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PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

 Human Life begins at Conception

(1) Germinal Period (conception to implantation, 8-14 days)

Zygote  blastocyst  embryonic disk, trophoblast

The film “Silent Scream”

►6-10 days after conception, implants into uterine wall

►1 in 4 zygotes survive this phase

(2) Period of the embryo (start of 3rd week to end of 8th week)
► formation of major organs, heart starts to beat

trophoblast  amnion, yolk sac, chorion, allantois

placenta: ►barrier to prevent mother’s and embryo’s bloodstreams from

mixing
►semi-permeable lets oxygen, carbon dioxide, salts, nutrients
pass)
►connects to embryo via umbilical cord (carries oxygen, nutrients
to embryo, and removes metabolic waste from embryo)

After implantation:
►embryonic disk differentiates into 3 layers of cells
1) ectoderm (hair, skin, nails, oil & sweat glands, nervous system)
2) mesoderm (muscles, bones, connective tissue, circulatory & excretory
systems)
3) endoderm (digestive tract, trachea, bronchi, lungs, pancreas, liver)

►after 4th week post-conception, heart is beating, embryo is 10000 times bigger
than a zygote
►during 2nd month embryo grows 1/30th of an inch every day, brain develops
quickly
►by end of 5ht week, skeleton and limbs are forming, eyes have developed
►by 8th-9th week, sexual development begins” genital ridge (i.e. the “indifferent
gonad”)

(3) Period of the fetus (9th week til birth, about 7 months)
►major organs start to work
►by end of 3rd month, organs are refined, bones hardening, muscles developing,
fetus starts to move limbs, wiggle fingers
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►in 2nd trimester (4th, 5th, 6th months) sin thickens, nails harden, eyelashes and
hair develop
►by 6th month (25 weeks) auditory and visual systems are functional; fetus is 15
inches long, weighs about 2 lbs
►22nd to 28th week: brain and respiratory system develop; fetus is “viable”
► in third trimester (7th, 8th, 9th months) gain weight (fat), respiratory system
strengthens
►by middle of 9th month, fetus is so big that it rests head-down, limbs curled
around body (fetal position). Mother has uterine contractions to prepare for
childbirth.

Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development

Maternal Characteristics:
►age: < 15, greater odds of stillborn fetus or later-dying baby;
higher odds of dying in childbirth
> 35, greater risk of fetal and neonatal deaths, spontaneous
abortion

►more than 50% of pregnancies are not planned; an unhappy mother

may secrete more adrenaline and other hormones which can affect the
fetus

►babies of stressed mothers are fussier, more active, more difficult to

feed, to get to sleep, etc. Genetic inheritance? Stress hormones in utero?
Field (1985): mothers are more punitive and controlling in child-rearing

►Nutrition:
 mother should gain 25-30 lbs while pregnant
 malnourished mothers risk congenital defects, long labor,
stillbirth, infant
mortality in 1st year

Teratogen: anything that can harm a developing embryo or fetus leading to

deformities, retarded growth, brain damage, or death.
►effects on a particular organ or system are worse when that structure is
being formed
►genetic susceptibility
►one teratogens can cause many defects; a single defect can be caused
by many teratogens; increased exposure/dose means more serious harm

Critical Period: a segment of time in which an organ or system is most sensitive

to effects of a teratogens – when it is developing.

Defects of head, CNS  3rd to 5th week

Heart  3 to mid-6th week
rd
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Other organs, body parts  2nd month

►Maternal Diseases
 rubella in pregnancy: blindness, deafness, cardiac problems, mental
retardation
- worse in 1st trimester (50-80% affected)
- still high in 2nd trimester (13%)

 syphilis: if untreated, miscarriage is likely, as well as ear, eye, bone,

brain damage; worse in middle and later pregnancy

 herpes (cytomegalovirus, or CMV): blindness, deafness, brain damage,

death
- most common infectious cause of congenital deafness and
mental retardation
- genital herpes can cross the placental barrier or be transmitted
during childbirth; can lead to blindness, brain damage, 33% of
infected neonates die

 AIDS (HIV infection): 25% of babies with infected mothers are infected.
Can get the virus 3 ways:
1) prenatally if virus passes placental barrier
2) during birth, if blood is exchanged as umbilical cord separates
from placenta
3) after birth via mother’s milk

► Drugs
 Thalidomide: a mild tranquilizer prescribed to pregnant women in the
1960s to alleviate morning sickness. Led to thousands of defective
children, esp. when taken during 2nd month
- deformities of the eyes, ears, nose, hearts, fusion of
fingers/toes, phocomelia (parts or entire limbs missing,
feet/hands may attach directly to torso)
o 21st day: no ears
o 25th – 27th day: deformed/missing arms
o 28th – 36th day: deformed or missing legs
o after 40th day: no effect

 caffeine: possibly miscarriage, low birth weight, poor motor control

 oral contraceptives: heart defects

 Diethylstilbestrol (DES): ingredient in a drug used in the 1940s-1960s

to prevent miscarriage
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- DES daughters are at risk for abnormalities of reproductive

organs, cervical cancer, miscarriage, early delivery
- DES sons are at risk for fertility, immune system problems

 alcohol:
- fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): microcephaly,
heart/limb/joint/facial malformation, irritability, hyperactivity,
seizures, small size, delayed physical maturation, low IQ,
mental retardation
- even moderate consumption (1-3 ounces per day) can lead to
fetal alcohol effects (FAE): retarded growth, motor skills
problems, physical abnormalities, poor attention span,
subnormal IQ

 nicotine: retards rate of fetal growth, increases risk of spontaneous

abortion, neonatal death, impairs functioning of placenta
- Lefkowitz (1981): long term effects of maternal smoking on 9-11
year olds. Found no differences in size, intelligence, behaviour,
popularity.

 hallucinogens:
- heavy marijuana use linked to premature birth, low birth weight
- LSD  increased risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, chromosomal
abnormalities in offspring

 narcotics (codeine, heroin, morphine): miscarriage, premature delivery,

stillborn
- 70-90& of babies born to heroin users are addicted at birth

► Environmental Hazards

 radiation: mutations, mental retardation, infant death, fetal death

 zinc, lead, mercury: impaired health and mental abilities, teratogenic

effects on fetuses

 PCBs: smaller, less responsive neonates with long-term memory

problems

Perinatal Environment: the environment surrounding birth (drugs given during

labor and delivery; practices used in delivery; environment after baby is born)

3 stages of childbirth

1st stage (8-14 hours for first-borns, 3-8 hours for later borns): contractions of
uterus 10-15 minutes apart, leading to fully dilated cervix
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2nd stage (1/2 hour to 1 ½ hours): starts when fetus’ head is at cervical opening
- head eventually passes through cervix into vagina
- eventually emerges from mother’s body

3rd stage, the afterbirth (5-10 minutes): placenta is expelled from uterus

Perinatal Hazards:

► Apgar test assesses 5 characteristics:

1. heart rate (0=absent; 1=slow; 2=over 100 beats/minute)
2. respiration (0=absent; 1=slow; 2=good, crying)
3. muscle tone (0=flaccid;1=weak, some flexion; 2=strong, active)
4. colour (0=blue, pale; 1=pink body, blue extremities; 2= completely pink)
5. reflexes (0=no response; 1=frown, grimace, weak cry; 2=vigorous cry,
cough, sneeze)

poor Apgar scores:

►anoxia (oxygen deprivation)
►positioning of fetus (1 in 10 are breach births, i.e. feet or bottom first; 1
in 500 breach birth babies die at birth or soon after; 2 -4% have cranial
bleeding or cerebral palsy)
►forceps can cause cranial bleeding, brain damage
►obstetric medication; up to 9% of mothers are on a drug while giving
birth (analgesics, sedatives, stimulants)

Brackbill (1985): babies of mothers who were medicated smile less, are
irritable/inattentive, hard to comfort or feed

Low birth weight:

► preterm infants
►small-for-date infants - more at risk for serious complications

Due to mothers’ smoking, drinking, poor nutrition; mothers who are too young;
multiple births

Short term consequences:

► more than 50% of babies < 1000 grams (2.2 lbs) die at birth or shortly
after
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►malformations, malnourishment, genetic abnormalities

►respiratory problems due to lack of surfactin (coating on lungs)

Long term consequences:

► if in good homes, usually do fine
►if in disadvantaged/ unstable homes, likely to be smaller than other kids,
more emotional problems, long-term intellectual deficits