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Soc Sci 103N Notes 1

Unit 1
Competing Definitions of Globalization
(Excerpts from:. Steger, M.B. [2003]. Globalization: A very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press)

Globalization xxx (is) the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant
localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles
away and vice versa. (Anthony Giddens, Director of the London School of Economics)
The concept of globalization reflects the sense of an immense enlargement of world
communication, as well as of the horizon of a world market, both of which seem far more
tangible and immediate than in earlier stages of modernity. (Fredric Jameson, Professor of Literature at
Duke University)
Globalization may be thought of as a process (or set of processes) which embodies
a transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions - assessed in
terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact - generating transcontinental or
interregional flows and networks of activity, interaction, and the exercise of power. (David Held,
Professor of Political Science at the London School of Economics)
Globalization as a concept refers both to the compression of the world and the
intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole. (Roland Robertson, Professor of Sociology at the
University of Pittsburgh)
Globalization compresses the time and space aspects of social relations. (James
Mittelman, Professor of International Relations at American University)

Films to watch: Moore: Capitalism: A love story


Achbar and Abbott: “The Corporation”

Four distinct qualities or characteristics of globalization:


(Excerpts from:. Steger, M.B. [2003]. Globalization: A very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press)

1. involves the creation of new and the multiplication of existing social networks and activities
that increasingly overcome traditional political, economic, cultural, and geographical
boundaries.
2. reflected in the expansion and the stretching of social relations, activities, and
interdependencies.
3. involves the intensification and acceleration of social exchanges and activities.
4. the creation, expansion, and intensification of social interconnections and interdependencies
do not occur merely on an objective, material level, but also the subjective plane of human
consciousness

Unit 2
IDEOLOGICAL DIMENSION OF GLOBALIZATION
An ideology can be defined as a system of widely shared ideas, patterned beliefs,
guiding norms and values, and ideals accepted as truth by a particular group of people.
Ideologies offer individuals a more or less coherent picture of the world not only as it is, but also
as it ought to be. In doing so, they help organize the tremendous complexity of human
experience into fairly simple, but frequently distorted, images that serve as guide and compass
for social and political action. (Steger, M.B. [2003]. Globalization: A very short introduction. New York: Oxford
University Press)
Soc Sci 103N Notes 2

Friedman’s comparison of the Cold War and Globalization is tabulated below: (Excerpts from:
Friedman, T.L. The lexus and the olive tree.)

BASES COLD WAR GLOBALIZATION


Dominant Cultural homogenization on a Largely but not entirely the spread of
Culture regional scale, like the Americanization – from Big Macs to iMacs to
Russification of Eastern and Mickey Mouse
Central Europe, or in an earlier
time, the Turkification of the
Ottoman Empire, the
Hellenization of the Near East
and the Mediterranean under the
Greeks
Defining Division Integration through its defining technologies:
Perspective computerization, miniaturization, digitization,
satellite communications, fiber optics and the
Internet
Symbol A wall (the Berlin Wall) which World Wide Web which unites everyone
divided everyone
Defining The “treaty” The “deal”
Document
Defining Weight – particularly the throw Speed – the speed of commerce, travel,
Measurement weight of missiles communication and innovation
Most How big is your missile? How fast is your modem?
Frequently Countries that are most willing to let
Asked capitalism quickly destroy inefficient companies,
Question so that money can be freed up and directed to
more innovative ones, will thrive in an era of
globalization unlike those which rely on
governments to protect them from such creative
destruction.
Defining Fear of annihilation from an Fear of rapid change from an enemy you can’t
Anxiety enemy you knew all too well in a see, touch or feel – a sense that your job,
world struggle that was fixed and community or workplace can be changed any
stable moment by anonymous economic and
technological forces that are anything but stable.
What We Hotline for the White House and Internet – a symbol that we are all connected but
Reach for the Kremlin – a symbol that we nobody is in charge
were all divided but at least
someone, the two superpowers,
was in charge
Defining Radar – to expose the threats X-ray machine – to expose the threats coming
Defense coming from the other side of the from within
System wall
Demographic Limited Rapid acceleration of the movement of people
Pattern from rural areas and agricultural lifestyles to
urban areas and urban lifestyles more intimately
linked with global fashion, food, markets and
entertainment trends
Defining Built exclusively around nation- Built around 3 balances that overlap and affect
Structure of states, and it was balanced at one another
Power the center by two superpowers: Traditional Balance between nation-states.
the US and the Soviet Union US is the sole and dominant superpower and all
nations are subordinate to it. The balance
between US and the others still matters, like the
Soc Sci 103N Notes 3

expansion of NATO against Russia …

Between nation-states and global markets.


The global markets are made up of millions of
investors (called “the Electronic Herd”) moving
money around the world with the click of a
mouse, and this herd gathers in key global
financial centers, such as Wall Street, Hong
Kong, London and Frankfurt (called “the
Supermarkets”). The herd and the supermarkets
can destroy a nation-state by downgrading the
bonds offered by these nation-states.
Between individuals and nation-states.
Because globalization has simultaneously wired
the world into networks, it gives more power to
individuals to influence both markets and nation-
states.

Selling Globalization
(Excerpts from:. Steger, M.B. [2003]. Globalization: A very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press)

Claim 1: Globalization is about the liberalization and global integration of markets


Concrete neoliberal measures include:
1. Massive tax cuts
2. Deregulation of the economy
3. The down-sizing of government
4. Strict control on organized labour
5. Privatization of public enterprises
6. Liberalization of trade and industry
7. The expansion of international markets
8. The removal of controls on global financial flows
9. The reduction of public expenditures, particularly social spending
10. 'Monetarist' measures to keep inflation in check, even at the risk of increasing
unemployment

Globalization is about the triumph of markets over governments. Both proponents


and opponents of globalization agree that the driving force today is markets, which are
suborning the role of government. Business Week, 13 December 1999
One role [of government] is to get out of the way - to remove barriers to the free flow
of goods, services, and capital. Joan Spiro, former US Under-Secretary of State in the Clinton administration
Neoliberalism holds that market is always right, regulation is always wrong, private
is good and public is bad, and taxes that support public services are the worst of all…
neoliberalism is an extreme form of capitalism and the reigning ideology of the world’s
elites… under the neoliberal worldview, governments exist in order to create the optimal
conditions for private interests to maximize their profits and wealth, based on the theory
that the profits and economic growth that follow will benefit everyone in the trickle-down
from the top – eventually. If it doesn’t work, and stubborn inequalities remain or worsen,
then according to this worldview, that must be the personal failing of the individuals and
communities that are suffering. (Klein, N. [2017]. No is not enough. USA: Haymarket Books)

Claim 2: Globalization is inevitable and irreversible


Soc Sci 103N Notes 4

According to the globalist interpretation, globalization reflects the inevitable spread of


irreversible market forces driven by technological innovations. Let us consider the following
statements:
Today we must embrace the inexorable logic of globalization - that everything from the
strength of our economy to the safety of our cities, to the health of our people, depends on
events not only within our borders, but half a world away.. . Globalization is irreversible. Bill
Clinton, former US President
Globalization is inevitable and inexorable and it is accelerating .. . Globalization is
happening, it's going to happen. It does not matter whether you like it or not, it's
happening, it's going to happen. Frederick W. Smith, Chairman and CEO of FedEx Corporation
We need much more liberalization and deregulation of the Indian economy. No
sensible Indian businessman disagrees with this .. . Globalization is inevitable. There is no
better alternative. Rahul Bajaj, Indian industrialist

Neoliberal policies are portrayed to be above politics; they simply carry out what is
ordained by nature. This implies that, instead of acting according to a set of choices, people
merely fulfil world-market laws that demand the elimination of government controls. As former
British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher used to say, 'there is no alternative'. If nothing can be
done about the natural movement of economic and technological forces, then political groups
ought to acquiesce and make the best of an unalterable situation.
Resistance would be unnatural, irrational, and dangerous. The idea of inevitability also
makes it easier to convince the general public to share the burdens of globalization, thus
supporting an excuse often utilized by neoliberal politicians: 'It is the market that made us cut
social programmes.' … the irresistible pressure of global forces demands that everyone will
have to make sacrifices.

Claim 3: Nobody is in charge of globalization


People aren't in charge of globalization; markets and technology are. Certain human
actions might accelerate or retard globalization, but in the final analysis, the invisible hand of the
market will always assert its superior wisdom. Here are three expressions of this view:
Many on the Left dislike the global marketplace because it epitomizes what they dislike
about markets in general: the fact that nobody is in charge. The truth is that the invisible
hand rules most domestic markets, too, a reality that most Americans seem to accept as a
fact of life. Paul Krugman, US economist
And the most basic truth about globalization is this: No one is in charge... We all
want to believe that someone is in charge and responsible. But the global marketplace
today is an Electronic Herd of often anonymous stock, bond and currency traders and
multinational investors, connected by screens and networks. Thomas Friedman, New York Times
correspondent and award-winning author
The great beauty of globalization is that no one is in control. The great beauty of
globalization is that it is not controlled by any individual, any government, any institution.
Robert Hormats, Vice Chairman of Goldman Sachs International

The claim of a leaderless globalization process does not reflect reality in today's world.
Rather, it serves the political agenda of defending and expanding Northern interests while
securing the power of affiliated elites in the global South. Like the rhetoric of historical
inevitability, the idea that nobody is in charge seeks to depoliticize the public debate on the
subject and thus demobilize antiglobalist movements. Once large segments of the population
have accepted the globalist image of a self-directed juggernaut that simply runs its course, it
becomes extremely difficult to organize resistance movements. As ordinary people cease to
believe in the possibility of choosing alternative social arrangements, globalism's capacity to
construct passive consumer identities gains even greater strength.
Soc Sci 103N Notes 5

Claim 4: Globalization benefits everyone


This claim lies at the very core of globalism because it provides an affirmative answer to
the crucial normative question of whether globalization should be considered a 'good' or a "bad'
thing. Globalists frequently connect their arguments to the alleged benefits resulting from market
liberalization: rising global living standards, economic efficiency, individual freedom, and
unprecedented technological progress. Here are examples of such claims:
There can be little doubt that the extraordinary changes in global finance on balance have
been beneficial in facilitating significant improvements in economic structures and living
standards throughout the world .. . Alan Greenspan, Chairman of the US Federal Reserve Board
Globalization's effects have been overwhelmingly good. Spurred by unprecedented
liberalization, world trade continues to expand faster than overall global economic output,
inducing a wave of productivity and efficiency and creating millions of jobs. Peter Sutherland,
Chairman of British Petroleum
We are at an optimistic time in our world: the barriers between nations are down,
economic liberalism is decidedly afoot and proven to be sound, trade and investment are
soaring, income disparities between nations are narrowing, and wealth generation is at
record high levels, and I believe likely to remain so. George David, CEO of United Technologies
Corporation

However, the world's 200 richest people have doubled their net worth to more than $1
trillion between 1994 and 1998. The assets of the world's top three billionaires are more than
the combined GNP of all the least developed countries and their 600 million people. The same
trend towards growing inequality can be observed even in the world's richest countries.
There are numerous other indications confirming that the global hunt for profits actually
makes it more difficult for poor people to enjoy the benefits of technology and scientific
innovations. For example, there is widespread evidence for the existence of a widening 'digital
divide' separating countries in the global North and South. With regard to growing disparities in
global health services, consider the story reported by BBC News on 31 October 2000:
A group of scientists in the United States recently warned the public that economic
globalization may now be the greatest threat to preventing the spread of parasitic
diseases in subSaharan Africa. They pointed out that US-based pharmaceutical
companies are stopping production of many antiparasitic drugs because developing
countries cannot afford to buy them. The US manufacturer of a drug to treat bilharzia, a
parasitic disease that causes severe liver damage, has stopped production because of
declining profits - even though the disease is thought to affect over 200 million people
worldwide. Another drug used to combat damage caused by liver flukes has not been
produced since 1979, because the 'customer base' in the global South does not wield
enough ‘buying power'.

Claim 5: Globalization furthers the spread of democracy in the world


This globalist claim is rooted in the neoliberal assertion that free markets and democracy
are synonymous terms. Persistently affirmed as 'common sense', the actual compatibility of
these concepts often goes unchallenged in the public discourse. Here are three examples:
The level of economic development resulting from globalization is conducive to the
creation of complex civil societies with a powerful middle class. It is this class and societal
structure that facilitates democracy. Francis Fukuyama, Johns Hopkins University
The emergence of new businesses and shopping centers in former communist
countries should be seen as the backbone of democracy. Hillary Rodham Clinton, US Senator from
New York
Soc Sci 103N Notes 6

The Electronic Herd will intensify pressures for democratization generally, for three
very critical reasons - flexibility, legitimacy, and sustainability. Thomas Friedman, New York Times
correspondent and award-winning author

These arguments hinge on a conception of democracy that emphasizes formal


procedures such as voting at the expense of the direct participation of broad majorities in
political and economic decision-making. This 'thin' definition of democracy reflects an elitist and
regimented model of 'low-intensity' or 'formal' market democracy. In practice, the crafting of a
few democratic elements onto a basically authoritarian structure ensures that those elected
remain insulated from popular pressures and thus can govern 'effectively'. Hence, the assertion
that globalization furthers the spread of democracy in the world is largely based on a shallow
understanding of democracy … democratic countries are losing out in the race for US export
markets and American foreign investments.
In 1989, democratic countries accounted for more than half of all US imports from the
global South. Ten years later, with more democracies to choose from, democratic
countries supplied barely one-third of US imports from developing countries. And the
trend is growing. As more of the world's countries adopt democracy, more American
businesses appear to prefer dictatorships. These findings raise the important question of
whether foreign purchasing and investment decisions by US corporations are actually
undermining the chances for the survival of fragile democracies. Why are powerful
investors in the rich Northern countries making these business decisions? For one, wages
tend to be lower in authoritarian regimes than in democracies, giving businesses in
dictatorships a monetary advantage in selling exports abroad. In addition, lower wages,
bans on labor unions, and relaxed environmental laws give authoritarian regimes an edge
in attracting foreign investment.

Conclusion
A critical examination of the five central claims of globalism suggests that the neoliberal
language about globalization is ideological in the sense that it is politically motivated and
contributes towards the construction of particular meanings of globalization that preserve and
stabilize existing asymmetrical power relations. But the ideological reach of globalism goes far
beyond the task of providing the public with a narrow explanation of the meaning of
globalization. Globalism consists of powerful narratives that sell an overarching neoliberal
worldview, thereby creating collective meanings and shaping people's identities. Yet, as both the
massive anti-globalist protests from Seattle to Genoa and the Al Qaeda terrorist attacks of 11
September 2001 have shown, the expansion of this globalist ideology has encountered
considerable resistance. xxx

Unit 3
ECONOMIC DIMENSION OF GLOBALIZATION
THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS:
1. The Golden Arches theory of conflict prevention
(Excerpts from: Friedman, T.L. [2000]. The lexus and the olive tree. New York: Anchor Books.)
No two countries that both had McDonald’s had fought a war against each other since
each got its McDonald’s. xxx (Border skirmishes and civil wars don’t count, because
McDonald’s usually served both sides.)
2. The Dell theory of conflict prevention
(Excerpts from: Friedman, T.L. [2006]. The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. New York: Farrar, Straus
and Giroux.)
Soc Sci 103N Notes 7

No two countries that are both part of a major global supply chain, like Dell’s, will never
fight a war against each other as long as they are both part of the same global supply chain.
Because people embedded in major global supply chains don’t want to fight old-time wars
anymore. They want to make just-in-time deliveries of goods and services – and enjoy the
rising standards of living that come with that.
3. Cowboy vs. Spaceship Economics
(Excerpts from: Korten, D.C. Getting to the 21st century: Voluntary action and the global agenda. USA: Kumarian Press,
Inc.)
BASES Cowboy Economics Spaceship Economics
Policy ● increasing economic ● seek economic diversification at all levels
orientation/ specialization to concentrate of the economy, beginning with the rural
preference productive resources on those household, to reduce dependence and
s products and services in which vulnerability to the market shocks that result
the country has a comparative from excessive specialization.
advantage in the international ● give priority in allocating to the production
marketplace of goods and services to meet the basic
● making investments that needs of the local population
support the rapid extraction of ● allocate a portion of surplus local
resources for export to increase productive capacity (beyond what is required
foreign exchange earnings to meet local basic needs) to produce goods
● mobilizing foreign loan financing and services for export to national or
for large-scale capital investments international markets
● minimizing restrictions on ● encourage the development of a dense
private investors, both foreign and mosaic of independent, politically conscious
domestic voluntary and people’s organizations that
● fully utilizing available foreign strengthen the direct participation of citizens
loans to stimulate the domestic in both local and national decision-making
economy processes, and provide essential training
● concentrating capital in large grounds in democratic citizenship
units to achieve the economies- ● establish transparency in public decision
of-scale needed to compete in making and strengthen communication links
foreign markets between people an government
● encouraging the flow of labor ● provide economic incentives that favor
out of agriculture and into the recovery and recycling over extraction and
cities to ensure an adequate labor exploitation
supply for industrialization ● favor industrial investments that:
● keeping labor cost low to strengthen diversified small and intermediate
provide an attractive climate for scale production; use environmentally sound,
foreign investment and to resource-conserving, labor-using
maintain international technologies; add value to local resources
competitiveness and products; serve and enhance competitive
● postponing political efficiency with domestic markets; and
development (democratization) so strengthen backward and forward linkages
that government can undertake within the economy
the measures required to meet ● favor intensive, smallholder agriculture
the needs of economic growth based on the use of high productivity bio-
before being subjected to populist intensive technologies
demands that may divert ● give preference to advanced information-
resources from productive uses intensive technologies over those that are
materials-intensive and resource-depleting
● give priority to the mobilization of local
resources, savings and social energy. Avoid
dependency creating debt financing,
particularly foreign debt, except for clearly
productive purposes that will generate the
Soc Sci 103N Notes 8

resources for repayment


● give high priority to investments in
education that build capacity of people to
take charge of their own lives, communities
and resources and to participate in local,
national and global decision processes.
● encourage an acceptance of shared
responsibility for the well-being of all
community members and a reverence for the
connection between people and nature

Beliefs ● The earth’s physical resources ● The earth’s physical resources are finite.
guiding are for all practical purposes ● The productive and recycling capacity of
actions inexhaustible. (The explicit ecological systems can be enhanced through
argument is sometimes made that human intervention, but this enhancement
science will come up with suitable cannot exceed certain natural limits.
substitutes for any resource that ● Governments by nature give priority to the
becomes exhausted or interests of those who control power.
prohibitively expensive to ● Political and economic power are closely
recover.) linked in that possession of either increases
● The environment has a virtually the holder’s ability to exercise the other.
infinites ability to absorb waste. ● Markets are important allocation
● Poverty is simply the result of mechanisms, but all markets are imperfect
inadequate growth, which in turn and by their nature give priority to the wants
results from inadequate capital of the rich over the needs of the poor.
investment. ● Just, sustainable and inclusive
● The international markets in communities and the resilience and stability
which a country is competing are of the larger national and global economies.
freely competitive without ● When the people control the local
subsidies or restraints that give environmental resources on which their own
competitors from some countries and their children’s lives depend, they are
an advantage over others. more likely than absentee owners to exercise
● Foreign borrowing is used for responsible stewardship.
productive capital investments
that will generate foreign
exchange for repayment.
● those workers who are
displaced from agriculture or other
rural resource-based occupations,
such as fishing, by productivity
enhancing capital investments will
be readily absorbed in industrial
employment in urban centers.
● Market forces will automatically
distribute development benefits.

Value ● It is strongly biased toward the ● The first priority in the use of earth’s
orientations wants of affluent consumers – resources should be to allow all people an
especially foreigners, to the opportunity to produce a basic livelihood for
neglect of the needs of domestic themselves and their families.
consumers – especially the poor. ● Current generations have no right to
● It undervalues natural resources engage in levels of nonessential consumption
and discourages resource that deprive future generations of the
conservation. possibility of sustaining decent human living
● It values equally any increase in standards.
economic activity, irrespective of ● Every individual has the right to be a
Soc Sci 103N Notes 9

whether it is sustainable or productive contributing member of family,


contributes to improved human community and society.
well-being. ● Control of productive assets should be
● It assumes that the laborer broadly distributed within society.
exists to serve the economy, ●Sovereignty resides in the people. The
rather that the reverse. authority of the state is granted by the people
● It legitimates the concentration and therefore may be withdrawn by them.
of ownership of productive assets ● Local economies should be diversified and
in corporate structures that reasonably self-reliant in producing for basic
separate the control of these needs.
assets from the communities that ● People have a right to a voice in making
depend on them. the decisions that influence their lives and
decisions making should be as close to the
level of individual, family and community as
possible.
● Local decisions should reflect a global
perspective and an acceptance of the rights
and responsibilities of global citizenship.

THE BRETTON WOODS INSTITUTIONS (IMF-WB)


Lichauco (1988) noted that “these were conceived by USA because of its fear that after
the war, nations, particularly those from Western Europe, would continue the protectionist
practices that marked their policies before the war.
America’s post-war problem was overproduction; so, it became imperative that countries
do not place obstacles to her exports. The post-war economic order had to be reorganized and
reconstructed on the basis of free trade.
Steger (2003) explained that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) was created to
administer the international monetary system. The International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development, later known as the World Bank (WB), was initially designed to provide loans for
Europe's postwar reconstruction.
In practice, Lichauco (1988) observed that both institutions would provide the finance capital
of which the post-war world be in desperate need, on condition that the loan recipients kept their
foreign exchange and import policies “essentially free from restrictions.” Tariffs would be
tolerated, but definitely not import controls and controls on foreign exchange transactions. The
elimination of tariff was entrusted to the General Agreement of Tariff and Trade (now World
Trade Organization [WTO]).
World Trade Organization (WTO). Steger (2003) noted that “the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade was established in 1947 as a global trade organization charged with
fashioning and enforcing multilateral trade agreements. In 1995, the World Trade Organization
was founded as the successor organization to GATT.
Madeley (2003) added that the WTO is an organization that furthers liberalization to the
chief benefit of those who stand to gain most from liberalization – in practice the TNCs. The
WTO is both a forum for trade liberalization and a judge on those who transgress, exercising
considerable and direct power through its dispute settlement mechanism.
Ibon Databank and Research Center (2005) reported that, “a decade after the founding of
the WTO, agriculture subsidies in developed countries have remained high while elimination of
quantitative restrictions and tariff cuts around the world have facilitated a dramatic increase in
dumping of commodities by agribusiness TNCs.
Hundreds of billions are paid out by rich countries for agricultural support, while
underdeveloped countries are prohibited from protecting their agricultural sectors at all.
THREE FEATURES OF ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION
Soc Sci 103N Notes 10

1. The internationalization of trade and finance. Its key components include the
deregulation of interest rates, the removal of credit controls, and the privatization of
government-owned banks and financial institutions. (Steger, 2003)
2. The power of transnational corporations. These corporations control much of the
world's investment capital, technology, and access to international markets. These TNCs
benefited from the IMF-WB’s promotion of deregulation, privatization and liberalization.
These TNCs amass so much wealth by: (a) merger and acquisition – mergers generally
take place between equals whereas acquisitions involve buying existing firms. After
acquisition, corporations often break up the newly acquired firms, reduce the workforce
and indulge in various malpractices to curb competition; (b) transfer pricing – the price
charged by one associate of a corporation on another associate of the same corporation.
(Goodman & Tujan, 2002)

3. The enhanced role of international economic institutions. The IMF, the World Bank,
and the WTO enjoy the privileged position of making and enforcing the rules of a global
economy that is sustained by significant power differentials between the global North and
South. As pointed out above, the IMF and the World Bank emerged from the Bretton
Woods system. (Steger, 2003)

GLOBAL CITIES
A. Theories of Urbanism (Excerpts from: Giddens, A. [2009]. Sociology. Great Britain: T.J. Press [Padstow] Ltd.)
1. David Harvey: the restructuring of space
Urbanism is one aspect of the created environment brought about by the spread of
industrial capitalism. Space is continually restructured. The process is determined by
where large firms choose to place their factories, research and development and so forth;
the controls which governments operate over both the land and industrial production; and
the activities of private investors, buying and selling houses and land.

2. Manuel Castells: urbanism and social movements


The nature of the created environment is not just the result of the activities of
wealthy and powerful people but also the struggles of the underprivileged groups to alter
their living conditions. Urban problems stimulate a range of social movements concerned
with improving housing conditions, protesting air pollution, defending parks and green
belts, and combating building development that changes the nature of an area.
B. Urbanism and International Influences (Excerpts from: Giddens, A. [2009]. Sociology. Great Britain: T.J. Press
[Padstow] Ltd)
1. Five Emerging Forms of City
a. Innovation center. This is an urban area where research and development industries
become concentrated, developing the technical and scientific processes used to make
goods produced elsewhere. Cambridge is an example, where the university has
connections with a large ‘science park’. The most influential world center is the Silicon
valley area of northern California.
b. Module production place. Some urban areas become the sites for production
processes for parts of products, final assembly being carried out in other regions or
countries.
c. Third world entrepôt. Cities of this kind are border centers, with substantial new
immigrant populations drawn from developing countries.
d. Retirement centers. Retired people now move in considerable numbers to places with
good climates. This is partly internal migration.
Soc Sci 103N Notes 11

e. Headquarters city. Cities of this type are the centers where the large, transnational
corporations house their key activities, and are oriented to global concerns. The leading
headquarter cities are examples of what Saskia Sassen calls as the global city which
has four new traits:
1. developed into ‘command posts’ – centers of direction and policy-making – for the
global economy;
2. key locations for financial and specialized service firms, which have become more
important in influencing economic development than is manufacturing;
3. sites of production and innovation in these newly expanded industries, and;
4. markets on which the ‘products’ of financial and service industries are bought, sold
or otherwise disposed

2. Emergence of the Global City (Excerpts from: Kotkin, J. [2017]. The human city: Urbanism and the rest of us.
USA: Agate books.)
The preeminence of these “world” or “global” cities rests largely on unique assets
such as the world’s greatest universities, research labs, hospitals, financial institutions,
corporate headquarters, and trendsetting cultural industries. These cities also
disproportionately attract the rich and serve as centers of luxury shopping, dining, and
entertainment – hence Sassen’s term “the glamour zone.”
These cities are home to people with unique, highly specialized skills – actors,
directors, app writers, oil geologists, specialized financial consultants – who are often sole
proprietors or employed by smaller firms. These workers tend to cluster in areas that
specialize in their fields and provide the best marketplace for their services.
These cities notably tend to have decent infrastructure, a high degree of cleanliness,
and excellent cultural and recreational facilities. They generally lack the extreme
congestion, high crime, and sanitation challenges common to poorer megacities of the
developing world.
In large part, it is these characteristics that attract foreign capital and talent to these
particular cities. Global hubs often are helped by their populace’s facility with English – the
world’s primary language of finance, culture, and most critically, technology.
Physical connectivity. A successful global city needs to maintain the strongest
possible physical connectivity with other cities around the world. The most “connected”
cities – Dubai, London, and Frankfurt – have all developed strong airport systems.
Although being a hub for air travel does not necessarily create a global city, it is critical to
many businesses that function on an international level.
Human connectivity. In a world of sharp racial and religious prejudice, such cities,
noted Fernand Braudel, offered outsiders a “haven of comparative security.” “The miracle
of toleration was to be found,” he observed, “wherever the community of trade convened.”
Historic roots. Global cities, particularly the leading ones, owe much to their early
origins – and culture, ideas, and infrastructure rooted in their evolution over time.

3. Costs of Global Cities


a. increasingly distorts and threatens the local middle class by raising property prices,
undermining the indigenous economy, and compromising the prospects for upward
mobility. It is increasingly the wealthy that shape “the glamour zone” and fuel the
growing gap between the classes. Their inherited wealth is increasingly diffused among
multiple cities as members of the expanding ranks of the ultra-rich purchase
apartments in numerous locations, sometimes in condominiums within hotels.
b. the foreign invasion of lower-end service jobs in restaurants and retail, as well as in
construction
Soc Sci 103N Notes 12

4. Costs of Migration
a. Resentment at migrants arising from the feeling of being crowded by the newcomers
to competition from skilled foreigners;
b. Housing inflation. Partly driving the housing inflation is the trend among the rich to
buy multiple residences, particularly in different global cities. Overall, foreign
investment, particularly in residential properties, has contributed to extraordinarily high
housing prices in such cities as New York, Hong Kong, and the San Francisco Bay
Area. These trends have had a devastating impact on the ability of many middle-and
working-class families to buy or rent decent housing. For young people, the possibility
of homeownership has begun to evaporate.
c. Inequality in the glamour zone. The glut of college-graduates – concentrated in
urban areas – will need to compete with an aging workforce for a still-limited number
of positions. Young people – even the educated and well off – are forced to live in
smaller spaces and face prices that make purchasing a residence prohibitive.
d. “Flattening of cultures.” Rather than establishing strong local roots tied to a specific
neighborhood, today’s global city tends increasingly toward homogenization. It is
essentially recreating the same environment everywhere. The form is not, of course,
the single-family houses or garden apartments of the suburbs but the luxury high-rises
that attract the young, the footloose, and the wealthy to the urban core. Huge towers
tend to dominate and change the tenor of neighborhoods, and in some cases, they
even block out the light that once brightened the city streets and cast shadows over
local parks, a classic case of how products for the wealthy impinge on the shared
space of a city.
e. Emergence of post-familial city (increasingly childless and more focused on the
individual). The factors are:
1. Trends toward ever-increasing density. The notion that height is a symbol of
modernity, efficiency, and even aesthetics is common among urbanists. However,
families generally avoid high-density housing. Simply put, modern families in higher-
income countries require space and are thus generally unwilling to live in crowded
conditions. A Max Planck Institute study of total fertility rates within four countries –
Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden – found a strong correlation between
higher fertility rates (the number of children borne by women in their lifetime) and
less dense suburban locations. These suburban places, the study points out, offer
larger apartments and single-family homes that are attractive to families.
2. Related phenomenon of high costs of housing. The unaffordability of housing
and the unsuitability of house sizes for families are the principal reasons for the
exodus of families. In Japan, sociologist Muriel Jolivet unearthed a trend of growing
hostility toward motherhood – a trend that stemmed in part from male reluctance to
take responsibility for raising children.
3. Weakness of urban education system. Progress is, in part, a culprit: the ubiquity
of mass education and communications has weakened many of the bonds that held
families together and has worked to substitute societal values for those learned at
home. The current material culture seems to be perhaps more effectively
undermining interest in family. This can be seen worldwide, increasingly childless
Europe may boast some of the world’s most impressive religious structures, but the
moral influence that they once symbolized has diminished considerably. The tie
between religiosity and fertility is very clear. Those who believe in some higher
spiritual value are far more likely to have children than those more secularly
oriented.
4. Ability of people to perform functions remotely via the Internet. University of
California psychology professor Bella de Paulo asserts that the unattached
Soc Sci 103N Notes 13

constitute an advantaged group in that they are more cyber-connected and “more
likely to be linked to members of their social networks by bonds of affection.” Unlike
families, whose members, after all, are often stuck with each other, singles enjoy
“intentional communities” and are thus more likely “to think about human
connectedness in a way that is far-reaching and less predictable.”
These “singletons,” as one urban scholar notes, enjoy a “rich social life” that is
“anchored by themselves” through friendship networks and social media. “Living
alone,” he asserts, “might be what we need to reconnect.” Reliance on social media
tends to emphasize further the primacy of post-familial relationships.
Other singles simply feel that they can get from friends and roommates what
people used to seek from family members. “We’ve got all the benefits of family,”
explains one New York thirtysomething who has lived nearly two decades with his
roommates, “with very little of the craziness that normally comes with them.”
The new childless urbanites, notes Terry Nicholas Clark, will identify less with
their parents and grandparents, or even with their traditional cultural traditions, than
with those who share their particular cultural and aesthetic tastes. They will have
transcended the barriers of race and even country, embracing what Clark calls “a
post materialist” perspective that focuses on more abstract, and often important,
issues such as human rights or the environment, as well as aesthetic concerns. No
longer familial, as people have been for millennia, the urban singleton could be a
harbinger of not only a “new race” but also of “new politics” – prioritizes cultural
pursuits, travel, and almost defiant individualism. Now in their 30s and 40s, many of
these people, indulge themselves in hobbies, fashion, or restaurants – personal
pursuits not readily available to their homebound mothers or overworked fathers.
Mika Toyota observes that “people’s lifestyles are more important, and their personal
networks mean more than family. It’s now a choice. You can be single, self-satisfied
and well.
5. Women in the workforce. Women’s growing involvement in the workforce, notes
author Stephanie Coontz, has been necessary for decades in order for couples to
afford children, but it also makes it more difficult for them to raise them. This reflects
what Harvard’s Robert Putnam defines as the curse of “pervasive busyness” that
now affects society in high-income countries. Although intense work regimes may
increase productivity today, it clearly makes matrimony and child raising more
problematic.

5. Biggest Challenge to the Cities: Diminishing birth rates and the aging population
The shift to an aging population creates, particularly in Asia where urbanization is
most rapid, the segregation of generations, with the elderly in rural areas and the younger
people in cities. It is not clear how the expanding senior will fare with fewer children to
support them and in the absence of a well-developed welfare state.
The negative impacts of rapid aging and a diminished workforce are already being
felt, even in such prosperous countries as Japan and Germany. By 2030, Germany’s debt
per capita could be twice as high as that of a bankrupt Greece in 2014, and to help
address the shortfall, officials have proposed more taxes. These would be effectively
exacted from the working population, to create what the German officials have labeled a
“demographic reserve.” Even in traditional, thrifty Asian nations such as Japan and
Singapore, savings rates have been dropping, and there is growing concern over whether
these countries will be able to support their soaring numbers of seniors.
In rapidly urbanizing, relatively poor countries such as Vietnam, the fertility rate is
already below replacement levels, and it is rapidly declining in other poorer countries such
as Myanmar, Indonesia, and even Bangladesh.
Soc Sci 103N Notes 14

GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY

A. Theoretical Considerations
1. Malthusian urbanism. (Excerpts from: Kotkin, J. [2017]. The human city: Urbanism and the rest of us. USA: Agate
books.) The essence of the Malthusian approach, as historian Edward Barbier notes,
assumes the economy has no “access to new sources of land and natural resources” and
is “unable to innovate,” thus making it vulnerable to collapse.” In this worldview, humanity
is increasingly seen as a “cancer to the environment” whose influence need to be curbed
and restrained into as small a footprint as possible. Urban expansion is particularly looked
down upon, not only for its alleged impact on greenhouse gas emissions but also for its
encroachment upon farmland. Suburbs are purportedly bad, in part because they reduce
the ability of farmers to grow food.
Not surprisingly, neo-Malthusians often embrace densification and oppose urban
expansion due to concerns over the population and greater consumption. They appear to
see the city as a kind of geographic contraceptive.

2. Demographic transition theory. (Excerpts from: Macionis, J.J. [2011]. Society: The basics. NJ: Pearson
Education, Inc.) This a thesis that links population patterns to a society’s level of technological
development. The four levels of technological development are as follows:
Preindustrial (Stage 1). Agrarian societies have high birth rates because of the
economic value of children and the absence of birth control. Death rates are also high due
to low living standards and limited medical technology. Out breaks of disease cancel out
births, so population rises and falls with only a modest overall increase. This was the case
for thousands of years in Europe before the Industrial Revolution.
Onset of industrialization (Stage 2). Death rates fall due to greater food supplies
and scientific medicine. But birth rate remains high, resulting in rapid population growth. It
was during this stage that Malthus formulated his ideas, which accounts for his pessimistic
view of the future. The world’s poorest countries today are in this high-growth stage.
Mature industrial economy (Stage 3). The birth rate drops, curbing population
growth once again. Fertility falls because most children survive to adulthood, so fewer are
needed, and because high living standards make raising children expensive.
Postindustrial economy (Stage 4). The birth rates keep falling, partly because
dual-income couples gradually become the norm and partly because the cost of raising
and schooling children continues to increase. This trend, coupled with steady death rates,
means that population grows only very slowly or even decreases.

B. Demographics and a nation-state’s economic and military power


(Excerpts from: Yoshihara, S. & Sylva, D.A. [2012]. Population decline and the remaking of great power politics. USA: Potomac
Books.)
1. Japan is leading in global aging and this affects its global stature. Japan was also
overtaken by China as the world’s second largest economy in 2010.
2. Russia’s abysmal fertility rate, shockingly high mortality, and stagnant immigration have
also led to absolute population decline. Given its demographics, Russia will not field
forces like those that won WWII and challenged NATO. Given the severe health crisis in
its armed forces, it will have trouble maintaining its status among the powers.
3. Europe’s population is in relative decline due to low birth rates and immigration. Europe is
constrained by the high price of social democracy. At the same time, Europe has based its
security policy explicitly on United Nation’s goals and has aligned its military policy in a
significant way toward peacekeeping in order to fulfill this aim. More important, Europe’s
idea of itself – and its projection of power – has included “civilian power” since the end of
WWII. Today, civilian power is a way to offset the dearth of soldiers and cost of hard power
Soc Sci 103N Notes 15

by replacing it with human rights and other normative aspects of soft power centered at
international and European institutions.
4. India’s and China’s populations have allowed them a large domestic market and plenty of
cheap labor to bolster their export markets. However, chief among China’s problems is an
increasingly restive population whose appetite for democratic and economic liberalization
has been whetted by Beijing due to political necessity, but which will never be satisfied by
the current regime. This is compounded by gender imbalances and the emergence of
“bare branches” in the military.
5. India instituted harsh population control policies in the 1960s and 1970s, which failed to
significantly suppress the fertility of poor Hindus and Muslims. Conversely, cultural norms
shifted toward smaller families among more affluent Hindus, leaving India with a bifurcated
fertility rate favoring the less educated Northern population.
6. At just over 300million people, it is one third the size of India and China, US economy is
nearly four times the size of China’s and more than ten times larger than India’s. American
military forces are generally younger and more educated than the U.S. population at large.
They are the most technologically proficient – and since the Iraq and Afghanistan wars the
most combat-experienced – forces in the world. Experts credit the U.S. military’s high
caliber to the thirty-five-year-old All Volunteer Force, which is both successful and
expensive to maintain. Since the 2008 economic downturn, the defense budget has
become a primary target, and while many decision makers fail to fully realize it, the fiscal
decisions made today will have strategic ramifications for decades to come.

GLOBAL MIGRATION
(Castles, S. Key issues in global migration: A human development approach. iminseisaku.org/top/pdf/journal/002/002_169.pdf )

A. The significance of migration for human security and human development.


1. The idea of immigrants – and particularly those of Muslim background – as a potential
‘enemy within’ is used to justify immigration restrictions and reductions in civil liberties –
often not just for immigrants but for the population as a whole.
2. Migration policies too can exacerbate human insecurity. Smuggling, trafficking, bonded
labour and lack of human and worker rights are the fate of millions of migrants.
Governments often turn a blind eye to this in times of economic growth, and then tighten
up border security and deport irregulars in times of recession.

B. Globalization and migration


1. International migration is an integral part of globalization. Neo-liberal forms of international
economic integration undermine traditional ways of working and living. Increased
agricultural productivity displaces people from the land. Environmental change compels
many people to seek new livelihoods and places to live. People move to the cities, but
there are not enough jobs there, and housing and social conditions are often very bad.
2. Weak states and impoverishment lead to lack of human security, and often to violence and
violations of human rights. All these factors encourage emigration. In developed countries,
the new services industries need very different types of labour. But, due to declining
fertility, relatively few young nationals enter the labour market. Moreover, these young
people have good educational opportunities and are not willing to do low-skilled work.
Population ageing leads to increased dependency rates and care needs.
3. Developed countries have high demand for both high- and low-skilled workers, and need
migrants – whether legal or not. Globalization also creates the cultural and technical
conditions for mobility. Electronic communications provide knowledge of migration routes
and work opportunities. Long-distance travel has become cheaper and more accessible.
Soc Sci 103N Notes 16

4. Once migratory flows are established they generate ‘migration networks’: previous
migrants help members of their families or communities with information on work,
accommodation and official rules.
5. Facilitating migration has become a major international business, including travel agents,
bankers, lawyers and recruiters. The ‘migration industry’ also has an illegal side –
smuggling and trafficking – which governments try to restrict. Yet the more governments
try to control borders, the greater the flows of undocumented migrants seem to be.
6. Many people in poorer areas move within their own countries. Internal migration attracts
far less political attention, but its volume in population giants like China, India, Indonesia,
Brazil and Nigeria is far greater than that of international movements.

C. The feminization of international migration


1. Although some women migrate to take up professional and executive positions, many
migrant women are concentrated in jobs regarded as low-skilled and ‘typically female’:
domestic workers, entertainers and hostesses, restaurant and hotel staff and assembly
line workers in clothing and electronics. Often, these jobs offer poor pay, conditions and
status. Married women have to leave their children in the care of others, and long
absences affect relationships and gender roles.
2. A rapidly increasing form of female migration is for marriage. Since the 1990s, foreign
brides have been sought by farmers in rural areas of Japan, Korea and Taiwan, due to the
exodus of local women to more attractive urban settings. The young women involved,
(from the Philippines, Vietnam and Thailand), can experience severe social isolation.
3. China’s one-child policy has led to severe gender imbalances, so that Chinese farmers
are beginning to seek brides through agents in Vietnam, Laos and Burma. This has
important cultural implications: the countryside is frequently seen as the cradle of
traditional values, and the high proportion of foreign mothers is seen by some as a threat
to national identity.

D. New types of migration or mobility


1. Education: students move internationally, especially for graduate studies, and some of
them stay on in the destination country to work for a period or permanently.
2. Marriage: demographic trends such as low fertility, ageing populations and gender
imbalances have led to high levels of migration (especially of women) for marriage.
3. Lifestyle: some people – especially younger people of middle-class background – move in
search of new experiences and different lifestyles. Such mobility is mainly temporary, but it
can have significant impacts on destination areas.
4. Retirement: older people, often from affluent backgrounds, move upon ceasing
employment in search of better climates, lower living costs and more attractive lifestyles.

E. Migration and development


1. Migrants’ remittances (money transfers back home) can have a major positive impact on
the economic development of countries of origin.
2. Migrants also transfer home skills and attitudes – known as ‘social remittances’- which
support development.
3. Although skilled migration from South to North is growing, ‘brain drain’ is being replaced
by ‘brain circulation’, which benefits both sending and receiving countries.
4. Migrant diasporas can be a powerful force for development, through transfer of resources
and ideas.
5. Economic development will reduce out-migration.
Soc Sci 103N Notes 17

F. Refugees and forced migration


1. Many of the world’s migrants are ‘forced migrants’ seeking refuge from violence and
persecution.
Northern economic interests – such as the trade in oil, diamonds and weapons –
play an important part in starting or prolonging local wars. At a broader level, trade,
investment and intellectual property regimes that favour the industrialized countries
maintain underdevelopment in the South. In fact, the North does more to cause forced
migration than to stop it, through enforcing an international economic and political order
that causes underdevelopment and conflict.
2. Violence and forced migration also bring about further social transformation. Conflict
destroys economic resources, undermines traditional ways of life and break up
communities. Forced migration is thus a factor that deepens underdevelopment, weakens
social bonds, and reduces the capacity of communities and societies to achieve positive
change.
3. Refugees and asylum seekers are the most disadvantaged of all in the new global
migration hierarchy: in the past they were seen as worthy of international protection; now
entry rules have been tightened up to the point where it is virtually impossible to enter
most northern countries to make a protection claim. Refugees are forced to become illegal
migrants and often end up in long-term illegality. The great majority of refugees remain
poor in countries, which may lack the capacity to protect them and the resources to
provide adequate material assistance.

G. Immigrant concentration and social change


1. Migrants go where the jobs are, and immigration can be used as a barometer of the
economic dynamism of cities, regions and countries.
2. Migrants also go where they can join compatriots, who help them to find jobs and
accommodation – the ‘network effect’. This leads to residential clustering. This in turn puts
pressure on schools, which often have to deal with sudden influxes of children with many
different languages.
3. In some countries and regions, it has become a normal part of young adulthood to spend
a period working abroad – leading to a ‘culture of emigration’.
4. Migrant skills have become crucial in rich countries. Migrants often have higher skill
profiles than local-born workers. Global competition for human capital is hotting up. In
older industrial countries the combination of economic growth and demographic decline
fuels demand, while new industrial areas like South Korea and even China are
increasingly hungry for skills.

H. Diversity, integration and multiculturalism


1. In areas of origin, returnees may import new ideas that unsettle traditional practices and
hierarchies. In receiving areas, migration is bringing about unprecedented cultural and
religious diversity.
2. Migrants are often seen as symbols of perceived threats to jobs, livelihoods and cultural
identities resulting from globalization. Campaigns against immigrants and asylum seekers
have become powerful mobilizing tools for the extreme right.
3. In Australia and Canada, multicultural policies still exist, but there is a new emphasis on
citizenship and integration.
4. In Europe, the official focus is no longer on the recognition of minority cultures, but on
integration, social cohesion and ‘national values.’ In Britain, for example, a citizenship test
was introduced to promote knowledge of British society and values.
Soc Sci 103N Notes 18

5. Proponents of multicultural and equality policies argue that economic, political and social
marginalization still experienced by many ethnic minorities in Europe actually reflects the
unwillingness of destination societies to deal with two issues:
a. the deep-seated cultures of racism - a legacy of colonialism and imperialism. In times
of stress, such as economic restructuring or international conflict, racism can lead to
social exclusion, discrimination and violence against minorities.
b. the trend to greater inequality resulting from globalization and economic restructuring.
Neoliberal economic policies encourage greater pay differences and reduce the
capacity of states to redistribute income to reduce poverty and social disadvantage.
Taken together, these factors have led to a racialization of ethnic difference.
Minorities often have poor employment situations, low incomes and high rates of
impoverishment. This in turn leads to concentration in low-income neighbourhoods and
growing residential segregation. The existence of separate and marginal communities
is then taken as evidence of failure to integrate, and this in turn is perceived as a threat
to the host society.

I. The effects of the global financial crisis on migration.


1. Return migration of some migrant workers to their homelands as a reaction to
unemployment or lower earnings
2. Reduced levels of migration from origin countries to destination countries
3. Attempts by governments to provide incentives to unemployed migrant workers to
leave
4. Large declines in irregular migration, which is especially sensitive to availability of jobs
(observed in the case of Mexico-US migration)
5. Reduced remittances (money transfers) from migrants to their home communities,
leading to possible hardship in communities dependent on such transfers
6. Increased hostility to migrants among majority populations, leading in some cases to
conflicts and violence.

TWELVE MYTHS OF HUNGER vis-à-vis GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY


(Excerpts from: Lappe, F., Collins, J. , Rosset, P. & Esparza, L. (1998). 2nd edition. World hunger: Twelve myths. New York: Grove
Press.) updated synopsis, Poole-Kavana, H. (Summer 2006). 12 myths about hunger in Food First Institute for Food and
Development Policy Backgrounder. Vol 12, No. 2.; Korten, D.C. [1995]. When corporations rule the world. USA: Kumarian Press
and Berrett-Koehler Publishers.)

Myth 1: Not Enough Food to Go Around. With food-producing resources in so much of


the world stretched to the limit, there’s simply not enough food to go around. Unfortunately,
some people have to go hungry.
Myth 2: Nature’s to Blame. Droughts and other events beyond human control cause
famine.
Myth 3: Too Many Mouths to Feed. Hunger is caused by too many people pressing
against finite resources. We must slow population growth before we can hope to alleviate
hunger.
Myth 4: Food vs. Environment. Pressure to feed the world’s hungry is destroying the
very resources needed to grow food. To feed the hungry, we are pushing crop and livestock
production onto marginal, erosion-prone lands, clearing age old rain forests, and poisoning the
environment with pesticides. Clearly, we cannot both feed the hungry and protect our
environment.
Myth 5: The Green Revolution is the Answer. The miracle seeds of the Green
Revolution increase grain yields and therefore are a key to ending world hunger. Higher yields
mean more income for poor famers, helping them climb out of poverty, and more food means
less hunger. While the Green Revolution may have missed poorer areas, with more marginal
Soc Sci 103N Notes 19

lands, we can learn valuable lessons from that experience to help launch a “Second” Green
Revolution to defeat hunger once and for all.
Myth 6: Justice vs. Production (or We Need Large Farms). No matter how much we
believe in the goal of greater fairness, we face a dilemma. Since only the big growers have the
know-how to make the land produce, redistributing control over resources would undercut
production. Reforms that take land away from the big producers will lower food output and
therefore hurt the hungry people they are supposed to help.
Myth 7: The Free Market Can End Hunger; Korten – myths of the free unregulated
markets and that corporations are benevolent institutions. If governments just got out of the way,
the free market could solve the hunger problem.
Myth 8: Free Trade is the Answer; Korten – myths of the free trade and absentee
investors create local prosperity. Without protectionist barriers, world trade could reflect the
comparative advantage of each country – each exporting what it can produce most cheaply and
importing what it cannot. Third world countries could increase exports of those commodities
favored by their geography, and their greater foreign exchange earnings could be used to import
what they need to alleviate hunger and poverty.
Myth 9: Too Hungry to Fight for Their Rights. If initiative for change must come from
the poor, then the situation truly is hopeless. Beaten down and ignorant of the real forces
oppressing them, poor people are conditioned into a state of passivity. They can hardly be
expected to bring about change.
Myth 10: More U.S. Aid Will Help the Hungry. In helping to end world hunger, our
primary responsibility as U.S. citizens is to increase and improve our government’s foreign aid.
Myth 11: We Benefit from their Poverty. No matter how much Americans may think we
would like to help end hunger in the third world, deep down we know that hinger benefits us.
Because hungry people are willing to work for low wages, we can buy everything from coffee to
computers, bananas to batteries, at lower prices. Americans would have to sacrifice too much of
their standard of living for there to be a world without hunger.
Myth 12: Food vs. Freedom. For hunger to be eliminated, it is clear that a society would
have to undergo radical changes. Many of its citizens would see their freedoms curtailed. A
tradeoff between freedom and ending hunger is unfortunate, but it appears to be a fact of life.
People have to choose one or the other.

Unit 4
POLITICAL DIMENSION OF GLOBALIZATION
(Excerpts from:. Steger, M.B. [2003]. Globalization: A very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press)

Political globalization refers to the intensification and expansion of political interrelations across
the globe.
Humans have organized their political differences along territorial lines that generate a
sense of 'belonging' to a particular nation-state. This artificial division of planetary social space
into 'domestic' and 'foreign' spheres corresponds to people's collective identities based on the
creation of a common 'us' and an unfamiliar 'them'. Thus, the modern nation-state system has
rested on psychological foundations and cultural assumptions that convey a sense of existential
security and historical continuity, while at the same time demanding from its citizens that they
put their national loyalties to the ultimate test. Nurtured by demonizing images of the Other,
people's belief in the superiority of their own nation has supplied the mental energy required for
large-scale warfare.

The modern nation-state system


The origins of the modern nation-state system can be traced back to 17th-century political
developments in Europe. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia concluded a series of religious wars
Soc Sci 103N Notes 20

among the main European powers resulting to the formulation of the principles of sovereignty
and territoriality. The Westphalian model gradually strengthened a new conception of
international law based on the principle that all states had an equal right to self-determination.
According to political scientist David Held, the Westphalian model contained the following
essential points:
1. The world consists of, and is divided into, sovereign territorial states which recognize no
superior authority.
2. The processes of law-making, the settlement of disputes, and law enforcement are
largely in the hands of individual states.
3. International law is oriented to the establishment of minimal rules of co-existence; the
creation of enduring relationships is an aim, but only to the extent that it allows state
objectives to be met.
4. Responsibility for cross-border wrongful acts is a 'private matter' concerning only those
affected.
5. All states are regarded as equal before the law, but legal rules do not take account of
asymmetries of power.
6. Differences among states are often settled by force; the principle of effective power
holds sway. Virtually no legal fetters exist to curb the resort to force; international legal
standards afford only minimal protection.
7. The collective priority of all states should be to minimize the impediments to state
freedom.
The centuries following the Peace of Westphalia saw the further centralization of political
power, the expansion of state administration, the development of professional diplomacy, and
the successful monopolization of the means of coercion in the hands of the state. Moreover,
states also provided the military means required for the expansion of commerce, which, in turn,
contributed to the spread of this European form of political rule around the globe.
The modern nation-state system found its mature expression at the end of World War I in
US President Woodrow Wilson's … commitment to the nation-state coexisted with his
internationalist dream of establishing a global system of collective security under the auspices of
a new international organization, the League of Nations. His idea of giving international
cooperation an institutional expression was eventually realized with the founding of the United
Nations in 1945. While deeply rooted in a political order based on the modern nation-state
system, the UN and other fledgling intergovernmental organizations also served as catalysts for
the gradual extension of political activities across national boundaries, thus undermining the
principle of national sovereignty.
The demise of the nation-state? Hyperglobalizers consider political globalization a mere
secondary phenomenon driven by more fundamental economic and technological forces. They
argue that politics has been rendered almost powerless by an unstoppable techno-economic
juggernaut that will crush all governmental attempts to reintroduce restrictive policies and
regulations.
Pronouncing the rise of a "borderless world', hyperglobalizers seek to convince the public
that globalization inevitably involves the decline of bounded territory as a meaningful concept for
understanding political and social change. Consequently, this group of commentators suggests
that political power is located in global social formations and expressed through global networks
rather than through territorially based states.
In fact, they argue that nation-states have already lost their dominant role in the global
economy. As territorial divisions are becoming increasingly irrelevant, states are even less
capable of determining the direction of social life within their borders. For example, since the
workings of genuinely global capital markets dwarf their ability to control exchange rates or
protect their currency, nation-states have become vulnerable to the discipline imposed by
economic choices made elsewhere, over which states have no practical control.
Soc Sci 103N Notes 21

Hyperglobalizers insist that the minimalist political order of the future will be determined by
regional economies linked together in an almost seamless global web of production and
exchange. A group of globalization sceptics disagrees, highlighting instead the central role of
government in unleashing the forces of globalization, especially through the successful
mobilization of political power. The rapid expansion of global economic activity … originated with
political decisions to lift international restrictions on capital made by neoliberal governments in
the 1980s and 1990s. Once those decisions were implemented, global markets and new
technologies came into their own.
The clear implication of this perspective is that territory still matters. Hence, globalization
sceptics insist on the continued relevance of conventional political units, operating either in the
form of modern nation-states or global cities.
The economic and political aspects of globalization are profoundly interconnected. Recent
economic developments such as trade liberalization and deregulation have significantly
constrained the set of political options open to states, particularly in the global South. For
example, it has become much easier for capital to escape taxation and other national policy
restrictions. Thus, global markets frequently undermine the capacity of governments to set
independent national policy objectives and impose their own domestic standards. Hence, we
ought to acknowledge the decline of the nation-state as a sovereign entity and the ensuing
devolution of state power to regional and local governments as well as to various supranational
institutions.
On the other hand, such a concession does not necessarily mean that nation-states have
become impotent bystanders to the workings of global forces. Governments can still take
measures to make their economies more or less attractive to global investors. In addition,
nation-states have retained control over education, infrastructure, and, most importantly,
population movements. Indeed, immigration control, together with population registration and
monitoring, has often been cited as the most notable exception to the general trend towards
global integration.
Although only 2% of the world's population live outside their country of origin, immigration
control has become a central issue in most advanced nations. Many governments seek to
restrict population flows, particularly those originating in the poor countries of the global South.
Even in the United States, annual inflows of about 600,000 immigrants during the 1990s
reached only half the levels recorded during the first two decades of the 20th century.
Finally, the series of drastic national security measures that were implemented worldwide
as a response to the terrorist attacks of 9/11 reflect political dynamics that run counter to the
hyperglobalizers' predictions of a borderless world. Some civil rights advocates even fear that
the enormous resurgence of patriotism around the world might enable states to re-impose
restrictions on the freedom of movement and assembly. At the same time, however, the
activities of global terrorist networks have revealed the inadequacy of conventional national
security structures based on the modern nation-state system, thus forcing national governments
to engage in new forms of international cooperation.

Political globalization and global governance


Political globalization is most visible in the rise of supraterritorial institutions and
associations held together by common norms and interests.
On the municipal and provincial level, there has been a remarkable growth in the
number of policy initiatives and transborder links between various sub-state authorities. For
example, Chinese provinces and US federal states have established permanent missions and
points of contact, some of which operate relatively autonomously with little oversight from their
respective national governments. Various provinces and federal states in Canada, India, and
Brazil are beginning to develop their own trade agendas and financial strategies to obtain loans.
An example of international cooperation on the municipal level is the rise of powerful city
Soc Sci 103N Notes 22

networks like the World Association of Major Metropolises that develop cooperative ventures to
deal with common local issues across national borders. 'Global cities' like Tokyo, London, New
York, and Singapore tend to be more closely connected to each other than they are to many
cities in their home countries.
On the regional level, there has been an extraordinary proliferation of multilateral
organizations and agreements. Regional clubs and agencies have sprung up across the world,
leading some observers to speculate that they will eventually replace nation-states as the basic
unit of governance.
On a global level, governments have formed a number of international organizations,
including the UN, NATO, and WTO. Full legal membership of these organizations is open to
states only, and the decision-making authority lies with representatives from national
governments. The proliferation of these transworld bodies has shown that nation-states find it
increasingly difficult to manage sprawling networks of social interdependence. Finally, the
emerging structure of global governance is also shaped by 'global civil society', a realm
populated by thousands of voluntary, non-governmental associations of worldwide reach.
International NGOs like Amnesty International or Greenpeace represent millions of
ordinary citizens who are prepared to challenge political and economic decisions made by
nation-states and intergovernmental organizations.

Regionalization
(Source: Claudio & Abinales. [2018]. The contemporary world. Quezon City: C&E Publishing)
It refers to the “regional concentration of economic flows.” Regionalism on the other hand
is “a political process characterized by economic policy cooperation and coordination among
countries.”
Reasons for forming regional associations:
1. military defense (example: North Atlantic Treaty Organization [NATO] – formed during the Cold War to
provide collective security for Europe against the threat of the Soviet Union. In response, the Soviet
organized the Warsaw Pact which was composed of its satellite states in Eastern Europe)
2. to pool their resources together, get better returns for their exports, as well as expand
their leverage against trading partners (example: Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
Countries [OPEC] with the aim of regulating the production and sale of oil – able to dictate the crude oil
prices in the world market in the 1970s)
3. protect their independence from the pressures of superpower politics (example: Non-
aligned Movement [NAM] with the aim to give a voice to developing countries and to encourage their
concerted action in world affairs – pursue world peace and international cooperation, human rights,
national sovereignty, racial and national equality, non-intervention, and peaceful conflict resolution)
4. response to economic crisis (example: European Coal and Steel Community which was founded by
BeNeLux, Germany, France, and Italy; currently with 28 members; formally renamed as European Union
in 1993; after the Cold War, it expanded to Eastern Europe)

Global Civil Society/ International Non-governmental Organizations


(NGOs)
Perlas (2000) – cultural institutions (like religious groups, foundations, voluntary
organizations, professional groups, academe, etc.) that are active, whether through
demonstrations or partnerships, in shaping globalizations – moving towards genuine or
comprehensive sustainable development; included here are international non-governmental
organizations; mainly concerned with the issues that are transnational in nature

(Source: Bello, W. (2000). Civil Society as Global Actor. Global Policy Forum)
Potential of CSOs
1. Emerging as a third or fourth actor in the formulation and implementation of
macro-political and macro- economic decisions. In many Asian countries, for instance, real
Soc Sci 103N Notes 23

decision-making power used to be monopolized by politicians, technocrats, and the business


elite. This is now less possible in the face of the mass mobilization by labor groups,
environmental groups, and human and social rights groups, often working in coalitions.
2. Crucial not only as checks on elites but also the key to the evolution of
democracy. With their constant pressure on bureaucrats and parliamentarians to be
accountable, CSOs are a force for more democracy. By organizing the energies of millions of
citizens to impinge on the daily political scene, CSOs are a force pushing the evolution of more
direct forms of democratic rule. CSO activity, combined with advanced applications of
information technology that allow citizens and citizens' groups to instantaneously communicate
with one another, may be the key to the emergence of direct democracy in contemporary mass
societies.
3. Force for effective internationalism that can check the power of politically
hegemonic forces like the US government and transnational corporations. The
combination of citizens' resistance to globalization and communications technology has created
global citizens' movements that can assemble and meet the "enemy" at a moment's notice. The
"Battle of Seattle" (marked the first successful Internet campaign and coalition building by NGOs in stopping the Multilateral
Agreement on Investment [MAI] which was secretly negotiated by the ministers of the world’s richest nations – the MAI would have
given the TNCs unparalleled access to the resources of a country with minimal obligations or responsibilities to that country, eroding
the sovereignty of nations and citizens.) in November 1999 is an example of the new transborder activist
movements.

Pitfalls/Problems:
1. There is the North-South divide among NGOs. Many Northern NGOs are,
oftentimes, focused on single issues, such as the environment or human rights and carry
agenda that are filtered through the lens of these issues. Southern NGOs, on the other hand,
are more comprehensive in their concerns. They are concerned almost equally with the
environment, social equity, development, national sovereignty, and democracy. Thus, while
NGOs in the North working on climate change are sometimes solely concerned about bringing
down the level of greenhouse gas emissions, Southern NGOs want to make sure that bringing
down CO2 levels in the South does not conflict with the legitimate aspirations to development of
their countries. Similarly, they are concerned that environmental standards in the North do not
become a protectionist screen against the entry of products from the Third World.
2. There is the question of compromising with or fundamentally opposing
corporate-led globalization. For some CSOs, both in the North and the South, corporate-led
globalization is inevitable; the main task is to humanize it. For instance, some labor and
environmental NGOs see the WTO as a fact of life and focus their energies on attacking "social"
or "environmental" clauses to WTO agreements. Others see the WTO as fundamentally
problematic and push for abolishing or radically reducing its powers.
3. There is the question of working with governments. Some CSOs adopt a stand of
maximizing cooperation with governments to get governments to adopt some of their agenda.
Many environmental NGOs in the North, for instance, worked with the US government to ban
imports of tuna and shrimps to the US if these were not caught with methods specified in US
government legislation. In the South, some NGOs have strongly supported the nationalist
policies of certain governments, while muting their criticisms of other aspects of their
governments, like the bad record of these governments in human rights and democracy. Other
NGOs in both the North and the South, in contrast, have made it a point to limit working
relationships with governments to a minimum, while maximizing their critical stance.
4. Competition and intrigues among CSOs are often just as intense and destructive
as conflicts in the political and business worlds. Among NGOs in the North and the South, a
source of intense competition that can quickly make allies into adversaries is funding. Indeed,
some observers contend that nothing has proven more problematic in terms of building common
Soc Sci 103N Notes 24

fronts and common programs among CSOs and NGOs than fights over funds which often mask
as fights over principles or politics.

CULTURAL DIMENSION OF GLOBALIZATION


(Excerpts from: Steger, M.B. [2003]. Globalization: A very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press)

Cultural globalization refers to the intensification and expansion of cultural flows across the
globe. Facilitated by the Internet and other new technologies, the dominant symbolic systems of
meaning of our age - such as individualism, consumerism, and various religious discourses -
circulate more freely and widely than ever before. Today, cultural practices frequently escape
fixed localities such as town and nation, eventually acquiring new meanings in interaction with
dominant global themes.

Global culture: sameness or difference?


1. 'Pessimistic hyperglobalizers' argue that we are xxx witnessing the rise of an
increasingly homogenized popular culture underwritten by a Western 'culture industry' based in
New York, Hollywood, London, and Milan.
These manifestations of sameness are also evident inside the dominant countries of the
global North. American sociologist George Ritzer coined the term 'McDonaldization' to describe
the wide-ranging sociocultural processes by which the principles (efficiency, control,
predictability, and calculability) of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and
more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world.
The problem however is that the generally low nutritional value of fast-food meals - and
particularly their high fat content - has been implicated in the rise of serious health problems
such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and juvenile obesity. In the long run, the
McDonaldization of the world amounts to the imposition of uniform standards that eclipse
cultural diversity, human creativity and dehumanize social relations.
Music, video, theatre, books, and theme parks are all constructed as American image
exports that create common tastes around common logos, advertising slogans, stars, songs,
brand names, jingles, and trademarks. Political theorist Benjamin Barber's insightful account of
cultural globalization also contains the important recognition that the colonizing tendencies of
McWorld provoke cultural and political resistance in the form of 'Jihad' - the parochial impulse to
reject and repel the homogenizing forces of the West wherever they can be found. xxx, Jihad
draws on the furies of religious fundamentalism and ethnonationalism which constitute the dark
side of cultural particularism. Fueled by opposing universal aspirations, Jihad and McWorld are
locked in a bitter cultural struggle for popular allegiance. Barber asserts that both forces
ultimately work against a participatory form of democracy, for they are equally prone to
undermine civil liberties and thus thwart the possibility of a global democratic future.
2. Optimistic hyperglobalizers agree that cultural globalization generates more
sameness, but they consider this outcome to be a good thing. For example, American social
theorist Francis Fukuyama explicitly welcomes the global spread of Anglo-American values and
lifestyles, equating the Americanization of the world with the expansion of democracy and free
markets.
Sociologist Roland Robertson contends that global cultural flows often reinvigorate local
cultural niches. Hence, rather than being totally obliterated by the Western consumerist forces
of sameness, local difference and particularity still play an important role in creating unique
cultural constellations. Arguing that cultural globalization always takes place in local contexts,
Robertson rejects the cultural homogenization thesis and speaks instead of 'glocalization' - a
complex interaction of the global and local characterized by cultural borrowing. The resulting
expressions of cultural 'hybridity' cannot be reduced to clear-cut manifestations of 'sameness' or
Soc Sci 103N Notes 25

'difference'. xxx (The) processes of hybridization have become most visible in fashion, music,
dance, film, food, and language.
Those commentators who summarily denounce the homogenizing effects of
Americanization must not forget that hardly any society in the world today possesses an
'authentic', self-contained culture. Those who despair at the flourishing of cultural hybridity ought
to listen to exciting Indian rock songs, admire the intricacy of Hawaiian pidgin, or enjoy the
culinary delights of Cuban-Chinese cuisine.
Finally, those who applaud the spread of consumerist capitalism need to pay attention to
its negative consequences, such as the dramatic decline of communal sentiments as well as the
commodification of society and nature.

The globalization of languages


One direct method of measuring and evaluating cultural changes brought about by
globalization is to study the shifting global patterns of language use. The globalization of
languages can be viewed as a process by which some languages are increasingly used in
international communication while others lose their prominence and even disappear for lack of
speakers. Researchers at the Globalization Research Center at the University of Hawai'i have
identified five key variables that influence the globalization of languages:
1. Number of languages'. The declining number of languages in different parts of the world
points to the strengthening of homogenizing cultural forces.
2. Movements of people'. People carry their languages with them when they migrate and
travel. Migration patterns affect the spread of languages.
3. Foreign language learning and tourism: Foreign language learning and tourism facilitate
the spread of languages beyond national or cultural boundaries.
4. Internet languages: The Internet has become a global medium for instant
communication and quick access to information. Language use on the Internet is a key
factor in the analysis of the dominance and variety of languages in international
communication.
5. International scientific publications: International scientific publications contain the
languages of global intellectual discourse, thus critically impacting intellectual
communities involved in the production, reproduction, and circulation of knowledge
around the world.
xxx Given these highly complex interactions, research in this area frequently yields
contradictory conclusions. xxx One model posits a clear correlation between the growing global
significance of a few languages - particularly English, Chinese, Spanish, and French - and the
declining number of other languages around the world. Another model suggests that the
globalization of language does not necessarily mean that our descendants are destined to
utilize only a few tongues. Still another thesis emphasizes the power of the Anglo-American
culture industry to make English the global lingua franca of the 21st century.

Cultural values and environmental degradation


Nature is considered a 'resource' to be used instrumentally to fulfil human desires. The
most extreme manifestation of this anthropocentric paradigm is reflected in the dominant values
and beliefs of consumerism. As pointed out above, the US-dominated culture industry seeks to
convince its global audience that the meaning and chief value of life can be found in the
limitless accumulation of material possessions.
At the dawn of the 21st century, however, it has become impossible to ignore the fact
that people everywhere on this planet are inextricably linked to each other through the air they
breathe, the climate they depend upon, the food they eat, and the water they drink. In spite of
this obvious lesson of interdependence, our planet's ecosystems are subjected to continuous
human assault in order to secure wasteful lifestyles. Granted, some of the major ecological
Soc Sci 103N Notes 26

challenges the world faces today are problems that afflicted civilizations even in ancient times.
But until the coming of the Industrial Revolution, environmental degradation was relatively
localized and occurred over thousands of years. In the last few decades, the scale, speed, and
depth of Earth's environmental decline have been unprecedented. Let us briefly consider some
of the most dangerous manifestations of the globalization of environmental degradation.
Two of the major concerns relate to uncontrolled population growth and lavish
consumption patterns in the global North. Since farming economies first came into existence
about 480 generations ago, the global population has exploded a thousand-fold to more than 6
billion. Half of this increase has occurred in the last 30 years. Except for some rodent species,
humans are now the most numerous mammals on earth. Vastly increased demands for food,
timber, and fire have put severe pressure on the planet's ecosystems. Today, large areas of the
Earth's surface, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, have nearly ceased to be biologically
productive.
Concerns about the relationship between population growth and environmental
degradation are frequently focused rather narrowly on aggregate population levels. Yet, the
global impact of humans on the environment is as much a function of per capita consumption as
it is of overall population size. For example, the United States comprises only 6% of the world's
population, but it consumes 30-40% of our planet's natural resources. Together, regional
overconsumption and uncontrolled population growth present a serious problem to the health of
our planet. Unless we are willing to change the underlying cultural and religious value structure
that sustains these ominous dynamics, the health of Mother Earth is likely to deteriorate even
further.

Globalization of Religion
Watch: PBS Frontline – The Rise of ISIS (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/film/riseof-isis/)

A. Theoretical Considerations:
1. Samuel Huntington’s Clash of Civilization: Civilizations can be held together by religious
worldviews. The Jesuits and Dominicans used religion as an ‘ideological armature’ to
legitimize the Spanish empire. Max Weber suggested that Calvinism believed that God
had already decided who would and would not be saved. Therefore, the Calvinists made it
their mission to search for clues as to their fate, and in their pursuit, they redefined the
meaning of profit and its acquisition contributing to the rise of modern capitalism. (Claudio &
Abinales, 2018)

2. Ernest Gellner: “Young Muslims who grew up in immigrant communities in Western


Europe suffer from an acute identity problem. They are living in largely secular societies
with Christian roots that do not provide public support for their religious values or
practices. For some Muslims, the answer to this confusion is membership in a larger
religious group – an umma, or community of believers: you are part of a proud and
ancient community; the outside world doesn’t respect you as a Muslim; we offer you a way
to connect to your true brothers and sisters, where you will be a member of a great
community of believers that stretches across the world.” (Fukuyama, 2018)
3. Olivier Roy: “Second-generation European Muslims rejected the Islam of their parents. In
their early years, they appeared to be westernized. Yet many failed to find regular jobs
and began a descent into petty crime and run-ins with the police. They lived at the
margins of their own communities, with no history of great piety or interest in religion, until
they are suddenly ‘born-again’ by watching videos of radical imams or being converted by
a prison preacher. xxx this is not the radicalization of Islam, but the Islamization of
radicalism – a process that draw from the same alienation that drove earlier generations of
extremists xxx suggests that the motives behind jihadist terrorism are more personal and
Soc Sci 103N Notes 27

psychological than religious and reflects the acute problem of identity that certain
individuals face. xxx the number of Muslims who become terrorists or suicide bombers is
minuscule compared to the total global population of over a billion Muslims. Poverty and
deprivation, or simple anger over American foreign policy, does not inevitably lead people
to extremism. Many terrorists have come from comfortable middle-class backgrounds, and
many were apolitical and unconcerned with global politics for most of their lives. Neither
these issues nor any kind of genuine religiosity drove them so mush as the need for a
clear identity, meaning, and sense of pride. They realized that they had an inner,
unrecognized self that the outside world was trying to suppress.” (Fukuyama, 2018)

B. Religion for and against globalization (Claudio & Abinales, 2018)


1. a “pro-active force.” It gives communities a new and powerful basis of identity; an
instrument with which religious people can put their mark in the reshaping of this
globalizing world, although in its own terms. The rise of religious fundamentalism (like born-
again groups, ISIS [Islamic State in Iraq and Syria]) signals religion’s defense against the materialism
of globalization but using the tools of globalization – fast-long distance transport and
communications, English as a global vernacular, know-how of modern management and
marketing.
2. Some Muslims view globalization as a Trojan horse hiding supporter of Western values
like secularism, liberalism, or even communism ready to spread these ideas in their areas
to eventually displace Islam. The Catholic Church through Pope Francis condemned
globalization’s ‘throw-away’ culture that is ‘fatally destined to suffocate hope and increase
risks and threats.’ The Lutheran World Federation 10th Assembly’s message warned that:
‘our world is split asunder by forces we often do not understand, but that result in stark
contrasts between those who benefit and those who are harmed, especially under forces
of globalization. xxx there is also a desperate need for healing from terrorism, its causes
and fearful reactions to it. Relationships in this world continue to be ruptured due to
greed, injustices, and various forms of violence.’

Global Media
(Excerpts from:. Steger, M.B. [2003]. Globalization: A very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press)

To a large extent, the global cultural flows of our time are generated and directed by
global media empires that rely on powerful communication technologies to spread their
message. Saturating global cultural reality with formulaic TV shows and mindless
advertisements, these corporations increasingly shape people's identities and the structure of
desires around the world.
Today, most media analysts concede that the emergence of a global commercial-media
market amounts to the creation of a global oligopoly like that of the oil and automotive industries
in the early part of the 20th century.
The negative consequences of this shotgun marriage of finance and culture are obvious.
TV programmes turn into global 'gossip markets', presenting viewers and readers of all ages
with the vacuous details of the private lives of American celebrities.
xxx The values disseminated by transnational media enterprises secure not only the
undisputed cultural hegemony of popular culture, but also lead to the depoliticization of social
reality and the weakening of civic bonds. One of the most glaring developments of the last two
decades has been the transformation of news broadcasts and educational programmes into
shallow entertainment shows. Given that news is less than half as profitable as entertainment,
media firms are increasingly tempted to pursue higher profits by ignoring journalism's much
vaunted separation of newsroom practices and business decisions. Partnerships and alliances
Soc Sci 103N Notes 28

between news and entertainment companies are fast becoming the norm, making it more
common for publishing executives to press journalists to cooperate with their newspapers'
business operations. A sustained attack on the professional autonomy of journalism is,
therefore, also part of cultural globalization.

A. Theoretical Considerations: (McPhail, T.L. [2010]. Global communication: Theories, stakeholders, and threats.
Singapore: Blackwell Publishing Ltd)
1. Electronic Colonialism Theory - posits that foreign produced, created, or manufactured
cultural products have the ability to influence, or possibly displace, indigenous cultural
productions, artifacts, and media to the detriment of receiving nations. The economic
transactions through which a number of large multinational communication corporations
engage in the selling of culturally embedded goods and services abroad are viewed as
revenue-producing activities that increase market share and maximize profits for
themselves and their shareholders. All of this are accomplished in unison with other firms,
particularly advertisers, and multilateral agencies such as WTO, ITU, or the OECD
(Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development – the organization of rich nations). Effects include
attitude formation, particularly among young consumers who seek out foreign cultural
products, ranging from comic books, to music, to videos, which represent distant cultures
and dreams – products that are produced and manufactured primarily in a totally different
environment and culture. This theory is focused on the impact of foreign products,
ideologies, and software on individuals, or their minds.
2. World System Theory - basically divides the world into three major sectors: core,
semiperipheral, and peripheral. Core nations exercise vast economic influence and
dominate relationships and transactions with the other two zones. Semiperipheral nations
are those that interact with the core nations but currently lack the power and economic
institutions to join the elite core group. The peripheral zone is made up of developing
nations. They are basically exploited by the other zones. They have few media exports,
little or poor connectivity to the internet, little education, little technology, poor literacy
rates, and much poverty. This theory has a one-way flow of argument suggesting that core
nations use their power for systematic advantage to maximize their profits from their
relationships with the other zones. All major communication corporations, whether
advertising, print, wire service, movies, electronics, video or internet, have their world
headquarters in core nations, have extensive dealing with semiperipheral nations,
including purchasing subsidiaries to ensure market penetration, and have relatively little
corporate presence in the periphery.

B. Online Falsehoods (Source: REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE ON DELIBERATE ONLINE FALSEHOODS –
CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES AND COUNTERMEASURES. Presented to Singapore Parliament on 19 September 2018)
The actors are foreign state actors, foreign non-state actors, and local actors.
1. Objectives:
a. sow discord
b. financial gains
c. achieve an election outcome
d. advance or undermine a policy
e. attack politicians; de-legitimize a government
f. Mischief; Falsehoods may be created for the sheer thrill of being able to influence
people
g. Radicalize. Terrorist organizations, such as ISIL, have used online disinformation to
radicalize people around the world.
Soc Sci 103N Notes 29

2. Use of Digital Technologies to Spread Online Falsehoods


a. easy amplification. Falsehoods may be spread further and faster using basic,
everyday social media functions, such as posting, “sharing,” “liking”, re-tweeting,
hyper-linking and hash-tagging. On Facebook, an individual can share a public post
with up to 5,000 people with just one free click. In a full WhatsApp group, one can
send a message to 256 people instantaneously.
b. false amplification. Inauthentic social media accounts may be used to artificially
amplify online falsehoods. Fake social media accounts are easily created, due to
either lax or non-existent verification requirements.
c. Targeted advertising can be an influential and effective amplification tool.

3. Market for online disinformation tools and services


a. Tools. Fake social media accounts are commonly used to spread falsehoods. These
include accounts that have over some time, years even, been cultivated into convincing
personas. These can include bots. There are commercial “bot herders” that hire out
bots they create, some on a scale of thousands or tens of thousands of accounts.

b. Services. Ms Myla Pilao (Director, Core Technology Marketing, TrendMicro) gave


evidence of the services available on the market. One example is “click farms”, which
comprise a large number of low-paid workers who click on links or posts. “Click farms”
allow “click farm masters” to sell things like video views, “likes” and even votes. One
can buy one million Instagram “likes” for only US$18, 1,000 WeChat “likes” for
US$0.19, and 500 re-tweets for US$2. There are also content marketing services,
which offer fake news articles for as little as US$15 to US$30 for 500 to 1,500 words.
More sophisticated services include “public opinion monitoring systems”, which survey,
research, and influence opinions in online forums and social media networks for
between US$1,850 and US$4,175. Fake content can be made to appear on legitimate
news sites without appearing as paid content, although this costs a premium of more
than US$20,000. TrendMicro estimated that one could use online propaganda to
instigate a street protest in the US for US$200,000.

c. “Hired guns”. The demand for online public manipulation has spawned syndicates such
as the Saracen Cyber Team in Indonesia. This organization was paid to spread
falsehoods on social media to further the political agendas of their clients. According to
the Indonesian authorities, Saracen is only one among many organizations profiteering
in online falsehoods.

4. Impact of Online Falsehoods


a. Threats to national security. Online falsehoods may interfere in a country’s elections
and domestic and foreign policies, or weaken the country’s government and the
resilience of the people to pave the way for the foreign State to gain control.
b. Harm to democratic institutions, free speech.
1. make it difficult for people to understand each other and inhibit diverse views from
being shared
2. Falsehoods can erode trust in authoritative sources of information; prevents the
formation of a shared foundation of facts necessary for public debate
3. Online falsehoods can cause citizens to disengage from public discourse
altogether; exposure to large amounts of misinformation has been shown to have
the psychological effect of making people stop believing in facts altogether and
decreasing their engagement in public discourse.
Soc Sci 103N Notes 30

c. Obstructing public institutions in policy-making and the delivery of public services. The
erosion of domestic trust in public institutions diminishes the ability of public institutions
to defend their reputations, respond effectively to threats and crises, and to govern. It
also weakens the role of public institutions as a source of information to foster a
common foundation of facts for public debate.
d. Erode overseas support for countries, cutting them off from important aid and economic
cooperation.
e. Harm to individuals
1. can confuse the decisions people make, and affect how people interact with the
world around them; can harm people by making them the target of harassment and
insults, causing them anxiety and leading them to make decisions that are bad for
their health and well-being.
2. interference in individual decision-making; can make people feel more concerned or
threatened than warranted.
3. cause anxiety
4. harming of health. xxx quack procedures promoted online have led to deaths in
Indonesia, and patients have declined to continue with medical treatment because
of what they read on the Internet, xxx drowning out expert voices.
5. Harm to businesses. xxx may harm the reputation of businesses, erode customers’
confidence, goodwill and trust, and cause financial loss, potentially transferring costs
to consumers.

5. Difficulties in Combatting Online Falsehoods


a. human cognitive tendencies
1. Mental shortcuts - innate tendency towards confirmation bias, which leads people to
believe information consistent with their preferences and worldviews.
2. Falsehoods tend to be believed when seen repeatedly - also known as the illusory
truth effect - the more often people see the falsehood, the stronger its effect,
especially if they see it from different sources.
3. People tend to believe falsehoods to conform to the expectations of those they are
close to (conformity cascades). People also tend to believe falsehoods because
many others do so (informational cascades).
b. the weakness of truth compared with falsehoods
1. the influence of falsehoods is by its nature difficult to reverse - exposure to
misinformation can have long-term effects, while corrections may be short-lived.
Even when people believe a correction, they may forget what is true and “re-believe”
the falsehood. Falsehoods tend to trigger more emotions, especially negative
emotions, making them generally harder to correct, as such falsehoods leave strong
impressions.
2. people engage in motivated reasoning, which means finding justifications for their
existing wrong conclusions, despite conflicting facts. People tend to reject
corrections when they are inconsistent with their beliefs.

3. in some cases, corrections can backfire, by increasing people’s belief in the


falsehood. For example, one study found that conservatives presented with false
information that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction became even more
likely to believe this claim after reading a news article correcting the falsehood.
Soc Sci 103N Notes 31

c. the further and faster reach of falsehoods than the truth


1. Corrections usually lag behind falsehoods, for reasons that are often difficult to
overcome. This hinders our ability to mitigate and remedy the damage done.
2. Reasons for lag are difficult to overcome. First, falsehoods generally enjoy an
inherent time advantage. This is in some cases worsened by the difficulty of
identifying a falsehood. Second, people are less likely to share corrections due to
psychological factors. Due to confirmation bias, information that is consistent with
beliefs and world views is often shared and sought more than information that is
inconsistent with these beliefs.
3. Ability to mitigate and remedy the damage is hindered. First, falsehoods often cause
damage long before corrections can be put in motion. Second, corrections cannot
reach people fast enough to stop them from unwittingly spreading the falsehood.
Third, corrections are less likely to reach those exposed to the falsehood.
4. Social transformations caused by the digital revolution. The digital revolution has led
to online “echo chambers” on social media, the disruption of the news ecosystem,
and fundamental changes to the nature of political discourse. This has in turn
created fertile conditions for online falsehoods to gain traction. “Echo chambers”
refer generally to online clusters where individuals discuss similar views with like-
minded people.

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