Investigation of Two Small Dams in Barangay Malaya, Banga

Darwin N. Pan

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 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Related Literature

Dams were built for the single purpose of water supply or irrigation in ancient times.

As civilization developed, there was a greater need for water supply, irrigation, flood

control, navigation, water quality, sediment control and energy, therefore dams are

constructed for these specific purposes. A dam is the cornerstone in the development

and management of water resources development of a river basin. The multipurpose dam

is a very important project for developing countries, because the population receives

domestic and economic benefits from a single investment

https://www.icold-cigb.org/GB/dams/role_of_dams.asp

The first known dam to be built is the Jawa Dam located in modern-day Jordan

which originally constructed around 3,000 BCE in what was then Mesopotamia and was

reinforced with rock fill behind the upstream wall in order to protect the wall from water

pressure breach. Most ancient dams were simple gravity dams constructed of gravel and

masonry. Approximately 400 years after the construction of the highly successful Jawa

Dam, Egyptians built the Dam of the Pagans to supply water to the local quarries outside

of Cairo rather than for irrigation, until it failed due to poor design and lack of spillway,

ancient Egyptians were dissuaded from constructing other dams until many years later.

The Romans highly regarded for their advances in hydraulic engineering from which

construction of arch gravity and buttress dam began.

Asian cultures also contributed to dam engineering. As early as 400 BCE, Asians starts

building earthen embankment dams to store water for the cities of Ceylon or Sri Lanka

for today. In 5th century AD, the Sinhalese built several dams to form reservoirs to catch

the monsoon rains for their irrigation system and many of these are still in use today.

https://tataandhoward.com/2016/05/a-history-of-dams-from-ancient-times-to-today/

During the second half of the 19th century in California, the dams during this time were

primarily private ventures. Small dams were often used to divert water for mining

operations and irrigation for personal properties. In earlier part of this period, most dams

constructed were small by nature of the needs the served, and mainly constructed of

earth and rock until the technology improved, larger concrete dams emerged.

https://watershed.ucdavis.edu/shed/lund/dams/Dam_History_Page/History.htm

According to the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), there are about

50,000 dams higher than 15 meter and/or storing more than 3 million cubic meters of

water classified as large dams, more than one hundred thousand smaller dams have

storage volumes. The overall storage capacity is close to 7000 cubic kilometer, of which

98 percent is at large dam.

www.hydrocoop.org/the-role-of-dams-in-the-next-xxi-century/

Related Studies

In a research of Ernest N.A et.al.,(2014) entitled “Development of small dams and

their impact on livelihoods: Cases from northern Ghana”. Focuses on issues related to

water use, socio-economic significance, and sustainability of small dams following

substantial state interventions and donor agency investments in the development and

management of small dams in Ghana, states that the small dams offer a reliable source

of water in a semi-arid region of Ghana. The economic returns from irrigation may partially

influence the performance of the small dams, but it remains an important driving tool for

the sustainability and economic livelihood of small dams. Performance of small dams can

be said to be a subject of holistically viewing values and priorities in multiple uses offered

by small dams to beneficiaries. Taking a holistic approach toward understanding the

interaction among stakeholders and local dynamics within broader context of political

economy is essential for the successful performance of small dams.

Usman N. et.al.,(2012) studied the environmental impacts of small dams on

agriculture and groundwater development of Khanpur Dam in pakistan concluded that the

said dam playing an important role to sustain the groundwater aquifer. This reservoir is

maintaining efficient recharging for last forty years. Due to improper water management,

small dams in Pakistan are facing serious issues. Maximum benefits from small dams like

irrigational, hydropower production, communal water distribution, recreational activities

and economic growth can be achieved. Sufficient funds must be available for the annual

repair and maintenance, because consumers are facing serious issues of water shortage

due to excessive seepage.

Kelly M. Kibler ( July 8, 2011) in her study “ Development and Decommissioning

of Small Dams: Analysis of Impact and Context” indicates that some ecological impacts

of small hydropower do exceed those associated with large hydropower, her findings

suggest that current policies allowing inferior standards of impact assessment for the

small hydropower sector should be reevaluated. Because further study is necessary to

optimize decision-making and management of small hydropower facilities. Severe

environmental consequences are observed in rivers reaches dewatered by diversion

hydropower station. Kelly indicate that standards of low-impact hydropower may be more

successful than current definition of small and large hydropower in creating effective

policies encouraging low-impact development of renewable energy sources. With regards

to decommissioning of small dams, the restoration potential of small rivers impounded by

reservoirs filled with coarse sediment may often outweigh the likelihood of detrimental

dam-removal effects.

Ngonidzashe .L Mufute in his research “The Development of a Risk-of-Failure

Evaluation Tool for Small Dams in Mzingwane Catchment”. Result shows the poor

embankment slopes condition (on 56.6% of the assessed dams) and poor riprap condition

(on 66.7% of assessed dams) are some of the factors that further give more weight to the

assertion that there is poor maintenance of small dams in the area of study. Only 22% of

the assessed dams had adequate freeboards, means that the majority of the dams (78%)

are susceptible to failure by floods overtopping the dam walls due to inadequate spillways.

The inadequate spillways could be mostly due to erosion, which is evident on one of the

assessed dams, which failed due to overtopping of the embankment. The soils were

found to be all poorly graded coarse-grained soils. Of the collected samples, 60% were

found to be in the SC (Sandy clays) class and 40% were in the SM-SC class (clayey-sand

-silt).

Jan C. Thompson (2012) in his research on the impact and management of small

farm dams in Hawke’s Bay at New Zealand, concluded the impact of farm dams on

streamflow volumes varies monthly, with the highest relative impact occurring in the drier
months. During the winter months of higher rainfall and pond storages within the

catchment have a smaller influence (and sometimes no influence) on streamflow

volumes. . In particular, an analysis of streamflow from a small subcatchment comparable

to the regulated field study catchment shows that the model does not capture the period

of no flow that was observed throughout the dry summer and autumn in the field study.

The small difference between predicted streamflow volumes for the ‘Stock’ and ‘Irrigation’

scenarios suggests that the models are more sensitive to total volumesof storage (which

were the same for both scenarios) and less sensitive to the size distribution of storages.

Source Catchments modelling shows greater impacts due to climate change, with an

annual decrease in streamflow of approximately 5% for both catchments. Direct pond

evaporation losses, as modelled by TEDI, show that the cumulative influence of

evaporation on streamflow volumes is very low. The predicted output reveals that the

structures do return a small volume of flow to the stream during the dry summer months.

In a comprehensive study of AMEERHA P. ORTEGA (2014) on the the

applicability of Japanese Dam Technologies to the alarming condition of Angat Dam in

Bulacan Philippines. The dam must need to be rehabilitate because it could burst when

big earthquake takes, when that happens water remains inside the dam could drown

people, houses and rice fields around the dam. Activities concerning DRRM must be

given to DRRMC R-3 as lead agency; concerned government agencies and

recommended that a technical working group be created to assess the structural

capability of the aging Angat Dam. Develop policies that will ensure safety and order

within the area, also enhancing preparedness of all sectors, having national dam safety

law and adapting Japanese dam technologies.