registers and their roles
 Number of bits used for data representation
 I/O mechanisms
 Addressing techniques.
 e.g. Is there a multiply instruction?

 It is the external of a computer that is essential to be properly understood by the

programmer.

 All Intel x86 family share the same basic architecture

 Computer Organization
 Organization is concerned with the way how-
 The hardware components(CPU, memory and peripheral devices) operate
 The hardware components connected together
 e.g. Is there a hardware multiply unit or is it done by repeated addition?

 It helps to understand the internal operations carried out by a computer

Architecture-An Application
interface Programs
between
software and
System
hardware.
Programs

Architecture

Organization
 Computer Design

 Design is concerned with the hardware design of

the computer.
 What hardware to be used ?
 How they are to be connected ?
 Computer
❑ An automatic electronic device for performing
calculations or controlling operations on inputs those can
be expressed in numerical or logical terms.

❑ It is a device that
❑ Accepts input
❑ Executes instructions
❑ Returns results.

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 Computer
❑ It consists of following components
❑ Central Processing Unit
❑ Input

❑ Output

❑ Storage

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 Stored-Program Computer
 A stored-program computer is a computer that stores program instructions in
electronic memory.
 This contrasts with machines where the program instructions are stored
on plug-boards /punched card/similar mechanisms.

Plug-boards
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 Stored-Program Computer

 Stored-Program Computers

 Von-Neumann architecture
 A computer which stores a program data and instruction in
the same memory.

 Harvard architecture
 A computer which has separate memories for storing
program and data.

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 Von-Neumann Architecture
• Hungarian-American mathematician John von Neumann.
• A computer which stores a program data and instruction data in the
same memory.
• The programs are executed in sequential manner.
• The sequential execution is maintained by special register (Program
Counter)

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 Von-Neumann Bottleneck
There exists a single data path between the CPU and main memory.
 Due to shared bus, an instruction fetch and a data operation cannot
occur at the same time thus leading to performance slowdown.
 This is known as von Neumann bottleneck.

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 Components of a Computer

Monitor Speaker
(output) (output) System unit
(processor, memory…)

Printer
(output)

Storage devices
(CD-RW, Floppy, Hard
disk, zip,…)
Mouse
(input)
Scanner Keyboard
(input) (input)

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 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
➢ The CPU, the brain of the computer.
➢ Also known as microprocessor: Housed on a tiny silicon chip

➢ Chip contains millions of switches and pathways that help your

computer make important decisions.
➢ knows which switches to turn on and which to turn off
because it receives its instructions from computer
programs (software).

➢ CPU has two primary sections:

➢ Arithmetic/logic unit
➢ Control unit

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 Arithmetic logic Unit
 Performs arithmetic computations and logical operations; by
combining these two operations the ALU can execute complex
tasks.
 Arithmetic operations include addition, subtractions,
multiplication, and division.
 Logical operations involve comparisons.

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 Control Unit
 It is the “boss” and coordinates all of the CPU’s activities.
 Uses programming instructions.
 It controls the flow of information through the processor by
controlling what happens inside the processor.
 Send control signal to all associated units.

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 Input Devices

➢ In computing, an input device is a piece of hardware equipment

used to receive data and control signals.

➢ The input devices are operated and controlled by the control unit
(CU).

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 Input Devices

• Keyboard • Touch screen

• Mouse/Trackball • Bar code reader
• Joystick • Scanner
• Microphone
• Light pen
• Graphics Tablet
• Pointing Stick
• Digital Cameras
• Touchpad

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 Output Unit
 After the data has been processed, the results are sent in the form
of useful information to output units.
 The input devices are operated and controlled by the control unit
(CU).

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 Computer Output Devices
Monitor: screen that display Speakers: allow you to
information such as text, hear voice, music, and
numbers, and pictures- other sounds from your
softcopy. computer.

Printer: gives you Modem: allows you to use

information from the your computer to
computer in printed form – communicate with other
hardcopy. computers.

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 Memory

 Memory is used to store data

 The contents of main memory can be transferred to

auxiliary storage devices such as hard disks, floppy
diskettes, zip disks, compact disks, or USB flash disk.

 Two Types
Short term : Random Access Memory (RAM)
Long term : Read Only Memory (ROM)

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 Random Access Memory (RAM)

• Also known as the main memory.

• Memory on the motherboard
• Data, information, and program instructions are stored
temporarily on a RAM chip or a set of RAM chips.

• This memory is considered volatile.

 When the computer is turned off or if there is loss of
power, what ever is stored in RAM disappears.

• The CPU can read from and write to RAM.

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 Read Only Memory (ROM)

• Memory on the motherboard

• The specific instructions that are needed for the computer to operate are
stored.
• This memory is non-volatile and your computer can only read from a ROM
chip.

• The instructions remain on the chip regardless if the power is turned on or

off.

• Most common is the BIOS ROM; where the computer uses instructions
contained on this chip to boot or start the system when you turn on your
computer.

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 Applications of Computers
 Accounts
 Games
 Education
 Research
 On-line banking
 Smart ID cards
 Supermarkets
 Working from home (Tele-working)
 Internet

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Concept of Programming
 Programming Terminology
➢ Instruction: An instruction is an order given to the CPU to
perform a unit of task. (Add, Subtract, Load, Move, etc.)

➢ Program: A set of instructions in order to perform a logical task.

(Add two numbers; Find factorial etc.)

➢ Software refers to programs (+documentation) that make the

computer perform some work. (Calculator, Operating System,
etc.)

➢ Note:
➢ When you have written a program, the computer will
behave exactly as you have instructed it.
➢ It will do no more or no less than what is contained in your
instructions.
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 Why Programming (ML/AL/HLL)?
 How humans interact with each other?
 Using a language , the basic elements of a language are the letters,
right?

 What you do with these letters?

 You combine them, form a meaningful word or sentence
 If you say h-o-u-s-e , is a nonsense, but if you say house , people
will understand you.

 Language is the medium of communication.

 For computers, Programming Language provides the medium for

communication to outside world.

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 Historical Background
➢ As early practice of rewiring circuits proved too cumbersome,
computer languages began to appear in order to control the
computer.

➢ The first, machine language, was constructed of ones and zeros

using binary codes.

➢ More efficient than rewiring circuits of machine to program it.

➢ still time-consuming to develop a program due
to sheer number of program codes required

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 Historical Background
 Once systems such as UNIVAC became available in early 1950s,
assembly language was used to simplify entering binary code.

 Assembler allows programmer to use mnemonic codes…

 such as ADD for addition

 In place of a binary number.

 such as 0100 0111

 Assembly language is an aid to programming.

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 Historical Background
As assembly language is also tedious for business person, therefore,
many high-level programming language has been developed
 FLOWMATIC.

 FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator)

 ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language)
 COBOL (COmputer Business Oriented Language).
 RPG (Report Program Generator)
 BASIC, C#, C/C++, Java, PASCAL etc.

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 Programming Language

➢ A programming language is a formal language designed

to communicate instructions to a computer.

➢ Each language has well defined syntax.

➢ There are two major types of programming languages:

➢Low-level languages
➢ Machine Language
➢ Assembly Language
➢High-level languages

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 Low-Level Language
➢ Low-level languages are referred to as 'low' because they are
very close to how different hardware elements of a
computer actually communicate with each other.

➢ Low-level languages are machine oriented and require

extensive knowledge of computer hardware and its
configuration.

➢ In a low-level language, it is necessary for the programmer to

know the instruction set of the CPU in order to program the
computer.

➢ Two low-level languages

➢ Machine language
➢ Assembly language.

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 Machine Language
➢ It is the native language that the CPU “speaks” and
“understands”.

➢ It does not need to be translated.

➢ All instructions use binary notation and are written as a

string of 1s and 0s.

➢ It is possible to write an entire program in machine

language. However, this is very time consuming and
difficult to read and understand.

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 Assembly Language
➢ A first step to improve programming structure to make
machine language more readable by humans.

➢ An assembly language consists of a set of symbols and

letters (MOVE, ADD, SUB and END.).

➢ An assembler is a program that reads the codes the

programmer writes in assembly language and
“assembles” a machine language program based on those
codes.

➢ Assembly languages are still pretty difficult to

understand. This is why high-level languages have been
developed.
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Comparing Machine Language & Assembly Language

➢ For example, the machine code for adding two integers might be:
01000001 00111010 00111101
01000001 00101011 01000010
01000011 00111010
01000111 00111110

➢ While the assembly language code might be:

LOAD B 63 ; Initialize B with 63
LOAD A 66 ; Initialize B with 63 (Note: A is accumulator register)
ADD B ; Add the value of A with B and Store in A
STORE C ; Store the value of A in C

➢ This causes the number in A to be added to the number in B, and the

result is stored for later use in C.
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Advantages Of Low Level Languages

➢ Run more quickly

➢ Require less memory

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 High Level Languages
 A programming language
 uses words and symbols to make it relatively easy to read
and write a computer program by human.

 FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC, Logo, Pascal, C, C++, Java,

Python and others.

 In a high-level language
 NO one-to-one correspondence between Instructions of HLL
to Machine Language.
 One statement in a HLL may correspond to many
microprocessor instructions.

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 Comparing ML/AL/HLL (Addition of Two numbers)

➢ For example, the machine code for adding two integers might be:
01000001 00111010 00111101
01000001 00101011 01000010
01000011 00111010
01000111 00111110

➢ While the assembly language code might be:

LOAD B 63 ; Initialize B with 63
LOAD A 66 ; Initialize B with 63 (Note: A is accumulator register)
ADD B ; Add the value of A with B and Store in A
STORE C ; Store the value of A in C

➢ High Level Language Program (Python language)

B = 63
A = 66
C=A+B
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 Advantages Of High Level Languages
➢ Reduce the number of instructions that must be
written.

➢ Allow programs to be written in a shorter amount of

time than a low-level language would take.

➢ Reduce the number of errors that are made because the

instructions are easier to remember.

➢ HLL programs are more portable.

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 Translation
➢ Source code: A program written in a high-level
language.

➢ Translation: The programs are translated into

machine language by interpreters or
compilers.

➢ Object Code: The resulting machine language

code.

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 Compilers
➢ A compiler makes the translation once so that the source code don’t
have to be translated each time the program is run.

➢ The source code is translated into a file called an object file.

➢A program called a linker is used to create an executable program.

➢ Most modern compilers let you compile and link in a single

operation, and have an “IDE” to enter text, debug, compile, link,
and run programs.

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 Interpreters
➢ An interpreter is a program that translates the source code of a
high-level language into machine language.

➢ It coverts each high-level program statement into the machine

code.

➢ Every time the program is run, the interpreter must translate each
instruction again.

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Some Terminologies

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Program v/s Process
 Program v/s Process
 A program is a set of instructions written to complete the specific job on
your computer.
 For example, Google browser chrome.exe is an executable file which
stores a set of instructions written in it which allow you to view web
pages.
 Programs are never stored on the primary memory in your computer.
 Instead, they are stored on a disk or secondary memory.
 Program v/s Process
 A process is an execution of any specific program.
 It is considered an active entity that performs the purpose of the
application.
 Multiple processes may be related to the same program.
 For example
 If you are double click on your Google Chrome browser icon on your PC
or laptop, you start a process which will run the Google Chrome
program.
 When you open another instance of Chrome, you are essentially
creating a two process.
 Uni-Processor
 A computer system with a single central processing unit
that is known as uni-processor.

 The uni-processor can execute either single or multiple

program(s) simultaneously.
 Multiprogramming

 Running Single Programs

 Suppose, there is one process in memory to execute (CPU task
or I/O task).
 If the process needs I/O units, It leads to Idle CPU.
 Multiprogramming

 Running Multiple Programs

 In a multiprogramming system, more than one programs are
loaded in main memory which are ready to execute.
 Only one process at a time is able to get the CPU for
executing its instructions while all the others are waiting their
turn.
 The ultimate goal of multiprogramming is to keep the CPU
busy as long as there are processes ready to execute.

 Multiprogramming may lead to Thrashing

 Multitasking

 If multiple programs/processes are running at the same

time.
 In multitasking, each running process takes only a fair
quantum of the CPU time.
 It ensures that any task does not hijack the CPU until it
finishes but rather a fair share amount of the CPU is given
to every program in main memory.
 Multi-Processor
 Multiprocessing sometimes refers to executing multiple
processes (programs) at the same time.

 This might be misleading because of the term

“multiprogramming” .

 In fact, multiprocessing refers to the hardware (i.e.,

the CPU units) rather than the software (i.e., running
processes).

 Anyway, a system can be both multi-programmed by

having multiple programs running at the same time and
multiprocessing by having more than one physical
processor.
Top Level View of Computer
&
Program Execution

(Ref. - William Stallings)

 Top Level View
• At a top level, a computer consists of
 CPU
 Memory
 I/O Module I/O Components Missing ?

 System Bus

• The above components are interconnected to achieve the basic

function of the computer-
 The basic function of a computer is to execute programs.
 Top Level View

At top level, we can describe a computer system by

 Describing the external behaviour of each component—

 The data and control signals exchanged between all
components

 Describing the interconnection structure

 Describing the controls required to manage the use of the

interconnection structure.
Top Level View of Computer
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
➢ Also known as microprocessor: Housed on a tiny silicon chip

➢ Includes all binary circuits i.e. ALU, CU and Registers ---on a

single Integrated Chip (IC).

➢ Chip contains millions of switches and pathways that help your

computer make important decisions.

➢ Carries out the program’s instructions!

➢ Operates on data it finds in the computer’s memory.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

➢ CPU has four key parts :

➢ Control Unit
➢ Arithmetic & Logic Unit
➢ Registers
➢ Clock
➢ And, of course, wires that connect everything
together.
 Control unit
➢ It is the “boss” and coordinates all of the CPU’s activities.

➢ The circuitry that controls the flow of information through the processor, and
coordinates the activities of the other units within it.

➢ It controls sequence of operations.

➢ Uses programming instructions.

➢ In a way, it is the "brain within the brain", as it controls what happens inside
the processor, which in turn controls the rest of the system.
 Control unit

➢ On a regular CPU, the control unit performs

➢ Fetching
➢ Decoding
➢ Managing execution
➢ Storing results.
Block Diagram of Control Unit
 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
➢ Circuitry to perform data manipulation.
➢ The component that performs operations.
➢ Performs arithmetic operations include addition,
subtractions, multiplication, division
➢ Performs the basic logical operations (AND, OR, NOT, XOR,
XNOR), and comparisons
➢ By combining arithmetic and logical operations-ALU performs
complex tasks.
Block Diagram of ALU
 Register Set
➢ Temporary storage area to hold data applicable to the current
instruction/operation.

➢ Theregister set/array consists of circuitry used to temporarily

store data or program codes until they are sent to
➢ ALU
➢ memory
➢ Control section

➢ Numberof registers differs in different CPUs

➢ Some registers are common to all CPUs

➢ Measured by the number of bits they can hold

➢ "8-bit register" or a "32-bit register".
 Register Set
➢ Program counter (PC)
➢ Accumulator(AC)
➢ Instruction Register (IR)
➢ Memory Address Register (MAR)
➢ Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
➢ I/O Address Register (I/O AR)
➢ I/O Buffer Register (I/O BR)
 Program counter (PC)
➢A 16 bit register, used to store the address of the next
instruction to be fetched by the CPU.

➢ Thisregister maintains the sequential execution of a

program.
 Accumulator
➢A register in which intermediate arithmetic and logic
results are stored.

➢Example –Use of accumulator in summation.

➢The accumulator is initially set to zero.
➢Then, each number in turn is added to the value in the
accumulator.
➢Only when all numbers have been added is the result held in
the accumulator written to main memory or to another, non-
accumulator (CPU register).
 Register Set
➢ Instruction Register (IR)
➢ Holds last instruction fetched

➢ Memory Address Register (MAR)

➢ Connected to address bus and main memory
➢ Specifies address for read or write from main memory

➢ Memory Buffer Register (MBR)

➢ Connected to data bus and main memory
➢ Holds data to write or last data read
 Register Set
➢ I/O Address Register (I/O AR)
➢ Connected to address bus and I/O module
➢ Specifies address for read or write from I/O module

➢ I/O Buffer Register (I/O BR)

➢ Connected to data bus and I/O module
➢ Holds data to write or last data read
 Clock
 Triggers start and stop of all CPU operations. (heartbeat)

 Every computer contains an internal clock

 Regulates the rate at which instructions are executed
 Synchronizes all components

 The faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU can
execute per second.

 Clock speeds are expressed in megahertz (MHz) or

gigahertz ((GHz).
Top Level View of Computer
 Memory
 A physical device capable of storing information temporarily or
permanently.

 Two Types
 Long term / Read Only Memory (ROM)/Non-volatile Memory
 It stores information permanently

 Short term Memory / Random Access Memory (RAM)/Volatile

Memory
 It stores information temporarily

Why do computer systems have different types of memories ?

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 Read Only Memory (ROM)
➢ A type of non-volatile memory used in computers/Other electronic devices.

➢ Read-only memory is useful for storing software that is rarely changed during
the life of the system, sometimes known as firmware.

➢ The computer can only read from a ROM chip.

➢ Data stored in ROM cannot be electronically modified after the manufacture

of the memory device.

➢ Most common is the BIOS ROM-

➢ The computer uses instructions contained on this chip to start the system
when you turn on the computer system.

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 Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Also known as the main memory/primary memory
• It can be used to read and changed in any order
• It is typically used to store working data/machine code
• It is volatile

• It allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount

of time irrespective of the physical location of data inside the
memory. (Why RAM?)

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 Random Access Memory (RAM)
Two Types
• Static RAM (SRAM)
• Typically used for CPU cache

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

• Typically used for main memory

• What happens to data on main memory?

• The CPU can read from and write to RAM.
• The contents of main memory can be transferred to auxiliary storage
devices such as hard disks, floppy diskettes, zip disks, compact disks, or
USB flash disk or vice-versa.

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 Main Memory
 How memory is used?
 When a program such as your Internet Explorer(IE) is clicked
to open.
 The program of IE is loaded from your hard drive and placed
into RAM.
 The program now becomes process.
 This process now communicates with the processor at higher
speeds (than hard disk).

 Why memory is used ?

➢ It provides a place to quickly access or store data.
Top Level View of Computer
Communication of CPU with different Components

Communication
➢ Data and instructions need to get into the system and
results out
➢ Input/output

➢ Temporary storage for code and results is needed

➢ Main memory

➢ Temporary storage is required to hold data during data

processing.
➢ Registers

➢System bus is used to provide communication between

Main Memory, CPU and I/O module
 Bus
➢ A communication pathway connecting two or more devices.
➢ Usually broadcast
➢ Serial or Parallel

➢ Often grouped
➢ A number of channels in one bus
➢ 32 bit data bus is 32 separate single bit channels
 System Bus?
➢ A system bus is a composite bus that connects the
major components of a computer system.

➢ It combines three buses

➢ Address Bus: To determine where the data should
be sent/fetched

➢ Data Bus: Use to carry actual data

➢ Control Bus: What to do with this data (operation-

Read/Write)
 Communication of CPU with different
Components

Address bus
ALU Register Set

Data bus

Control Unit and timing section

Control bus
 Address bus
➢ Uni-directional Bus

➢ Identify the source or destination of actual data

➢ CPU reads an instruction (data) from a given location in memory
➢ CPU writes data to given location in memory

➢ The width of address bus determines maximum memory capacity of

system
➢ 8080 has 16 bit address bus giving 64k address space
➢ For n-bit address bus-2n addresses
 Data Bus
➢ Bi-directional

➢ Carries actual data

➢ Remember that there is no difference between “data”
and “instruction” at this level

➢ The width of data bus is a key determinant of

performance
➢ 8, 16, 32, 64-bits
 Control Bus
➢ Control and timing information
➢ Read/write signal
➢ Interrupt request
➢ Clock signals

➢ The control bus carries commands from the CPU and

returns status signals from the devices.

➢ Example, if the data is being read/written to the device

the appropriate line (read/write) will be active.
Top Level View of Computer
 Input / Output Module
 I/O module provides an interface to control the
interaction with the outside world in an efficient
manner.

 I/O module consists of logic for performing a

communication between the peripheral device and the
bus.

 I/O module consists of multiple modules

 Each module interfaces to the system bus.
 Each module controls one or more peripheral devices.
Input / Output Module
 Input / Output Module
 The I/O module has two major functions-
 Interface to CPU and memory via the system bus
 Interface to peripheral devices (Keyboard, Mouse,
Monitor etc.)
Basic Operational Concept
 Basic Operational Concept
MONITOR

PROCESSOR

Storage
KEYBOARD
devices

PRINTER
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 Basic Operational Concept

 Input
 Process/Manipulate
 Output
 Storage

Input Process Output

Store Data 89
 Basic Operational Concept
 The model executes instructions sequentially.
 To execute a program, the CPU “reads” each
instruction SEQUETIALLY and “executes” it.

 To execute any instruction, the CPU

 Fetcheseach instruction,
 Decodes it,
 Executes it.

 The sequence (Fetch-Decode-Execute) is followed for

all instructions.
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 Basic Operational Concept
 The model executes instructions sequentially.

 Fetch
 At the beginning of each instruction, the CPU presents the value
of the program counter on the address bus.
 The CPU then fetches the instruction from main memory via
the data bus into the instruction register.

 The program counter is then incremented to address the next

instruction in memory.

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 Basic Operational Concept
 Decode
 The data in instruction register is decoded by control unit.

 Execute
 The control unit sends a sequence of control signals to the
relevant functional units of the CPU to perform the actions
required by the instruction such as read/Write/Arithmetic
operation/others.

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Top Level View of Computer
 Program Execution
➢ In any program, all instructions are executed sequentially.

➢ To execute an instruction, following three cycles are used:

➢ Fetch
➢ Decode
➢ Execute
 Fetch Cycle
➢Address of next instruction is in PC which is copied to MAR.

➢Address from MAR is placed on address bus

➢Control unit issues READ command

➢Result (data fetched from memory) copied/appears on data bus

➢Data from data bus copied into MBR

➢PC incremented by 1 (in parallel with data fetch from memory)

➢Data is moved from MBR to IR

➢MBR/MAR are now free for further data fetches

 Decode Cycle
➢ The binary value in Instruction Register (IR) is
interpreted by Control Unit.
➢ It may be some instruction/data

➢ Each instruction consists of two parts

➢ Operation code
➢ Operands
 Execute Cycle
Different for each instruction

➢ Processor-memory
➢ Data transfer between CPU and main memory

➢ Processor-I/O
➢ Data transfer between CPU and I/O module

➢ Data processing
➢ Some arithmetic or logical operation on data

➢ Control
➢ Alteration of sequence of operations
➢ e.g. jump
 Program Execution: An example
 Assumptions

 The word length in memory is 16-bits

 The words in memory are expressed in hexadecimal form.
 Each instruction is divided into opcode(4-bits) and operands (12-bits)

 Consider the list of op-codes

0001 (1h) – Load AC from memory
0010 (2h) – Store AC to memory
0101 (5h) – Add to AC from memory

 Program to execute
 Add two numbers stored at address 940h and 941h.
 Store the result at location 941h.
 Program Execution: An example

1st
Instruction:
Fetch Cycle
 Program Execution: An example

1st Instruction: Decode and Execute

 0001 (1h) - Load AC from memory

• 1940h - Load
Accumulator Register
from the value stored
at memory location
940
 Program Execution: An example

2nd Instruction:
Fetch Cycle
 Program Execution: An example

2nd Instruction:
Decode and Execute

 0101 (5h) - Add to AC

from memory

 5941h- Add to
Accumulator Register
the value stored at
memory location
941h
 Program Execution: An example

3rd Instruction

Fetch Cycle
 Program Execution: An example

3rd Instruction
-Decode and Execute

 0010
(2h) - Store AC to
memory

 2941h- Store the

value of Accumulator
Register at memory
location 941h
Program Execution: An example
Instruction Cycle State Diagram
INTERRUPTS
How interrupts are handled?
 Interrupts
 Normally, the CPU start executing the list of instructions in one program and
keep running the instructions until
 EITHER it can't go any further
 OR an interrupt signal is sensed.

 An interrupt
 A signal from a device attached to a computer or from a program
within the computer
 Requires the operating system to stop and figure out what to do next.

 It is a mechanism by which other modules (e.g. I/O) may interrupt normal

sequence of processing.
Program Execution without and with Interrupt
 Interrupt Cycle
➢ To handle interrupt, interrupt cycle is added to instruction cycle.

➢ Processor checks for interrupt-Indicated by an interrupt signal

➢ If no interrupt, fetch next instruction

➢ If interrupt pending:
➢ Suspend execution of current program
➢ Save context
➢ Set PC to start address of interrupt handler routine
➢ Process interrupt
➢ Restore context and continue interrupted program
Instruction Cycle with Interrupts
Transfer of Control via Interrupts
Benefits of Interrupt Handling
Benefits of Interrupt Handling
Short I/O Wait
Benefits of Interrupt Handling
Benefits of Interrupt Handling-Long I/O Wait
Instruction Cycle (with Interrupt stage)
State Diagram
 Interrupts
 An operating system usually has some code that is called an interrupt
handler.

 The interrupt handler prioritizes the interrupts and saves them in

a queue if more than one is waiting to be handled.

 The operating system has another little program, sometimes called

a scheduler, that figures out which program to execute next.

 After occurrence of interrupt, the computer either

 Resumes running the current program or
 Begins running another program.
 Interrupts
 Hardware interrupts
 Itoccurs when an I/O operation is completed such as
reading some data into the computer from a tape
drive.

 Software interrupts
 It occurs when an application program terminates
abruptly or requests certain services from the
operating system.
Interrupts
 Multiple Interrupts
 Two approaches to deal with multiple interrupts
 Sequential or Disable interrupts
 Nested or Priority Based
 Multiple Interrupts

 Sequential
 The processor can and will ignore that interrupt request signal
while processing one interrupt.
 Interrupts remain pending and are checked after current
interrupt has been processed.
 Interrupts handled in sequence as they occur.

 Disadvantage
 High priority or time-critical tasks may be ignored.
Multiple Interrupts- Sequential
 Multiple Interrupts
 Nested
 Low priority interrupts can be interrupted by higher priority
interrupts
 When higher priority interrupt has been processed, processor
returns to previous interrupt
Multiple Interrupts – Nested
Time Sequence of Multiple Interrupts

Disk
interrupt
occurs at
t=20.
THANK YOU