Industrial Fluid Power PDF

Dhanvantari College of Engineering, Nasik
Fluid Power System

B.E. Mechanical
SEM - II
• ADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER
1. Fluid power provides highly accurate and precise movement of the actuator with relative
ease. This is particularly important in applications such as machine tool movement control
where tolerances are often specified in microns and must be repeatable during several million
cycles.
2. Fluid power is not hindered by the geometry of the machine and it can be used to actuate
devices that are located away from power source. This is a decided advantage over
mechanical systems that are dependent upon the machine geometry.
3. The power capacity of a fluid system is extremely large and is limited only by the strength
capacity of the material.
4. Fluid power provides flexible and easy control of variable force, distance and speed.
5. Fluid power provides an efficient method of multiplying forces.
6. Fluid power can be varied from a delicate touch of a few ounces to a gigantic force of several
hundred tons [@36000 tons or more].
7. In fluid power, small forces can be amplified to control large forces thereby providing
leverage.
8. Only fluid power systems are capable of providing constant force or torque regardless of
speed changes.
9. Fluid power systems provide instant and smooth reversible motion.
10. Fluid power systems also provide infinitely variable speed control.
11. Fluid power systems provide fast response to controls.
12. Fluid power systems provide automatic protection against overload.
13. No harm is done to a fluid power system should it stall.
14. Torque output continues even if hydraulic motor is stalled.
15. Fluid power systems have the highest power to weight ratio of any known power source.
16. Fluid power systems use fewer moving parts than comparable mechanical or electrical
systems. Hence, they are simpler to maintain and operate.
17. Fluid power systems are safe, economical, efficient and reliable.
18. Fluid power systems are compatible with either electrical, electronic or mechanical means of
control.
19. Fluid power is readily available.
20. Pneumatic power is free from fire hazards and hence preferred to electrical systems;
hydraulic power is self lubricating thereby reducing wear of moving parts and hence
preferred to mechanical systems.
• APPLICATION OF FLUID POWER

Fluid power systems are widely used in industry to perform hundreds of important
tasks. Some of these important applications are studied in this article.
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• Fluid power application in machine tool
Over 90% of all machine tools are controlled or operated with fluid power. Due to this
it has been possible to summaries the application
n in tabular form (Table 1.3) for this industry.
• Fluid power applications in material handling

Fluid power controls the telescopic mast
and grabbing jaws of the forklift trucks used in
industry. Conveyor hois hoists, cranes, dampers,
tilting ramps and levelling docks are a few other
examples of fluid powered tools for modern
material handling.
A classic example showing fluid power
application in material handling is the hoist used
by automobile service stations tto raise a car for
servicing. This application of fluid power
generally uses both a liquid and a gas.
Tilting a container for the purpose of
emptying or discharging its contents is carried out as a pivoting motion performed by
cylinders acting on levers. Fluid power operated tilting units are used as accessory devices for
handling of bulk materials.
erials. (Ref. Fig. 1.1)
The feeder shown in Fig. 1.2, is used to pick up a part from an overhead conveyor and locate
it in a machining station. The verti
vertical cylinder stroke controls the removal of the part from
the conveyor carrier and locating it in the production station. Angular motion around the
vertical axis results from a second horizontally mounted cylinder whose piston rod is attached
to a rack engaging
aging with pinion.
• Fluid power for automation

Parts supplied by vibratory cup conveyor normally need to be selected and advanced
at the end of the magazine chute. A set is to be up designed to take the parts singly from the
chute and load them on the work holders of a rotary index table. Fluid power is more
advantageously used for automation.
• Fluid Power For Forming Operation
Force is a major criterion in motion taking place to form metals. Fluid powered actuators
(cylinders) in varied types and sizes are the dominating elements in the motions required for
metal forming.
• Fluid power in agriculture

The need for food and fibre production has caused unprecedented leadership in
agricultural equipment development. They are extensively used in forage harvesters,
backhoes, chemical sprayers and organic fertilizer spreaders. They are used for controlled
apportioning and supply of feed for animals, collection and removal of manure in mass
raising of animals, wool shearing and slaughtering. They are mainly used for tilting, lifting
and swivelling gear equipment for fieldwork, crop protection and weed control.
• Fluid Power in Construction

Another sector of our economy that has benefited from the brute power of hydraulics
and pneumatics is the construction industry. Crawler tractors, road graders, bucket loader,
trenchers, backhoes, hydraulic shovels, pan scrapers, bull dozers, vibrator screens, crushers,
rollers and asphalt mixers are just a few of the many applications. Even the smaller tools of
construction such as rock drills used for breaking of concrete are powered by fluid.
Bin gate controls used in large concrete mixing plant, weight batching mixer controls,
forming presses for concrete products, brick and block conveying and handling equipment,
spray painting equipment are some of the fluid powered equipment used in the building
industry.
• Fluid Power in aviation

Aerospace and aviation applications of fluid power include controlling of landing of
landing gear, elevens, rudders, elevators, payload bays and trim tabs.
• Fluid power in marine industry

Fluid power in marine shipping is basically used for automatic helmsman ship cargo
handling, actuation of hatch covers and a vast bulk of dock and shipyard machinery.
Under sea application of hydraulics include submersibles that are used for exploration
and development of the ocean resources.
• Fluid power in Transportation system

Transportation systems provide examples of the most varied used of fluid power.
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Power brakes (both high pressure

pressur and vacuum assisted), power steering systems, (Ref.
Fig. 1.3 and Fig. 1.4) power windows, and powered seat adjustments are all typical fluid
power devices. Hydrostatic transmissions are very common in all types of vehicles. uspension
systems are dampened with hydraulic shock observers, and some combine pneumatics by
using the compressible nature of gases as the basis for air
air-oil
oil suspension systems.
Fig. 1.5 shows a hydraulic wheel motor which is a recent addition to the ransportation
line. They give almost
ost unlimited flexibility to the design which can mount the power plant in
a convenient location to power individually driven wheels as they are required to support the
load and provide traction to propel it in almost any direction with a variety of step lless
speeds.
• Fluid power in Food – Processing Industry
The food processing industries include bakery product, dairy products, meat and fist
product and beverage industry. Extreme cleanliness and accurate weighing and vacuum seal
packing is of utmost importance. Hence, pneumatic power is used extensively in various food
processing equipment such as grinders, pulverizes, shifters, screeners, presses, cutters,
dehydrators, conveyors, oven, agitators, wrappers and cartooning machinery. But the most
important application is in canning – from the moment the can is formed, until it is finally
filled and labelled.
• Fluid power in Mining Industry

Fluid power has wide application in continuous coal and mineral mining and
quarrying. The coal-mining machine which can dig and load coal at the rate of 2 tons/min, is
equipped with several hydraulic cylinders, jacks and motors. Others mining application using
fluid power pneumatic include rock drills, hammers, chippers, hydraulic track laying
machines, shuttle cars, roof bottling machines and conventional hydraulic cranes, hoist and
jacks.
• Fluid power in Utilities and Communication

Utilities and communication are two industries where the use of flued power is vital.
Line utility vehicles are used to support persons working above the ground.
Other applications include hydraulic trenchers, cable boring machines, earth augers,
pipe laying machines and tempers.
• Fluid power of Numerical Control

The dimensions from drawing and the machining data are coded and put on control
tape. When this control tape is fed to the machine, the machining data is translated into
motion and force for hydraulic control operations hydraulic actuation provides a very suitable
link between the control tape signals and the actual machining motions because of ease of
control, rapid response, variable speed and amplification force.
• Some interesting fluid power applications

(a) The actuators that blink the eyes and move the fingers on the almost human
mannequins at Disney world are hydraulically operated.
(b) Hinged doors can be actuated pneumatically.
• Application with scope for technological advances

Three applications given recent attention in fluid power industry are miniature
pneumatic, moving part logic and fluidics. Miniature pneumatics makes use of small air
powered components such as cylinders and valves to carry out small assigned tasks as well as
to control large components. Moving part logic and fluidics make use of logic elements with
function similar to several electronic counterparts such as capacitors, resistors and amplifiers
to control other hydraulic and pneumatic systems.
• STATIC AND DYNAMIC POWER TRANSMISSIONS

According to general dictionary definition, hydraulics is that branch of physics, which
deals with the utilization of energy (either kinetic or pressure) of a liquid to do work.
Hence, a hydraulic device can perform work by
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(a) utilizing the momentum of a moving liquid, or
(b) utilizing the pressure energy of a confined fluid.
Hence, a hydraulic power transmission is classified into two general types as shown in Fig.
1.6
Hydraulic Power Transmission
Hydrodynamic / Hydrokinetic Hydrostatic

It use the kinetic energy of a high It uses high pressure and relatively
Velocity flow of fluid. Low velocities of fluid.
Fig. 1.6: Classification of Hydraulic Power Transmission.
• Hydrodynamic / Hydrokinetic Power Transmission: The branch of hydraulic, which uses

the impact or momentum, or kinetic energy of a moving liquid to transmit power is called
hydrodynamics.
e.g.: Centrifugal pumps, and Water turbines etc.
• Hydrostatic Power Transmission: The branch of hydraulics which uses the pressure force
obtained by pushing a confined fluid to transmit power is called as hydrostatics.
e.g. Hydraulic jacks, hydraulic rams, hydraulic presses, hydraulic elevators etc.
The term hydrostatic transmission refers to the use of hydraulic pumps and motors for
converting fluid power into mechanical rotary motion.
A brief comparison of hydrodynamic and hydrostatic transmission is given in the
Table 1.4.
Table 1.4
Hydrostatic Transmission Hydrodynamic
Transmission
1. A change in fluid pressure 1. A change in fluid velocity
yields output energy. yields output energy.
2. Positive displacement units. 2. Non-Positive displacement
3. Output torques available at all units.
speeds. 3. Output torque is not available
at low input speeds.
4. A speed ratio of 60 : 1 is 4. Input speed ratio 6 : 1 output
practical. speed maximum.
5. Tends to creep.
5. No creeping tendency. 6. Non-reversible.
6. Fully reversible. 7. Input and output directly
7. Input and output can be remote coupled.
or directly coupled.
8. Torque remains practically 8. Torque varies over a wide
constant over full speed range range.
of hydraulic motor.
9. Direct braking available. 9. Practically no internal
10. Substantially constant speed braking.
with load variations. 10. Speed drops off with load.
11. Positive control available.
12. Both open circuit and closed 11. Only limited control.
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circuit systems are available. 12. Only open circuit systems are
available.
As seen from the comparison above, since hydrostatic transmissions utilize positive
displacement pumps and motors and because they are flexible, this system offers a number of
advantages over hydrodynamic transmission system. During the last few decades,
improvements in design and operational performance have opened new fields of usage which
hold unlimited possibilities for machines and equipment of the future.
Int the field of fluid power, almost all the systems in the industry are hydrostatic
devices. Hence, the various equipments and systems covered in this text book will be
hydrostatic in nature. It should be noted that although the term hydraulic is used frequently in
the text book, it mainly refers to hydrostatic. Hence, the term hydraulics as treated in this text
book pertains to power transmitted and controlled thorough the use of pressurized liquids.
Questions
1. Define fluid. Define fluid power.
2. What do you mean by hydraulic and pneumatics?
3. How did fluid power develop in the 19-20the century?
4. What are the various methods by which power can be transmitted?
5. Compare the various methods of power transmission.
6. What are the advantages of using fluid power method of transmission?
7. List 10 fields of applications where hydraulics and pneumatics can be used more effectively
than the other power sources.
8. What effect has fluid power had on automation?
9. Why is hydraulic power especially useful with heavy work?
10. Explain in brief the areas of application of fluid power.
11. What is hydrostatic and hydrodynamic power transmission? Explain in brief.
12. Compare hydrostatic and hydrodynamic power transmission.
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Chapter – 3
Hydraulic Fluids -
• INTRODUCTION
A fluid has been defined in Chapter 1 as any liquid or gas. However, in hydraulics the
term fluid is generally used to refer to hydraulic liquids used for power transmission. Hence,
in this section on hydraulics, the term ‘fluid’ will mean ‘hydraulic fluid’.
The primary purpose of the hydraulic fluid is to transmit power. Fluid is picked up by
the pump from the reservoir, fed through the control valves to cylinders and motors where the
power is expended, and then returned to the reservoir where it is cooled and settled before
starting the cycle again. How well a fluid transmits power is determined how easily it is
pumped, how stiff it is and a number of other service related properties that determine how
suitable a certain fluid is to a particular application system and environment. Proper selection
and care of hydraulic fluid is to a particular application system and environment. Proper
selection and care of hydraulic fluid for a system will have an important effect on the
efficiency of the hydraulic system, on the cost of maintenance and on the service life of
hydraulic components.
• FUNCTIONS OF HYDRAULIC FLUID

The hydraulic fluid performs the following functions:
• Primary Function: Power Transmission

The primary function of the hydraulic fluid is to transmit power to perform useful
work. The hydraulic fluid must transmit an applied force from one part of the system to
another and must respond quickly to reproduce any change in magnitude and direction of the
applied force. Hence, it should have good flow ability and it should be incompressible to
make the pump start instantaneously.
• Secondary Functions
In addition to transmission of power, the hydraulic fluid should perform the following
secondary functions.
1. Lubrication: In an hydraulic system, the internal lubrication is provided by the fluid.
The hydraulic fluid minimizes the wear due to friction by providing adequate lubrication for
bearing, sliding surfaces in pumps, valves, cylinders motors and other components of the
system. Hence, for long service life the fluid must contain anti wear and antitrust additives.
2. Sealing: In an hydraulic system, there are many instances where due to the close
mechanical tolerances between the moving parts, providing a mechanical seal is impractical.
Here, the hydraulic fluid itself provides the film strength to seal the close clearances against
leakage.
3. Cooling: In an hydraulic system, while circulating the hydraulic fluid carries away
the heat generated and dissipates it in the reservoir. Thus it cools the system.
• SERVICE RELATED FLUID PROPERTIES

An hydraulic fluid has some inherent properties, while some service required
properties can be added by the addition of suitable additives. These properties which affect
the performance of an hydraulic system include specific gravity, viscosity, bulk module, pour
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point, neutralization number, flash point, fire point, auto ignition temperature, anti wear
properties, anti-rust properties, defoaming and detergent dispersing properties. The object is
to select a fluid that has the properties for a specific application and then have them remain
stable during continuous use for the recommended time between changes. This could be as
long as 1500 hours (or 3 years) in some cases.
• Specific Gravity (s)

Specific weight of a liquid indicates weight per unit volume

Speciic weight w
= ρg
…(3.1)
Specific weight of water is 9810 N/m3

Specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of specific weight of that liquid to the specific weight
of water.
౩ ρ౩
Specific Gravity (s) =
ൌ ρ
S.I Unit: Specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity.

Specific gravity is also known as ‘relative density’.
Specific gravity of water is 1.
For commercially available hydraulic fluids, the specific gravity may range from 0.80 to
1.45.
• Viscosity
The ability of a fluid to be pumped and transmitted through the system is most
important. This ability to flow is determined by the fluid viscosity.
Viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance of a fluid to shear and is related to the
internal friction of the fluid itself. Thick fluids flow more slowly than thin fluids because they
have more internal friction. The term fluidity is the reciprocal of viscosity. Thus a fluid
having a high fluidity has low viscosity and a fluid having a low fluidity has a high viscosity.
Viscosity can be defined in the following manner:
1) Absolute (dynamic) viscosity
2) Kinematic viscosity
3) Relative viscosity in Say bolt Second Universal (SSU) and
4) SAE numbers (for automotive oils).
1. Absolute or Dynamic Viscosity (H): Absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity is
defined as the force required to move a flat surface with an area of one unit at a velocity of
one unit, when it is separated from a parallel stationary flat surface by an oil film one unit
thick.
S.I. unit; Pascal second (Pa - s)
However, the commonly used unit is Poise and centipoise
1 Poise =
0.1 Pa – s
1 Centi Poise (cP) = 0.01 Poise = 0.001 Pa – s

= 1 MPa - s
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2. Kinematic Viscosity (v): Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of absolute viscosity and
mass density of fluid.
µ
Kinematic viscosity (v) = … (3.3)
ρ
ొ ౣ

మ మ
ౣమ ౩
S.I. unit: ౡౝ ൌ ౡౝ ൌ
ൌ
ౣయ ౣయ
However, the commonly used unit for kinematic viscosity is stoke and centistokes.
1 Stoke = 1
cm2/s
1 Centistoke (cSt) = 1
mm2/s
3. Relative Viscosity in SSU units: During the selection of fluids, it is very convenient
to known the relative viscosity of the fluid. It is measured by using the Say bolt Viscometer.
Hence, it is measured in Say bolt Second Universal, abbreviated as SSU.
Here, the resistance of the fluid to flow is measured as the number of seconds it
takes for a fixed quantity of 60 ml sample of oil to drain through a small orifice of standard
length and diameter at a constant temperature of 100o F (37.7o) or 210oF (98.9 oC). The
elapsed time is the SSU viscosity for the fluid at the given temperature. For thicker fluids, the
same test is carried out using a larger orifice to derive the say bolt Seconds Furol (SSF)
viscosity.
For most applications, the viscosity is in the range of 100 SSU to 200 SSU.
However, it is a general rule that viscosity should never go below 45 SSU and above 4000
SSU, regardless of temperature.
4. SAE number: The Society of Automotive Engineers has established standard SAE
numbers to specify the range of viscosities of engine oils at specific test temperatures.
Winter number (0W, 5W, 10W, 15W, etc…) are determined by tests at cold temperatures.
Summer number (20, 30, 40, etc…) designate the SSU range at 100o C.
Table 3.1: SAE Viscosity Grades for oils.
SAE Absolute Kinematics

Viscosity (cP) at Viscosity (cSt)
Temperature oC at 100o C (212o
(oF) F)
Viscosity Max Min
Grade Max
0W 3250 at – 30 (- 3.8
22)
5W 3500 at – 25 (- 3.8
13)
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10W 3500 at – 20 (-4) 4.1
15W 3500 at – 15 (5) 5.6
20W 4500 at – 10 (14) 5.6
25W 6000 at – 5 (23) 9.3
20 5.6
Less than 9.3
30 9.3
Less than 12.5
40 12.5
Less than 16.3
50 16.3
Less than 21.9
Viscosity is generally considered to be the most important physical property of an

hydraulic fluid an is the starting point in the selection of a fluid. If the fluid does not have the
proper viscosity, it cannot perform regardless of other superior characteristics.
If the viscosity is too low (lightweight oil), although the transmission efficiency will
be high, the following drawbacks may be encountered.
1. Less film strength causes more wear and tear of moving parts. The oil film may also break
down causing seizure.
2. Increase in internal leakage causes more pressure loss.
3. Leakage losses may result in increased temperatures.
4. Lower volumetric efficiencies in pumps and motors.
5. Slower response of actuator and hence less precision control.
If the viscosity is too high (heavy weight oils), although the self sealing obtained between
the mating surfaces is excellent, the following drawbacks may be encountered:
1. High resistance to flow results in sluggish operation.

2. High pressure drop due to friction.
3. Excessive heat generation.
4. Increased power consumption due to frictional losses.
5. Low mechanical efficiency.
6. Starvation of the pump inlet, causing cavitation.
7. Difficulty in separating air from oil in reservoir.
5. Viscosity Index (VI): The viscosity index (VI) is a measure of the relative change in
viscosity for a given change in temperature. An oil with a high viscosity index shows less
change in viscosity for a given change in temperature than does an oil with a low viscosity
index.
The viscosity index measures the stability between two temperature extremes. Viscosity
index is computed by using SSU designation for the reference oils (Pennsylvania crude
paraffin base fraction with a VI of 100 and Coastal crude naptha base fraction with a VI of 0)
and for the oil for which the VI is to be determined. The viscosity index is calculated as
follows
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LU
VI 100
LH
L = SSU viscosity of a reference oil at 100oF with a VI of 0 that has the same viscosity at
210o F as the oil to be calculated.
H = SSU viscosity of a reference oil at 100oF with a VI of 100 that has the same viscosity at
210o F as the oil to be calculated.
U = SSU viscosity at 100oF of the oil whose VI is to be calculated.
The proper viscosity index of a fluid for a specific application is determined from the fluid
temperature change requirements of the system. For example.
(a) In production machinery, the operating temperature range of the oil is small and hence a
low VI is suitable.
(b) In mobile hydraulic equipments which may be required to operate in extreme temperature
conditions like below freezing to near 160o F, a fluid with a high VI above 100 is required.
• Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K)

The bulk modulus of elasticity is a measure of the rigidity of the fluid. It gives an
indication of how much the fluid compresses under pressure.
Mathematically, the bulk modulus is the reciprocal of compressibility i.e. it is the ratio of
change in pressure to the change in volume.

∆
Bulk Modulus (K) ൌ
∆!/! …(3.5)
• S.I. Units: Pascal (Pa): The negative sign accounts for the fact that as the pressure increases,
the volume decreases from the eqn (3.5). Hence, we can say that higher the bulk modulus, the
less compressible or stiffer the liquid. Air entrained in hydraulic oils reduces its bulk modulus
making it spongy. This particularly affects the positioning circuits where the fluid is required
to be incompressible to maintain accuracy even with changes in load.
Hydraulic fluids have a bulk modulus in the range of 2068 MPa to 2758 MPa at room
temperatures in the pressure range of 6.8 to 41.5 MPa.
• Pour Point
Pour point is the lowest temperature at which an oil will flow. Low temperature
hydraulic applications, particularly those involving mobile equipment, use pour point as an
indication of the ability of the oil to be pumped as the temperature drops. As a general rule,
the pour point should be 15o to 20o F below the lowest temperature of the system during start
up to be sure that the pump will not cavitate and become damaged.
Chemical additives may be used to lower the pour point. The addition of these pour
point depressant does not vary the viscosity over the selected temperature range.
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• Neutralization Number
Neutralization number is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a hydraulic fluid.
This is referred to as the pH factor of a fluid.
Petroleum base fluids have a tendency to become acidic with time high acidity causes
oxidation rate in an oil to increase rapidly. Hydraulic fluids are fortified with additives to
reduce the tendency to become acidic and keep the neutralisation number below 0.1 during
normal service. Fluids with a low neutralization number are recommended to prevent harmful
chemical reaction.
• Flash Point, Fire Point and Auto- Ignition Point

The flammability of a hydraulic fluid is described from the flash point, fire point and
auto ignition temperature.
1. Flash Point: The flash point is a temperature at which a liquid gives off
sufficient quantity so as to ignite momentarily or flash when a test flame is passed over the
surface. A high flash point is desirable because it indicates good resistance to combustion and
a low degree of evaporation at normal or working condition.
2. Fire Point: The fire point is a temperature at which the fluid will ignite and
remains ignited for five seconds when a test flame is passed over the surface.
3. Auto Ignition Temperature: The auto ignition temperature is reached when
the sample will self ignite and combustion continues.
All the three temperatures indicate how hazardous the fluid will be in the presence
of metal open flames or elevated temperatures. Typical application include coal mines, ships,
aircraft and space craft.
• Antiwar Properties
A good hydraulic fluid must be able to provide full lubrication for all integral moving
parts of the system. However under extreme speed and pressure condition, the fluid film
thickness depletes and a condition called as boundary lubrication occurs. Here, due to metal
to metal contact, wear of the moving parts occurs. Hence, antiwar additives are added to the
hydraulic fluid to reduce this wear caused by friction between moving parts.
Petroleum based fluids provide excellent lubricating qualities.
• Oxidation
Oxidation is a chemical reaction in which the oxygen combines with the fluid to result
in the formation of acid and sludge. Air provides the oxygen necessary to promote oxidation.
Petroleum base hydraulic oils are particularly susceptible to oxidation, since oxygen readily
are soluble in the oil and additional reactions take place in the products to from gum, sludge
and varnish. The first stage products which stay in the oil are acidic in nature and can cause
corrosion throughout the system, in addition to increasing the viscosity of oil. The insoluble
gum, sludge and varnish plug orifices, increase wear and cause valves to stick.
The two main accelerators of oxidation are:
1. High Temperature and High Pressure: Oxidation rate increases at elevated

temperatures. The rate approximately doubles for every 18o F (10o C), and it is estimated that
the life of the oil is halved for each 15o F rise in temperature.
When the pressure is increased, the viscosity increases. This will result in more
frictional heat, thus raising the operating temperature of the system which in turn increases
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the rate of oxidation. Also as pressure increases, the amount of air that can be held in solution
by an oil increases rapidly. More air results in more oxidation.
2. Effect of contamination on oxidation: Contaminats like cutting oil, grease, dirt,

moisture paint, and insoluble oxidation products themselves act as catalysts and accelerate
oxidation.
Also metals such as copper, iron, aluminium which are used aid oxidation, especially
in the presence of water.
Additives are added to hydraulic fluids to resist oxidation. They may be of the type
that breaks the chain of reactions thus preventing oxidation, or they may reduce the effect of
oxidation catalyst (metal deactivator type).
Advantages:
1. They have excellent lubricating and antiwear qualities, and for practical purposes are
equal to petroleum base fluids.
2. Since they are available in the low range of viscosity (VI from 80 to - 40), they are
used in plants and outside, from high speed precision machine tools which require low
viscosity fluids, to sub-zero aircraft and mobile equipment application.
3. Since they do not contain any water or other volatile material, they operate well at
higher temperature than water containing fluids.
4. They are suitable for high pressure system than water containing fluids.
5. Replenishing fluid can be added directly without regard for changing the viscosity or
chemical composition of the fluid.
6. Here there is neither the separation of the continuous phase from the emulsion, nor
periodic replenishment of additives which evaporate with water.
Disadvantages:
1. It is the costliest hydraulic fluid being used. It is about 7 times more costly than petroleum
base fluid.
2. They can be used only where the operating temperature is relatively constant.
3. They do not operate well in low temperature systems. Auxiliary heating may be required in
cold environment.
4. These fluids have a high specific gravity and may cause pump cavitation.
5. Seals which are normally used for petroleum base fluids are not suitable for use with
synthetic fluids. Seals should be changed when the system is being converted to this fluid.
Suitable sealing materials are butyl, rubber, Teflon, viton.
6. Avoidance of continued skin contact is advised. When this fluid comes in contact with hot
surface, irritating fumes are developed.
• SELECTION OF FLUIDS
Fluid selected for a particular application is governed by following factors
1. Operating pressure of fluid in the system
2. Operating temperature and variation in the system
3. Environmental conditions
4. Component material for compatibility with the selected fluid
• EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE ON HYDRAULIC FLUID

For all oils, viscosity decreases as the temperature increases. Viscosity index is a
measure of change in viscosity with the change in temperature
Viscosity index can be improved by some additives. Fig. 3.1 shows variation in
Kinematic viscosity with temperature for oils with different viscosity index.
With the increase in the pressure of hydraulic oils, the viscosity is found to increase. Modern
hydraulic systems employ very high operating pressures, often exceeding 1000 bar. At
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extremely high pressure, viscosity of oil increases considerably and eventually may turn
solid. Fig. 3.1 shows the temperature versus viscosity curves with operating pressure as
parameter.
• ADDITIVES:
By using additives, the performance of the hydraulic fluid can be improved.
Following additives are used, for this purpose.
1. Oxidation inhibitors
2. Viscosity index improvers
3. Corrosion inhibitors
4. De foamers
5. Anti-wear agents
6. Pour point depressants.
• Rusting
Rusting is the corrosion of ferrous parts of the machinery in the presence of water in
the hydraulic fluid. Rusting occurs at the metal surfaces and produce flaking. Rusting
contaminates the system and promotes wear. It also allows excessive leakage past the
affected parts and may cause components to seize.
Rust occurs due to the presence of water in the hydraulic system. The source of this
water may be:
i. Condensation of the moisture in the air present in the system.
ii. Leakage from oil cooler.
iii. Through the use of coolants during machine operations.
Rust can be prevented by adding “rust inhibitors” to the hydraulic fluid. This
inhibitors “plate” the ferrous surfaces, forming a thin protective coating on the metal that
prevents it from rusting.
• Foaming
Foaming is the result of entrainment of air in oil. Most oil normally contain air in
solution, some as much as 10% by volume. Air in the solution is not usually harmful,
although it promotes oxidation. Air entertainment is caused by improper oil levels in the
reservoir, at the pump inlet due to partial vacuum or due to server agitation in the hydraulic
system.
It is important to bleed the air out of all lines and components before starting the
system. Air can be separated out by passing the fluid through a sieve screen in the reservoir.
Forming depressant can be added to promote the “breaking out” of the air from the
fluid rather than preventing entrapment initially.
• Demulsibility
Demulsibility is the ability of the fluid to separate out water. Addition of antirust
additives causes the water present in the hydraulic fluid to emulsify. This prevents the water
from settling and breaking through the antirust film. However, too much of water in the oil
will promote the collection of contaminants which accelerate the wear and tear. Hence, the
fluid is refined to have a high degree of Demulsibility.
• QUALITY REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD HYDRAULIC FLUID
In addition to performing both primary and secondary functions, a satisfactory

hydraulic liquid must have the following properties:
1. It should be practically incompressible i.e. it should have high bulk modulus of
elasticity.
Page | 16
2. It must have sufficient lubricating properties to maintain the established metal
clearances and prevent galling and scoring. Film strength must be sufficient to prevent the
fluid from being wiped or squeezed from between the surfaces when spread out in a thin
layer.
3. It must have satisfactory viscosity and viscosity index so that it will perform
adequately within the normal operating temperature ranges of the machinery.
4. It should be chemically stable to prevent formation of sludges, gums and varnishes.
5. It should remain physically stable over a period of time with changes in temperature
and operating condition, thereby reducing the fluid replacement cost.
6. The pour point of the fluid should be about 15o F to 20o F below the minimum
temperature expected in normal operation.
7. It should have a low neutralization number to be non-corrosive to the metals in the
system.
8. It should have a high flash point, to prevent possible evaporation.
9. It must be compatible with seals and gaskets.
10. It should not have a high level of toxicity.
11. It should have good anti-wear properties.
12. It should have a high oxidation resistance.
13. It should have good anti-rust properties.
14. It should have good resistance to forming
15. It should have good water separating ability.
• TYPE OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

Following are the types of hydraulic fluids:
1. Pete oleum base fluids
2. Fire resistance fluids
3. High water content fluids (HWCF)
4. Water in oil emulsions
5. Water Gycol fluids
6. Synthetic fluids
• Petroleum Base Fluids:

Almost 80% oil sold each year are petroleum base fluids. Three basic types of mineral oils
are used:
1. Pennsylvania or paraffin base oils.
2. Gulf Coast or naphthenic and asphaltic base oils.
3. Mixed base oils containing both naphthenic and paraffin compounds.
Petroleum based fluids are refined from selected crude oil and formulated with additives to
prevent rust, wear, oxidation and foaming.
The characteristic or properties of petroleum oil fluids depend on three factors:
• The type of crude oil used
• The degree and method of refining
• The additives used.
Advantages:
1. Petroleum oil has natural ability to transmit fluid power efficiently.
2. It has good lubricating and anti wear properties.
3. Good heat dissipation under normal operating condition.
4. Compatible with most sealing materials.
5. It is long lasting and stable when operating temperatures are below 70o C.
6. It is easy to keep clean by filtration and gravity separation of contaminants.
Page | 17
Disadvantages:
1. The main disadvantage is that it can burn. Hence, it cannot be used in applications like heat
treatment, hydroelectric welding, die casting, etc.
2. Petroleum oils are naturally susceptible to oxidation since oxygen readily combines with
both carbon and hydrogen in the oils make up.
• Fire Resistant Fluids

A fire resistant fluid is one that is not only difficult to ignite, but will not support
combustion and propagate the flame when the ignition source is removed. Since, the fire
resistant fluids have poor flammability, they reduce fire hazards.
Fire resistant fluids are of four basis types:
1. High Water Content Fluids – HWCF (90-95% water)
2. Water-in-oil emulsions (40% water)
3. Water Gycols (35-45% water)
4. Synthetic Fluids
Typically a hydraulic fire starts when a hose bursts and sprays fluid against a hot
surface. The various mechanisms used to resist fire are analysed below:
1. HWCF fluids: They do not burn because the water content (90-95% water) to
additive ratio is too high for the additive to ignite.
2. Water glycol and water-in-oil emulsions: These are not totally fire resistant but they
burn when the temperature is sufficiently high over an extended period of time. The water
content in these fluids turn to steam and snuffs out the fire.
3. Synthetic fluids: They prevent ignition of fluid because of their fire resisting
qualities. Fire resistant fluids should be used where any hazards exist that may danger human
life or destroy valuable property. Hence, they are commonly used in coal mines, hot metal
working processes, in foundries and in fluid power systems for air craft and marine.
• High Water Content Fluids (HWCF)
Typically HWCF fluids are 95% water and 5% additive or 90o water and 10%
additive.
The additive portion consists of viscosity improver (water is too thin), anti friction
additives, rust and corrosion inhibitors, defoaming agents and biocides and fungicides (to
control bacterial growth). HWCF are not offered adversely by fine filtration and the additives
do not separate out.
There are a number of HWCF fluids available, each with its own chemical
composition and performance characteristics.
1. Micro emulsions: These are formulations with emulsified particles less than one micron
dispersed in a solution which is nearly clear in concentrate form, but turns opaque when used
in a hydraulic system. They have high film strength and good wear resistance properties.
2. Synthetic soulables: They contain non petroleum water soluble lubricants in an aqueous
solution. The lubrication molecules are polarised and thus attracted to the metal parts in the
system where they form a plating that serves as a boundary lubrication layer between moving
parts in the system.
3. Thickened fluids: The additives form mechanical matrix which gives the water solution the
viscosity and lubricity of a petroleum based fluid, under high shear.
Advantages:
1. HWCF fluids are highly fire resistant.

2. They have high specific heat and thermal conducting characteristics. Also since 90%
of the fluid is water, they provide excellent cooling.
3. They are least expensive of all hydraulic fluids. The cost of HWCF fluids is 20%
that of petroleum base fluids.
Page | 18
Disadvantages:
1. The temperature must be kept within the range of 5-50oC to prevent freezing and
evaporation, both of which can cause the fluid condition and concentration to change.
2. Since the viscosity of most HWCF fluids is lower than petroleum oil, they tend to
scour the system and carry foreign particles in suspension. So fine filtration is required.
3. The high water content requires close monitoring of the added oil additives to keep
the chemical balance correct and control the microbe level.
4. Central reservoirs, mounted above the pump inlet is preferred since, then the fluid will
be added, conditioned and monitored at one location. It will also prevent pump cavitation.
5. Neo-synthetic or Macro-emulsion: Here synthetic lubrication droplets are in the 1-10
micron range. Due to relatively high density and low viscosity of the fluid, inlet conditions
and fluid conductor sizing should be carefully controlled to keep the fluid at a relatively low
velocity. Excessive turbulence can cause cavitation.
6. Petroleum compatible paints cannot be used because of solvent effects of the fluid.
Temperature Considerations: Operating temperature should be limited to a maximum of
50o C in order to minimize evaporation and deterioration of the fluid. Temperature below
freezing (0oC) may cause separation of the phases or otherwise affect the fluid additives.
• Water in oil emulsions:

They are called as invert emulsions. They are mixture of oil and water with the water
percentage as 35-40%. Here each droplet of water is covered by oil. Thus the oil is the
continuous phase.
Advantages:
1.Due to the presence of water, they are fire resistant.
2.Dispersed water gives the emulsion fluids better cooling ability.
3.Because oil is the continuous phase in the emulsion, they mostly have better lubricating
properties than HWCF fluids.
4.They are not corrosive to metals normally encountered in Industrial hydraulic systems. They
are easily compatible with seals normally used for petroleum base fluids.
Disadvantages:
1. Low operating temperatures of not more than 50o C to avoid evaporation and
oxidation.
2. Evaporation causes loss of certain additives which is turn reduce the life of fluids. So,
the water content must be maintained. Also the relevant additives should be added
after consultation with manufactures.
3. Phase separation can occur due to emulsions getting trapped in stagnant areas or due
to repeated freezing or thawing. Re-emulsification can be effected by circulating
through pump.
4. Viscosity decreases as water content is reduced. Also viscosity decreased due to high
shear in the hydraulic pump. Hence, to compensate this, a viscosity level higher than
petroleum oils is initially manufactured into the fluids purposely.
5. Higher specific gravity of these fluids can affect the pump inlet conditions.
6. Emulsion fluids tend to hold dirt and fine metallic particles in suspension more
readily than petroleum oils. Hence, filtration requires magnetic plugs to remove
ferrous material.
• Water Gycol Fluids

Water Gycol fluids are a mixture of
• 35-45% water
• Gycol (usually ethylene gycol), and
• A high viscosity, lubricating and thickening agent.
Page | 19
Additives are added to prevent foaming, rusting, and corrosion. Water glycol fluids
are designed for use in hydraulic systems working in areas with a source of heat, ignition or
where there is a potential fire hazard.
Advantages:
1. Due to presence of water they are fine resistant and have good cooling ability.
2. At low speeds and loads, good wear resistance and lubricating properties.
3. They have low toxicity and do not cause irritation to the skin.
4. They are compatible with seals, hoses and packing material used for petroleum oils.
Disadvantages:
1. Water gycol fluids are limited to use in low to medium pressure and non critical application
because their water content limits their lubricating and wear resisting qualities.
2. Low operating temperatures of not more than 50o C to avoid evaporation and oxidation.
3. Evaporation may cause loss of certain additives thereby reducing the life of the fluids, since
they can absorb water.
4. Water content must be continuously checked and maintained to keep the viscosity at a
suitable level.
5. Asbestcs, leather and cork impregnated materials should be avoided in rotary seals, since they
can absorb water.
6. Water gycol fluids attack zinc, cadmimum and magnesium forming a sticky or gummy
substance which can plug orifices and filters and cause valve spool to stick. Hence parts
which are galvanised should be avoided.
7. The cost of water gycol fluids is greater than that of petroleum base fluids.
• Synthetic Fluids
Synthetic fluids are artificially synthesized chemicals which are less flammable than
petroleum oils. Typically these are
• Straight phosphates esters

• Oil synthetic blends which have a phosphate ester base
• Halogenated (chlorinated and/or fluorinated) hydracarbons.
Synthetic fluids prevent ignition because of their fire resistant qualities. They are suitable
for all applications.
Page | 20
Chapter – 4
Sealing Devices and Pipes

SECTION
TION I: SEALING DEVICES
• INTRODUCTION
The success of applying fluid power to any application depends largely on the ability
of the sealing device to prevent both internal and external leakages in the system. Oil
leakages anywhere in a hydraulic system, re
reduces
duces efficiency and power losses.
Internal leakages does not result in loss of fluid from the system because the fluid
returns to the reservoir. Most hydraulic components possess clearances that permit a small
amount of internal leakage. This internal le leakage
akage increases as the component clearances
between mating parts increase due to wear. If the system leakage becomes large enough,
system will not operate properly.
External leakage represents the loss of fluid from the system. Improperly assembled
pipe fitting
itting is the most common cause of external leakage.
Seals are used in hydraulic systems to prevent excessive internal and external leakage
and to keep out contamination.
• TYPES OF SEALS:
a) Positive seals: These seals do not allow any
leakage whatsoever (external
external or internal)
b) No positive seals: Permit a small
amount of internal leakage (e.g. clearance used to
provide a lubricating film between a valve spool and
its housing bore)
c) Static seals: Static seals are used
between mating parts that do not move rrelative to
each other fig. 4.1 shows some typical examples
which includes flange gaskets and seals. (Ref. Fig.
4.1) these seals are compressed between two mating
parts.
d) Dynamic seals: These sales are assembled between mating parts that move
relative to each
h other. Hence, dynamic seals are subject to wear because one of the mating
parts rubs against the seal. The following represents the most widely used types of seal
configuration (Ref. fig. 4.2)
1. Washer
2. Cup packing
3. Flange Packing
4. U – packing
5. V – packing
6. O – Ring
Washer
Cup Packing
Flange Packing
U – Packing
V – Packing
O – Ring
Fig. 4.2: U – V, Cup and Flange shaped seals.
• SELECTION OF SEALING DEVICES

Following are some conditions which affects the selection of sealing device for a
particular application:
1) Speed: Speed is an important factor in determining frictional temperature
buildup, which results in wear. Seals may also be affected by frequency depending upon the
revolutions per minute. This is important when a seal must operate satisfactory under
eccentricity, wobble etc.
2) Pressure: Pressure in the system in contact with a sealing device increases the
contact force. This increases friction, causing heat build up and more wear of the
components.
3) Temperature: Temperature at the point of seal depends on the materials in
contact, the shaft speed, pressure, amount of lubrication, heat from bearings, heat from fluid
etc. The sealing device selected must be unaffected by frictional temperature.
4) Compatibility between sealing devices, the fluid and other materials that make
up the complete system is extremely important. Foreign materials, corrosion, excessive heat
and many other conditions can affect sealing operations.
Page | 22
• SEALING MATERIALS
Sealing materials may be classed into three general categories (see table 4.1)
1. Leather
2. Fabricated rubber
3. Homogeneous
1. Leather: Leather is the oldest material used for sealing devices, and still very
popular for many applications. Leather seals have low frictional properties as and
relatively high tensile strength. Leader is used for applications. Where higher system
operating pressures are used. These are manufactured in u, v, cup and flange shapes.
2. Fabricated rubber sealing devices: These are composed of synthetic rubber
compounds and fabrics. The fabrics reinforce the synthetic rubber to give sealing
devices resistance to extrusion. Cotton duck, asbestos and nylon are three common
kinds of fabrics in use. Duck is use for normal operating temperature, asbestos for
high temperature operation, and nylon for greater strength and flexibility, Fabricated
seals have a wider operating temperature range than leather.
3. Homogeneous sealing devices: these are compounded from many different base
polymers of synthetic rubber. They are made in many hardness, depending on the
shape, application, and intended operating pressure. Homogeneous seals operate over
a wide temperature range, similar to that of fabricated seals. Natural rubber is rarely
used as a seal material because it deteriorates with time in the presence of oil. In
contrast, synthetic rubber materials are compatible with most oil.
• COMPATIBILITY OF SEALS WITH FLUIDS

Synthetic seals because of their great diversity, will vary in their compatibility with
Seals. The phosphate easters are not compatible with the commonly use nitrile (Buna)
And neoprene seals. Therefore, a changeover from petroleum,
SECTION II : PIPES
• FLUID CONDUCTORS:
Fluid conductors is a general term which includes various kinds of conduction lines
that carry hydraulic fluid between components plus the fitting or connectors used
between the conductor.
Hydraulic system today use principally four types of conducting lines –
1. Steel pipes
2. Steel tubing,
3. Flexible hoses.
4. Plastic tubing.
1. Steel pipes: Pipes and pipe fittings are classified by nominal size. Pipes have tapered threads,
as opposed to type and hose fittings, which have straight threads. Hydraulic pipe threads are
the dryseal type. Ref. fig. 4.3
Page | 23
They differ from standard pipe threads because they engage the roots and crests
before the flanks. In this way, spiral clearance is avoided. Pipes can have only m
male threads,
and they can not be bent around obstacles. The large number of pipe fittings gives rise to
leakages, especially as the pressure increases.
2. Steel Tubing: Seamless steel tubing is the most widely used type of conductor for hydraulic
systems, as it provides significant advantages over pies. The tubing can be bent into almost
any shape, thereby reducing the number of required fittings. Tubing is easier to handle and
can be reused without any seating problems. For low volume systems, tubing can hanhandle the
pressure and flow requirements with less bulk and weight. However, tubing and its fittings
are more expensive. Tubing is not sealed by threads but special kind of fittings eg.
Compression fittings. Flare fitting etc.
3. Plastic tubing: Plastic tubing gained rapid acceptance in the fluid power industry because it is
relatively inexpensive. Also, it can be readily bent to fit around obstacles,
obstacles it is easy to handle,
and it can be stored on reels. Another advantage is that it can be colour-coded
colour to represent
different parts of the circuit because it is available in many colours.. Since plastic tubing is
flexible, it is less susceptible to vibration damage than steel tubing.
Fittings for plastic tubing are almost identical to those designed for steel tubing
tubing. In
fact many steel tube fittings can be sued on plastic tubing.
Plastic tubing is used universally in pneumatic systems because air pressures are low,
normally less than 100 psi. Of course, plastic tubing is compatible with most hydraulic fluids
and hence is used in low--pressure hydraulic applications.
Materials for plastic tubing include polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene,
and nylon. Each material has special properties that are desirable for specific applications.
4. Flexible Hoses: The fourth

urth major type of hydraulic conductor is the flexible hose, which is
used when hydraulic components such as actuators are subjected to movement. Examples of
this are found in portable power units, mobile equipment, and hydraulically powered machine
tools. Hose is fabricated in layers of elastomer (synthetic rubber) and braided fabric or
braided wire, which permits operation at higher pressures.
Fig. 4.4: Construction of flexible hose

As illustrated in Fig. 4.4, the outer layer is normally synthetic rubber and serves to
protect the braid layer. The hose can have as few as three layers (one being braid) or can have
multiple layers to handle elevated pressures. When multiple wire layers are used, they may
alternate with synthetic rubber layers, or the wire layers may be placed directly over one
another.
• QUICK DISCONNECT COUPLINGS

One additional type of fitting is the quick disconnect coupling used for both plastic
tubing and flexible hose. It is used mainly where a conductor must be disconnected
frequently from a component. This type of fitting permits assembly and disassembly in a
matter of a second or two.
1. Straight through: This type offers minimum restriction to flow but does not prevent
fluid loss from the system when the coupling is disconnected.
2. One –way shutoff: This design locates the shutoff at the fluid source connection but
leaves the actuator component unblocked. Leakage from the system is not excessive in short
runs, but system contamination due to the entrance of dirt in the open end of the fitting can be
a problem, especially with mobile equipment located at the work site.
3. Two-way shutoff: This design provides positive shutoff of both ends of pressurized
lines when disconnected. Such a coupling puts an end to the loss of fluids. As soon as you
connecting, the plug contacts an O-ring in the socket, creating a positive seal. There is no
chance of premature flow or waste due to a partial connection. The plug must be fully seated
the socked before the valves will open.
• SELECTION OF PIPES FOR HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

The choice of which type of conductor to use depends primarily on the system’s
operating pressures and flow rates. In addition, the selection depends on environmental
conditions such as the type of fluid, operating temperatures, vibration etc.
Conducting lines are available for handing working pressures up to 10,000 psi or
greater. In general, Steel tubing provides greater pluming flexibility and neater appearance
and requires fewer fittings than piping. However, Steel piping is less expensive than steel
tubing. Plastic tubing is finding increased industrial usage because it is not costly and circuits
can be very easily hooked up due to its flexibility. Flexible hoses are used primarily to
connect components that experience relative motion. They are made from a large number of
elastomeric (rubber like) compounds and are capable of handling pressures exceeding 10,000
psi.
Stainless steel conductors and fittings are used if extremely corrosive environments
are expected. However, they are very expensive and should be used only if necessary. Copper
cadmium conductor should not be used in hydraulic systems because the copper promotes the
oxidation of petroleum oils. Zinc, magnesium, and cadmium conductors should not be used
either because they are rapidly corroded by water – glycol fluids. Galvanmed conductors
should also be avoided because the galvanized surface has a tendency to flake off into the
hydraulic fluid. When using steel piping or steel tuning, hydraulic fittings should be made of
steel except for inlet, return, and drain lines where malleable iron may be used.
Conductors and fittings must be designed with human safety in mind. They must be
strong enough not only to withstand the steady-state system pressures but also the
instantaneous pressure spikes resulting from hydraulic shock. Whenever control valves are
Page | 25
closed suddenly, this stops the fluid, which possesses large amounts of kinetic energy. This
produces shock waves whose pressure levels can be two to four times the steady-state system
design values. Pressure spikes can also be caused by sudden stopping or starting of heavy
loads. These high-pressure pulses are taken into account by the application of an appropriate
factor of safety.
A conductor must have a large enough cross-sectional area to handle the flow-rate
requirements without producing excessive fluid velocity.
• PRESSURE DROP IN HOSES/PIPES

Pressure drop in hoses/pipes depends upon the following factors: -
1) Flow rate
2) Pipe diameter, pipe length, pipe geometry
3) A small change in bore size can have a marked effect on pressure drop.
4) Doubling the pipe length results in doubling the pressure drop.
5) Pressure drop is essentially a result of change in the energy form as some of the pressure
energy is exchanged for velocity energy and heat.
6) Some of the energy is lost along the way because of resistance and friction.
7) Sudden contractions, sudden enlargements, number and kinds of bends, size and smoothness
of pipes as well as the temperature and properties of fluid effects the pressure in the system.
Questions
1. What are different types of seals?
2. State the criteria for selection of sealing devices
3. What are the various sealing materials available?
4. Write a short note on ‘Compatibility of seals with fluids”.
5. What is meant by “Fluid conductors”?
6. What are the various types of piping available?
7. Write in brief about “Selection of pipes for hydraulic system.
8. Explain “Quick disconnect couplings” with application.
9. List the factors affecting the pressure in piping.
Page | 26
Chapter – 5
Fluid Conditioning
• INTRODUCTION
Conditioning the hydraulic fluid means to provide ample s for the fluid in a system to
maintain its proper operating temperature, and to keep it clear and free of contamination.
Different fields of applying fluid power requires varying degrees of fluid
conditioning.
Reservoirs, heat exchangers, filters and strainers, are all important components of a
fluid power system to assure smooth and trouble free operation of machines and equipment.
40 to 60% of all the trouble in hydraulic circuits results from improper care of the hydraulic
fluid.
• HYDRAULIC RESERVOIR CAPACITY

The hydraulic reservoir should contain enough fluid that its working level is always
maintained during the systems operation. It should also have additional capacity to hold all
the fluid in a system during shut downs. The reservoir capacity is generally between two and
three times the capacity of Hydraulic pump.
• HEAT EXCHANGERS
Coolers and heaters are called heat exchangers and are used to control fluid operating
temperatures in a hydraulic system. Heat exchangers are used to control and maintain proper
operating temperatures of the system fluid. The steady temperature reached by the fluid in a
hydraulic system depends on both the amount of heat generated and heat dissipating ability of
the system. If heat energy is allowed to accumulate in a hydraulic system, high temperatures
result with possible damage to seals, fluids and moving parts. High temperature also affects
the viscosity of fluid, which may change the operating performance characteristics of
machine.
The most popular types of heat exchangers used with hydraulic system use air or
water as cooling medium. The round core with plate fins is generally used for fluids having a
high rate of heat transfer. If can be used also for systems with high operating pressures. This
design operates more efficiently with forced air circulation when used for cooling viscous
fluids.
Water cooled heat exchangers of the shell and tube design are generally used for
hydraulic system when ample water supply is available. A heat exchanger of this type
consists of an assembled bundle of tubes inserted into a shell. The tubes are baffled to direct
the hydraulic fluid through the shell side of the unit at right angles to the tube bundle. The
cooling medium generally flows through the tube.
The main factors for selecting the proper heat exchangers are as follows.
1. Determine the actual heat generated during system operations.
2. Select the hydraulic fluid with careful consideration of type of fluid, viscosity,
density, specific heat, flow rate and inlet temperature.
3. For the cooling fluid, determine.
a) Flow and inlet temperature for water cooled exchangers.
b) Ambient temperature for air cooled units.
Page | 27
• SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION IN A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM:
A contaminant
nant is any material foreign to a hydraulic fluid that has a deterious effect
on the fluid’s performance in a system.
Hydraulic fluids get contaminated by gathering impurities. In a hydraulic systems,
fluid contamination is prominent due to substances. Excessive
Excessive heat energy causes severe
degradation of fluid leading to system failure. Electromagnetic radiations contaminate
hydraulic systems often generate noise thereby polluting the environments.
The sources of contamination in hydraulic systems can be ddivided
ivided into three general
categories.
1. Built in contamination.
2. Ingressed contamination
3. Self-generated
generated contamination.
• Build – in Contamination:
Hydraulic
draulic system manufacturers generally
are careful to provide internally clean
products but, in spite of thethese efforts, new
equipment usually contains some built-in
Contamination. These contaminants might
include burrs, chips, flash, dirt, dust, fibers,
sand, moisture, pipe sealants, weld splatter,
paints and flushing solutions. New
components within a system syste may also
become sources of contamination due to
improper storage, handling, and installation
practices. New directional valves, and pumps
may contain contaminants that appear in the system fluid after a very short period of
operation.
As the machine is assembled, the reservoir may accumulate rust, paint chips, dust,
cigarette butts, and even paper cups (see Fig. 5.1). Although the reservoir is cleaned prior to
use, many contaminants are invisible to the human eye and are not removed by wiping with a
rag
ag or blowing off with an air hose.
Contaminants such as weld scales may not break off and enter the fluid stream until
they are loosened by high-pressure
high pressure fluid forced between them and the parent metal or by
vibration of the machine while it is running.
• Ingressed
ngressed Contamination: Ingressed or environmental contamination contamination
that is added to the hydraulic system during servicing or maintenance (or from lack of
maintenance) or is introduced to the system from the environment surrounding the
equipment.
One common way in which contamination may be ingressed occurs when the system
is filled with new oil (Fig. 5.2). New oil is refined and blended under fairly clean conditions
but when it is delivered and pumped through filling lines, metal and rubber particles from the
lines may enter the storage tanks along with the new oil. The storage tanks also may contain
rust generated by the condensation of moisture. If new oil is stored under reasonably clean
conditions, the most common contaminants in makeup flu fluid
id are metal, silica, and fibers.
Drum of clean Oil
Cylinder
1.5 billion particles

(a) Oil Storage Drum (b) Cylinder rod
Fig. 5.2
Dirt and other particulates can enter the system during servicing and maintenance.
Components are usually replaced or repaired on site in an unclean environment.
Contamination from the area around the equipment can enter the system from any disconnected line
or port.
Another source of increased contamination is the air breather cap on the reservoir. Air enters
the reservoir through the air breather cap every time a pump cycles or an actuator is filled and
discharged with fluid. The breather is actually a coarse screen that allows unfiltered dirt into the
system. Many times, a breather cap that has become clogged due to lack of maintenance is removed
and never replaced. The clogged breather also may be totally overlooked so the air required to assist
fluid in reaching the pump finds another path. This exposes the reservoir to the entry of further
contamination.
Contamination from the environment also can enter the system through power unit access
plates that have been removed and not replaced. If access to strainers or other components depends on
the removal of power unit covers, good resealing may not be possible.
Another main source of environmental contamination occurs when cylinder rods remain
extended in a heavily contaminated atmosphere for long periods of time. Fine particles may settle on
the rod and then be pulled into the system when the rods are retraced (Fig. 5.2 b). As seals and wipers
on these rods wear, the contamination ingression rate can increase considerable.
• Self – Generated Contamination: This type of contamination is created internally

within the system by the moving parts of hydraulic components. These contaminants are
produced by wear, corrosion, cavitation, and decomposition and oxidation of the system
fluid.
Every internal moving part within the system can be considered a source of self generated
contamination for the entire system.
Component housings that are often subjected to flexing and other stresses also can
contribute to contamination in the form of metal particles and casting sand. Water vapour that
enters the system through the reservoir can condense on the walls of components and
conductors during equipment shutdowns. Eventually, rust can form and be washed into the
system.
Page | 29
Table 5.1: Guidelines for controlling contamination in hydraulic systems.
Contamination Source Controller
Inbuilt in components, pipes, Good flushing procedures, system
manifolds, etc. not operated on load until acceptable
contamination level obtained.
Plus Integrity of supplier. Fluid stored
Present in initial charge of fluid under correct conditions (exclusion
of dirt, condensation, etc.). Fluid
filtered during filling.
Plus An effective air breather with rating
Ingressed through air breather compatible with degree of fluid
filtration.
Plus Suitable filling points which ensure
Ingressed during fluid replenishment some filtration of fluid before
entering reservoir.
Plus This task undertaken by responsible
Ingressed during maintenance personnel. Design should minimize
the effects.
Plus Correct fluid selection and properties
Further generated contamination (viscosity and additives) maintained.
produced as a result of the above and Good system design minimizing
the severity of the duty cycle. effects of contamination present of
system components.
• CONTAMINATION CONTROL
Controlling contamination in any hydraulic system is an on going process that can greatly
improve system performance. The effect to keep contamination to a minimum begins with the
system design process and continues throughout the useful life of the equipment.
Although built in and Ingressed contamination is a continuous problem in any hydraulic
system, steps can be taken during assembly and serving to minimize their effects. Procedure
exists for tubing and conductor cleanliness, for component washing, drying and storing, for
various flushing methods, and for filling a system with new oil. Practicing these cleanliness
techniques results in a cleaner system.
In operation care of Hydraulic fluid includes:
1. Preventing contamination by keeping the system right and using proper air and fluid
filteration devices and procedures.
2. Establishing fluid change intervals so the fluid will be replaced before it breaks down.
3. Keeping the reservoir filled properly to take advantage of its heat dissipating characteristics.
4. Repairing all leaks immediately.
5. Inspect and clean or replace oil filters in the system.
6. It is also important that the right fluid be used and that its temperature be properly
maintained.
7. Clean equipment and clean workstations are essential when servicing or maintaining
hydraulic equipment.
8. Good maintenance and service practices can prevent contamination and expensive down
time.
Page | 30
• STRAINERS AND FILTERS
Strainers and filters are used to remove a contaminating particles from the hydraulic system.
The term strainer and filter is used interchangeable, because they have a common function.
Nation Fluid Power
ower Association defines these terms as –
• Filter – a device whose primary function is the retention, by some porous medium, of
insoluble contaminants from a fluid.
• Strainer – a coarse filter.
To put it simply, whether the device is a filter or strainer, iits ts function is to trap
contaminants from fluid flowing through it. “Porous medium” simply refers to a screen or
filtering material that allows fluid to flow through it, but stops other materials.
• FILTER LOCATION
There are three general areas in the syste
system m for locating a filter the inlet line the pressure
line, or a return line. Both filters and strainers are available for inlet lines. Filters alone are
generally used in other lines. Off – line filtration systems are also available
available,
1. Inlet Strainers and Fil Filters.. Figure 5.3 shows a typical strainer of the type installed
on pump inlet lines inside the reservoir. It is relatively coarse as filters go, being constructed
of fine mesh wire. A 100-mesh
100 mesh strainer, suitable for thin oil, protects the pump from particles
particl
above about 150 microns in size.
There also are inlet line filters (see Fig. 5.4). These are usually mounted outside the reservoir
near the pump inlet. They too, must be relatively co coarse.
arse. A fine filter (unless it’s very large)
creates more pressure drop than can tolerated in an inlet line of a pump.
The level of contamination entering the pump is a critical factor. Intel filters should be used
only to prevent large particles from entering the pump and causing catastrophic failure.
2. Pressure Line Filters

Filters.. A number of filters are designed for installation right in the
pressure line (Fig. 5.5) and can trap much smaller particles than inlet line filters. Such a filter
might be used where system components such as valves are less dirt dirt-tolerant
tolerant than the pump.
The filter traps fine contamination form the fluid as it leaves the pump and also protects the
system in the event of a catastrophic fai
failure of the pump.
Downstream of the pump, the ability of a pressure filter to trap particles is influenced
by flow and pressure transients which ten
tend
d to drive particles through the filter media.
Pressure line filters must be able to withstand the operating pressure of the system as
well as any pump pulsations. Changing a pressure line filter element requires shutting down
the hydraulic system.
3.Return Line Filters: Fig. 5.6 shows Return line filter also can trap very small particles
before the fluid returns to the reservoir. They are particularly useful in systems which do not
have a large reservoir which allow contaminants to settle out of the fluid. A return line filter
is nearly a must in a system with a high – performance pump, which has very close
clearances and usually cannot be sufficiently protected by an inlet line filter.
Full-flow
flow return filters. Should have enough capacity to handle maximu maximum return flow
without opening the bypass valve. The performance of any return line filter depends on the
magnitude of flow and pressure changes.
4.Off-Line
Line Filter Systems.
The effectiveness of pressure and return line ffilters

ilters line filters is reduced by shock,
surges, pulsation, and vibration, depending on media types and how well they are supported.
Steady flow, relatively free of pressure fluctuations, provides optimum filter performance.
The simplest way to achieve this
this is to remove the filter from the main system and place it in
an independently powered circulating system where filter performance is more predictable.
Ref. Fig. 5.7
Off – line filter systems in which reservoir fluid is circulated through a filter at a
constant
nstant rate are sometimes used when operating system conditions are severe and the needed
quality of filtration is difficult to obtain within the operating system. These systems may be
an integral part of the machinery or may be a portable unit for use whe
whenn and where necessary.
With off-line
line filtration, flow rate or filter type can be altered readily without affecting
the design of the main system. Furthermore, the off off-line
line filter system can be run before
starting the main system to clean the fluid in the reservoir and reduce the contamination level
the pump is subjected to at start-up.
start
Being independent of the main hydraulic system, off

off-line filters
lters can be placed where
they are most convenient to service.
• MINIMUM SIZE OF PARTICLES TO BE TRAPPED:

A simple screen or a wire strainer is rated for filtering fineness by a mesh number or
its near equivalent standard sieve number. The higher the mesh or sieve number, the finer the
screen.
Filters used to be described by nominal and absolute ratings in microns. A filter
nominally rated at 10 microns, for example, would trap most particles 10 microns in size or
larger. The filter’s absolute rating, however, would be a somewhat higher size, perhaps 25
microns.
The absolute rating was, in effect, the size of the largest opening or pore in the filter.
Absolute rating was an important factor only when it was mandatory that no particles above a
given size be allowed to circulate in the system.
Filter rating today is far more sophisticated than in the days of the old nominal and
absolute ratings. Manufacturers still use the “10 or 25 micron filter” name, but also use Beta
ratios to more closely identify how well a filter does its job.
Beta Ratio: The Beta ratio or rating is used for fine filters and is determined under
laboratory testing using a procedure developed in the early 1970s. Although not a true
measure of how well a filter will do in an operating system, the Beta rating is a good
indicator of the filtration performance.
The Beta ratio of an operating filter during steady state flow test is simple the count
upstream divided by the count downstream of fine test dust, based on any selected particle
size:
Number of upstream particles
Beta X
Number of downstream particles
In the formula, X is the particle size in microns. A ratio of 1.0 means that no particles
are stopped. A ratio of 75 to 1 means that 75 particles are stopped for ever one that gets
through, an efficiency of 100 – (100 75) or 98.7 percent. Most filters with absolute ratings
have Beta ratios of over 75 to 1. For a filter with a Beta ratio greater than 1 the downstream
concentration of particles above a given size will stabilize to provide an almost constant
contamination level.
For example, to select a filter for silt control, specify a filter with a Beta ratio of B3-5 =
75. For partial silt control, filter with a B10-5 = 75 might be chosen. For chip removal only, the
Beta ratio might be N25-40 = 75.
Beta ratios are plotted and manipulated in many ways to show separation efficiency,
apparent capacity, actual capacity, and filter life profile all for any chosen particle sizes
within the capability of the instruments.
• SELECTION OF FILTERS
The following information is important in order to select the proper filter for any application:
1. The size and physical nature of the detrimental contaminates to be removed
2. The viscosity, density, operating temperature, and corrosive properties of the
hydraulic fluid being used.
3. The materials used for fabricating the system before the filter and after the filter,
seals, fittings, tubing, hose, instruments, and other parts should be analysed.
4. The operating characteristics of the system, such as shock load, fluid velocity, and
direction.
5. Pressures and pressure drops that the filter media must encounter during the system’s
operation
6. The component in the system that requires the closest tolerances and hence the least
contamination.
Page | 35
• FILTERING MATERIALS
There are two basic classifications of filtering materials: absorbent or adsorbent.
Absorbent filter medium traps particles by mechanical means. Absorbent media are
divided into two basic types: surface and depth. Surface media may be woven screen, disc, or
etched types and are most commonly used for finer filtration. Depth media are generally used
for finer filtration and are made of a wide range of materials. The most common hydraulic
filter media are combinations of cellulosic, synthetic, and glass fibers. These materials are
blended for specific performance characteristics and durability and are usually resin
impregnated to provide added strength.
Adsorbent or active, filters such as charcoal and Fuller’s earth should be avoided in
hydraulic systems since they may remove essential additives from the hydraulic fluid.
• FILTRATION SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

In General, the practical and performance requirements of a filtration system can be
summarized as follows:
1. The system must be capable of reducing the initial contamination to the desired level within
an acceptable period of time, without causing premature wear or damage to the hydraulic
components.
2. The system must be capable of achieving and maintaining the desired level and must allow a
suitable safety factor to provide for a concentrated ingress which could occur.
3. The quality of maintenance available at the end user location should be considered.
4. Filters must be easily accessible for maintenance.
5. Indication of filter condition to tell the user when to replace the unit must be provided.
6. In continuous process plants, facilities must be provided to allow changing of elements
without interfering with plant operation.
7. The filters must provide sufficient dirt holding capacity for an acceptable interval between
element changes.
8. The inclusion of a filter in the system must not produce undesirable effects on the operation
of components, for example, high back pressures on seal drains.
9. Sampling points must be provided to monitor initial and subsequent levels of contamination.
• BENEFITS FROM PROPER CONDITIONING OF THE HYDRAULIC FLUID:

Using the correct hydraulic fluid, selected especially for the equipment used as well as
for the operating conditions involved, is most important. Proper conditioning of the fluid
selected must be maintained continually to keep the fluid clean and at proper operating
temperature if the hydraulic system is to function properly and given long life. Proper
conditioning provides the following benefits:
1. Reduction of power losses: The use of properly sized reservoirs and adequate
coolers reduces system leakage by controlling the viscosity of the fluid with temperature
control. This also helps to minimize friction by maintaining adequate lubrication between
moving parts in pumps, fluid motors, and cylinders. When these properties are maintained,
power losses are minimized.
2. More continuous production: When the hydraulic fluid is properly conditioned,

less pressure drop occurs, which maintains good control, fast response, and accurate timing of
machine operations. Strainers, filters, and magnets play an important part in keeping the
system clean and preventing costly interruptions in production.
Page | 36
3. Reduction of cost of maintenance: The life expectancy of hydraulic equipment under
normal operation conditions can be many years. Hydraulic equipment has been known to
operate 15 to 20 years or move without trouble. The main reason for this kind of service
life is the fact that the hydraulic fluid was kept clean and properly conditioned.
Detrimental contamination and high temperatures can create excessive maintenance costs,
if not controlled. When system fluids are properly conditioned, it requires a minimum
amount of maintenance to keep equipment in good operating condition.
4. Reduction of the cost of hydraulic fluid: Good tight connection are, of course,
needed to prevent external leakage. Temperature control is also important, because hot oil
leaks more readily than oil at its proper operating temperature. When hydraulic fluid is
overheated, it oxidizes rapidly and loses its important physical properties. A good
hydraulic fluid does not wear out or lose its desirable properties unless it is overheated or
contaminated with proper conditioning equipment increases the life of the fluid and the
system’s components.
Questions
1. What do you mean by fluid conditioning?
2. What are the various sources of contamination? Explain in brief.
3. Write a short note on : Contamination and its control.
4. Define filter and strainer.
5. Write in brief about ‘Filter Location.’
6. Explain Beta Ratio.
7. What are the materials available for filter? Given guidelines for selecting a filter.
8. What are the benefits from conditioning of the hydraulic fluid?
Page | 37
Chapter – 6
Hydraulic pumps
• INTRODUCTION
In a hydraulic system, the pump converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
This mechanical energy is delivered to the pump via a prime mover. The prime mover used
depends on the type of application as indicated below:
(i) A.C. induction motor rotating at a constant speed of 1500 rpm or at 1200 or 1800
rpm (at 50 Hz supply), are generally used. Often pump and electric motor are supplied as one
unit.
(ii) Mobile hydraulic application such as power steering units, backhoe pumps, farm
tractors and utility vehicles are driven at varying speeds upto 3600 rpm. Depending on the
size of the equipment by power take off arrangements directly from the I.C. engine or the
transmission.
(iii) Air and space craft hydraulic systems, where weight considerations are critical and
substantial power must be generated from small self contained units, high speed pumps
driven by D.C. electric motor to speeds of 12,000 rpm are used.
Due to the mechanical action, the pump takes the hydraulic fluid from the reservoir
and delivers it to the hydraulic circuit at system pressure. In doing so, it raises the energy
level of the fluid.
This high energy fluid is then used to do work like actuating an hydraulic cylinder or rotating
an hydraulic motor. The smooth and
effective working of the hydraulic system depends on the matching
of the pump selected with the required fluid power actuator
regarding its power requirements, pressure and flow characteristics,
the speed range required and operating characteristic. Hence,
a pump is known as the heart of a hydraulic system. Fig. 6.1: Pump
Symbol
The symbol of the pump is as shown in Fig. 6.1.
• PUMPING THEORY
A fluid is said to be pumped when its volume is displaced and transferred from one
place to another. This pumping action is achieved by using a pump. All pumps operate on the
principle whereby a partial vacuum is created at the pump inlet due to the internal operation
of the pump. This partial vacuum causes the fluid to be sucked into the pump inlet from the
oil reservoir which is vented to the atmosphere. The pump then mechanically pushes the fluid
out into the discharge line.
Page | 38
Outlet
value 2 To system
Motion provided Pumping

by Prime - Mover Chamber
Atmospheric Pressure
Reservoir
Fig. 6.2: Pumping Action of a Simple Piston Pump
The pumping action can be visualised by considering a simple piston pump as shown
in Fig. 6.2. Essentially, a pump consists of a inlet port connected to the hydraulic fluid source
(i.e. and oil reservoir), a pumping chamber attached to a drive mechanism (prime mover) and
an outlet port connected to the hydraulic system. The pump consists of two ball check valves:
Check Valve 1: It is connected to the pump inlet line and allows the fluid to enter the
pump only. It is the outlet valve.
Check Valve 2: It is connected to the pump outlet line and allows the fluid to leave
the pump only. It is the outlet valve.
Now, when the piston is pulled to the right, a partial vacuum is created in the pumping
chamber. This vacuum keeps the outlet valve 2 in a closed position and allows the
atmospheric pressure to push the fluid from the reservoir into the pump via the inlet valve 1,
which is open.
When the piston is pushed to the right, the fluid movement closes the inlet valve 1 and
forcibly ejects out the fluid via the outlet valve 2 which opens into the discharge line. Thus,
the fluid is pumped.
Note:
1) A pump is not a source of power. The source of power is the prime mover which
drives the pump.
2) A pump does not pump pressure. It produces flow. The pressure is developed due to
the resistance afford by the hydraulic system to this flow.
• PARAMETERS FOR ANALYSIS OF PUMP PERFORMANCE

1. Work done by pump: Energy or work equivalent added to the fluid by the pump is given by,
work down W = Force F displacement S = pA S = p (AS)
• PUMP CLASSIFICATION
The classification of pumps is as shown in the pump classification tree in Fig. 6.4
Page | 39
There are
re two basic types of pumps
1. Hydrodynamic pump or Non – positive displacement pump.

2. Hydrostatic Pump or Positive displacement pump.
Table 6.1
Positive Displacement Pum

Pump Non – Positive Displacement
Pump
1. When the pumping action transfers the

1. When the pumping action displaces a
fluid using inertia principle, it is referred to
constant amount of fluid per revolution
as non-positive
positive displacement pump.
of pump shaft, it is referred to as
positive displacement pump. 2. In an non-positive displacement pump,
2. In a positive displacement pump, the high both the inlet and outlet sections are
and low pressure sections of the pumping connected. Hence, as the resistance in the
chamber are separated so that the fluid system increases, fluid circulates within the
cannot leak back and return to the low pumping chamber. Hence, positive
pressure side. Hence, positive displacement is not assured.
displacement is assured. 3. The action of the mechanical drive in the
3. Positive displacement pumps cause the pumping chamber (either centrifugal or
fluid to move by varying (alternately spring force) speeds up the fluid so that its
increasing and decreasing) the physical velocity accounts for its ability to move
size of the pumping chamber. against the resistance of the system.
4. For a given size, the volume of fluid
pumped is dependent on the speed of
4. For a given pump size, since the volume rotating member and the resistance the
pumped per cycle is fixed by the positive pump must overcome. When the resistance
displacement characteristic of the pumping of the external system starts to increase,
chamber, the volume of fluid pumped is some of the fluid slips back into the
dependent only on the number of cycles pumping chamber, causing a reduction in
made by pump. Hence, the pump output pump output flow.
flow, neglecting the small internal leakage
is constant and not dependent on the
resistance of the external system. 5. Due to large clearances, these pumps are
5. Due to very small clearances, these pumps not self priming.
are self priming. 6. When the resistance of the external system
6. When the valve is completely closed and becomes infinitely large (for e.g. a close
there is no place for the fluid to go, the valve blocks the outlet line), then due to the
resistance of the system becomes infinite. internal circulation of the fluid in the
The pressure rises continuous with each pumping chamber, the pump will produce
pump stroke until either the piping or the no flow. So, pressure regulation/relief is
pump itself fails. Hence, these pumps must not required.
be protected against over pressure by
providing pressure relief valves.
7. High volumetric efficiency (at 80-95%). 7. Volumetric efficiency varies from zero
Also the efficiency remains almost (infinite load condition) to at 60%.
constant throughout the design pressure
range.
8. High pressure (upto 700 bars) capabilities. 8. Low pressure (17 – 20 bars), high volume
9. Because of high pressure capability., they capabilities.
are small and compact in design. 9. Because of handing large volume of fluid,
they are bulky and robust in design.
10. Close tolerances and specials designs 10. Because of their simple design and fewer
result in costly installation and number of moving parts, they cost less to
maintenance. install and maintain.
11. They are used where the primary 11. They are used where the primary
consideration is pressure and power consideration is the transfer of fluid from
output. Hence, they are the heart of one location to another. Hence, they are
hydraulics. used in pumping stations and factories.
e.g. gear pump, piston pump, vane pump, e.g. centrifugal (impeller) pump, axial
etc. (propeller) pump, etc.
Page | 41
Note : Hydraulic pumps are invariable positive displacement type i.e. Hydrostatic in
nature.
• Type of positive Displacement Pump

Positive displacement pumps are further classified as
Unidirectional Bidirectional
fixed or variable displacement type.
1. Fixed
xed displacement Pump: Fixed
displacement pump is the one in which the amount
of fluid ejected per revolution (displacement) is
constant. Here, the internal pump volume cannot be
adjusted without replacing certain components, and
hence the pump is considered
sidered to have a fixed
displacement. A unidirectional fixed displacement
pump capable of delivering pressurised fluid from
either port is indicated by the symbol of Fig. 6.6 (b). Fig. 6.6: Fixed Delivery,
Positive Displacement Pump Symbol
2. Variable Displacement
Pump: A variable displacement pump is the one in which the
amount of fluid ejected per revolution (displacement) can be varied even though the pump
speed remains constant. This displacement is varied by varying the size of the pumping
chamber, using
sing external controls.
Note: The volume flow rate can also be varied by varying the drive speed. However, this is a
less desirable alternative than varying the internal displacement to change the pump output.
A slash arrow across the fixed displacement pump symbol indicates that the pump
displacement can be varied. Fig. 6.7 (a) shows the simplified symbol, while Fig. 6.7 (b)
shows the complete symbol indicating manual control by the parallel lines at the left with the
vertical terminating line. The drai
drain,
n, if included is always shown in the complete symbol.
Direction of rotation is also included, if pertinent.
Bi-directional,
directional, variable displacement pumps are illustrated as in Fig. 6.7 (c) & Fig. 6.7 (d)
• GEAR PUMPS
• External Gear Pump
Fig 6.8 shows a typical external gear pump. It consists of a drive gear and a driven
gear enclosed within a precision machined housing. The close fit between the meshing gears
and the housing maintains a sea
seall between inlet and outlet sides wear plates. The suction side
is where the teeth come out of mesh and the discharge side is where the teeth go into mesh.
As the teeth remesh on the suction side, they increase the volume of the inlet chamber
causing a partial
tial vacuum. This partial vacuum sucks the fluid into the port inlet from the
reservoir which is vented to the atmosphere. This fluid now gets trapped between the gear
teeth and the pump housing. When the gears rotate, the trapped fluid is transferred arou
around the
periphery of both gears and finally gets ejected into the discharge side. As the teeth remesh
on the discharge side, they decrease the volume of the outlet chamber by an amount equal to
volume increased on the suction side as the teeth mesh. This forces
rces the fluid from the outlet
port at system pressure.
Most gear pumps are spur, helical or herringbone designs
i. Spur type gear pumps are generally less expensive but aarere noisy at relatively high speeds.
ii. Helical type gear pumps are relatively less noisy, but they are limited to low pressure
applications (below 15 bar) because they develop excessive end thrust.
iii. Herringbone gear pumps are the quietest; provide greater flow rates with much less
pulsating action. They eliminate the thrust action and used to develop a much higher pressure
(above 50 bar)
Spur gears are an unbalanced design. As shown in Fig. 6.8, the output pressure against
the teeth cause heavy side loads to act on the gears and the shaft. This limits both the pressure
and the speed at which the pump can be operated. These external spur gear can be balanced
by drilling passages either through the gears themselves or in the end plates to equalize the
pressure inn opposite directions on the gears (see Fig. 6.10), Most gear pumps do not provide
means for balancing the out of balance forces on the gears and supporting shafts.
Pump Performance and characteristics:

charact
Let Do = Outside diameter of gear teeth [m]
Di = Inside diameter of gear teeth [m]
L = Width of gear teeth [m]
Vp = Displacement volume of pump [m3 / rev]
N = rpm of pump
QT = Theoretical Pump flow rate [m3 / s]
From the gear geometry,

ometry, the volumetric displacement is given by,
VD = L
Theoretical Flow Rate,

This eqn (6.12) shows that the pump flow rate varies directly with speed. Hence,
theoretical flow rate is constant at a given speed. However, there are small clearnces (less
than 25 micron) between the teeth tip and the pump housing. As a result some of the oil from
the discharge port can leak directly back towards the suction side. This is tremble as slip.
Due to this slip, the actual flow rrate QA is less than the theoretical flow rate QT.
For spur gears, volumetric efficiency is about 90%
Note: A gear pump is a constant (fixed) displacement pump i.e. its discharge is
constant at a given shaft speed. The only way the discharge rate can be regulated is by
varying the shaft speed.
Fig. 6.11 shows the typical characteristic curves of a spur gear pump. It consists of
two parts;
1. Head capacity (HQ) curve : It shows the relation between pump discharge pressure and
pump capacity
2. Power capacity ty (PQ) curve: It shows the relation between the power input and pump
capacity.
The characteristic curves drawn depict the capacity and power input at various speeds.
Note: (1) At any given speed, the capacity is assumed to be constant (QT QT). Slip
increases with the rise in pump discharge pressure.
(2) The power curve increases with both the operating speed and discharge pressure.
2. Internal Gear Pump
Fig. 6.12 shows a typical internal gear pump. This design consists of a regular spur
gear G and an outside ring gear with internal teeth called as the rotor R which is set off
center. The spur gear drives the rotor. Between the two gears on one side is a crescent shaped
spacer C around which oil is carried. The inlet port is located where the teeth unmesh and one
end plate where the teeth remesh and the other end of the crescent shaped spacer is located.
The outlet port is also located in the end of the crescent shaped spacer is located. This
crescent
scent acts to ensure a seal between the suction and discharge side.
In operation the oil is directed from the inlet to the outlet port in the following
manner. The drive gear G drives the rotor R and makes a fluid tight seal at the place where
the teeth mesh.
esh. Rotation causes the teeth to unmesh near the inlet port thereby increasing the
cavity volume. This increased cavity volume produces a vacuum at the inlet which in turn
sucks the fluid into the inlet port. As the rotor R continues to turn, this sucked-in
sucked fluid is
trapped between the internal and external gear teeth on both sides of the crescent shaped
spacer C. From here it is carried around and forced out into the outlet port of the pump. At
the outlet port, the teeth will remesh thereby reducing the ccavity
avity volume. This decreased
cavity volume forces out the fluid from the outlet port.
Characteristics of the internal gear pump resemble those of the spur gear pump. Like
the external type, internal gear drives are fixed displacement units and are available
availab in single
and multiple configurations.
Wear on internal gear pumps has a tendency to reduce the volumetric efficiency more
quickly than on external gear pumps. They are used mostly as lubrication and charge pumps
at pressures under 70 bar.
Gerotor (generated rotor) pumps are a version of the internal gear pump. This pump consists
of two elements: an inner gerotor and an outer gerotor, both mounted on fixed centers but eccentric to
each other. The inner gerotor is power driven and draws the outer gerotor around as they mesh
together. The inner gerotor always has one teeth less than the outer gerotor. Each meshing pair to
teeth of the two gerotors engage at just one place in the pump i.e. at X. At the right hand side
of thee point of mesh, as the gerotors rotate, pockets of increasing size are formed. These are
the suction pockets of inlet port. On the left side of the point, pockets of decreasing size are
formed. These are the discharge pockets of outlet port. The tips ooff the t inner and outer
gerotors make contact as shown to seal the pumping chamber from each other.
The operation of the gerotor pump is as shown in Fig. 6.14. During the initial half of
the cycle, the gradual enlarging chamber is exposed to the inlet port, creating a partial
vacuum into which the hydraulic fluid flows. During the next 180o of the revolution,
rev the
chamber gradually decreases in size as the teeth mesh, and the fluid is forced out th
through the
outlet port into the system.
3. Lobe Pump
The lobe pump illustrated in Fig. 6.15 also comes from the family of gear pump. The
lobe pump operates on the same principal as the external gear pump. But unlike the external
gear pump, both lobes are driven externally so that they do not actually contact
conta each other.
Hence, they are quieter than the other types of gear pumps. Each lobe has only three mating
“teeth’s” that are mush wider and more rounded than those found on a regular externa
external gear
pump.
mp. Due to the smaller number of mating elements, the lope pump output will have a
somewhat greater amount of pulsation, although its volumetric displacement is generally
greater thann that for other types of gear pumps. They have a relatively low pressure
capability.
4. Screw Pump
A typical screw pump s as shown in Fig. 6.16 (a). The screw pump is an axial flow
positive displacement unit. It consists of three precision ground screws, meshing with
within a
close fitting housing. One screw transmits power and is known as power rotor. The remaining
two screws act as idlers. The two symmetrically
ally opposed idler rotors turn because of the
action of the fluid transferred through the pump. They act as rotating sealing elements and
perform
m no work themselves.
Pumping action occurs when the meshing of the rotors seal and enfold the fluid and
then transfer it to the enclosures continuously in an uniform manner. The idlers are in rolling
contact with the central power rotor and are free to ffloat
loat in their respective housing bores on
an hydrodynamic oil film. There are no radial bending loads. Axial unbalanced forces on the
rotor set are supported by balance piston and thrust cage as shown in Fig. 6.16(a).
Fig. 6.16(b) explains the characterist

characteristic curves of a screw pump
Desirable characteristics inherent in the design of screw pumps:
1. They are quite because the rolling action of the rotors eliminate the hydraulic noise and
vibration traditionally associated with many positive displacement pumps.
2. Nearly
early all fluids are compatible with the pump because only minimum lubrication properties
are necessary.
3. They produce non pulsating flow.
4. High speed operations of 3500 rpm and more are available.
5. Because the internal parts are few and rugged, these pumps aare
re highly reliable.
6. High pressure designs are available for 200 bar operation with output flow rates upto 300
lpm.
5. VANE PUMPS
The major source of leakage in a gear pump arises from the small gaps between the
gear teeths, and also between the gear teeth aand
nd pump housing. The vane pump reduces this
leakage by replacing the gears with vanes. Vane pumps are classified as fixed or variable
displacement types and unbalanced or balanced design. Three pump combinations are
available:
1. Unbalanced, Fixed displacemen
displacement Vane pump
2. Unbalanced, Variable displacement Vane pump
3. Balanced, Fixed displacement Vane pump
6. Unbalanced, Fixed displacement Vane Pump:

A typical unbalanced, fixed displacement vane pump is as shown in Fig. 6.17. The
essential components of the vane pump include the inlet and outlet ports, the driven rotor,
sliding vanes, and a stationary cam ring. The rotor, vanes and can ring, and sometimes the
end wear plates, are replaceable as a cartridge unit. The rotor is eccentrically mounted on the
stationary cam-ring. The rotor is splined to the pump shaft and rotates within the cam
ring.The vanes are located in the radial rotor slots and follow the contour of the cam-ring.
During startup only the centrifugal force and during operation both the centrifugal and the
force due to system pressure are responsible to move the vanes against the hardened and
ground contour of the cam ring. The wear plates are against both sides of the cam-ring thus
making up the pumping element.
While passing over the inlet port, the sliding vanes are extended out of the rotor slots,
thereby increasing the volume of the suction side. The increasing volume creates suction at
the inlet port and causes the fluid to enter the low pressure inlet cavity. The inlet and outlet
ports are isolated from each other by the spacing of the vanes. As the rotor turns, this fluid
gets trapped between the rotating vanes and is transferred to the outlet port. While passing
over the outlet port, the sliding vanes are retracted back into the rotor slots, thereby
decreasing the crescent shaped space between the rotor and cam-ring. This decreasing
volume causes the fluid to be ejected out of the outlet port into the system.
This pump permits the pumping action on one side of the rotor only. Now, there is a
large difference in pressure between the inlet and outlet ports. This pressure difference
creates a severe load on the vanes and a large side load on the bearings of the rotor shaft.
Hence, it is said to be ‘unbalanced design’.
Note: This same undesirable side load exist for the gear pump also. Hence, they are also
unbalanced design type.
Analysis Vane Pump Volumetric Displacement:
Let Dc = diameter of cam ring [m]
DR = diameter of rotor [m]
L = width of rotor [m]
N = Speed of rotor [rpm]
e = eccentricity [m]
ి ౎
emax = maximum possible eccentricity [m] =
The maximum volumetric displacement is given by,
V D మ L D D

D D

L

౎
π
V m D D

e L
4 …(6.13)
Page | 50
The actual volumetric displacement occurs when emax = e. Hence, the actual
volumetric displacement is given by,
VD[m3] = D D

e L
π
…(6.14)
From equation (6.14), we see that,
(i) When electricity is zero, there is no flow.
(ii) When this eccentricity is changed, then the pump displacement changes. Pumps having
provision to vary this eccentricity are said to be of “variable displacement typer”.
7. Unbalanced, Variable Displacement Vane Pump

A variable displacement vane pump is the one which can change its displacement by
varying the eccentricity between the drive rotor unit and the cam-ring. This can be achieved
by mechanically setting the cam-ring position with the help of an external hand wheel as
shown is Fig. 6.18. It should be noted that when the eccentricity is maximum, the
displacement of the pump is also maximum. As the hand wheel is turned and the eccentricity
is reduced, the flow reduces and when the rotor and cam ring are concentric, the displacement
is zero.
One main disadvantage of a balanced vane pump is that it cannot be designed as a
variable displacement unit. If at all the displacement has to be varied, then the entire unit
consisting of the elliptical cam ring has to be changed.
8. PISTON PUMPS
Piston pumps are the oldest form of hydraulic pump, being in critical applications
such as naval gun turrets, steering control systems, etc. A piston pump works on the principle
that a reciprocating piston can draw in a fluid when it retracts in a cylinder bore and
discharge it when it extends. There are two basic types of piston pumps:
1. Radial Piston Pump: Here the pistons are arranged radially in a cylinder block. It operates by
converting the rotary shaft motion to radial reciprocating piston motion.
2. Axial Piston Pump: Here the pistons are arranged parallel to each other and to the axis of the
cylinder block. This pump operates on the principle of converting rotary shaft motion into
axial reciprocating piston motion.
Piston pumps are available in both fixed displacement design and variable displacement
design.
9. Radial piston pumps
1.Fixed Displacement, Radial Piston Pump:
The operation and construction of a fixed displacement radial piston pump is as shown in Fig
6.25. It consists of a stationary pintle to direct the fluid in and out of the cylinder, a rotating
cylinder barrel with pistons and a rotor containing a reaction ring. The pistons are
reciprocating in the slots of the rotating cylinder. The pistons always remain in constant
contact with the reaction ring due to both the centrifugal force and the back pressure on the
pistons. The cylinder block along with the pintle is mouthed eccentricity in the reaction ring
of the pump housing.
Fig. 6.25: Fixed displacement Radial Piston Pump
Page | 51
As the cylinder barrel rotates, the pistons

pis
on one side travel outwards thereby
increasing the volume in the pintle opening.
This is the inlet port. Due to increase in
volume, a partial pressure in created which
sucks in the fluid from the reservoir as each
cylinder passes the suction port. Whe
When the
piston passes the point of maximum
eccentricity, it is forced in wards by the
reaction ring. This decrease in the volume,
forces the fluid to enter the discharge port
of the pintle. This fluid is then ejected into
the system.
Pump displacement is de determined
termined by the size and the number of pistons (as there may be
more than one bank in a single cylinder block) and the length of their stroke.
2. Variable Displacement Radial Piston Pump:
The piston displacement and volume flow rate in radial pi

piston
ston pump design is varied
by changing the position of the reaction ring w.r.t. the center line of the supporting pintle.
This is accomplished either mechanically, electrically or hydr
hydraulically
aulically to cause varying
conditions of flow. If the cam ring is moved over center, the action of the pump rreverses the
direction of fluid flow, even though the pump continues to rotate at constant speed in the
same direction.
3. Performance characteristics
characteristics:
The performance curves for radial piston pump are as shown in Fig. 6.27. The 3
curves shown in the p-Q Q and QQ-N charts represent three pumps of differe
fferent sizes. Observe
the linear requite either
er pressure / flow / load compensation to limit system ppressure and
volume flow rate simultaneously.
The system pressure along with flow rate capacity decide the power capacity of pump.
Solved Problems
Problem 6.1
A gear pump has x 75 mm outside diamet

diameter, x 50 mm inside diameter, and a 25 mm
width. Calculate the volumetric efficiency, if the pump has an actual flow of 100 lpm at 1800
rpm and rated pressures.
Solution:
The volumetric displacement of a gear pump is given by
…(1)
The theoretical flow rate of the gear pump is given by,
QT = VD [m3] N [rpm] = 6.1359 10-5 1800 m3/min
QT = 010,11045 = 110.45 lpm …(2)
The volumetric efficiency is then found by,


η 90.5%
…Ans.
Problem 6.2
A vane pump has a rotor diameter of 50 mm, a cam ring diameter of 75 mm and a vane width
of 50 mm. The eccentricity is 8 mm. Calculate the volumetric efficiency if the pump has an
actual flow of 110 lpm at 1500 rpm and rated pressure.
Solution:
The volumetric displacement of a vane pump is given by,
VD = D D

e L 0.075 0.05
0.008 0.05

VD = 7.854 10-5 m3
The theoretical flow rate of vane pump is given by,
QT = VD [m3] N [rpm] = 7.845 105 1500
QT = 0.1178 m3/min = 117.8 lpm
The volumetric efficiency is then found by,
η ఽ 100 . 100

౐
η 93.38%
Problem 6.3
An axial piston pump with swash plate angle of 15o is used. The pump has nine, 12
mm pistons arranged on a 125 mm piston circle diameter. The operating speed is 5000
rpm. Calculate the theoretical volume flow rate.
Solution:
The volumetric displacement of the swash plate piston pump is given by,
VD = n A Dp tan θ 9 0.012
0.125 tan 15

VD = 3.4092 10-5 m3 …(1)
The theoretical flow rate is given by
QT [m3 N pm] = 3.4092 10-5 5000
QT = 0.17046 m3/min.
Page | 54
…Ans.
QT = 170.46 lpm
Questions
1. Which parameters are considered for the analysis of pump performance?
2. Give classification of pumps.
3. Differentiate between Positive displacement and Non-positive displacement pumps.
4. Write in brief about Performance characteristic of gear pump.
5. Write short note on (i) Internal gear pump (ii) Lobe pump (iii) Screw pump (iv) Gerotor
pump.
6. What are various types of vane pumps?
7. Draw and explain, Pressure compensated unbalance variable displacement vane pump
8. Explain Balanced fixed displacement vane pump.
9. Write a short note on Radial piston pump and explain its performance characteristics.
10. What do you mean by Characteristic curves of a pump?
11. Write a short note on Axial piston pump.
12. Compare the pumps on the basis of following parameters
(a) Pressure ring (b) Speed rating (c) Flow capacity (d) Overall efficiency (e) Cost
13. Give criteria for selection of pumps.
Page | 55
Chapter 7 –
Pressure Control Valves
• NECESSITY FLUID CONTROL THROUGH VALVES
Fluid power is the power transmitted and controlled through use of a pressurized
fluid. In the definition of fluid power, the transmission of fluid power is controlled by
‘hydraulic valves’. These hydraulic valves controls the pressure, rate of flow, and direction of
fluids in accordance with the basic principles of flow.
Hydraulic valves provide the interface between the hydraulic fluid, the control signal
and the hydraulic actuators. The control signal may be mechanical, manual, hydraulic,
pneumatic or electrical. The action of the control valve may be:
a) Digital: Here the valve changes from one set position to another e.g.: A Two position lever
operated D.C. valve.
b) Analog: Here the movement of the value control element is dependent upon the strength or
value. Valves can be categorized as:
i. Direct Acting Valves: Valves are direct acting because of the arrangement of the variety of
elements including poppers, diaphragms, flat slides, balls and rotating and sliding spools.
ii. Pilot operated Valves: Valves can be actuated from a remote location by using pilot force.
This pilot actuating force can be supplied manually by the human operator directly by the
fluid under pressure or form a pilot circuit, or by electrical devices such as solenoids or servo
electrical drives.
In general, a hydraulic valve influences just one of these functions:
1) Pressure Control: These valves limit, reduce and / or regulate the maximum pressure in a
circuit or part of a circuit.
2) Flow Control: These valves very the fluid flow rate using restrictions in fluid passages
which may be fixed, variable, or flow and pressure compensated. By changing the fluid flow
rate to or from the actuator, it can alter the speed of an actuator.
3) Direction Control: These valves are used to check, divert, shuttle, and / or proportion the
flow of fluid in one, two, three, four, or more ways. Pressure and flow compensation are
commonly included in these valves.
• PRESSRE CONTROL VALVES

Pressure control valves are used in hydraulic circuits to maintain desired pressure
levels in various parts of the circuits. A pressure-control valve maintains the desired pressure
by:
(1) Diverting high pressure fluid to low pressure area, thereby limiting the pressure in
the high pressure area. Pressure control valves based on this principle are categorized as:
a) Pressure relief valve
b) Sequence valve
c) Unloading valve
d) Counterbalance valve
(2) Restricting the flow into another area. Pressure control valve based on this principle is
a) Pressure reducing valve\
Page | 56
The five popular pressure control valves are:
i. Relief Valve: It limits the maximum pressure that can be applied in that portion of the circuit
to which it is connected.
ii. Counterbalance Valve: It maintains the resistance against flow in one direction but permits
free in the other direction.
iii. Sequence Valve: It directs flow
flow to more than one portion of the fluid circuit, in sequence.
iv. Unloading Value: An unloading valve is used to permit a pump to operate at minimum load.
v. Pressure reducing Valve: It maintains a reduced pressure at its outlet regardless of the high
inlet pressure.
• PRINCIPLE OF PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE

The principal feature of most
pressure control valves is that the
hydraulic forces are resisted by a
spring. The action of a simple pressure
control valve is as shown in Fig. 7.1.
When the force arising from the pilot
pressure is greater than the spring
force, the valve spool will move
towards the spring until an equilibrium
position is obtained where the pilot
pressure is just equivalent to the spring
force. As the pilot pressure varies, the
spool position will after
after so as to try and maintain the force equilibrium. The valve spool
shown is in the normally closed position.
A pressure control valve may be either a normally closed or normally closed or
normally open two way valve. Relief, counterbalance, sequence and unloading valves are two
way, normally closed valves that are partially or fully opened while performing their design
function. A reducing valve is a normally open valve that restricts and finally blocks fluid fflow
into a secondary area.
• RELIFE VALVES
Relief valves are the most common of the pressure control valves. It is a
normally closed valve which partially opens permitting flow to tank port when the pressure at
the inlet port overcomes the spring force. T
The
he function of a relief valve is to set the maximum
pressure in a hydraulic system. They are located near the pump outlet, in-between in the
pressure line and the reservoir so as to protect the pump and other system components from
pressure overload. Circuits using positive fixed displacement pumps must have pressure relief
valves.
Safety valves operate only when there is a circuit malfunction. A relief valve may
function in dual capacity as both relief and safety device. Relief valves are of two basic types
1) Direct Operating Relief Valve
2) Pilot Operating Relief Valve
• Direct Operating Relief Valve

When the pressure control valve shown in Fig. 7.1 is closed, the inlet and outlet posts
are isolated by the valve spool. An adequate hydraulic seal is obtained owing
owin to the minute
clearance between the spool and the housing. However, as the working pressure increases,
this seal becomes less efficient. So, we use a direct acting relief valve that uses either a
conical poppet or a ball to seal against a mating valve se
seat.
at. Being a contact type seal, this is
more effective at high pressure.
In these direct acting relief valve, the pressure at post P acts on the exposed surface of
the poppet/ball to apply a force which is rresisted
esisted by the spring force. When the pressure at the
port P is insufficient to overcome the force of spring, the valve remains closed. When the
pressure at post P has risen sufficiently to overcome the sprig force, the poppet / ball is lifted
off its seatt permitting the fluid to flow to the tank port T, relieving the pressure in the system.
When the system pressure drops to or below the spring set value, the valve automatically
reseats.
The symbol for a direct acting relief valve is as shown in Fig. 7.2 (c). If there is no
arrow through the spring, the valve is pre
pre-set i.e. non-adjustable.
adjustable. The arrow shown through
the spring, indicates that we can manually adjust the tension in the spring, so as to set the
maximum pressure permissible in the system.
Thee pressure at which the valve opens is called as the cracking pressure. As the flow
through the valve increases, the poppet / ball is forced further off its seat causing increased
compression of the spring. When the valve is by by-passing
passing its full rated flow, the pressure is
called ‘full flow pressure’ and it is considerably higher than the cracking pressure. The
pressure at which the valve ceases to pass fluid after being opened is called the ‘closing
pressure’. Adjustments within the pressure range of the va valve
lve is made with the adjustment
screw which acts to compress the valve spring.
Relief valves of the ball or poppet type have a rapid response to pressure surges,
typically 25 ms, but the pressure flow characteristic is not constant. The poppet or ball te
tends
to hammer on the seat giving rise to “relief valve whine”; seat damage can occur are best
suited for infrequent duties.
• Guided Piston Relief Valve
A variation of the direct acting relief valve is the guided piston relief valve which has
all the advantage of a direct acting poppet valve but is more suitable for continuous duty. It
is as shown in Fig. 7.3. It is much quieter in operation but is best suited for low pressure
applications (up to 100 bars
bars) under constant floe conditions. The response time is still fast
although slightly slower than the direct poppet type relief valve. It also has a high pressure
overside characteristic.
• PILOT OPERATED RELIEF VALVE
The pilot operated relief valve is as shown in Fig. 7.4. It is two stage valve and is
sometimes referred to as a compound pilot drained relief valve. It gives good regulation of
pressure over a wide range of flow. It has low pressure over-ride
over ride and hence
hen gives increased
pressure sensitivity.
The valve consists of a main

main-spool
spool connecting the pressure and tank ports. The main-
spool is controlled by a small built in direct acting relief valve consisting of a poppet held
against the seat by an adjustable spring. Through a small hole or jet in the main spool,
causing it to be pressure balanced. Because the main spool on both sides of the spool, and the
main spool remain seated with a relatively light bias spring. The fluid on op of the main spool
caused the pilot relief valve to sense the system pressure.
When the system pressure.
Increases sufficiently to move the
pilot poppet valve from its seat, the
fluid above the spool goes to drain. This
caused a pressure drop across the jet
thereby throwing the main spool in
hydraulic imbalance. This resulting
pressure imbalance on the than spool
causes it to move in the direction of the
lower pressure. Thus the spool lifts
against the spring, thereby relieving the
major flow from the pressure port to the
tank port
ort and preventing any further rise
in pressure. The small amount of flow
which passes through the pilot direct
acting relief valve is also returned to the tank port (i.e. it is internally drained
drained). Alternatively
the pilot section may have an external drai
drain
n connection to avoid the effect of back pressure in
the tank line.
A separate pilot or vent port V which is plugged for operation is fitted so that can be
remotely operated. This port is o the pilot side of the main spool and connected to the tank
causes the main spool to imbalance at a very low pressure. This venting features is a useful
method of unloading a pump or circuit. Alternatively the main valve can be remote controlled
by connecting another relief valve to the vent port V. This will regulate
regulate the pressure from its
minimum valve upto the limit set by the main valve pilot section. Both these features are
demonstrated in Fig. 7.5 in which the 4/3 way solenoid actuated D.C. valve enables the relief
valve to be remotely operated by an electrical signal to give three different pressure settings,
one of which is nominally zero, the relief valve than being vented. When solenoid a
energized, internal pressure control is achieved; with solenoid b energized, remote pressure
control a and b de-energized
energized,, the valve is vented. The D.C. value may be integral with the
relief valve or a separate valve connected to the vent port.
• Relief Valve selection and Pressure Setting

Most direct acting valves have rapid response time. Poppet types are the most tolerant to
fluid contamination and also tend to have less internal leakage than the spool valves, which
make them suited to high pressure working. However, the direct acting valves have high
pressure override characteristics which make them unsuitable for systems with widely
varying flows.
Pilot operated relief valves have good pressure regulation over a wide range of flows with
low pressure over ride characteristics and close tolerance between the cracking and resetting
pressure. They are popular in machine tool fields, where exact pressure levels are required to
be maintained. They are also used in circuits where rapid operating can create shock waves.
Also a pilot relief valve can usually open much faster than an equivalent size direct acting
spring loaded relieff valve with a heavy spring and a mass to get into motion.
A frequently used thumb rule is for the main relief valve in a circuit to be set at 10
10-20 above
the maximum required working pressure, taking into account the type of valve, its position
relative to the actuator and the pressure losses in the system. When there is more than one
pressure losses in the system. When there is more than one pressure valve compensated
pumps, the controls must not be set at pressures which are too close together as intera
interaction or
hunting may result. It is usual to set secondary relief valve such as port or cross line relief
valves at a pressure higher than the main relief valve.
• SEQUENCE VALVES
A sequence valves primary function is to direct flow in a predetermined sequen
sequence. It is a
pressure actuated
tuated valve senses a change in pressure in the set pressure has been reached. It
thus causes the actions in the system to take place in a definite predetermined order, and
helps to maintain the requisite minimum pressure in the prim primary
ary line while the secondary
operations occur.
The sequence valve may be normally open or normally closed changing its initial state when
the system reaches the set pressure. The sequence valve is always externally drained from the
separate drain connection on from the spring chamber. This is because, unlike a conventional
relief valve, a high pressure can occur in the output port during the normal course of
operation. Should it be internally drained, any pressure is the output port will be reflected
back intoo the spring chamber causing a malfunction. In fact a sequence valve may be used as
a relief valve is any circuit where excessive back pressures are encountered in the return line.
The independently drained pilot makes sequence valves insensitive to down sstream back
pressure.
Note: (1) A good rule to remember with almost all pressure control valves is: “when a
pressure control valve operates, if the flow from the secondary port performs work or is
pressurized, then the valve must be externally drained.”
(2) In circuits, where pressure sensing is used to control cylinders movements, it must be
borne in mind that sequence valve operate when a specific pressure has been achieved and do
not guarantee that the cylinders have completed or reached a particularr point in their stroke.
• Direct Operating Sequence Valve
The operating principle of a direct acting normally closed sequence valve is as shown
in Fig. 7.6. In the closed position (a), fluid passes throu
through
gh the valve from the inlet port P to
primary outlet port A at (low) system pressure when the first step in the sequence has been
completed, the system pressure increases to act against the in indicated
dicated area of the piston.
Continued increase in pressure caus
causes the piston. Continued increase in pressure causes the
piston to compress the spring and unseat the valve, thereby directing the flow of fluid at high
pressure through secondary outlet port B. Fluid pressure is maintained in both branches of the
circuit at high pressure so long as the sequence valve in open. Adjustment of the sequence
valve is accomplished by compressing or extending the piston spring with the cap screw.
• Pilot / Remote
Remote operation:
peration: In some system, it is desirable to provide an interlock so that the
sequence does not occur until the primary actuator reaches a definite position. In these
applications, the bottom cover on the sequence valve is assembled for remote operation. For
remote operation, the passage for direct operation is plugged while the passage for remote
operation is connected to a separate pressure source as required for operation off the spool.
Pilot operation: Sequence valve may also be pilot operated. The dr

drain from the pocket
housing spring in Fig. 7.7 can be used to control the poppet by selectively adding pressurized
pilot fluid to assist the spring is holding the poppet closed.
• UNILOADING VALVE
A relief valve can be unloaded in two ways
a) Pressure Release (i.e. venting): It was seen that the two-stage
stage relief valve in Fig. 7.5
could be unloaded by connecting the vent port V to tank (see Fig. 7.6). Venting causes the
main spool to be unbalanced and open at a very low pressure dumping the pump flow form
port P to port T. The main flown may be quite large but the flow through the vent port will be
very small.
b) Pilot Pressure: The valve in Fig. 7.1 will function as a direct acting unloader when
subject to a remote pilot pressure. As long as the force resulting frofromm the pilot pressure is
greater than the forces set by the control spring, the relief valve will open fully, allowing the
main flow to go back to the tank at low pressure.
Difference Between Venting and Pilot pressure Unloading

In Fig. 7.8 (a), opening the vent port V release pressure and causes the main spool to
open. This is independent of the setting of the control spring. In Fig. 7.8(b), the pressure
signal at x from a remote source pilots the valve open again
against
st the spring setting.
An unloading valve is used to permit a pump to operate at minimum load (see Fig.
7.9). The unloading valve operates on the principle that the pump delivery is diverted back to
the reservoir whenn sufficient pilot pressure is applied to move the spool against the spring
force. Pilot pressure acts against the lower end of spool (i.e. on differential area) which is
help in the normally closed position by the action of the spring. As the pilot pressu pressure
increases, the spool moves upward, discharging the pump to the reservoir.
It should be noted that the pilot fluid applied to move the spool upward becomes a
static system. In other words, if merely pushes the spool upward and maintains a static
pressure to hold it open. When the pilot pressure is relaxed, the spool is moved down by the
spring, and flow in directed through the valve and into the circuit.
The unloading valve is useful in systems having one or more fixed delivery pumps to
control the amount of flow at any given time, by discharging the fluid to the reservoir when
they are not is use in the circuit. They are especially used in feed and traverse circuits where
rapid approach, feed and return strokes are needed.
Unloading valve, reduces power requirement and helps to prevent heat build up in a
system, which is caused by fluid being discharging over the relief valve at its pressure setting.
The power saving gained by unloading the volume pump rather than discharging it over a
direct acting relief valve is given by
P=pQ
…(7.1)
Where p = Discharge pressure across the direct acting relief valve (N/m2)
Q = Flow rate of pump (m3/s)
Problem 7.1
What size electric motor drive would be needed in the “unloading circuit” if the rapid
advance operating pressure is 20 bar and the feed operating pressure is 140 bar? Rapid Return
operating pressure is also 20 bar. Assume pumps to be 100% efficient.
Solution:
The power required for rapid advance stage is given by,
షయ
P advance = p Q = (20 10 )5

P advance = 2500 w = P retract

…(1)
The power required for feed stage is given by,

షయ
P Feed = p Q = (140 105)

P Feed = 3500 W
…(2)
This sample problem shows that using an unloading valve to eliminate the large pump
during the high pressure feed portion of the cycle reduces the input horsepower.
From (1) and (2) we can conclude that the maximum power requirement in this unloading
circuit is,
P max = 3500 W
…(3)
Without the unloading valve, the power requirement would be,
Page | 64
P’ max p max Q max = (140 105)
P’ max = 17,500 W
…(4)
Thus, we can say that the power saved is
P saved = P’ max - P max = 17500 – 3500
P saved = 14,000 W …Ans
• COUNTERBALANCE VALVE (Pressure Control Valve)
A counterbalance valve is basically a relief valve and is used to set up a back pressure
in a circuit to prevent a load from falling. They are frequently employed in vertical presses,
loaders, lift trucks, and other machines that mustt position or hold suspended load. In such
applications, the counterbalance valve creates a back pressure to prevent the load running
away when the cylinder is retracting. They are not used, typically to support varying loads
that would require frequent va
variance
riance of pilot pressure. For this purpose a pilot operated check
valve should be substituted for the counterbalance valve.
The counterbalance valve operates on the principle that fluid is trapped under pressure
until pilot pressure either direct or emote
emote,, overcomes the spring force setting in the valve.
Fluid is then allowed to escape, letting the load descend under control (see Fig 7.10)
The counter valve might be operated either directly or remote
7.7.1 Direct Operation: If a direct pilot operation is used as shown in Fig. 7.12(a), pressure
on the rod end of the piston must exceed the pressure setting of the valve to account for
inertia
ia and friction. This is usually about 30% greater than the pressure required to sustain
vertical load. Thus, the usual pressure setting is 1.3 times the load induced pressure.
7.7.2 Remote Operation: If the counterbalance valve were to be operated by a remote re pilot
line rate than a direct pilot, the pilot pressure setting could be much lower. If as seen in Fig.
7.12(b), the remote pilot pressure is taken from the pressure line at the top of the cylinder, a
choice of the operating pressure can be made for the valve. A counterbalance valve is a
normally closed valve until acted upon by the remote pilot pressure source. Therefore a much
lower spring force can be selected to allow the valve to operate at a lesser pilot pressure.
Problem 7.2
Consider a 100 kN press where the tool weight 5 kN. The cylinder bore is 80 mm while the
piston rod diameter is 60 mm. Determine for both direct and remote pilot.
(1) The counterbalance valve setting
(2) The pressure required to achieve 100 kN pressing force.
Assume a 2:1 pilot input ratio for remote pilot
Solution:
(I) Direct Pilot Pressure Applied:
Cylinder bore D = 80 mm = 0.08 m
Piston rod diameter d. = 60 mm = 0.06 m
A = " 0.08
5.0265 10 $

Full bore area
a = " %
0.08 0.06 2.199 10 $

Annulus area
Pressure at annulus side to balance tools is given by,

య
P .షయ 22.736 10 Pa 22.74 bar
౗౤౤౫ౢ౫౩

Suggested counterbalance valve setting is given by,
P direct = p annulus 1.3 = 22.74 1.3
P dorect = 29/562 bar = 30 bar
…Ans.
Pressure at full bore side to overcome counterbalance is given by,
.షయ
p full-bore = p direct 30 .షయ

p full-bore = 13.125 bar
Pressure to achieve 100 kN on bore side
య
p top = ್೚ೝ೐
!
.షయ 198.95 10 Pa = 198.95 bar
Total pressure required to achieve the 100 kN pressing force is
p = p top + p full bore = 198.95 + 13.125
p = 21.075 bar
…Ans.
Page | 67
(II) Remote Pilot Pressure Applied: Given that there is a 2:1 pilot input ratio. Now the
counterbalance valve setting for direct pressure is 30 bar.
Pressure on the remote pilot required to open the

Valve =
= 15 bar
Pressure at full bore side to drive down to tooling = 15 bar …Ans.
Pressure require to achieve 100 kN pressing for is
"# య షఱ

. షయ
189 bar …Ans.
This is greater than the 15 bar pressure required to pilot the remote pilot operated
counterbalance valve open. Therefore there will be not back pressure set up on the annulus
side of the piston during the pressing operation.
• PRESSURE REDUCING VALVES

A pressure reducing valve is a normally open type pressure control valve which
throttles or closed to maintain constant pressure in regulated line. They are used to limit the
pressure in certain portion of the circuit to a valve lower than that required in the rest of the
circuit. Their applications are important where limited pressure must be controlled for
operations such as clamping light metal objects. They, work on the principle that when the
branch circuit by restricting the fluid flow.
• Direct Operating Pressure Reducing Valve

A direct acting pressure reducing valve of non-relieving type is as shown in Fig. 7.13.
Fluid passes unobstructed from C to D in illustration Fig. 7.13 (a). The main spool is held
open by spring, and the leakage around the free floating spool passes at low pressure to the
drain. As the pressure of the system at the outlet of the valve increases, it acts through
passage E against the lower end of spool. An imbalance exists because the opposing end of
the spool is open to drain. Further increase in pressure at the outlet causes the spool to move
upwards by compressing the positioning spring and thus restrict the flow of fluid at the outlet
until the pressure drops to the specified level. In this position, pressure at outlet will remain
constant
Page | 68
Chapter 8 –
Flow Control Valves
• NECESSITY OF FLOW CONTROL VALVE
Flow control valves are used to regulate the fluid volume flow rate from displacement
pumps to or from branch actuator circuits. They provide velocity control of cylinders, or
speed control of hydraulic motors.
By controlling the rate of flow in a hydraulic circuit, it is possible to control the speed
of hydraulic cylinders and motors. The speed of a hydraulic actuator is determined by its size
and the oil flow rate at its inlet and outlet.
1) A large diameter cylinder will have a larger capacity and hence the time required to
drain the oil will be more thereby slowing the cylinder stroke. Similarly, a smaller diameter
cylinder will have a faster stroke.
2) Alternatively, changing the flow rate from the pump would also change the extension
time of the cylinder. However, changing the flow rate from the pump would mean, changing
the pump size.
Thus, from (1) and (2), we see that changing either the cylinder or pump size to
regulate speed is impractical, especially if the speed change is desired during the stroke.
Hence, we use a flow control device. Flow control valves, in its simplest from, is nothing
more than an orifice, and could be as basic as a needle valve. By varying the size of the
opening, one can vary the amount of oil entering the cylinder and thus control its speed.
Flow control valves are typically used in regulating cutting tool speeds, spindle speeds,
surface grinder speeds, and the travel rate of vertically supported loads moved upward and
downward by fork lifts and dump lifts. Flow control valves are also used to allow one fixed
displacement pump to supply fluid to two or more branch circuits at different flow rates.
• PRINCIPLE OF FLOW CONTROL

Flow control valves achieve their primary function of regulating the fluid flow by
varying the area of an orifice. The flow characteristics of orifices play a major part in the
design of hydraulic control devices. Flow through the control orifice is usually considered to
be turbulent and the quantity of the fluid flowing can be given by,
q = K A0 ,∆- …(8.1)
Where q = flow rate through the valve

A0 = orifice area
∆ p = pressure drop over the orifice

K = constant which takes into account the orifice characteristics, fluid viscosity and
Reynold’s number.
Page | 69
An orifice is a sudden restriction in the flo
flow
w path and may be fixed but is generally variable.
Ideally it should be of zero length and sharp
edged in which case it will be insensitive to
temperature (i.e. viscosity) changes in the fluid
flowing.
The flow through the orifice shown in Fig.
8.1 will vary
ary as the square root of the pressure
drop
and will be sensitive to
viscosity changes. This type of orifice can be
used to control flow rates if the pressure drop and
fluid temperature remain reasonably constant and
minor variations in flow rate are acceptable.
When precise speed control
control is required under varying load conditions it is necessary to
maintain a constant pressure drop over the orifice.
The relationship between the flow and the position of the adjusting device can be
linear, logarithmic or specially contoured to follow a particular curve.
• RESTRICTORS / NON NON-COMPENSATED

COMPENSATED FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Restricting devices may be an orifice plate or a check valve with a small hole drilled
through it. These devices are classified as non
non-compensated
compensated flow control valve. (see Fig. 8.2)
These
se restrictors are not
compensated for changes in the fluid
temperature or pressure. Without
compensation the flow through these
valves can vary at a fixed setting if either
the pressure or temperature of fluid
changes. Viscosity changes, which often
accompany
pany temperature changes of the
fluid, can also cause flow variations
through a valve. Compensation
automatically changes the valve adjustment
or pressure drop across the orifice to provide a constant flow at a given setting. Non- Non
compensated flow control vvalves
alves create an orifice in the pipe to restrict the flow. The control
element of the valve may be a needle type valve or a check valve or their modifications.
• Simple On – off Valve

The simplest of flow control devices
device is a simple on-off
off valve with a small hole drilled
in it to provide orifice control (see Fig 8.3). They are basically used to create a fixed rate of
pressure drop to operate pilot valves, to stabilize a system with a slight back pressure, etc.
• Needle Valve
A needle valve is a variable restrictor device which allo

allows
ws the orifice size to vary by
adjustments. A needle valve has a pointed stem that can be adjusted manually to control
accurately the rate of fluid flow through the valve. The needle valve is also used as a stop
valve in hydraulic circuits to shut off the flow of fluid from one part of a circuit to another
part.
The characteristics of a simple needle valve are as shown in Fig 8.4 (c).
Generally, a needle valve is coupled with a non-return

return valve / check valve enabling regulated
flow in one direction and free flow in the reverse direction (see Fig. 8.4(d)).
• PRESSURE COMPENSATED FLOW CONTROL VALVE

The flow through the valve varies as the square root of the pressure drop
drop across it. Hence, any
change in pressure at the control inlet or outlet changes the flow through the valve. A
pressure compensated flow control valve automatically compensates for pressure fluctuations
and thus maintains a constant pressure drop from iits ts inlet to outlet, thereby providing a
constant flow regardless of changes in workload.
• Restrictor Type / Two port Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valve:
Fig 8.7 shows diagrammatically

diagrammatically a two port, pressure compensated flow control valve.
Flow rate is set by an adjustable metering orifice (1), which may also be viscosity
compensated. In the un operated condition the compensating spool (2) is biased fully open by
the compensatory spring (3). As soon as the flow occurs, there will be a pressure drop across
valve. The pressure upstream of the metering orifice tends to close the valve but this is
opposed by the spring assisted by the pressure from downstream of the metering orifice. TThe
compensatory spool adopts a balance position with a consequential pressure drop over the
compensation orifice (4) formed by the partially closed spool.
A rise in supply pressure tends to close the spool and the increased pressure drop
across the compensating
nsating orifice balances the increase in supply pressure.
If the load pressure rises, the compensating orifice opens, again maintaining the
pressure drop over the metering orifice at a set value. This pressure drop is usually 3 to 6 bar,
dependent upon the
he size of the metering orifice.
The total pressure drop across the valve is dependent upon the difference between
supply and load pressure, but a minimum total pressure across the valve of 5 -12 bar is
normally required for the valve to function correctly.
correc
The damping orifice (5) stabilizes the compensator and prevents hunting as pressure
fluctuates.
A stroke limiter or anti – lunge device is sometimes fitted to the compensatory spool
to eliminate a flow surge which occurs when the circuit starts up.. When there is no flow
through the metering orifice, the pressure compensating spool will be fully open and as soon
as the flow commences, there will be a pressure drop through the valve causing the
compensator to lunge or jump. The stroke limiter is a movable
movable end stop,
stop which limits the
travel of the compensating spool. This device which has to be adjusted every time the setting
of the flow control valve is changed is used to position the compensation spool, somewhere
near its expected final location. However,
ever, large variations in pressure can no longer be
corrected. This arrangement of providing a stroke limiter is known as “No Jump Feed
Adjustment”
• Bypass Type / Three port Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valve
Fig. 8.6 shows diagrammatically a bypass type / three port pressure compensated flow
control valve. It is basically a pressure compensated flow control valve with a built in relief
valve, so that any excess flow is by by-passed to the tank at a pressure just above the load
pressure. It can only be used as a “meter in” control.
Let ∆ be the relief valve spring setting. Hence, p will also be the pressure drop across
the control orifice. Let p Load be the load pressure. Then, the system pressure is given by,
p system = p Load + ∆p
An accepted value of ∆p p is about 7 bar. Therefore, the system pressure

pressur p system would
be at 7 bar above the load induced pressure p load.
The spring-loaded
loaded spool sets up a constant pressure drop across the control orifice,
independent
dent of load or supply pressure. Once the regulated flow circuit is supplied, the excess
flow is bypassed to tank. In this design, the tank line must go directly to the reservoir and
not to a line which may be pressurized.
Bypass flow control can accurately regulate the speed of an actuator which operates
against a wide range of loads and reduce
reduce the heat generated in the circuit.
• Characteristics and Uses of Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valve

Pressure compensated flow control must used when accurate speed control at varying
supply or load pressure is required. The minimum regulated stable flow from a good quality
flow control valve will be in the region of 0.1 lpm. In any precision flow control valve
application it is essential to have well filtered fluid (better than 10µm) to promote efficient
control and long life of valve. The smaller the flow to be controlled, the finer the filtration
necessary.
Various types of valve adjusting mechanism are available: hand knob, lockable hand
knob, lever, DC motor control, etc. It must be remembered that whenever a flow control
valve is used in the system,
tem, there will always be some pressure drop and associated heat
generation.
• TEMPERATURE COMPENSATED FLOW CONTROL VALVE

The viscosity of a hydraulic oil is dependent on the oil temperature. Hence, some valve
manufacturers refer to temperature
tem compensation on and others to viscosity compensation.
The simplest way to eliminate the effect of viscosity is to use a sharp edged orifice, the
flow through which is independent of viscosity.
In some designs of viscosity / temperature compensated throttle valve the orifice
aperture, over which the throttling of flow takes place consists of two adjacent flat plates: one
fixed and one movable. A “V” shaped notch in which one of the plates is masked or
unmasked as the movable plate is rotated relative to the fixed plate
plate.. The design of the throttle
gives a sharp edged orifice which makes the flow ppractically
ractically independent of viscosity and
hence the temperature, practically at higher flow rates. Problems can still occur at low flow
rates (< 0.5 lpm) in which case a valve wil willl function better with a low viscosity oil. Flow
through these valves is load dependent but this can be remedied by the addition of a pressure
pressure-
compensating spool. A check valve is frequently incorporated to allow relatively unrestricted
reverse flow.
An alternative
lternative method of temperature compensation favored by some manufacturers is
to have part of the orifice adjusting mechanism made of a material with a high coefficient of
thermal expansion. When the temperature of the fluid increases, a tapered metal rod / spindle
in the mechanism lengthens thus reducing the control orifice opening.
• PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE COMPENSATED FLOW CONTROL

VALVE
Fig. 8.7 shows a pressure and temperature com compensated

pensated flow control system.
Its operation is essentially the same as the restrictor type, pressure compensated flow control
valve. Note that in the compensatory spool, the pressure is sensed to the bottom of the spool
through a passage drilled in its bo
body, instead of having the sensing passage in the valve body.
Also instead of using the usual throttling arrangement, a cup shaped device with “V” notches
is used for better metering. This cup is help by a small spring against the shoulder of an
Aluminium alloy rod which extends through the cup into the oil flow. If it was set for a
particular flow rate and the temperature went up, the oil would become a little thinner and
tend to flow faster through the throttle. However, the in increased
creased temperature also cau
causes the
Aluminium rod to expand and close the throttle opening to compensate for the change in oil
viscosity. Thus, even with an thinner oil, the flow rate stays essentially the same.
• SPEED CONTROL OF A CYLINDER

In a simple hydraulic cylinder circuit th there
ere are three positions in which the flow
control valve can be placed relative to the cylinder namely:
(1) Meter-In (2) Meter
Meter-Out (3) Bleed-off
These three positions help in the speed control of cylinder as per the requirement of the
application
• Meter In Circuit
A typical meter in circuit is as shown in Fig. 8.8. Here, the flow control valve is
placed between the pump and actuator. It controls the
quantity of oil entering the actuator. The pump must
deliver more oil than is required to drive the actuator
actu
at the selected speed, with the excess oil passing to
the tank at the relief valve setting. The circuit
pressure has to be at a higher value than that required
to overcome the load owing to the requirements of
the flow control valve (a drop of approxi
approximately 10
bar as previously stated).
When the circuit is initially started, the
compensatory spool will be fully open causing a flow
surge before the compensatory adjusts to take correct
control. In many machine tool applications, an initial
flow surge would cause the tool to dig into the work
piece. In these situations, flow control valves with
“No Jump Feed Adjustment” must be used. An
alternative is to design the circuit so that there is
always flow through the flow control valve. This
keeps the compensating
nsating spool “active”, preventing
flow surges or kicks.
The fluid in the cylinder has to be pressurized
before the piston begins to move; this requires a flow
of fluid to cause compression. The force or pressure
needed to start the cylinder moving is ge generally
greater than the pressure needed to maintain
movement (owing to static friction and load inertia). Once the load has started to move, the
resistance to movement reduces and the pressure on the piston falls with an expansion of the
fluid causing a sudden acceleration. Some degree of instability exists, initially caused by the
action of the pressure compensatory in the flow control valve.
Meter-in circuits are generally used when the load characteristics are constant and
positive. If the load is erratic or negative, the actuator will have a jerky motion.
Meter-in circuits provide accurate control only when the load is opposing the actuator
movement. If there is a tendency for the direction of the load to reverse, i.e. is act in the
direction of motion, or to over run, then the meter-in system looses control. To overcome this
problem, a back pressure has to be introduced by using a counterbalance valve or valve or
over centre valve in the tank line, which in turn means increasing the system pressure.
If a fixed displacement pump is used over a wide range of piston speeds, a large
percentage of the fluid flows over the relief valve resulting in a “hot” system.
The bypass type of flow control is used in meter-in circuits and has an integral relief
valve which provides protection between the actuator and the control. This type of flow
control is much more effective than the restrictor type for meter-in systems, because the
bypass feature allows the oil to be exhausted to the reservoir at just slightly higher pressure
than that necessary to do the work. With the restrictor type, the pump delivery not used would
discharge over the main relief valve at maximum pressure.
Meter-in circuits are used on surface grinders, welders, milling machines and other
machine tools where fine speed control is essential.
• Meter – Out Circuit

A typical meter-in circuit is as shown in fig 8.9. Here, the flow control valve is
installed in the return line metering the fluid discharge. As in the case of “meter-in”, the
pump must deliver more oil than is required by the cylinder. The circuit pressure has to
overcome the cylinder load resistance and the pressure drop across the flow control valve.
However, as the flow control valve is on the rod side of the piston, a somewhat reduced
pressure is required at the bore side end (owing to differential areas) to overcome the pressure
drop across the flow control valve. This makes it marginally more efficient on the extend
stroke.
Initially, the compensatory spool is fully open, and full pump flow is passed into the
cylinder until the piston moves forward building up pressure at the flow control valve. The
compensatory spool will now come into operation and restricts the flow to its correct value.
There is an initial flow surge before the compensatory spool adjusts as in the case of “meter
in”.
When using a meter-out system, the pressure in the rod-end of the cylinder must be
carefully considered. For e.g.: if the ratio of piston area to the piston rod area is 2:1 and the
system pressure in 150 bar, then with no external load on the piston, the pressure in the rod-
end will be 300 bar. If this condition is likely to occur a separate relief valve may be fitted to
the rod end side of the cylinder to prevent over-pressurization, as shown in Fig. 8.10 (Note: if
the secondary relief valve “blows”, speed control will be lost.)
Page | 76
P
P
Fig. 8.9: Meter Out Circuit
With meter-out speed control, the quantity of oil leaving the cylinder is controlled.
When the cylinder is extending, the oil from the rod-end is metered which si a smaller
quantity than that flowing into the full bore end. Consequently, under extend conditions,
meter-out flow control is not as sensitive as meter-in control. When the cylinder is retracting,
the revers is true.
Muter-out circuits are best where negative loads may occur, because back pressure is
maintained on the exhaust side of the actuator preventing erratic motion. Meter-out circuits
provide accurate speed control even with reversing loads. However, as with the meter-in
system, considerable heat will be generated when used with a fixed delivery pump and a wide
range of piston speeds.
Page | 77
Meter-out
out type of speed control circuits operate satisfactorily for drilling, boring,
reaming and tapping operations.
• Bleed-Off
Off Circuit
Two typical bleed off circuits are shown in Fig 8.11. Here, the flow control valve is
arranged
ged to bypass a part of the pump output directly to the tank when the flow control valve
is completely closed, the full flow from the pump would go into the cylinder. However, the
moment the flow control valve is opened, some portion of the pump outlet will wil be bleed off
any amount necessary to control how fast the cylinder moves. ((Note:
Note: Only when the piston is
stationary, the system pressure will reach the setting of the primary relief valve. Until then,
the bleed off circuit will slow down the cylinder spe
speed.)
Unlike the meter-in and meter-out circuit there is no excess flow going over the relief
valve. The excess oil bleed off over the flow control valve is at a pressure induced by the
cylinder load. Hence, the bleed-off circuits are more efficient in energy saving and work in a
cooler environment.
However, bleed off circuits provide less accuracy is speed control, because they don’t
compensate for any change in fluid losses due to pressure change. Here the measured flow
goes to the tank rather than the cylinder. This makes the cylinder speed subject to changes in
the pump delivery and hydraulic system leakage which occur as the work load pressure
changes. To minimize these effects, it is recommended to bleed-off no more than half the
pump delivery and to avoid using a bleed-off circuit completely where there is a wide
fluctuation is the work load pressure.
In general, bleed-off speed control is best employed when the vast majority of the
pump outlet is utilized by the cylinder and only a small percentage is bypassed. Also it is
employed in systems where the pressure is reasonably constant and precise speed control is
not the criteria.
Problem 8.1
A cylinder has to exert a forward thrust of 100 kN and a reverse thrust of 10 kN. The
effects of using various methods of regulating the extend speed will be considered. In all
cases the retract speed should be approximately 5 m / min utilizing full pump flow. Assume
that the maximum pump pressure is 160 bar and the pressure drops over the following
components and their associated pipe work (where they are used):
Filter = 3 bar
Directional valve (each flow path) = 2 bar
Flow control valve (controlled flow) = 10 bar
Flow control valve (check valve) = 3 bar
Determine:
(a) the cylinder size (assume 2:1 ratio piston area to piston rod area),
(b) pump size, and
(c) circuit efficiency
When using:
Case 1: No flow controls (Figure (I)) (calculate extend speed)
Case 2: ‘Meter-in’ flow control for extend speed 0.5 m / min
Case 3: ‘Meter-out’ flow control for extend speed 0.05 m / min.
Solution:
Case 1: No flow controls (Figure (I))
(a) Maximum available pressure at full bore end of cylinder is given by
160 – 3 – 2 = 155 bar
Page | 79
Back-pressure
pressure at annulus side of cylinder = 2 bbar.
ar. This is equivalent to 1 bar at the full
bore end because of the 2:1 area ratio. Therefore, maximum available pressure to overcome
load at full-bore end is
155 – 1 = 154 bar
Full bore area = Load / Pressure
= 0.00649 m2
0.5
Piston diameter = = 0.0909 m = 90.9 mm
Select a standard cylinder say with 100 mm bore 70 mm rod diameter.
Full bore area = 7.85 10-3 m2
Annulus area = 4.
4.00 10-3 m2
This is approximately a 2:1 ratio.
(b) Flow rate required for a retract speed of 5 m/min is
Area velocity = 4.00 10-3 5 m3/min = 20 lpm
Extend speed =
య
Pressure to overcome load on extend = 12.7 10 / 127 bar
.షయ
య
Pressure to overcome load on retract =
షయ 2.5 10 N/m2 = 25 bar
Working back from directional control valve tank port:

(i) Pressure at pump on extend

Pressure drop over directional control valve B to T is 2 bar
(Piston area ratio) =1

Load – induced pressure = 127
Pressure drop over directional control valve P to A =2
Pressure drop over filter =3
Therefore pressure required at pump during extend stroke = 133 bar
Relief valve setting = 133 + 10% = 146 bar.
(iii) Pressure required at pump on retract (22) + 25 + 2 + 3 = 34 bar
Note: The relief will not be working other than at the extremities of the cylinder
stroke.
(2) Also when movement is not required, pump flow can be discharged to tank at low
pressure through the center condition of the directional control valve.
(c) System efficiency:
System Efficiency =
!!

" ## !! ##

Efficiency on extend stroke = $$ 100 = 95.5%

Efficiency on retract stroke = $
100 = 73.5%
Page | 81
Chapter – 9
Direction Control Valve
• INTRODUCTION
The primary function of a Direction control valve (DCV) is to direct the fluid flow
through the desired passages whenever required. These flow of the fluid is then used to
actuate the hydraulic cylinder of the position or reciprocate the other components in hydraulic
system. In case of rotary motion, the fluid flowing in specific direction is used to reverse the
direction of rotating element smoothly. Sometimes, a DCV is used to operated other
controlling devices and thus works as pilot directional valve.
• VALVE PROTS AND POSITIONS

A DCV has number of openings known as ports. It different permutations of flow
between its various ports. Thus these ports give different ways for the flow of fluid through
the vale. Accordingly the DCV are classified as one way valve (check valve), two way valve,
three way valve and four way valve.
Number of permutations of flow offered by DCV are termed as ‘Positions of valve’. A
typical direction control valve has one normal position and two or here working positions.
1. Normal position: It is also known as zero position or neutral position. The neutral
position is defined as the position to which the valve returns after the actuating force has been
withdrawn. In all fluid power control systems, the neutral position is indicated as “0”.
2. Working position: These are the position obtained with help of he actuating force.
These positions are designed as per the requirement of the application.
• Valve symbol
(a) Valve position (b) Flow directions (c) Cut off
Fig. 9.1: Symbol of direction control valve
Typically, a direction control valve is specified by two numbers. One, for number of
ports and other, for number of positions.
e.g. A 4/2 DCV means four way two position valve.
These valves are symbolically represented in a circuit diagrams. The symbols show
only the functional aspect of the valve and not its principle of design or constructional details.
1. Each valve position is represented by a square (Fig. 9.1(a). Hence, number of squares in the
symbol is equal to the number of positions that the valve offers.
2. Each square has number of connections, which is equal to number of ports.
3. Inside a square, the lines indicate the direction flow using arrows (Fig. 9.1(b))
Page | 82
4. Flow ‘Cut-off’
off’ are shown by short perpendicular line inside the square (Fig. 9.1(c))
5. Connections
ions to inlet and outlet ports are drawn to normal position.
6. The working line connections are indicated by A, B, C.
7. The compressor line connection (the pressure source) is indicated by P, and return line by R,
S, T. (Fig. 9.1 (d))
8. The pilot lines are indicated
ated by X, Y, Z.
Thus the symbol for 4/2 DCV becomes
A B
P R
Fig. 9.1 (d) : A 4/2 DCV
• VALVE ACTUATION
The direction control valve can be actuated by four different methods, accordingly they are
i. Manually operated
ii. Mechanical operate
operated
iii. Pilot operated
iv. Solenoid operated
As per the requirement the two way valve can be designed to
give the state of ‘normally open’ or ‘normally closed’.
• FOUR WAY TWO POSITION VALVES

The 3 way valves is suitable for a single acting cylinder
or a hydraulic motor rotating in a specific direction. But double acting cylinder or reversible
motor needs a four way valve. A four way 2 position valve can be symbolically represented
as shown in fig 9.7 position A pushes the piston in one direction while position B pushes
pu it in
other direction.
The actual working of this valve can be visualised with the help of fig 9.8
• FOUR WAY THREE POSITION VALVE
When there is a need of one more state in the hydraulic circui
circuit using hydraulic
cylinder then it is needed to add one more position
in a four way valve. Now it become four way three
position valve. The 3rd position introduced is added
in between is known as Center Position. (Fig 9.9)
The center position can be design
designed so as to give
the required state.
The commonly required states are the respective.
Position are shown in fig
A typical application using 4 way 3 position
valve are discussed below.
(a) open center (b) closed center (c)
Tandem center
• Solenoid operateded DCV

A solenoid is a electro
electro-mechanical
mechanical device that converts electrical energy into liner
mechanical motion. In hydraulics the solenoids are preferably used to actuated the DCV (Fig.
9.5)
A solenoid is made of two parts. One is coil and second is armature. Applying
electricity to the coil creates a magnetic field that attracts armature in to it. The armature
pushes the spool to obtain desired position.
• TWO WAY VALVE

It is also known as on-off
on valve and is primarily
rily used for simple shut-off
shut operation.
These valves make use of a Gate (96 (a) or a disc (b) or a ball (c) to obstruct the flow
passage.
The Gate valve is normally used for low pressures and operated at two positions
namely fully on and fully off.
The disc & ball valves are used for high pressure application and can have analogs
control over the flow.
• Open centre position:

Fig. 9.10 (c): Tandem center
In an open center
enter circuit all ports are open to each other in the center position. When a
three position open center type valve is used in hydraulic circuit pump flow is directed to the
reservoir when the valve is in center. The other two positions are used to recipro reciprocate the
cylinder. This is shown in figure 9.10 (a)
Open center valve helps to prevent that build up in the system by allowing the pump
flow to go back to the reservoir at a min. pressure during idle time of a machine. When the
valve is in it’s center position
sition no work is done by any part of the system. So in order to
actuate pilot valves or other devices which uses pressure energy separate pilot sources must
be used with open center systems.
• Closed Center Position:

In closed center position, all ports aare
re closed to each other in center position. When
closed center type four way valve is used in a hydraulic circuit then, the pump flow must pass
through the relief valve (Fig 9.10 (b)).
Closed center versions are used when multiple circuits or functions must mu be
accomplished from one hydraulic power source. To prevent heat build up in this type of
center position, venting or unloading through pressure control methods are used.
• Tandem center position:

Tandem center valve directs the pump flow directly to th thee reservoir port with the
other two working port closed when in center position. These are used to hold a cylinder or
motor under load or to permit the pump flow to be connected to a series of valves for multiple
circuitry. This is explained in figure 9.10
9.10(c).
• CHECK VALVE
Theoretically it is but a one way valve and is used as a non return valve.
Thus it’s primary function is to allow the flow in one direction & to restrict it in in-other
direction. The check valve is symbolically shown as in fig 9.11.
The checkeck valve is designed to allow the flow in one direction conditionally or
unconditionally.
Some check Valves allow the flow in one direction unconditionally while other allow
the flow on the basis of some condition. Mostly, this condition is in term of a certain
pressure. It is the pressure at which the valve just opens and is known as Cracking pressure.
A spring is shown in the symbol of this type of valve to vary the cracking pressure.
Simple application of check valve in shown in fig 9.12. The check valve,
va allow the in-
flow to the cylinder unconditionally While, the return flow must pass through the flow
restrictor and thus it controls the down falling speed of the load.
• Pilot operated check valve:

A pilot
lot operated check valve is a two way valve which allows free flow in one
direction but prevents the reverse flow until it is actuated by pilot pressure or other means.
So these valves allow conditional flow in reverse direction and are called as pilot
operated check valves.
These valves are used as a inter locking device. These valves can also be used for
controlling the sequence of a machining cycle and to prevent the load from dropping. This
application is shown in Fig. 9.13.
• CARTRIDGE DGE VALVE:

These consist of a valve shell which can be mounted in a standard recess in a valve
block or manifold. This from of construction has been used for many years particularly for
pressure controls, flow controls & check valves.
A cartridge valve iiss designed to be assembled into a cavity of a ported manifold block
(alone or along with other cartridge valves a hydraulic components) in order to perform the
valve’s intended function. The cartridge valve is assembled into the manifold block either by
screw
rew threads (threaded design) or by a bolted cover (Slip in design).
Cartridge valve provides several advantages over conventional line or sub sub-plate
mounted spool-type
type directional, pressure, & flow control valves. In may applications, the
advantages include
1. Greater system design flexibility

2. Lower installed cost
3. Smaller package size
4. Better performance & control
5. Improved reliability
6. Higher pressure capability
7. More efficient operation
8. Greater contamination tolerance
9. Faster cycle times
10. Lower noise levels
11. Elimination of external leakage & reduction of internal leakage.
Cartridge valve offers a design alternative rather than a replacement for conventional
sliding spool valves. Often the most economical system employs combinations of threaded
design (Screw in design) a slip in design cartridge valves with conventional sliding spool
valves, all mounted on a common manifold.
Chapter – 10
Hydraulic Actuators
• INTRODUCTION
Pumps perform the function of adding energy to a hydraulic system for transmission.
Actuators, on the other hand extract energy from a fluid and convert it to a mechanical output
to perform useful work.
Fluid power can be transmitted through either linear or rotary motion by using
actuators. Depending on the way the fluid power is transmitted, the actuators are classified as
shown in Fig. 10.1
Part I: Hydraulic Cylinder

• LINER ACTUATORS
Actuators
Liner Motion Rotary Motion

Transmission Transmission
Hydraulic Cylinder Rotary Actuators
Fig. 10.1: Types of Hydraulic actuators
A hydraulic cylinder is a device that converts fluid power into linear

mechanical force and motion. Hydraulic cylinders extend and retract to perform a complete
cycle of operation. Hence, they are also called as linear motors or reciprocating motors. It
usually consists of a movable element (either piston or ram) operating within a cylindrical
bore.
Page | 89
Depending g upon the type of movable element used and also on its motion type,
hydraulic cylinders are classified as given in Fig. 10.2
Hydraulic Cylinder
Single Action Double Action Telescopic
Spring Return Single End Red

Piston Type
Gravity Return
Double
le End Red
Ram Type Gravity Return
Kicker Cylinder
Return Tandam
Fig. 10.2: Classification of Hydraulic cylinders
• SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER

• Single acting cylinders, piston type
A single acting cylinder is shown schematically in Fig. 10.3 (a). It consists of a piston
inside a cylindrical housing called a barrel. Attached to one end of the pistonis a rod, which
extends outside one endd of the cylinder (rod end). At the other end (blank end or head end) is
a port for the entrance and exit of oil. A single acting cylinder can exert a force in only the
extending direction as fluid from the pump enters the blank end of the cylinder. Single acting
cylinders don’t retract hydraulically. Retraction is accomplished by using gravity load or by
the inclusion of a compression spring.
Single acting cylinder with spring return is used for clamping operations, small
presses and other such applications where little or no load is subjected on the return stroke
(see Fig 10.4)
Load
Fluid In/Out
(a) Gravity return S.A. cylinder

c (b) Used to lift load
Fig. 10.5: Gravity Return Single Acting Cylinder
Gravity return cylinders are used on mobile equipment’s, farm implements and other
machine applications controlling vertically suspended loads. The high energy fluid on
entering
tering the blank end of the cylinder causes it to rise. The fluid metered out through the flow
control valve allows the cylinder to retract slowly. The flow control valve prevents sudden
retraction of cylinders on encountering heavy loads (see Fig 10.5)
• Single
ngle Acting Cylinders, Ram Type
A single acting cylinder refereed to as ram use large cylinder rod approaching the size
of the cylinder bore to give maximum support to the load end of the rod. They are uused
extensively in single acting applications such as car hoists, dump cylinders and hydraulic
presses. The retracting force is usually provided by either gravity or by a small diameter
auxiliary piston cylinder called as kicker cylinder (see Fig 10.6)
• DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER

• Double Acting, Single End Rod Cylinder
A double acting cylinder with single rod end is shown schematically in Fig. 10.7 (a).
It consists of a piston inside a cylindrical barrel.
barrel. Attached to one end of the piston is the
piston rod, while the other face of the piston is blank. Hence, it is known as single rod end. A
double acting cylinder can be extended and retracted hydraulically by using fluid power in
both directions.
For
or a double acting cylinder of the single rod type there are two areas:
Large area A1 piston area on bland side = (D2)
Small area A2 piston area on the rod side = (D2 – d2)

Because of these unequal areas, the cylinder is classified as diff
differential
erential cylilder.
Note: (1) It is apparent that the blank piston side havling a larger area will produce
an effectively greater force, during extension stroke.
(2) The piston side with large piston rods (i.e. smaller area) will exhaust large
quantities of fluid and hence retract rapidly.
(3) Since the piston has two effective areas which are different in size, the forces
acting on either side of the piston are different. This gives rise to unbalanced side loads.
Hence this type is considered to be a hydraulically unbalanced design.
• Double Acting, Double End Rod Cylinder
A cylinder with a single piston and a piston rod extending from each end is a double
acting double end rod, “DER” type (see Fig 10.8). For such a cylinder the word “extend” and
“retract” have no meaning.
Note: (1) Since each end contains the same size rod, both sides of the piston have
same area. Hence, this type is a non
non-differential type cylinder.
(2) Since area of each end iiss same, the velocity of the piston is the same for both
strokes.
(3) Since area of each side of piston is same, the force acting on each face of the
piston is same. Hence, this type is considered to be hydraulically balanced design.
Since, the force and speed are the same for either ends, this type of cylinder is
typically used when the same task is to be performed at either end. They are also used as a
metering cylinder where the fluid is directed to another actuator for controlling speed or
position.
• Tandem Cylinder
As shown is Fig 10.9, tandem cylinders consist of two or more cylinders mounted in in-
line and have a common piston rod driving the pistons in their respective cylinders. Fluid
entering, leaving, or holdi
holding
ng at any port or combination of parts can actuate piston assemblies
to various positions. The main advantage of this design is that greater force can be extracted
from this single piston cylinders in tandem mounting when both the piston assemblies are
moving
ing in contact with the work.
• Special designs
(I) Cylinder with cables:
When long strokes are needed, the cylinder design shown in Fig. 10.10 used. It
consists of a cable which provides a long pull with a relatively shore stroke. Fluid entering
port B, extends one or both piston assemblies, which stroke the cable a distance determined
by the pulley arrangement. Fluid entering the ports A and C, retract the piston assemblies.
(II) Nested cylinders:
A nested-design
design using three cylinders is as shown in Fig 10.11. It provides greater
strength with a long stroke. Fluid entering the cylinder ports labelled A extend all three piston
assemblies, while the fluid entering the ports labelled
labelled B retract the piston assemblies.
(III) Positioning cylinder:
The positioning type cylinders shown in Fig 10.12 use a moving cylinder barrel, one
moving piston assembly and one stationary piston assembly. This design sign allows a full stroke
which might be used to insert the work piece into a machine and then half a stroke for
repeating a series of work strokes. It is typically used in welding machines.
• TELESCOPIC CYLINDER
Fig 10.13 (a) shows a schematic sketch of a telescopic cylinder. It consists of nested
multiple cylinders (or tubular rod segments) called sleeves, which slide inside each other.
These sleeves work together to provide a long
working stroke than is possible with a standard
cylinder. Upto 4 to 5 sleeves
eves can be used.
It operates on the principle that
the rod with the largest area gives the greatest
force at the least pressure and moves out first;
the next largest moves at a slightly higher
pressure; and so on for as many stages as the
unit may contain.in. Hence, it can side that the
maximum load is exerted when the cylinder is
collapsed. In the extended position, the load is a
function of the diameter of the smallest sleeve.
Fig. 10.13: Telescopic Cylinder
Note: Telescopic cylinder rare usually single

acting.
Telescopic cylinders are used where long work strokes are required, but the full
retraction length must be minimized. One application for a telescopic cylinder is the high lift
fork truck.
• CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES OF DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER

DER
Fig. 10.14 illustrates the constructional features of a double acting, single rod end
cylinder.
(1) Barrel: It is made of samples steal tubing honed to a fine finish on

o the inside.
(2) Piston: The piston is made up of ductile iron or steel. It contains U

U-cup packing to
seal against leakage between the piston and barrel. Sometimes castcast-iron
iron piston rings and / or
ruber seals are also used as piston seals.
(3) Piston Rod: A piston rod is made up of high tensile steel, and it is super finished
and hardened by chrome
chrome-plating.
plating. One end of the piston rod is attached to the piston face,
while the other end is attached to the load resistance.
(4) End-caps: End caps are provided on either ends of the barrel. They are generally
cast (from or aluminum) and incorporate the ports. Base end cap closes the barrel on the bare
end side of the piston, while the rod
rod-end
end cap closes the barrel on the rod-end
rod side of piston.
The rod-end cap houses
ouses the bearing and sealing components of the piston rod.
(5) Ports: A port is an internal or external opening in a cylinder which allows the
passage of fluid into or out of the cylinder. The extend port is located in the rod end cap.’s the
bearing and sealing components of the piston rod.
(6) Tie-Rods: Tie-rods

Tie rods are used to secure the end caps to the barrel. These tie rods are
generally made up of high tensile steel. During operation, a large thrust acts upon the end
plats. The tie rods help the end plate
plate to withstand this thrust. The number of tie-rods
tie used
varies from 4-8,
8, depending on the thrust force experienced.
(7) Seal: As seen, seals are required to prevent leakage at various locations.
• A wiper or scraper seal is fitted to the end cap where the rod enters the cylinder to
remove dust particles. In very dusty atmosphere external rubber bellows may be
used to prevent the dust particles from entering the cylinder. However, these bellows
are vulnerable to puncture and need splitting and regular ins
inspection.
pection.
• A dual purpose O-ring
O ring is fitted behind the bearing. It prevents the high pressure fluid
from leaking out along the rod. The wiper seal, bearing and this internal O-ring
O seal
are sometimes combined as a cartage assembly to simply manufacture.
• The rod is generally attached to the piston via a threaded end. Leakage can occur
along the rod. So seals are again needed. These can be a static O O-ring
ring around the rod.
• Similarly seals in the from of O O-ring or Y-seals
seals are provided at the points of fitting
off the end caps inside the barrel.
• Also modified U-cap
U cap piston packing are provided on the piston surface. They
prevent the leakge of oil from the high pressure side to the low pressure side.
(8) Bearing: A long wearing, cartridge type brome bushing provid provides
es the required bearing
action for the extension and retraction of the piston rod. It is located in the rod end cap, just
behind the wiper seal.
• CYLINDER MOUNTINGS
Cylinder mounting is determined by the aapplication.
pplication. The application of hydraulic
cylinder is so vast that it can be said that it is limited only by the ingenuity of the fluid power
designer. Some of these applications of hydraulic cylinders are as shown in fig 10.15
Depending on the application various types of cylinder mountings are in existence.

Cushioning devices are installed in either or both ends of the cylinder.
As shown in Fig. 10.21 (a), when the cylinder is retracting, the exhaust fluid
f flow is
unrestricted until The plunger enters the cap. When the plunger enters the cap (see Fig
10.21(b)), the normal exhaust fluid flow from the barrel to the port gets booked and
deceleration starts. The exhaust flow is then rerouted through the byp
bypass
ass port and metering
valve at a controlled rate, decelerating the piston. The metering valve can be adjusted to set
the required decelerating rate.
A check valve in also included in the rod

rod-end
end cap. It is used to bypass the metering
valve and direct a fullll flow of fluid at system pressure to the full area of piston during
acceleration of the extension stroke.
Cushioning shown in Fig 10.21, is used for the base end cap. A similar arrangement
can be used in the rod-end
end cap as well. However, in the rod end cap cushioning arrangement,
the check valve design is not incorporated.
• HYDRAULIC CYLINDER CALCULATIONS

• Calculation of force, Velocity and power during extension and retraction strokes
Consider a double acting, single end rod cylinder. This cylinder has two differential
piston areas.
(I) Effective area during extension Blank – end Piston Area A1 = (D2)
(II) Effective area during retraction Rod - end Piston Area = (D2 – d2)
Due to these differential areas, the force output and piston velocity vary during extension and
retraction strokes.
(I) Force: Force [N] = Pressure [Pa] Piston Area [m2]

F extension – stroke = p (D2)

…(10.1)

Fretraction – stroke = p
D2 – d2
(II) Piston Velocity:

/
Piston Velocity [m/s] =
v
Extension =

v
Retraction = π …(10.2)

–
(III) Power: The power developed by the hydraulic cylinder is found out by
Power [W] = piston velocity [m/s] Force [N]
= Input Flow [m3/s Pressure [Pa]] …(10.3)
Problem 10.1:
A pump supplies oil at 75 lpm to a 50 mm diameter, double acting cylinder. The rod
diameter is 25 mm and the load acting on the cylinder during extension and retraction is
4.5 kN. Calculate the hydraulic pressure, piston velocity and the cylinder horsepower both
during extension stroke and also during retraction stroke.
Solution: (I) Extension Stroke:

1) Effective Area A =
D2 = (0.05)2 = 1.963 10-3 m2
2) Hydraulic Pressurepext.
.!"#$
= #.%&'"#$ 22.92 10! 22.92 bar …Ans.

(
3) Piston Velocityu vext. = ) #.%&'"#$
0.634 m/s …Ans.
4) Power P ext. = Fv = (4.5 103) 0.634 = 2853 W = 2.853 kW …Ans.
(II) Retraction Stroke:

(1) Effective Area a = (D2 – d2) = (0.052 – 0.0252) = 1.473 10-3 m2
.!"#$
(2) Hydraulic Pressure pret. = #.*'"#$ = 30.55 105 Pa = 30.55 bar …Ans.
Page | 99
Thus, more pressure is required to retract than extend the same load due to the effect of the
rod.
(3) Piston velocity vret. = = 0.8486 m/s …Ans.
Thus, for the same pump flow Q, the piston retraction velocity is greater than that for
extension due to the effect of the rod.
(4) Power P ret. = F v = (4.5 103) 0.8486 = 3819 W = 3.819 kW
…Ans.
Thus, more horsepower is supplied by the cylinder during retraction stroke because the
piston velocity is greater during retraction while the load force remained the same during
both strokes.
• Calculation of Piston-rod size and cylinder length:
The procedure to compute the piston rod size and cylinder length under end thrust
condition is as follows:
(1) Determine the column strength factor from the mounting table arrangement as shown
in Table 10.1
(2) Calculate the corrected length of the rod by using the formula
Corrected Length = Actual Stroke Column Strength Factor
…(10.4)
• Increasing the swash plate angle increases the motor displacement and hence increases the
torque capability but reduces the drive shaft speed.
• Reducing the swash plate angle reduces the motor displacement and hence reduces the torque
capability but increases the drive shaft speed.
• Reversal of the motor is accomplished by titting the yoke over centre (i.e. – ve angles). The
variable displacement unit shown is of the internally pressure compensated type.
• Bent axis Piston Motor

This type of motor also develops torque due to the pressure acting on reciprocating
pistons. This design however has the cylinder block and the driveshaft mounted at an angle to
each other so that the force is exerted on the drive shaft flange.
Speed and torque depend on the angle between the cylinder block and drive shaft. The
larger the angle, the greater the displacement and the torque, but the smaller the speed. This
#o
angle varries from a minimum 7 to a maximum of 30o.

In a variable displacement unit, the torque is varied by varying the angle between the
cylinder block and the driver shaft either by using a hand wheel or by pressure compensation
method.
• HYDRAULIC MOTOR PERFORMANCE CALVULATIONS

(I) Work done by motor (W):
W = fluid pressure p [N/m2] Volumetric Displacement VD [m3] …(10.15)
(II) Theoretical Torque Capacity of motor (TT):

ీ
TT [Nm] =

…(10.16)
(III) Actual torque delivered by motor (TA):

TA [N - m] =

…(10.17)
(IV) Theoretical flow rate or motor (QT)

ీ య /
QT [m3/s =

…(10.18)
(V) Theoretical power required to operate the motor(PT):
PT [Watt] = Pressure p [N/m2] Theoretical discharge QT [m3/s]

…(10.19)
(VI) Actual power required to operate the motor (PA):
Page | 101
PA [Watt] = Pressure p [N/m2] Actual discharge QA [m3/s]

…(10.20)
(VII) Actual power delivered by motor (P output):
ఽ
P output [Watt] =

…(10.21)
(VIII) Volumetric Efficiency (nv):
The volumetric efficiency of a motor is defined as,
Theoretical Flow rate the motor should consume 100 Q

η 100 …(10.22)
Actual Flow rate consumed by motor Q
Observe that the Volumetric efficiency of a motor is the inverse of that for a pump,
because a pump does not produce as much flow as it theoretically should, where as a motor
uses more flow than it theoretically should due to slippage.
(IX) Mechanical Efficiency (m): The mechanical efficiency of a motor is defined as,
Actual Torque delievered by motor T

η 100 100
Torque motor should theoretically deliver T
…(10.23)
(X) Overall Efficiency (o):
The overall efficiency of a motor is defined as,
η η Actual power delivered by motor P !

η 100
100 Torque motor should ddelivered to motor P !
…(10.24)
+,-
= &$" 100

The performance of any hydraulic motor depends on the seal between the inlet and
outlet sides. Internal leakage (slippage) between the inlet and outlet reduces efficiency.
The overall efficiency of motors is dependent on the motor type as indicated in the
table below: Table 11.4:
Sr. Motor Type Overall

No. Efficiency
1 Gear motors 70% -
75%
2 Vane motors 75% -
85%
3 Piston 85% -
motors 95%
Page | 102
Problems on Hydraulic Motors
Problem 10.4:
A hydraulic motor has an 100 cm3 volumetric displacement. If it has a pressure rating
of 75 be and it receives oil from a 50 lmp pump, find the speed, torque capacity and power
capacity of the motor.
Solution:
(I) Flow Rate of Motor:

. / 0",
Q[m3/s] = &$
!$"#$ 1#$$"#$ 2",

&$
&$

Motor Speed N = 500 rpm
…Ans.
(II) Torque Capacity of motor:
,/ ". 1*!"#$ 2"1#$$"#$ 2

TT [N - m] = +
+
TT = 119.37 N -
…Ans.
(III) Power Capacity of motor:

+ , - +"!$$"##%.'*
Power [Watt] = &$
&$
Power Capacity = 6250 W = 6.25 kW …Ans.
Problem 10.5
A hydraulic motor has a displacement of 150 cm3 and operates with a pressure of 75
bar and a speed of 1800 rpm. If the actual flow rate consumed by the motor is 0.005 m3/s and
the actual torque delivered by the motor is 165 N – m, find all the three efficiencies and the
actual kW delivered by the motor.
Solution:
(I) Volumetteric Efficiency (" ) :
Theoretical flow rate of motor is given by

ವ య /!"#$%!& '()(షల *(+
QT = 4.5 10,- &- /(

Page | 103
Now,
/౐ 0.)(షయ
η 100 100 90%
/ఽ .) …Ans.
(II) Mechanical Efficiency (η ): Theoretical torque delivered by motor is given by,
,/ ". /3 1*!"#$ 2"1#!$"#$ 2

TT = +
+
= 179.05 Nm
T 165
η 100 92.15%
T 179.05 100
…Ans.
(III) Overall Efficiency (". )
η η 90 92.15
η 82.935%
100 100
…Ans.
(IV) Actual power delievered by motor (P output):

P output
η 100
/ఽ

82.935 = 9"(
100
P output 31.1 10' Watt 31.1 k W

…Ans.
or
+ ,"- +"#:$$"#&!
P output &$
&$
…
P 31.1 10- Watt 31.1 kW
Ans.
Problem 10.6
A hydrostatic transmission operating at 70 bar has the following characteristics:
Pump Motor
VD = 82 cm3 VD =?
η = 82% η =
η = 88% 92%
N = 500 rpm η =
90%
N =
400
rpm
Find:
(1) Displacement of torque (2) Motor output torque
Page | 104
Solution:
(I) Displacement of motor (VD):
(a) Pump QT [m3/s] =
• Diaphragm type Accumulator
A typical diaphragms type accumulator is as shown in Fig. 11.6. It consists of a

flexible rubber diaphragm, secured in a steel shell. The diaphragm acts as an elastic barrier
between the oil and gas. A shut off button, which is secured to the diaphragm
diaphra base, covers the
inlet of the line connection when the diaphragm is fully stretched. This prevents the
diaphragm from being pressed into the opening during precharge period. On the gas side, the
screw plug allows the charging of the accumulator by means of a charging device.
Fig. 11.7 illustrates the operation of a diaphragm type accumulator. The hydraulic
pump delivers oil into the accumulator and deforms the diaphragm. As the system pressure
increase, the gas gets compressed thus storing potential energy.
energy. Now, when the system
pressure decreases and an additional oil is required to be pumped into the system, this stored
potential energy in the accumulator forces the additional required oil into the system.
Advantages:
(1) It has a small weight to volume

volume ratio. Hence, it is exclusively used for airborne
applications.
(2) The inertia of the device is very small since there are no pistons,, ram or spring.
• Bladder type accumulator:

Chapter 11 –
Hydraulic System Components
Part I : Accumulator and Pressure Intensifiers
• ACCUMULATOR INTRODUCTION
An hydraulic accumulator is a device that stores the potential energy of an
incompressible fluid held unde
underr pressure by an external source against some dynamic force.
This dynamic force can come from three different sources: gravity, mechanical springs and
compressed gases. The stored potential energy in the accumulator is a quick secondary source
of fluid power
er capable of doing useful work as required by the system.
The are three basic types of accumulators used in the hydraulic system as shown in
the accumulator classification tree in Fig. 11.1
Pressure accumulators
umulators are primarily used in many hydraulic circuits to
(1) Store fluid under pressure, and / or
(2) Cushion shock waves in the circuit piping
• WEIGHT LOADED ACCUMULATOR

The weight loaded accumulate shown in Fig. 11.2 is historically the oldest typ type. It
consists of a vertical heavy wall steal cylinder, which incorporates a piston with packing to
prevent leakage. Dead weight in the from of large ballast is attached on top of the piston. The
force of gravity of the dead weight provides the potential eenergy
nergy in the accumulator which
provides a constant fluid pressure, regardless of whether the chamber in full or near empty
and the rate and quantity of output. In the other types of accumulators, the fluids output
pressure decreases as a function of volume output of the accumulator. They are usually found
on heavy presses where constant pressure is required, or in applications where usually large
volumes are necessary. The main disadvantage of this type is that they are extremely large is
size and heavy weight,
ght, which makes it unsuitable for mobile equipment.
Let, F = Force exerted by ballast weight (N)

A = Cross sectional area of accumulator (m2)
S = Stroke of accumulator piston (m)
The output pressure available from weighted accumulat
accumulator
or is given by,
area a m2 Stroke S(m)

…(11.2)
• SPRING LOADED ACCUMULATOR

Fig. 11.3 shows a typical spring loaded accumulator. A spring loaded accumulator is
similar to the weight loaded accumulator except that the piston is preloaded
preloaded with a spring.
The spring is the source of energy that acts against the piston, forcing the fluid into the
hydraulic piston.
The load characteristic of a spring are such that the energy storage depends on the
force required to compress the spring
spring.. The uncompressed length of spring represents zero
energy storage. As the spring is compressed to the maximum installed length, the minimum
pressure value of fluid in the cylinder is established. As fluid under pressure enters the
cylinder, the spring is further compressed, thereby increasing the spring force at that instant
and hence pressure increases. Similarly as the fluid under pressure leaves the cylinder, the
spring decompresses.
Fig. 11.8 shows a bladder type accumulator which consist of a elastic bladder which
provides the barrier between the fluid and gas. The bladder is integrally moulded with a gas
valve. Which is fitted in the accumulator. The bladder along with gas valve can be installed
or removed through the shell opening at the poppet valvevalve.. This poppet valve closes the inlet
when the accumulator bladder from being pressed into the opening. Thus it prevents the
bladder from damage and rupture and increases the volumetric efficiency. An drain plug is
provided near the poppet valve to bleed theth air from the system.
Fig. 11.9 illustrates the operation of bladder type accumulator. The hydraulic pump
delivers oil into the accumulator and deforms the bladder. As the system pressure increases,
the gas gets compressed thus storing hydraulic energy. W Whenhen the pressure in the external
circuit falls below that in the accumulator the gas expands and force the fluid into the circuit.
Advantages:
(1) It provides a positive sealing between the

the gas and oil chambers.
(2) It has a small weight to volume ratio
(3) It has a small inertia and hence provides a quick pressure response for pressure
Regulating,, pump pulsation and shock dampening applications.
• ACCUMULATOR APPLICATION / FUNCTION CIRCUI CIRCUITS

Since hydraulic accumulators store pressurized fluid for system use on demand, they
can be used to serve a variety of system functions. Typical of these functions are maintain
system pressure, absorbing hydraulic shocks, supplementing pump delivery, pro providing an
emergency source of power, balancing loads and acting as a barrier between dissimilar fluids.
Some of these functions are discussed in detail in the following articles:
• Accumulator as an auxillary power source:

Accumulator are used as an auxi
auxillary
llary power source in a system where intermittent
operations are preformed. These accumulators store the oil delivered by the pump during a
portion of work cycle, and then release this stored oil an demand, thereby serving as a
secondary power source to assist as the
pump. Thus, the accumulator reduces the
input horse-power
power by storing energy
during idle times of the machine and also
facilitates the use of a smaller sized
pump.
This application is depicted in Fig.
11.10 in which a 4/2 manually operated,
spring return D.C valve is used in
conjuction with an accumulator.
When the 4/2 D.C valve is
manually actuated to position I, oil flows
from the accumulator to the blank end of
the cylinder. This extends the piston unit
it reaches the end of its stroke. When th the
desired operation is occurring (when the
cylinder is in fully extended position), the
accumulator is being charged by the pump. When the accumulator is fully charged, the pump.
When the accumulator is fully charged, the pilot operated relief or unloading valve opens and
allows the pump delivery to return to the reservoir at very low pressure. The accumulator
maintains its charge since it is isolated by check valve.
• PRESSURE INTERNSIFIERS
A pressure intensifier is a device that is used to increase the pressure
pressure in a hydraulic
system to a valve several times above the pump discharge pressure. It accepts a high volume
flow at relatively low pump pressure and converts a portion of this flow to required valve of
high pressure. due to this pressure boosting cap
capacity,
acity, it is also known as pressure booster.
Intensifiers are basically used in applications such as hydraulic presses rivelting machines,
sport welding machines where a great force is required to be applied through a relative short
distance.
• Single Actingg Intensifier

A Single acting pressure intensifier is as shown in Fig 11.14. The intensifier unit has a
high pressure piston with an effectively larger area. The direction control valve directs the
low pressure fluid into the left hand side of larger pis
piston.
ton. The low pressure acting on the
larger piston generates a force F. Now, when this force is transmitted to the smaller piston it
generates a considerably high pressure on the fluid located on the right side of smaller piston.
Although high pressure flui
fluid
d is one available to do work, it should be noted that the volume
of fluid discharged at the high pressure end will be proportionately less than that required a
large end.
The increase in press

pressure
ure is in direct proportion to the ration of the larger piston area and
the smaller piston area. The volume output is inversely.
• Double Acting Intensifiers
A Double acting intensifier is as shown in Fig 11.15. It consists of an automatically

reciprocating g large piston that has two small rod ends. The piston has its large area exposed
to the low pressure oil. The force of this low pressure oil moves the piston and causes the
small area of piston rod to force the oil out at intensified high pressure. This ddevice is
symmetrical about a vertical center line. Thus, as the large piston reciprocates each other
during each strake of the unit duplicate each other during each stroke of the large piston.
Thus in effect the double acting intensifier stimulates the operation
operation of two single acting
intensifiers.
Double acting intensifiers are used for applications needing longer work strokes or for
maintaining high pressures for a longer period of time.
The working
king of a double acting intensifier is as shown in Fig. The D.A. intensifier is
actuated by a 4/2 solenoid operated D.C. valve. Valve E check valves A and B are installed
an either side on the high pressure outlet line, while check valves C and D are insta
installed on the
low pressure outlet lines.
When valve E is actuated and position I is attained then the low pressure oil from the
pump is directed to the left intensifier cylinder. It pushes the major piston to the right
discharging fluid in the right end of intensifier cylinder to the tank. As the ram moves to the
right fluid is intensifier in Booster II. This intensified fluid closed the check valve D and
check valve A. Thus, the high pressure is delivered I for intensification in next cycle when
the main piston
ston reaches the end of its stroke on the right, the solenoid gets energized in the
opposite direction and valve E now attains position II. The major piston starts moving
towards left. The fluid in the Booster cylinder I gets intensified. This high pressur
pressure fluid
closes check valves V and C and is then delivered to the output through check valve A.
A doub
• Air Oil Intensifier

In an air oil intensifier, there are two cylinders.
cylinders. The air cylinder with large piston and
the booster hydraulic cylinder with a small piston. Both eh piston are connected by a piston
rod. Air is directed into the top end of intensifier (i.e. the head end of air cylinder). This
forces the hydraulic pisto
piston
n (ram) through the lower seal and into the lower booster cylinder.
In the bottom end of the intensifier (i.e. the head end of booster cylinder), the hydraulic fluid
gets trapped by the retreating hydraulic piston and generates high pressure. the degree if the
pressure boost is determined by the area ratios of the air piston to the hydraulic ram.
This type of air oil intensifier are capable of producing output hydraulic pressure upto
200 bar. In applications such as punch press, it is necessary to extend a hydraulic cylinder
rapidly using little pressure to get the ram near the sheet metal strip as possible. The cylinder
must exert a large force is needed to punch the work piece from the sheet metal strip. Since
the strip is thin, only a small flow rate is required.
required. After the completion of punching
operation, the fast retraction of cylinder is required. This application requires an air air-over
hydraulic intensifier as explained below.
Fig. 11.17 shown an air over oil intensifier circuit. Shop air at 6 bar pressure is used to
extend and retract the cylinder during the low pressure portion of the cycle. The air oil
intensifier is used to provide the required high pressure oil during the critical operation cycle.
The system operation is as follows
Valve A extends and retracts the working cylinder using shop air.
Valve B appres shop air pressure to the top end of intensifier (i.e. head end of air
cylinder). This produces a high hydraulic pressure at the bottom end of the intensifier (i.e.
head end of booster cylinder).
Actuation of valve A directs the air to the approach tank. This forces oil at 6 bar
pressure through the booster cylinder to the head end of the working cylinder. When the
working cylinder contacts the work piece, it experiences load and the high pressure portion of
the cycle is initiated. Valve B is actuated directing the shop air to the top end of intensifier,
which inturn intensifier. This high pressure oil cannot return to the approach tank because, it
part is blocked off by the downward motion of the booster cylinder piston. Thus, the working
cylinder receives high pressure oil at the head end to overcome the load.
When valve B is released, the shop air is blocked and the top end of the intensifier is
vented to the atmosphere. This terminates the high pressure portion of the cycle.
When valve A is released, the air in the approach tank is vented and the shop air is
directed to the return tank. This delivers oil at shop pressure to the rod end of the working
cylinder causing it to retract. At the same time shop air enters the rod end of air cylinder,
thereby causing the intensifier piston to move up. The oil from the head end of the retracing
working cylinder enters the bottom end of intensifier and flows back to the approach tank.
This competes the entire cycle.
• Advantages of Intensifier
There are reasons other than economic, that ditals the use of an intensifier rather than
high pressure pumps for certain applications. The reasons which justify the use of an
intensifier are
1) Decompression of fluid under pressure can be at lower pressures values, permitting
softer action with less expensive components.
2) High pressure fluid is localized in what can normally be a low pressure machine. So
there are minimum number of high pressure seals to maintain and also high stresses are
developed only in these high-pressure piping. Hence maintenance is simple.
3) Pressure can be maintained over a period of time with low horsepower input.
4) Input fluid to the intensifier or booster can be different from the working fluid in the
circuit such as shop air steam, raw-water, etc….
5) Fluid pressure can be quickly dissipated in the event of a line breakage.
6) Shock loading from punch and shear operations can be more easily controlled.
7) High pressure can be varied with more sensitive low pressure devices, according to
size ratio.
Page | 114
It has a dia--seal
piston directly acting on a
snap action switch as shown
in Fig 11.21. here, the fluid
input pressure is balanced
against the spring. When the
fluid pressure exceeds the
spring setting, the piston
moves to actuate the electric
switch. It can operate with
pressure varying form 0--800
bars.
The electrical
switching element in a
pressure switch opens ns or
closed an electric circuit in
response to the actuating
force it receives from the
pressure sensing element.
The design shown uses
single pole, double throw snap action switches for maximum reliability.
There are two types of switching element: nor
normally
mally open (N.O.) and normally closed
(N.C.) – A N.O. switch is the one in which no current can flow through the switching element
until the pump fails to operate.
Part III: Power Units and Hydrostatic Transmission

• HYDRAULIC POWER UNITS:
Power package
kage units consist of an oil reservoir, pump, valves and various require
controls, all assembled into one unit of supply pressurized fluid. They are not only compact
in size but also provide the function of direct pressure and flow control within the basic
package. They have been developed from extensive experience by manufacturers of fluid
power components to supply a need. They result in substantial cost savings to the consumer.
Power packages are available as stock units or can be assembled to meet custcustomer
specifications incorporating features peculiar to a particular application. These power
packages are also equipped with pressure gauge, monitoring system, pressure relief heat
exchanger and sight level gauge to facilitate the consumer. These power units
uni conform to JIC
and other fluid power standards.
Chapter – 12
Hydraulic Circuit Design, Analysis and Maintenance
Part I: Hydraulic Circuit Design and Analysis
• INTRODUCTION
In the preceding chapters on hydraulics, we have studied the basic principles on which
hydraulic power transmission functions and also briefly seen the various system components.
In this chapter, we will discuss the basis hydraulic circuits. It is important to note that a
hydraulic circuit and a hydraulic system are different.
A circuit is an arrangement of components such as pumps, actuators, valves and
conductors which are interconnect so as to perform one or more specific tasks, but not a
complete work cycle. On the other hand, a system is composed of several circuits, and it
refers to the complete assembly of component parts that transmit and control the fluid power.
A system is capable of competing one or several operations that constitute a work cycle.
Both system and circuits are designed to accomplish output objectives. The design
phase includes sizing the components and plumbing to meet the output requirements, as well
as establishing work cycles using time, flow, pressure and power calculations. The analysis
phase includes assembly of the system components, installation of the hydraulic machine and
finally the diagnosis of the performance of the machine.
When analysing or designing a hydraulic circuit and a turn a hydraulic system, the
following three important considerations must be taken into account.
(A) Safety of operation: It includes

1) Pressure rating, temperature rating and operating speed of system components.
2) Compatibility between system components.
3) Interlock for sequential operations.
4) Power failure locks and emergency shutdown features.
5) Environmental conditions and fire hazards.
(B) Performance of desired function: It includes
1) System components must meet the required performance specifications and perform
the duty cycle for which they are designed.
These power units are available from 2-20 kW size with reservoirs to 150 litre
capacity. Single or double pumps of the gear and vane type are most common, mounted
directly to a motor through a flexible coupling.
Fig. 11.23 shows a basic compact power unit incorporating direction, pressure and
flow control functions. It employs a constant displacement pump to pressurizes the fluid. The
drive motor in reversed to change the direction of flow from the pump. Check valves in pump
inlet line provide the correct suction characteristics regardless of rotation direction of the
pump. The unit consists of a spool type D.C. valve.
In the Fig 11.23 (a), the D.C. valve is in position I. The pressurized fluid from pump
is being directed through the right port. The fluid entering the left port is returned back to the
tank. The fluid is also directed to the left hand of spool D.C. valve. When the pump drive
motor is reversed, the pressurised fluid from pump then causes the spool to move to the right
Page | 116
so that position II of D.C. valve is attained through the left port. The fluid entering the right
port is returned back to tank. Also fluid is directed to the right hand of spool D.C. valve.
The check valves stop the flow of fluid from reservoir to system, when the pump
motor stops. An external relief valve or pressure switch can be installed at point 1. An
internal relief valve or pressure switch can be installed at point 2. The relief vale serves as a
safety device for thermal protection or an operational malfunction.
.
2. System components must withstand the hydraulic shocks.

3. The life expectancy of the system components should be the same as that of the
machine.
(C) Efficiency of operation: It includes
1) System should be simple, safe and functional.
2) Systems components must be standardized and should be easily available for repaint
and replacement during maintenance.
3) System should have minimum operation cost.
It is very important for the designer to have a working knowledge of components and
how they operate in a circuit. Circuit diagrams are used to design and analyse both hydraulic
circuits and systems. They are constructed from standard graphic symbols representing
repr
components. Hence, it is necessary to known there hydraulic fluid power symbols. Table 12.1
gives a list of symbols that conform to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
specifications.
The design and analysis of hydraulic circuits and systems is systematic and is carried out
in the following steps.
1. Size the actuator form output objective.
2. Establish the work cycles using time, flow pressure and power calculations.
3. Design the circuit.
4. Size and select the components.
5. Assemble the circuit oor system.
6. Monitor the performance of the machine.
7. Check the machine for safe operation and compliance with OSHA standards.
• LINEAR CIRCUITS
A linear circuit is a simple reciprocating circuit. Here the actuator can be a single cylinder or
a double acting cylinder.
• Control of a Single Acting Hydraulic Cylinder
Fig 12.1 gives the circuit used to control a S.A.
hydraulic cylinder. The operation is described as
follows:
1) When the 3/2 way D.C. valve is manually
actuated to position
(I) By operating the hand lever, the full pump flow is
directed to the blank end of the cylinder, thereby
extending the piston rod. At full extension, pump flow
goes through the relief valve.
2) Deactivation of the hand lever, causes the 3/2
way D.C. valve to occupy position
Hydraulic Cylinder
D.C. valve is shifted to position (I), instead of having a free fall under gravity, the
counterbalance valve permits the cylinder to be forced down words when pressure is applied
at thee top. When the D.C. valve is shifted to position (II), the fluid enters the rod-end
rod of the
cylinder by passing the counterbalance valve through the check valve.
• SEQUENCING CIRCUIT
Sequencing circuits order cyclic events, such as the operation of two cyli
cylinders one after the
other. For this purpose a sequence circuits may be a clamping and drilling opoperation as shown
in Fig. 12.9. Here
re the sequence by a pressure step increase across sequence valve S1 and S2.
When the 4/3way
way solenoid actuated
D.C. way is shifted
ifted to position (I), the
fluid flows to the blank end of both
cylinders. The clamp cylinder extends
first because the fluid flow is un
obstructed. When the clamp cylinder
contacts the work piece, the pressure
rises shifting sequence valve S1. then
the fluid
uid flows into the blank end of the
drill cylinder, thereby starting the
drilling operation by extending the drill
cylinder.
When the solenoid is actuated so
the 4/3 way D.C. valve is in position
(II), then the fluid flow is directed to
the rod end of bothh cylinders. Initially
the drill cylinders retracts completely
since its fluid flow is unobstructed
when the drill cylinder has completely
withdrawn, then the pressure starts
rising causing the sequence valve S2 to
shifted. Then the fluid flows into the
rodd end of the clamp cylinder, thereby
de-clamping
clamping the work pieve by
withdrawing the clamp-cylinder
cylinder.
Note:
1) Sequence valve S1 is in the blank end pilot line of drill cylinder causing it to extend after the
clamp cylinder extension, where as the sequence val valve S2 is in the rod end pilot line of clamp
cylinder causing it to retract after the retraction of drill cylinder.
• TO SPEED CONTRO OF A HYDRAULIC MOTOR

Fig. 12.20 illustrates the speed control
of a hydraulic motor using a pressure
compensated flow control ol valve when the
4/3 way FD.C. valve is actuated to position
(I), the motor rotates in one direction. Its
speed can be varied by adjusting the setting
of the thrttle of the flow control valve. In
this way the speed can be infinitely varied
as the excess oil
il goes through the pressure
relief valve.
When the 4/3 way D.C. valve is
actuated to position (II), the direction of the
motor rotation is reversed. The pressure
relief valve prodives overload protection if
for example, the motor experiences an
excessive torque load.
When the 4/3 way D.C. valve is deactivated, it returns to its epring centered neutral
position. In the tendemcentre position, the motor stop suddenly and becomes hydraulically
locked.
• HYDRAULIC MOTOR BRAKING SYSTE

In a fluid power system,
system if the
hydraulic motor is driving a machine
having a large inertia, then it will
experience a flywheel effect, and
stopping the flow of fluid to the motor
would cause it to act as a pump. In a
situation such as this, the circuit should
be designed to provide
vide fluid to the motor
while it is pumping to prevent it from
pulling in air. In addition, provision
should be made for the discharged fluid
from the motor to be returned to the tank
either unrestricted or through a rapidly
but without damage to the syste
system. Fig.
12.21 is a motor circuit that possesses
these desirable characteristics for either
direction of motor rotation.
Part II: Troubleshooting, Maintenance and Safety Considerations in

Hydraulic Circuits
• TROUBLESHOOTING AND MAINTENANCE
Troubleshooting
ing means finding the problem. In fluid power systems, problems are
first determined to be one or a combination of the five general types and then through a
logical proceure, problem statements are written and tested to determine which specific
component orr part of the system is at fault. The five general types of problems are:
1) Pressure
2) Flow
3) Leakage
4) Heat
5) Noise and Vibration
The procedure by which specific problems are identified cosists of organsing and
writing problem statements and then proving or rejecti
rejecting
ng them through inspection, making
simple calculations, conduction tests on system, and finally doing the teardown and
disaccembly for visual verification.
Some repairs may have to be made to find the problem, but troubleshooting does not
means reparing the machine.
chine. Neither does it mean performing routine maintenance, replacing
components or redesigning the circuit. Rather, troubleshooting means performing the
diagnosis and then outlining a course of action that will bring the machine to satisfactory
operation.
• (I) Pressure Related Problem Statements

(A) NO PRESSURE
(1) Faulty pressure gauge. (2) Complete pump failture.
(3) Circuit open to the reservoir. (3) Motor or pump coupling failure.
(B) LOW PRESSURE

(1) Inaccurate guage. (2) Load resistance has than expected.
(3) Pressure relief valve set low or leaking.
(4) Unloading valve set too low or leaking.
(5) Pressure reducing valve set too low or bypassing.
(6) Worn pump.
(7) Variable displacement pump compensator yoke mechanism inoperative.
(C) HIGH PRESSURE

(1) Strained pressure guge. (2) Load resistance higher than expected.
(3) Load resistance higher than expected.
(4) Undersized actuators. (5) Pressure relief valve set too high.
(6) Unloading valve set too high. (7) Internal leak in the system.
(8) High low valve inoperative.
(9) Pressure compensator setting on variable displacement pump set too high.
(10) Variable displacement pump compensator yoke mechanism inoperative.
(11) Restriction in the between the pump and pressure relief valve.
• Flow Related Problem Statements

(A) NO FLOW (FROM THE PUMP)
(1) Low fluid level. (2) Partially clogged inlet filter.
(3) Clogged inlet vent. (4) Inlet line leaking.
(5) Low flow control valve setting. (6) Relief valve not fully closing.
(7) Internal leak in the system.
(8) Low setting on variable displacement pump.
(9) Variable displacement pump yoke not shifting.
(10) Pilot pressure to variable displacement pump missing or low.
(11) Low pump speed. (12) Worn pump.
(13) Control valve not fully shifting. (14) Restriction in the line between pump and
actuator.
(C) EXCESSIVE FLOW
(1) Overized pump. (2) Undersized actuators.
(3) High setting pm flow control valve.
(4) Overstroking of the yoke mechanism on variable displacement pump.
(5) High pump speed.
• Leakage Problem Statements

(A) LINES AND FITTINGS
(1) Broken line. (2) Cracked port or fittings
Page | 123
(3) Fatigue from hydraulic shock or vibration.
(4) SAE/ISO straight O-ring fditting parts improperly assembled or damaged.
(5) Fitting too loose or over tightened.
(6) Improperly paired fittings
(7) Tapered fittings don’t have sealing tape or compound.
(8) O = ring seal punched, rolled, cut or nibbled.
(B) STATIC SEALS

1) O– ring seal pinched, rolled, cut or nibbled.
2) Sealing surface damaged.
3) Gland misaligned or orvertightened.
4) Seal has hardened and set, losing resilience.
5) Misaligned flange does not contain the seal.
(C) DYNAMIC SEALS
1)Seal fails from normal wear. 2) V-ring (gland) need adjusted.

3) Pressure activated seals hardened and set.
4) Incorrect seal for application 5) Garter ring broken on lip seal.
6) Seal undersized and extrude. 7) Seal in backwards (not facing pressure).
8) Seal improperly installed without thimble or driving tool.
9) Shaft wobbing from wear, runout, or bend.
10) Shaft worn, notched, or has rough finish.
11) External drain plugged on pump / motor, blows seal.
• Excessive Heat Problem Statements

(A) FLUID
1) Pressure relief or unloading valve pressure set too high.
2) Fixed displacement pump too large for the application.
3) Circuit dumps excessive fluid over the pressure relief valve.
4) Pump or motor overloaded.
5) Excessive pump, motor, or cylinder slippage.
6) Low fluid level.
7) Air in the fluid.
8) Fluid viscosity to high.
9) Transmission lines undersized.
10) Heat exchanger undersized or restricted.
(B) COMPONENTS
1) High viscosity fluid. 2) Excessive pressure.
3) Excessive slippage caused by wear. 4) Cavitation (fluid starvation).
5) Excessive speed.
7) Mechanical interference (metal to metal contact).
8) Misalignment. 9) Warn or damaged bearing.
• Noise and Vibration Problem Statements
Page | 124
(A)HYDRAULIC NOISES
1) Pump starved for fluid. 2) Cavitation.
3) Air leak in the suction side of the pump. 4) Pressure relief valve or component sticking.
5) Fluid noise across broken or notched valve seat.
6) Air in the fluid. 7) Fluid noise acriss restriction.
8) Fluid to viscous (or cold).
(B) SYSTEM NOISES

1) Pump or motor is failing. 2) Hydraulic transmission lines rattle.
3) Pump / motor coupling slaps from or being loose.
4) Electric motor chatters or whines.
5) Fan housing chatters.
6) Power supply mounting transmits noise.
7) Broken valve spring allows chatter.
(C) SYSTEM VIBRATION

1) Hydraulic transmission lines vibrate or pound.
2) Electric motor coupling vibrates. 3) Electric motor vibrates.
4) Cooling fan out for balance. 5) Pump / motor coupling out of
alignment.
6) Electric motor / pump shaft bent.
• Problem Statements for Components

In addition to problem statements that describe problems associated with pressure,
flow, heat, leakage, noise, and vibration, there are a number of problems that can be
associated with specific components. These failures are peculiar to the describe the problem
cause of the problem.
(I) Pumps
(A) PUMP WON’T TURN
1) Bearing seized. 2) Drive motor sized.
3) Internal motor seized. 4) Internal parts seized or broken.
5) Varnish build up between parts.
(B) NO PRESSURE (ALSO SEE PRESSURE SECTION)

1) Improper assembly. 2) Pump shaft sheared inside case.
3) Broken internal parts. 4) Vanes stuck in slots.
5) Fluid supply obstructed. 6) Pump turning dry.
7) Yoke mechanism in wrong position. 8) Pump turning in wrong direction.
(C) LOW PRESSURE (ALSO SEE PRESSURE SECTION)

1) No load resistance. 2) Improper assembly.
3) Internal parts damaged from running dry.
4) Excessive internal wear.
(D) NO FLOW (ALSO SEE FLOE SECTION)

Page | 125
1) Pump shaft sheared inside case. 2) Complete pump failure.
3) Pump loses prime. 4) Pump turning in wrong direction.
5) Pump turning dry. 6) Improper assembly.
7) High inlet head. 8) Broken internal parts.
(E) LOW FLOW (ALSO SEE FLOW SECTION)

1) Exerssive internal wear. 2) Pressure port connected to inlet or drain.
3) Inlet or outlet restrictions. 4) Variable displacement pump setting low.
5) Faulty pilot operator or strokling mechanism.
(F) LEAXK (ALSO SEE LEAK SECTION)

1) Loose case bolts.
2) In Static seals, set, dissolved (incompatible with fluid)
3) Normal seal wear. 4) Bearing failure causes seal wear.
5) Seal installed backward or incorrectly (does’t fact pressure).
6) Shaft damaged or subject to abrasion.
7) Case drain obstructed. 8) Cracked case.
9) Misaligned flange.
(G) BEARING FALS

1) Normal wear. 2) Installed incorrectly.
3) Coupling misalignment. 4) Applied end force through couping.
5) Overhung load.
(II) Motors
(A) MOTOR WON’T TURN

1) Load resistance seized. 2) Internal parts brocken.
3) Return line restricted (quick disconnected uncoupled).
(B) LOW TORQUE FROM THE MOTOR

1) Pressure setting low. 2) Load resistance too high for motor size.
3) Misalignment causes binging. 4) Undersized plumbing causing pressure drops.
5) Exercessive wear allows internal leakage.
(C) LOW SPEED FROM THE MOTOR

1) Flow control setting too low.
2) Fixed displacement pump too smail for application.
3) Motor displacement too large for application.
4) Variable displacement mechanism setting too low or blocked.
5) Undersized plumbing reduces flow from pump.
6) Excessive wear allows internal leakage.
7) Pump speed too slow.
(III) Valves
(A) PRESSURE RELIEF / PRESSURE UNLOADING / PRESSURE REDUCING
1) Spool or poppet sticks open or closed on debris.
Page | 126
2) Pressure gauge giving inaccurate information.
3) Pilot or return spring brocken or bent.
4) Valve set incorrectly. 5) Valve assembled incorrectly.
6) Valve body or parts damaged.
(B) CHECK VALVES

1) Valve check reversed.
2) Valve check stuck open.
3) Incorrect valve size or spring for application.
4) Hydraulic shock has damaged internal parts.
5) Valve leaks from normal wear.
6) Worn plug, ball, spool, or poppet prevents leak tight seal due to misalignment.
(C) DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES (FALLES TO SHIFT, SHIFT SLOW)

1) Burr or debris blocking valve spool. 2) Valve spool is silted.
3) Valve solenoid malfunctions or is burned out.
4) Oil viscosity is too high. 5) Ports connected incorrectly.
6) Valve assembled incorrectly. 7) Valve spool reversed.
8) Pilot pressure is low. 9) Pilot drain is blocked.
10) Faulty electric solenoid control.
11) Solenoid overheats (high spool force or internal short).
(IV) Cylinders
(A) WN’T EXTEND OR RETURN LOAD RESISTANCE
1) Load resistance too great. 2) Load resistance binding.
3) Cylinder undersized. 4) Cylinder rod overextended (cocked).
5) Cylinder barrel bent, binding piston. 6) Blown piston seal.
(B) MOVEMENT TOO SLOW

1) Dirty filter / reservoir vent. 2) Oversize cylinder bore.
3) Undersize pump. 4) Incorrect flow control setting.
5) Restriction in the line. 6) Directional control valve not shifting
completely.
7) Fluid viscosity too low (from selection or overheating).
8) Inappropriate circuit.
(C) MOVEMENT TOO FAST
1) Undersize cylinder bore. 2) Oversize pump.
3) Incorrect flow control settings. 4) Overrunning load resistance.
5) Inappropriate circuit.
(D) ERRATIC MOVEMENT
1) Dirty filter / reservoir vent. 2) Air in the oil causing sponginess.
3) Load resistance binding / releasing. 4) Directional control valve chatters.
5) Low pressure relief valve setting.
6) Rod seal ingests air on return stroke (load returned system)
(E) DRIFT
1) Internal leak past piston. 2) External leak at rod seal, fittings, or lines.
Page | 127
3) Leak past directional control valve spool.
4) Directional control valve not centering. (5) Relief valve leaking across seat.
• Tee Test for Hydraulic Circuits

Test connection (see Figures 12.22) can be made at A, B, C, or D. when the
connection is made at C or D the tester is in series with the control valve and cylinder to
check individual components.
First determine low much fluid should be circulating through the circuit. Then by
controlling the pressure with the load valve on the tester, the amount of fluid available
through
Page | 128
Chapter – 14
Air Compressors
• INTRODUCTION
Most of the pneumatic systems use compressed air as their operating medium. Hence,
we require an air pump to generate this compressed air. Air compressors act as these air
pumps. An air compressor compresses air from a low inlet pressure (usually atmospheric) to
a higher desired pressure level. This is accomplished by reducing the volume of air. The
symbol for an air compressor is as sh
shown below:
• CLASSFICATION OF AIR COMPRESSORS

Compressors are classified as shown in the family tree of air compressors. (Ref Fig 14.1)
The principle of working of both the Positive Displacement type and Dynami
Dynamic type of
air compressors are discussed below:
1. Positive Displacement Air Compressor: In this type, a fixed volume of air is

delivered during each rotation of the compressor shaft. The pressure of this fixed volume of
air is increased by reducing its volume in an enclosed chamber.
2. Dynamic (Turbo) Air Compressor: In this type, rotating vanes or impellers are used
to impart velocity / force to the flow of air being handled. The pressure comes from this
dynamic effect of the imparted velocity / force.
• Lobe Compressor
pressor / Roots Blower
It consists of two intermeshing lobes driven by external gears and placed in a casing.
The air is forced from the suction side to the delivery side with continuous rotation of the two
lobes. Since no internal compression takes plac place,
e, there is practically no volume change.
Operating pressure is mainly limited by leakage between lobes and the housing. To operate
efficiently, clearances must be very small. These small clearances are fixed by timing gears,
thus eliminating the need for internal lubrication. Were leads to a rapid fall in efficiency.
It is basically used when a positive displacement
compressor is needed with high delivery volume (of about
1500 m3 / min) but low pressure (1 – 2 bar)
• Screw Compressor
A screw compressor
consists of two intermeshing rotating
screws a screw compressor operates
on a similar principle as that of a
hydraulic screw pump male screw
and female screw. These male and
female screws are synchronized by
external timing ing gears. As th these
screws rotate, air is drawn into the
housing and gets trapped between the
screws and is then carried along to
the discharge port where it is
delievered.
The helix of the male
and female screws compression is
accomplished by rolling th the trapped
air into propressively smaller volume as the screws rrotate
tate are designed to permit complete
charging of the inter lobe space before they remesh. On completion of the filling operation,
the inlet end
of the male and female
male screws begin to re-engage
re engage each other and the volume of this space is
reduced and compression beings; air is discharged at the end of the other side. This is
virtually a continuous process are lobe following the other very closely so that almost
pulsation
ion free compressed air is obtained. The air movement during the compression stroke is
as shown in Fig. 14.11.
Since there is no contact between the screws and the housing, hence no lubrication is
required. However, if the female screw is driven by the ma
male
le screw, then oil is required to be
sprayed to the inlet air to reduce friction between the screws and is known as “wet screw
compressors”. The oil in the compressed oil is then removed by using oil separation units.
Pressure valves, actuators and other operating
o devices.
Initially, the operating pressure of the designed system should be determined.
Depending upon the operating pressure required, the air compressor type suitable for the
system is to be selected. Given below is a table indicating the compressor
compr type and its
pressure ratio
Compressor Maximum
Type Pressure Ratio
Piston 10
Vane 8
Liquid Ring 5.5
Diaphragm 5
Screw 3
Lobe 2
1. Most pneumatic systems operates at 6 bar pressure. So, a compressor which can assure a
pressure of about 6 -7 bar in the distribution line is selected.
2. When the distribution lines are long, then we select a compressor having 7 – 8 bar capacity,
so as to compensate for the line or leakage losses.
3. When two or more operations require air at higher pressure, it is economical to install
separate small compressors to supply air for these operations.
4. When small amount of air is required at pressure lower than that carried in the main
distribution lines, they are obtained by installing a reducing valve in the branch line leading
to the area requiring the low pressure air.
5. When large amount of low pressure air (less than 2 bar) is required, it is economical to install
a dynamic compressor.
• Capacity
The total volume of compressed air required to be delivered by the compressor is known as
“capacity ” of the compressor.
య
The capacity of the compressor is expressed in terms of of compressed in
delievered at NTP (Normal Temperature and Pressure) conditione. The NTP condition is
p = 1.01 bar absolute
T = 0o C or 273K.
A compressor delivery volume can be specified in terms of:
1. Theoretical Volume: It is the product of swept volume and the rotational speed in
rpm.
2. Effective Volume: When loses are included in the theoretical volume, we get effective
volume.
Page | 131
Chapter – 15
Air Treatment
• INTRODUCTION
Air in a pneumatic system must be clean and dry to reduce wear and tear of the various
pneumatic devices and to extend their maintenance period. Clean, pure and dry compressed
air is especially required in chemical and medicine industry. Hence, before consumption, this
compressed air requires further treatment such as
1. Atmospheric air that is sucked in by the air compressor is contaminated with smoke,
dust and water. More over, the air that is supplied to the system from the compressor is
further contaminated by virtue of generation of contaminants downstream. These
contaminants may have highly damaging effect on the finely finished mating surfaces of
pneumatic devices. Hence, it requires to be filtered.
2. Operating pressure does not remain constant due to fluctuating consumption of
compressed air. Now, the performance and accuracy of a pneumatic system depends on the
pressure stability of air-supply. Hence, the pressure requires to be regulated.
3. The compressed air supplied to various pneumatic devices also require to lubricats the
mating components of these devices. Hence, the compressed air required to be lubricated.
4. The air which leaves the compressor should be dry since humid air can cause damage
in the following manner:
(a) Due to rust formation on unprotected steel surfaces,
(b) Condensed water may mix with oil to form a sticky white emulsion which values
to jam and also blocks the pneumatic piping.
Hence, the compressed air required to be dried.
This treatment falls into three distinct stages.
Stage 1: Inlet filtering removes particles which can damage the air compressor.
Stage 2: The air from the compressor is cooled and dried to reduce its humidity level before
it is stored in the receiver. This stage is called as ‘primary air treatment’.
Stage 3: The compressed air before being used by the various pneumatic devices is filtered,
dried, lubricated and regulated. This stage is called as ‘secondary air treatment’.
• RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND DEW POINT

• Relative humidity
Atmospheric air contains moisture in the form of water vapour. The content of
water vapour in the air varied depending on the prevailing atmospheric conditions at a
particular place or time. The amount of water vapour in the atmospheric air depends on the
‘relative humidity of air (RH).
Relative humidity is defined as,
RH = 100

…(15.1)
Relative humidity is always expressed in terms of percentage. Relative humidity is dependent

on both the temperature and pressure of the air. Relative humidity rises quickly with
increasing pressure.
Page | 132
• Dew Point
The temperature at which air becomes saturated is refereed to ‘d
‘dew
ew point’.
When dew point is reached, the moisture begins to condense from the air. So, if the dew
point is high, higher will be the temperature necessary to condense and separates the water
and vice-versa.
• Water Trap
As water condensation is a major
handicap
dicap to pneumatic lines and systems, it is
essential to place appropriate water traps at
each end of the pipeline or at places where
branching off pneumatic lines is to take place.
One such water trap or water collector in a
pneumatic line is shown in Fig
Fig. 15.1.
• AIR FILTERS
In a pneumatic system, the air filter
performs the following functions.
1. Its primary function is to filters
the dirt and smoke particles in the air before
they can damage to the system devices.
2. It also performs the secondary
function of condensing and removing the water
vapour that is present in the air passing through
it.
• Dry filter and Wet Filter

Dry Filter are similar to those found in motor car oil filters. Their filter cartridge is
detachable and is required
quired to be replaced when servicing.
In wet filters, the in coming air is bubbled through an oil bath during which the dirt
particles get attached to the oil droplets. This bubbled air is then made to pass through an
wire mesh filter, where the oil droplets
droplets with the dirt particles are consequently removed.
During servicing, it is required to be cleaned with proper detergent.
• Coarse Filters and Micro Filters:

Filters are classified according to the size of particles they filter. Dust partices are
generallyy larger then 10 um, whereas smoke and oil particles are about 1 mm in size. A filter
having nominal rating will black 98% of particles of specified size and a filter having
absolute rating will black 100% of the particles of specified size.
Coarse Filters are constructed out of wire mesh and are called strainers. They are often
used as inlet filters. They are usually specified by their mesh size.
Table 15.1
Mesh mm
Size
325 30
550 10
750 6
Micro filters are used to filter particles as small aas 0.01 um.
Micro Filter / Coalescent Filter

Coalescent type of filters is used when
it necessary to filter submicron size
contaminates like oil. Hence, this type of
filter gives us oil and moisture free air.
Fig 15.2 shows a schematic sketch of
this type of filter element. The filter medium
is made up metal-wool’swool’s which are kept
compressed inside a stainless steel shell and
the outer shell is made up of some porous
material like ceramic, porcelain, etc., which
has the capacity to absorb fince oil
molecules.
cules. The filtration medium is housed
on a seat made of stainless steel.
In this type of filters, when air is
passed from center to the outside, it removes
99.9% of the contaminants down to 0.01
mm.
• PRESSURE REGULATOR
Figure 15.3 .3 shows the internal
construction of a pressure regulator in a
pneumatic system. The main function of this
valve is to regulate the incoming pressure to
the system so that the desired air pressure is
capable of flowing at a steady condition. The
valve has a metallic body (2) with the two
openings primary and secondary opening. The
pressure regulation is achieved by opening the
poppet valve (5) to a measured amount
commensurate with the desired pressure level
to be achieved. This is done by an adjustable
screw.
rew. (1) The adjusting screw will move the
diaphragm (4) upward and thus will make the
poppet to unseat, thereby creating an opening
to allow air to flow from the pressure of air
flowing through it, will be directly
proportional to the compression, more wi
will be
the amount of opening and hence greater the pressure and vice versa. So in actual practice,
the pressure regulator is but a pressure reducing valve and has immense application in
pneumatic circuits to ensure desired pressure level at various parts of the system. In many
cases, the valve has two vent hole openings through which the compressed air it let out into
the atmosphere in case the secondary pressure increases to a level not desirable to the system.
In most cases, the pressure once set by the screw should not be tampered with and lock-nut is
tightened to ensure uninterrupted flow of air at desired pressure within the safe limit. The
spring (6) at the other side of the poppet helps to act as a dampening device needed to
stabilise the pressure. inlet pressure rating and down stream controlled range, as well as flow
capacity must be determined before selecting a regulator. Port size should match piping size.
Required response time, relieving capability, and type of adjustment are other
considerations.
• LUBRICATOR
In most of the pneumatic circuits, the compressed air is first filtered and then regulated
to the operating pressure. Then a carefully controlled amount of oil is often added to this
filtered and regulated compressed air immediately prior to use. It helps in lubricating the
moving parts of pneumatic devices such as valves, cylinders, etc., This oil is introduced as a
fine mist. To from the mist a lubricator unit is used.
• Principle of Lubricator
All lubricators follow the principle of petrol – air mixing in a motor car carburettor.
When the compressed air is made to flow through a venture / throttle, its velocity increases
causing a drop in its pressure. simultaneously the inlet compressed air is also made to flow
into the oil reservoir. The pressure differential between the oil reservoir and throttle zone
causes oil to be drawn into the throttle zone.
Page | 135
• Lubricator Construction and Working
The constrictions of a typical lubricator is as shown iinn fig. 15.5. The compressed air
from the regulator is allowed to enter the lubricator unit. The air then passes through a narrow
constriction and enters the glass bowl containing oil and also inside a small siphon tube.
Slowly a pressure differential cause
causes the oil to be drawn up a riser tube into the upper
chamber. A check valve is installed in this riser tube to prevent the back flow of oil into the
oil reservoir in the bowl. The oil drops are made to fall at the main venturi where the air will
have high velocity. This high velocity air breaks the oil drops into tiny particles to from a
mist of air and oil.
This air – oil mixture then flows to the actuator inlet.
• FRL UNIT / SERVICE UINT

In pneumatic systems, an air filter with moisture separator, a pressure regulator, a
pressure indicator and a lubricator are all frequently required. This need is so common that a
combined device, encompassing all these units is readily available. It is called as ‘Service
unit’ or ‘Filter – Regulator – Lubricator FRL Unit’. The three main components of an FRL
unit are:
1. Air Filter and Separator
2. Pressure Regulator with indicator
3. Lubricator
Individual components comprising a service unit are shown in fig 15.6 (a) and
the composite symbol of an FRL unit is shown in fig 15.6 (b).
FRL / Services unit
Fig. 15.6(b) :
• AIR DRYERS
The air which contains moisture in atmospheric condition contains moisture even
after
fter compression. When this humid air flows into the system, there will be gradual loss heat
to the cooler environment. This gradual cooling of compressed air, results in condensation of
water vapour at every point in varying amount depending upon the localised
loca effects. This
water can cause a lot of damage such as
1. This condensed moisture can lead to corrosion and rusting of various pneumatic components.
2. This condensed moisture may mix with oil to form a sticky white emulsion which blocks the
pneumatic pipe-lines.
lines. This chocking may lead to the breakdown of the pneumatic system.
3. This condensed moisture washes away the lubricating film, thereby resulting in the untimely
breakdown of these pneumatic devices.
Hence, before this humid compressed air in fed to any control system, it requires to be dried
in order to bring humidity and few point to reasonable level.
Drying process is carried out by the following methods
Air Drying
Mechnical Method Chemical Method using
Refrigerated Dryer
Absorption type Absorption type

Deliquescent dryer Regenerative
Fig. 15.7: Classification of Air drying methods
• Refrigerated Dryers
This incorporates a refrigeration unit
(like that of a domestic fridge), through
which the air passes as shown in the fig.
15.8. It also contains controls to ensure that
water which has been drained out of the air
does not freeze inside the unit. The cooled
air, as can be see, e, is rere-heated by the
incoming air, cooling the latter and
increasing the volume of the former.
Refrigerated dryers give air with a
due point sufficiently low for most
processes. Hence, it is ideally suited for
average industrial facility.
• Deliquescent dryer
It is an absorption type of chemical dryer. The chemical descend used for drying is of
deliquescent type. It gets its meaning from.
De-away,
away, liquescere –melt:
melt: So ‘deliquesce’ means to become liquid by absorption of
moisture from the air.
The chemicall is placed in a bed support in a pressure vessel. The bed support is made of
non-corrosive
corrosive material, perforated to allow the free flow of air. The compressed air enters
below the support. The inlet is baffled to mechanically liquid water and gross soild. The air
then flows vertically up through the dessicant bed. After some time, the Dowest payer of
dessicant bed begins to dissolve as it absorbs water vapour. The mist of liquid desiccant that
is fared removes small particles of soild, oil and other contami
contaminants.
nants. The remainder of the
desiccant bed also to cleaning and drying the air but its effect is relatively miner. This liquid
dessicant at the bottom of the unit from where it can be drained.
The dessicant material is used up during this process needs to bbee replaced at regular
intervals. Also the maximum temperature of the system should not exceed 38-40 38 oC as a
temperature above this results in excessive dessicant consumption.
• Absorption dryer / Regenerative dryer

It is an adsorption type of chemical dryer. The chemical desiccant used does not
physically change on absorbing the water vapour like deliquescents do. The dessicant use are
silicon dioxide, copper sulphate, activated alumina or silica gel, etc., The moisture in the
adsorption material can be released
released by heating. Thus the desiccant can be regenerated and can
be used again and again.
It consists of two columns. At any time, one column is drying air while the other is
being regenerated by heating and the passage of a low pure air stream.
• ILENCER
MUFFLER / SILENCER
When the used compressed air in the pneumatic system is exhausted / vented to the
atmosphere, it generates high intensity sound having the same frequency as normal
conversation. The increased use of compressed air in industry has created this noise problem.
1. Excessive exposure to these noises can cause loss of hearing without noticeable pain
or discomfort.
2. Noise exposure also causes fatigue and lowers production.
3. It also blocks out warning signals, thus causing accidents. Hence, it is necessary to
muffle
uffle out [deader] these noise. The pneumatic device used to control the noise caused by a
rapidly exhausting airstream into the atmosphere is called as muffler or silencer. Mufflers are
attached to the exhaust ports of air valves, pneumatic cylinders and air motors. Mufflers are
designed to reduce noise levels without creating back pressure sufficient to reduce the
operating efficiency of the system. The air path through a typical muffler is as shown in Fig.
15.9 and indicates the cancelling effects of noi
noise
se causing vibration. Appropriate sizing for
each application is necessary to assure maximum performance.
• AFTERCOOLER
The compressed air
delivered by the compressor is at a
very high temperature and contains
a fair bulk of moisture.
1. This high temperature of
the compressed air is required to be
reduced as high temperature
reduces can damage the metal
components as well as increase input power requirements.
2. On cooling, the moisture will condense and is eventually carried along to the various
pneumatic devices. It chockes the pneumatic pipe lines, washes away the lubrication causing
excessive wear and decreased efficiency.
To tackle these problems an after cooler is placed in the air line between the
compressor and the air-receiver. temperature to about 100o F and acts as the
receiver. It reduces the air temperature
first stage in the removal of moisture (about 80%) from the compressed air.
An after cooler basically consists of a beat exchanger with water as the cooling
medium. Water flow is opposi
opposite
te to compressed air flow. The internal baffles provide proper
water velocity and turbulence there by resulting in high heat transfer rates. After passing
through the tubes, the cooled compressed air enters the moisture separating chamber which
effectively
ly traps out the condensed moisture.
• COMPONENTS OF A TYPICAL COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM

Fig 15.11 shows a compressed air system with the commonly used components. These
components are:
1. Air-Inlet Filter: Free air from the atmosphere enters the compressor through an air-
inlet filter which will essentially keep out the dust and air from entering the system.
2. Prime mover: It can be either an electric motor or an internal combustion engine
which is used to provide the drive to the compressor.
3. Compressor: It is used to compress the air from atmospheric pressure to the desired
higher pressure level. It can be single stage or multi
multi-stage in operation.
4. Intercooler: If the compressor is multistage in operation, then an intercooler is used
to decrease the heat of compression between stages.
5. After cooler: The high pressure air discharged from the second stage is then made to
pass through an after cooler, where both the temperature and moisture content in the
compressed air are drastically reduces.
6. Air-Drier: It completely dries the compressed air before directing it into the air air-
receiver.
7. Air Receiver: It is an air reservoir and its function is similar to that of a flywheel.
8. FRL unit: The compressed air before being used by the various pneumatic devices is
filtered, lubricated and regulated by the FRL unit.
9. Pneumatic Valves: Pneumatic valves are required to control air direction, pressure
and flow rate. They are responsible for the smooth and precise control of the ppneumatic
actuator, and also for the safe operation of the system.
10. Pneumatic Actuator: Pneumatic actuators will convert the high pressure energy of
the compressed air into mechanical force or torque to do useful work. Actuators can either be
pneumatic cylinders
ders to provide linear motion or pneumatic motors to provide rotary motion.
11. Pipes and hoses: They carry the compressed air from one location to another.

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Dhanvantari College of Engineering, Nasik

Fluid Power System

• ADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER

• APPLICATION OF FLUID POWER

• Fluid power applications in material handling

• Fluid power for automation

• Fluid power in agriculture

• Fluid Power in Construction

• Fluid Power in aviation

• Fluid power in marine industry

• Fluid power in Transportation system

Power brakes (both high pressure

• Fluid power in Mining Industry

• Fluid power in Utilities and Communication

• Fluid power of Numerical Control

• Some interesting fluid power applications

• Application with scope for technological advances

• STATIC AND DYNAMIC POWER TRANSMISSIONS

Hydraulic Power Transmission

Hydrodynamic / Hydrokinetic Hydrostatic

Fig. 1.6: Classification of Hydraulic Power Transmission.

• Hydrodynamic / Hydrokinetic Power Transmission: The branch of hydraulic, which uses

• FUNCTIONS OF HYDRAULIC FLUID

• Primary Function: Power Transmission

• SERVICE RELATED FLUID PROPERTIES

• Specific Gravity (s)

Specific weight of water is 9810 N/m3

S.I Unit: Specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity.

1 Centi Poise (cP) = 0.01 Poise = 0.001 Pa – s

Table 3.1: SAE Viscosity Grades for oils.

SAE Absolute Kinematics

Viscosity is generally considered to be the most important physical property of an

1. High resistance to flow results in sluggish operation.

U = SSU viscosity at 100oF of the oil whose VI is to be calculated.

• Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K)

• Flash Point, Fire Point and Auto- Ignition Point

1. High Temperature and High Pressure: Oxidation rate increases at elevated

2. Effect of contamination on oxidation: Contaminats like cutting oil, grease, dirt,

• EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE ON HYDRAULIC FLUID

• QUALITY REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD HYDRAULIC FLUID

In addition to performing both primary and secondary functions, a satisfactory

• TYPE OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

• Petroleum Base Fluids:

• Fire Resistant Fluids

1. HWCF fluids are highly fire resistant.

• Water in oil emulsions:

• Water Gycol Fluids

• Straight phosphates esters

Sealing Devices and Pipes

Fig. 4.2: U – V, Cup and Flange shaped seals.

• SELECTION OF SEALING DEVICES

• COMPATIBILITY OF SEALS WITH FLUIDS

4. Flexible Hoses: The fourth

Fig. 4.4: Construction of flexible hose

• QUICK DISCONNECT COUPLINGS

• SELECTION OF PIPES FOR HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

• PRESSURE DROP IN HOSES/PIPES

• HYDRAULIC RESERVOIR CAPACITY

1.5 billion particles

• Self – Generated Contamination: This type of contamination is created internally

2. Pressure Line Filters

The effectiveness of pressure and return line ffilters

Being independent of the main hydraulic system, off

V D మ L D D

QT = VD [m3] N [rpm] = 7.845 105 1500

η ఽ 100 . 100

VD = 3.4092 10-5 m3 …(1)

QT [m3 N pm] = 3.4092 10-5 5000