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Psycholog
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Publication Team
TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS XI Head, Publication : M. Siraj Anwar
First Edition Division
February 2006 Phalguna 1927 Chief Editor : Shveta Uppal
Reprinted Chief Business : Gautam Ganguly
February 2007 Phalguna 1928 Manager
October 2007 Kartika 1929 Chief Production : Arun Chitkara
January 2009 Pausa 1930 Officer (In-charge)
November 2009 Margashira 1931 Editor : Bijnan Sutar
January 2011 Pausa 1932 Production Assistant : Mukesh Gaur
October 2012 Kartika 1934 Cover, Layout and Illustrations
December 2014 Pausa 1936 Nidhi Wadhwa
December 2015 Agrahayana 1937
March 2017 Phalguna 1938
PD 25T HK
FOREWORD
© National Council of Educational The National Curriculum Framework (NCF),
Research and Training, 2006 2005, recommends that children’s life
` 120.00 at school must be linked to their life
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT outside the school. This principle marks a
watermark departure from the legacy of bookish
Published at the Publication Division by the learning which continues to shape our
Secretary, National Council of Educational
system
Research and Training,Sri Aurobindo Marg,
and causes a gap between the school,
New Delhi 110 016 and printed at Pelican
Press, A-45, Naraina Industrial Area, home and community. The syllabi and
Phase II, New Delhi 110 028 textbooks developed on the basis of NCF
ISBN 81-7450-506-7 signify an attempt to implement this
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED basic idea. They also attempt to
q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or discourage rote learning and the
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, maintenance of
photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the
sharp boundaries between different
publisher. subject areas. We hope these measures
q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by
way of trade, be lent,
will
resold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s take us significantly further in the
consent, in any
form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published.
direction of a child-centred system of
q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this education
page, Any revised
outlined in the National Policy on
price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other
means is incorrect Education (1986).
and should be unacceptable.
The success of this effort depends on the
OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to
reflect on their own learning and to
pursue imaginative activities and
questions. We must recognise that given
space,
time and freedom, children generate new
knowledge by engaging with the
information passed on to them by adults.
Treating the prescribed textbook as the
sole basis of examination is one of the key
reasons why other resources and sites
of learning are ignored. Inculcating
creativity and initiative is possible if we
perceive
and treat children as participants in
learning, not as receivers of a fixed body
of
knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in
school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-
table is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that
the required number of teaching days
are actually devoted to teaching. The
methods used for teaching and evaluation
will also determine how effective this
textbook proves for making children’s life
at
school a happy experience, rather than a
source of stress or boredom. Syllabus
designers have tried to address the
problem of curricular burden by
restructuring
and reorienting knowledge at different
stages with greater consideration for child
psychology and the time available for
teaching. The textbook attempts to
enhance
this endeavour by giving higher priority
and space to opportunities for
contemplation and wondering, discussion
in small groups, and activities requiring
hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational
Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates
the hard work done by the Textbook
Development Committee responsible for
this
textbook. We wish to thank the
Chairperson of the advisory group of
Social Sciences,
Professor Hari Vasudevan (Department of
History, Calcutta University, Kolkata)
and the Chief Advisor for this textbook,
Professor R.C. Tripathi (Director, G.B. Pant
Social Science Institute, Allahabad) for
guiding the work of this committee.
Several
teachers contributed to the development
of this textbook; we are grateful to their
principals for making this possible. We are
indebted to the institutions and
organisations which have generously
permitted us to draw upon their resources,
material and personnel. We are especially
grateful to the members of the
National Monitoring Committee, appointed
by the Department of Secondary
and Higher Education, Ministry of Human
Resource Development under the
Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri
and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their
valuable time and contribution. As an
organisation committed to the systemic
reform
and continuous improvement in the
quality of its products, NCERT welcomes
comments and suggestions which will
enable us to undertake further revision
and
refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training
iv
PREFACE
Psychology is one of the youngest
sciences but one of the fastest growing.
There
are many who believe that the 21st
century is going to be the century of
biological
sciences along with psychological and use it for personal growth.
sciences. Development in the fields of We take great pleasure in placing this
neurosciences, as well as physical textbook in the hands of students and
sciences have opened new doors to solve teachers and also express our gratitude to
the all who have provided their unstinted
mysteries of mind and human behaviour. support in its writing and production.
There is no human endeavour which is
going to remain unaffected by this new
Change the World by
knowledge which is getting created. One Changing Me
only hopes that it will enable people to live
their lives more meaningfully and to The Sufi Bayazid says this
organise human systems better. In fact, as about himself:
a consequence, a large number of new
job opportunities have surfaced. “I was a revolutionary
Psychology already has made inroads into
many
when I was young
new domains. and all my prayer to God
The writing of this textbook has been truly
a collective effort. It has benefitted was: ‘Lord, give
from the inputs received from various me the energy to change
subject experts in various forms, from
college the world.’ ”
and school teachers, and also students. In
writing this textbook, we have tried to
“As I approached middle
address some of the concerns raised by age and realised
the evaluators of the previous edition of
this textbook, while also making use of that half my life was gone
some portions of it. The textbook follows without my
the National Curriculum Framework (NCF)
– 2005. In keeping with the general changing a single soul, I
guidelines, we have tried to reduce the
load and attempted to make it more
changed my
comprehensible for the students. In doing prayer to: ‘Lord, give me
so, we have tried to relate psychological
concepts with everyday human behaviour the grace to
and also with various life experiences. change all those who
How far one has succeeded in this, is left
for the teachers and students to judge. come in contact
One major challenge which teachers of
psychology face is to make their students
with me. Just my family
analyse human behaviour in a scientific and friends,
manner and to use explanations which
are not commonsensical. More than any and I shall be content.’ ”
other scientific discipline, psychology runs “Now that I am an old
the risk of trivialisation. It is our hope that
students who go through this course will man and my days
develop a proper scientific attitude for
analysing others and their own behaviour
are numbered, my one

prayer is: ‘Lord,
give me the grace to
change myself.’
If I had prayed for this
right from
the start I should not have
wasted
my life.”
SOURCE : “THE SONG OF THE BIRD”
ANTHONY DE MELLO, S.J.
(ANAND: GUJARAT SAHITYA PRAKASH), 1987
TEXTBOOK
DEVELOPMENT
COMMITTEE
CHIEF ADVISOR
R.C. Tripathi, Professor & Director, G.B.
Pant Social Science Institute, Jhusi,
Allahabad
MEMBERS
A.K. Mohanty, Professor, Zakir Hussain
Centre for Educational Studies, SSS II, JNU,
New Delhi
A.K. Srivastava, Reader, DERPP, NCERT,
New Delhi
B.D. Tiwari, Professor, Department of
Psychology, Mahatma Gandhi Kashi
Vidyapeeth, Varanasi
B.N. Puhan, Retired Professor, Utkal
University, Bhubaneswar
C. Suvasini, Lecturer, Gargi College, New
Delhi
Namita Pande, Professor, Department of
Psychology, University of Allahabad,
Allahabad
Nandita Babu, Reader, Department of
Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi
Neelam Srivastava, PGT, Vasant Valley
School, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi
Manas K. Mandal, Director, Defence
Institute of Psychological Research (DIPR),
Timarpur, Delhi
R.C. Mishra, Professor, Department of
Psychology, Benaras Hindu University,
Varanasi
Shakuntla S. Jaiman, Principal, CSKM
School, Satbari, Chattarpur, New Delhi
Sunita Arora, Senior Counsellor, Govt. Girls
Senior Secondary School No.1, Roop
Nagar, Delhi
Sushma Gulati, Professor, DEPFE, NCERT,
New Delhi
Usha Anand, PGT, St. Thomas Girls Senior
Secondary School, Mandir Marg, New
Delhi
MEMBER-COORDINATORS
Anjum Sibia, Reader, DEPFE, NCERT, New
Delhi
Prabhat K. Mishra, Lecturer, DEPFE,
NCERT, New Delhi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
National Council of Educational Research
and Training, New Delhi thanks
Professor Sushma Gulati, Head,
Department of Educational Psychology
and
Foundations of Education for her support
during the various stages of textbook
development. Acknowledgements are due
to Professor L.B. Tripathi (Retired, DDU
Gorakhpur University), Professor Sagar
Sharma (Retired, H.P. University, Shimla),
Dr. Kailash Tuli (Zakir Hussain College,
New Delhi) and Dr. Sarla Jawa (Lady Shri
Ram College, New Delhi) for the feedback
and suggestions given for the
improvement
of the textbook.
Special thanks are due to Shveta Uppal,
Chief Editor, NCERT and Vandana
Singh, Consultant Editor for going through
the manuscript and suggesting relevant
changes.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges
the contributions of Pavnesh Verma,
DTP Operator, G.R. Upadhyaya, Copy
Editor, Rakesh Kumar, Proof Reader and
Pankaj Kakkar, Incharge Computer Station,
in shaping this textbook. Last but not
the least, the efforts of the Publication
Department, NCERT are also duly
acknowledged.
The efforts of the Publication Department,
NCERT in bringing out this publication
are also appreciated.
NOTE
FOR THE
TEACHERS
As a teacher, one is always concerned
about students’ learning and enhancing
their understanding over and above what
is in the textbook. The existing classroom
practices largely focus on imparting
knowledge and information. It is, however,
important for us to reflect on what it
means to teach, how we teach, and the
carry
over value of our teaching.
Research shows that pedagogical
practices are influenced by the nature and
contents of the subject or discipline. The
subject of psychology, which deals with
human mind, behaviour and human
relationship, can most appropriately lend
itself to teaching with humanistic
perspective. Such a perspective aims at
enriching
students’ knowledge as well as inspiring
and awakening their curiosity, positive
feelings, desire to learn, openness,
exploration of self and others, etc. Such an
approach is also conducive to their
personal development and inculcation of
positive
attitude and love for the subject.
This textbook has been so designed as to
provide ample scope to build on the
previous knowledge and experiences of
the students. Meaningful contexts have
been provided to relate the subject matter
with day-to-day life. We suggest you use
interactive approach to engage the
students, and to sustain their interest and
enthusiasm in order to make the teaching-
learning process joyful. Strategies like
stories, discussions, examples,
questioning, analogies, problem solving
situations,
role play, etc. are in-built part of the text.
It will be good if students bring in their
own stories and examples. Special effort
has been made to reduce the density of
information to provide time and space to
help students to relate knowledge gained
in the classroom to their individual
experiences as well as to their physical,
social,
political and economic environments. The
transaction of the subject matter,
therefore, should facilitate reflection
among students to explore the
applicability of
knowledge to their own contexts. We
suggest that you may encourage your
students
to maintain a record of interesting
events/episodes in which they may have
been
involved personally or which they may
have observed. They may try to make
sense
of these episodes using their learning from
this book. This may be called a LEARNING
DIARY.
As for Class XI students psychology will be
a new subject, it would be important
to dwell on the potential of the subject, its
value in daily life and various career
possibilities. Students, it is expected, will
be made aware of the empirical nature of
the discipline and the importance of
adopting scientific approach in studying
human
behaviour.
This textbook consists of nine chapters on
topics considered essential for an
introductory course in psychology. Each
chapter begins with learning objectives.
An outline of the major contents to be
covered give an overall view of the
chapter.
The introduction at the beginning of each
chapter provides an informative and
challenging start to build on the students’
previous knowledge. The main content
in each chapter is interspersed with
examples, illustrations, tables, activities
and
boxes to facilitate better understanding of
the concepts. These are integral part of
the book and should be used. The
summary at the end of each chapter helps
to
reinforce and consolidate what has been
read or taught. Before you begin a
particular
chapter you should encourage the
students to read the summary of the
chapter.
The chapter-end review questions cater to
the areas of understanding, application
and skill, intended to promote higher order
thinking. The project ideas given at the
end of each chapter are aimed at
engaging students in fieldwork and
gaining hands
on experience. This also brings them to
understand abstract concepts more
meaningfully by relating these to their
everyday life happenings. We hope that
these will be appropriately used by you to
create new learning opportunities.
Although the contents of the textbook
have been organised under different
headings, like learning, thinking, memory,
motivation and emotion, etc., efforts
have been made to provide linkages
across and within the chapters to maintain
continuity and holistic perspective. The
activities given in the textbook have been
carefully chosen to maximise students’
participation in the class. Most activities
suggested are easy to carry out and
require no special material. These can be
conducted in the classroom situation or
given as part of home assignments. While
some of the activities are group-oriented,
some of these are individual in nature.
Group activities are important for team
building, to experience the joy of sharing
and to develop respect for each others’
viewpoint. While conducting activity
sessions,
particular care should be taken in building
a classroom climate that is conducive
to mutual respect, confidence and
cooperation. Since every class is different
and
every teacher is different, these activities
can be adapted according to the varied
requirements and the contexts.
It is critical that in teaching this course, we
must strive to maintain balance
between scientific and experiential
approaches.
x
NOTE FOR THE
STUDENTS
This textbook has been prepared to
introduce you to the fundamentals of
Psychology.
Besides providing basic disciplinary
knowledge, it focuses on enhancing your
curiosity and understanding of people’s
behaviour and that of your own. The
interactive nature of the textbook will help
you understand psychology as a discipline
as well as the practical applications of
psychology in day-to-day life. For this it is
required that you participate in the
classroom activities fully and also reflect
on
them.
To begin with, you must get familiar with
the subject contents which will give
you an idea of the topics to be covered
and the sequence of chapters. Each
chapter
has objectives and the content outline.
The objectives inform you what all you
should be able to know after you have
gone through the chapter. The chapters
begin with an introduction which will give
you a brief overview of what lies ahead. information. It may not be possible for you
The contents also include boxes and to carry out all the projects but choose
activities. These boxes contain information the ones you find interesting.
relating to the latest theories and You are going to embark on a journey
experiments that have been conducted towards exploring different realms of the
and its subject. As you go along, you will find
applications to everyday situations. They some sites in the text which will help you
are integral to the book and you are to
required to read them to widen your explore your ‘self ’ and the world of which
horizon and to develop a quest for you are a part. The doorway to psychology
knowledge. is open, make the best of it. If you are an
Examples given in the textbook relate to internet user, try to explore the sites with
real life events and experiences. To the help of your teacher which provide
consolidate all that has been taught and information on the topics covered in this
understood, you will find a summary after textbook.
each chapter. This is then followed by
review questions. These questions are
CONSTITUTION OF
likely
to generate critical thinking and develop
INDIA
in you the power to question and reason. Part III (Articles 12 – 35)
We encourage you to attempt these (Subject to certain conditions, some
questions. Your responses to these exceptions
questions and reasonable restrictions)
will indicate both the degree of your guarantees these
mastery of the concepts taught and the
depth
Fundamental
of your knowledge.
It is important that you learn the key
Rights
terms given at the end of each chapter Right to Equality
and their definitions. The glossary at the • before law and equal protection of
end of the textbook will prove to be an laws;
excellent aid to clarify and brush-up the
• irrespective of religion, race, caste,
fundamentals of the subject.
sex or place of birth;
Now let us focus on the activities and
project ideas mentioned in each chapter. • of opportunity in public
These are intended to promote employment;
experiential learning. Your experience • by abolition of untouchability and
while taking titles.
up these activities will help you to know Right to Freedom
more about yourself and others. These will • of expression, assembly,
also help you to relate taught concepts in
association, movement, residence and
the class to real life situations. Try to
profession;
involve in as many activities as you can as
this will facilitate your understanding of • of certain protections in respect of
psychological concepts better. The project conviction for offences;
ideas also emphasise learning by doing. • of protection of life and personal
You may have to move out of your liberty;
classroom to interview people or to gather • of free and compulsory education for
children between the age of six and The Bases of Human Behaviour 43
fourteen years; Chapter 4
• of protection against arrest and Human Development 64
Chapter 5
detention in certain cases.
Sensory, Attentional and Perceptual
Right against Exploitation
Processes 84
• for prohibition of traffic in human Chapter 6
beings and forced labour; Learning 107
• for prohibition of employment of Chapter 7
children in hazardous jobs. Human Memory 131
Right to Freedom of Religion Chapter 8
• freedom of conscience and free Thinking 149
Chapter 9
profession, practice and propagation
Motivation and Emotion 169
of religion;
Glossary 188
• freedom to manage religious affairs; Suggested Readings 198
• freedom as to payment of taxes for
promotion of any particular religion;
CONSTITUTION OF
• freedom as to attendance at INDIA
religious instruction or religious
worship in educational Fundamental
institutions wholly maintained by the
State. Duties
Cultural and Educational Rights Fundamental Duties – It shall be the
• for protection of interests of duty of every citizen of India —
minorities to conserve their language, (a) to abide by the Constitution and
script and culture; respect its ideals and institutions, the
• for minorities to establish and National
administer educational institutions of Flag and the National Anthem;
their choice. (b) to cherish and follow the noble
Right to Constitutional Remedies ideals which inspired our national
• by issuance of directions or orders struggle for
or writs by the Supreme Court and freedom;
High (c) to uphold and protect the
Courts for enforcement of these sovereignty, unity and integrity of
Fundamental Rights. India;
(d) to defend the country and render
CONTENTS national service when called upon to
Page do so;
Note for the Teachers ix (e) to promote harmony and the spirit
Note for the Students xi of common brotherhood amongst all
Chapter 1 the people
What is Psychology? 1 of India transcending religious,
Chapter 2 linguistic and regional or sectional
Methods of Enquiry in Psychology 22 diversities; to
Chapter 3
renounce practices derogatory to the
dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich
heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests, lakes,
rivers,
wildlife and to have compassion for
living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper,
humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to
abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all
spheres of individual and collective
activity so
that the nation constantly rises to
higher levels of endeavour and
achievement;
(k) who is a parent or guardian, to
provide opportunities for education to
his child or,
as the case may be, ward between the
age of six and fourteen years.
Part IV A (Article 51 A)
1
Chapter
Whatt iiss
Pssychollogy?
• understand the nature and role of
psychology in understanding mind
and behaviour,
• state the growth of the discipline,
• know the different fields of psychology,
its relationship with other
disciplines, and professions, and
• appreciate the value of psychology in
daily life to help you understand
yourself and others better.
After reading this chapter, you
would be able to
Introduction
What is Psychology?
Psychology as a Discipline
Psychology as a Natural Science
Psychology as a Social Science
Understanding Mind and Behaviour
Popular Notions about the Discipline of
Psychology
Evolution of Psychology
Some Interesting Landmarks in the
Evolution of
Modern Psychology (Box 1.1)
Development of Psychology in India
Branches of Psychology
Themes of Research and Applications
Psychology and Other Disciplines
Psychologists at Work
Psychology in Everyday Life
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
Contents
The growth of the human mind
is still high adventure,
in many ways the highest
adventure on earth.
– Norman Cousins
Psychology
2
psychology was a study of the soul or
mind.
But since then it has moved away
considerably
from this focus and established itself as
a
scientific discipline which deals with across
processes such responses as knowing oneself,
underlying human experience and knowing others or more specific
behaviour. responses like
The range of phenomena it studies, knowing why people dream, why people
some of go out of their way to help others or
which we mentioned above, are spread beat
over each other up. All ancient traditions
several levels, viz. individual, dyadic have engaged themselves with
(two questions about
person) group, and organisational. They human nature. The Indian philosophical
also traditions, in particular, deal with
have biological as well as social bases. questions
Naturally, therefore, the methods relating to why people behave in the
required to manner in which they do. Why are
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? people
Any knowledge discipline is hard to generally unhappy? What changes
define. should they bring about in themselves if
Firstly, because it evolves continuously. they
Secondly, because the range of desire happiness in their lives? Like all
phenomena it knowledge, psychological knowledge
studies cannot be captured by any one too
definition. This is even more true of is intended to contribute to human well-
psychology. being. If the world is full of misery, it is
Long time back, students like yourself largely due to humans themselves.
were told Perhaps, you have asked why a 9/11 or
that the term psychology is derived from war
two in Iraq happened. Why innocent people
Greek words psyche meaning soul and in Delhi, Mumbai, Srinagar or in the
logos North-
meaning science or study of a subject. East have to face bombs and bullets?
Thus, Psychologists ask what is in the
You were, perhaps, asked by your experiences
teacher in the first class why you opted of young men which turn them into
for terrorists seeking revenge. But there is
psychology over other subjects. What another
do you hope to learn? If you were asked side to human nature. You may have
this heard the name of Major HPS Ahluwalia,
question, what was your response? paralysed waist down because of an
Generally, the range of responses which injury he suffered in a war with
surface Pakistan,
in class to this question are truly who climbed the Mt. Everest. What
bewildering. Most students give inane moved him to climb such heights?
responses, These are not
like they want to know what others are only questions about human nature
thinking. But then one also comes which psychology addresses as a
human makes
science. You will be surprised to learn sense of these data so that they can be
that modern psychology also deals with organised as knowledge. Let us try to
somewhat nebulous micro-level understand the three terms used in the
phenomenon like consciousness, definition, namely, mental processes,
focusing attention experience, and behaviour.
in the face of noise, or supporters trying When we say experiences are internal to
to burn down a shopping complex after the experiencing person, then we refer
their team had scored victory in a to states
football game over its traditional rival. of consciousness or awareness or
Psychology mental
cannot claim that answers have been processes. We use our mental processes
found to these complex questions. But it when
surely has improved upon our we think or try to solve a problem, to
understanding and how we make sense know or
of these remember something. One level at
phenomena. The most striking aspect of which these
the discipline, unlike other sciences, lies mental processes are reflected is the
in brain
the study of psychological processes activity. As we think or solve a
which are largely internal and available mathematical
to problem, our brain activities can be
humans for observation within observed
themselves. using different techniques of brain

Introduction
imaging.
However, we cannot say that brain
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? activities
3 and mental processes are the same,
study them also vary greatly depending although
on the they are interdependent. Mental
phenomenon one wants to study. A activities and
discipline neural activities are mutually
is defined both in terms of what it overlapping
studies and processes but, they are not identical.
how it studies. In fact, more in terms of Unlike
how or the brain, the mind does not have a
method/s it uses. Keeping this in view, physical
psychology is defined formally as a structure or has a location. Mind
science emerges and
which studies mental processes, evolves as our interactions and
experiences experiences
and behaviour in different contexts. In in this world get dynamically organised
doing in the
so, it uses methods of biological and form of a system which is responsible for
social the
sciences to obtain data systematically. It occurrence of various mental processes.
Brain activities provide important clues to positive feelings, such as in romantic
as to encounters. There are some esoteric
how our mind functions. But the experiences also which attract the
consciousness of our own experiences attention of
and psychologists, such as when a Yogi
mental processes are much more than meditates
the to enter a different level of
neural or brain activities. Even when we consciousness and
are creates a new kind of experience or
asleep some mental activities go on. We when a
dream, and receive some information drug addict takes a particular kind of
such drug to
as a knock on the door while we are get a high, even though such drugs are
asleep. extremely harmful. Experiences are
Some psychologists have shown that we influenced
also by internal and the external conditions
learn and remember in our sleep. Mental of the
processes, such as remembering, experiencer. If you are travelling in a
learning, crowded
knowing, perceiving, feeling are of bus during a hot summer day, you may
interest to not
psychologists. They study these experience the usual discomfort if you
processes to are
try to understand how the mind works going for a picnic with some close
and to friends. Thus,
help us improve the uses and the nature of experience can only be
applications of understood
these mental capacities. by analysing a complex set of internal
Psychologists also study experiences of and
people. Experiences are subjective in external conditions.
nature. Behaviours are responses or reactions
We cannot directly observe or know we
someone make or activities we engage in. When
else’s experience. Only the experiencing something is hurled at you, your eyes
person blink in
can be aware or be conscious of her or a simple reflex action. You are taking an
his examination and can feel your heart
experiences. Thus, experiences are pounding.
embedded You decide to go for a particular movie
in our awareness or consciousness. with a
Psychologists have focused on friend. Behaviours may be simple or
experiences of complex,
pain being experienced by terminally ill short or enduring. Some behaviours are
patients or of psychological pain felt in overt.
bereavement, besides experiences They can be outwardly seen or sensed
which lead by an
observer. Some are internal or covert. do so
When by seeking to make their analysis
you are in a difficult situation while scientific
playing a and objective. Others seek to explain
game of chess you almost feel your behaviour from the point of view of the
hand experiencing persons because they
muscles twitching, trying to experiment think that
with subjectivity is a necessary aspect of
a move. All behaviours, covert or overt, human
are experience. In the Indian tradition,
associated with or triggered by some selfreflection
stimulus and analysis of our conscious
in the environment or changes that experiences, is held to be a major
happen source of
internally. You may see a tiger and run psychological understanding. Many
or think western
that there is a tiger and decide to flee. psychologists have also begun to
Some emphasise
Psychology the role of self-reflection and self-
4 knowledge
psychologists study behaviour as an in understanding human behaviour and
association between stimulus (S) and experience. Regardless of the
response differences in the
(R). Both stimulus and response can be way psychologists go about the study of
internal or external. behaviour, mental processes and
Psychology as a Discipline experiences,
As we have discussed above, they seek to understand and explain
psychology them in
studies behaviour, experience and a systematic and verifiable manner.
mental Psychology, though it is a very old
processes. It seeks to understand and knowledge discipline, is a young
explain science, if one
how the mind works and how different were to take the year of the founding of
mental the
processes result in different behaviours. first laboratory of psychology in 1879 in
When Leipzig. However, what kind of science
we observe others as lay or common is
persons, psychology, still remains a matter of
our own points of view or our ways of debate,
understanding the world influence our particularly because of the new
interpretations of their behaviours and interfaces of
experiences. Psychologists try to it that have emerged in recent times.
minimise Psychology is generally categorised as a
such biases in their explanations of social
behaviour science. But it should not come to you
and experience in various ways. Some as a
surprise that, not only in other considers itself as a discipline, which
countries, but focuses
in India also, it is also a subject of study largely on biological principles to explain
offered human behaviour. It assumes that all
in the faculty of science, both at the behavioural phenomena have causes
undergraduate and post-graduate which can
levels. be discovered if we can collect data
Many students go on to earn a B.Sc. or systematically under controlled
M.Sc. conditions.
degree in universities. In fact, two of the Here the aim of the researcher is to
most know the
sought after emerging disciplines which cause and effect relationship so that a
continuously borrow from psychology prediction
are of the behavioural phenomenon can be
Neuroscience and Computer Science. made
Some of and behaviour can be controlled if need
us would be aware of the fast be. On
developing brain the other hand, psychology as a social
imaging techniques like fMRI, EEG, etc. science
which focuses on how behavioural phenomena
make it possible to study brain can be
processes in real explained in terms of the interaction
time, i.e. when they are actually taking that takes
place. place between the person and the
Similarly, in IT areas, both human- sociocultural
computer context of which s/he is a part. Each
interaction and artificial intelligence behavioural phenomenon is assumed to
cannot have
possibly grow without psychological multiple causes. Let us now discuss
knowledge these two
in cognitive processes. Thus, psychology streams separately.
as a Psychology as a Natural Science
discipline today has two parallel It has been mentioned earlier that
streams. One psychology
which makes use of the method in has its roots in philosophy. However,
physical and modern
biological sciences and the other which psychology has developed because of
makes the
use of the method of social and cultural application of the scientific method to
sciences in studying various study
psychological and psychological phenomenon. Science
social phenomena. These streams places a
sometimes great deal of emphasis on objectivity
converge only to drift apart and go their which
separate ways. In the first case, can be obtained if there is consensus on
psychology the
definition of a concept and how it can be motivation and emotion, etc. and have
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? made
5 significant progress. Till date, most of
measured. Psychology was influenced the
by research in psychology follows this
Descartes and later on by the approach.
developments in Apart from this, psychologists have also
physics has grown by following what is been
called considerably influenced by the
a hypothetico-deductive model. The evolutionary
model approach which is dominant in biological
suggests that scientific advancement sciences. This approach has also been
can take used
place if you have a theory to explain a to explain diverse kinds of psychological
phenomenon. For example, physicists phenomenon such as attachment and
have aggression to mention just a few.
what is called a Big-bang theory to Psychology as a Social Science
explain We mentioned above that psychology is
how the universe came to be formed. recognised more as a social science
Theory because
is nothing else but a set of statements it studies the behaviour of human
about beings in
how a certain complex phenomenon can their socio-cultural contexts. Humans
be are not
explained with the help of propositions only influenced by their socio-cultural
which contexts, they also create them.
are interrelated. Based on a theory, Psychology
scientists as a social science discipline focuses on
deduce or propose a hypothesis, that humans as social beings. Consider the
offers a following story of Ranjita and Shabnam.
tentative explanation of how a certain Ranjita and Shabnam were in the same
phenomenon takes place. The class. Although, they were in the same
hypothesis then class,
is tested and proved true or false based they were just acquainted with each
on other and
empirical data that one has gathered. their lives were quite different. Ranjita
The came
theory is revised if data gathered point from a farmer’s family. Her
in a grandparents,
different direction than the one parents and elder brother worked on
suggested by their farm.
the hypothesis. Using the above They lived together in their house in the
approach village.
psychologists have developed theories Ranjita was a good athlete and was the
of best
learning, memory, attention, perception, long distance runner in the school. She
loved regularity in the relationship of their
meeting people and making friends. nature,
Unlike her, Shabnam lived with her experience and mental processes with
mother their
in the same village. Her father worked social and physical environment. But at
in an the
office in a town nearby and came home same time, there are variations in their
during behaviours and experiences which
holidays. Shabnam was a good artist would be
and loved difficult to predict using the known
staying home and taking care of her psychological principles. One can
younger understand
brother. She was shy and avoided why and how individuals in communities
meeting become quite helpful and self-sacrificing
people. in
Last year there was very heavy rain and crisis as was the case with the people in
the river nearby overflowed into the the
village. village of Ranjita and Shabnam. But,
Many houses in the low lying areas were even in
flooded. The villagers got together and that case, not every villager was equally
organised help and gave shelter to helpful
people in and also under similar circumstances
distress. Shabnam’s house was also not
flooded every community is so forthcoming; in
and she came to live in Ranjita’s house fact,
with sometimes, the opposite is true – people
her mother and brother. Ranjita was become antisocial under similar
happy circumstances indulging in looting and
helping the family and making them feel Psychology
comfortable in her house. When the 6
flood water exploitation when some crisis occurs.
receded, Ranjita’s mother and This
grandmother shows that psychology deals with
helped Shabnam’s mother to set-up human
their house. behaviour and experience in the context
The two families became very close. of
Ranjita their society and culture. Thus,
and Shabnam also became very good psychology is
friends. a social science with focus on the
In this case of Ranjita and Shabnam, individuals
both and communities in relation to their
are very different persons. They grew up sociocultural
in and physical environment.
different families under complex social UNDERSTANDING MIND AND BEHAVIOUR
and You will recall that psychology was once
cultural conditions. You can see some defined as a science of the mind. For
many documented by neuroscientists. A young
decades, the mind remained a taboo in man
psychology because it could not be who suffered brain injury in an accident,
defined in after
concrete behavioural terms or its he returned home from the hospital,
location claimed
could not be indicated. If the term that his parents had been replaced by
“mind” has their
returned to psychology, we should thank “duplicates”. They were imposters. In
neuroscientists like Sperry and each of
physicists like these cases, the person had suffered
Penrose, who have given it the respect from
which damage of some part of the brain but
it deserved and now has. There are his
scientists “mind” had remained intact. It was
in various disciplines including earlier
psychology, believed by scientists that there is no
who think that a unified theory of the relationship between the mind and the
mind is body
a possibility, although it still is far away. and that they were parallel to each
What is mind? Is it the same as brain? It other.
is true that mind cannot exist without Recent studies in affective neuroscience
brain, have
but mind is a separate entity. This can clearly shown that there is a relationship
be between mind and behaviour. It has
appreciated on account of several been
interesting shown that using positive visualisation
cases that have been documented. techniques and feeling positive
Some emotions, one
patients whose occipital lobes, which are can bring about significant changes in
responsible for vision, were surgically bodily
removed processes. Ornish has shown this in a
have been found to be responding number
correctly to of studies with his patients. In these
location and configuration of visual studies a
cues. person with blocked arteries was made
Similarly, an amateur athlete lost his to
arm in visualise that blood was flowing through
a motorcycle accident but continued to her/
feel his blocked arteries. After practicing this
an “arm” and also continued to feel its over
movements. When offered coffee, his a period of time, significant relief was
“phantom arm” reached out to the obtained
coffee cup by these patients as the degree of
and when someone pulled it away, he blockage
protested. There are other similar cases became significantly less. Use of mental
imagery, i.e. images generated by a
person in
her/his mind, have been used to cure
various
kinds of phobias (irrational fears of
objects and
situations). A new discipline called
Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged
which
emphasises the role played by the mind
in
strengthening the immune system.
Imagine and visualise yourself in the following
situations. Mention three psychological
processes
involved in each situation.
1. You are writing an essay for a competition.
2. You are chatting with a friend on an
interesting topic.
3. You are playing football.
4. You are watching a soap opera on TV.
5. Your best friend has hurt you.
6. You are appearing in an examination.
7. You are expecting an important visitor.
8. You are preparing a speech to deliver in your
school.
9. You are playing chess.
10. You are trying to figure out the answer of a
difficult mathematics problem.
Discuss your answers with the teacher and
classmates.
Activity 1.1
POPULAR NOTIONS ABOUT THE DISCIPLINE
OF PSYCHOLOGY
We mentioned above that everyday,
almost
everyone of us acts like a psychologist.
We
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
7
try to understand why someone
behaved in
the manner in which s/he did and come
up
with ready explanations. Not only this,
most
of us have developed our own theory of
human behaviour. If we want some
worker
to perform better than s/he has in the
past,
we know that we will need to push
her/him.
Maybe even use a stick because people
are
basically lazy. Such popular theories of
human behaviour based on common
sense
may or may not be true if investigated
scientifically. In fact, you will find that
common sensical explanations of human
behaviour are based on hindsight and
explain
very little. For example, if a friend you
love
goes away to a distant place, what will
happen to your attraction for her/him?
There
are two sayings which you may recall to
answer this question. One of them is
“Out of
sight, out of mind”. The second one is
“Distance makes the heart grow
fonder”. Both
of them make opposite statements, so
which
one is true. The explanation you choose
will
depend on what happens in your life
after
your friend leaves. Suppose you are able
to
find a new friend, the saying “Out of
sight,
out of mind” will be used by you or
others to
explain your behaviour. If you are unable
to
find a new friend, you will keep
remembering
your friend fondly. In this case, the
saying
“Distance makes the heart grow fonder”
will
explain your behaviour. Notice that in
both
cases the explanation follows the
occurrence
of behaviour. Common sense is based
on
hindsight. Psychology as a science looks
for
patterns of behaviour which can be
predicted
and not explained after the behaviour
occurs.
Scientific knowledge generated by
psychology often runs against common
sense.
One such example is a study performed
by
Dweck (1975). She was concerned with
children who gave up too easily when
faced
with a difficult problem or failure. She
wondered how they could be helped.
Common
sense tells us to give them easy
problems in
order to increase their success rate so
that
their confidence goes up. Only later
should
we give them difficult problems which
they
will be able to solve because of their
new-found
confidence. Dweck’s study tested this.
She took
two groups of students who were trained
for
25 days in solving math problems. The
first
group was given easy problems which
they were
always able to solve. The second group
had a
mix of easy and difficult problems.
Obviously,
in case of difficult problems, they failed.
Whenever this happened Dweck told
them that
their failure was because they had not
tried
hard enough and persuaded them not to
give
up and keep trying. After the training
period
was over, a new set of math problems
were
given to the two groups. What Dweck
found
goes against common belief. Those who
had
always succeeded because they were
given
easy problems, gave up much faster
when they
faced failure than those who had
experience
of both success and failure and were
taught
to attribute failure to their lack of effort.
There are many other common sense
notions which you may not find to be
true.
Not too long ago it was believed in some
cultures that men are more intelligent
than
women or women cause more accidents
than
men. Empirical studies have shown that
both
of these are untrue. Common sense also
tells
us that one is not able to give one’s best
if you
are asked to perform before a large
audience.
Psychological studies have shown that if
you
have practiced well, you may actually
perform
better because the presence of others
helps
your performance.
It is hoped that as you go through this
textbook you will discover that many of
your
beliefs and understanding of human
behaviour
will change. You will also gather that
psychologists are different from
astrologers,
tantriks and palm readers because they
systematically examine propositions
based on
data to develop principles about human
behaviour and other psychological
phenomena.
Ask a cross-section of students about what
they
think psychology is? Draw a comparison
between
what they say and what the textbook tells you.
What conclusion can you draw?
Activity 1.2
Psychology
8 psychology.
EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology as a modern discipline,
which is
influenced to a large extent by Western
developments, has a short history. It
grew out
of ancient philosophy concerned with
questions of psychological significance.
We
mentioned earlier that the formal
beginning
of modern psychology is traced back to
1879
when the first experimental laboratory
was
established in Leipzig, Germany by
Wilhelm
Wundt. Wundt was interested in the
study of
conscious experience and wanted to
analyse
the constituents or the building blocks of
the
mind. Psychologists during Wundt’s time
analysed the structure of the mind
through
introspection and therefore were called
structuralists. Introspection was a
procedure
in which individuals or subjects in
psychological experiments were asked
to
describe in detail, their own mental
processes
or experiences. However, introspection
as a
method did not satisfy many other
psychologists. It was considered less
scientific
because the introspective reports could
not
be verified by outside observers. This
led to
the development of new perspectives in
An American psychologist, William
James,
who had set up a psychological
laboratory in
Cambridge, Massachusetts soon after
the
setting up of the Leipzig laboratory,
developed
what was called a functionalist approach
to
the study of the human mind. William
James
believed that instead of focusing on the
structure of the mind, psychology should
instead study what the mind does and
how
behaviour functions in making people
deal
with their environment. For example,
functionalists focused on how behaviour
enabled people to satisfy their needs.
According to William James,
consciousness
as an ongoing stream of mental process
interacting with the environment formed Yet another reaction to structuralism
the came
core of psychology. A very influential in the form of behaviourism. Around
educational thinker of the time, John 1910,
Dewey, John Watson rejected the ideas of mind
used functionalism to argue that human and
beings seek to function effectively by consciousness as subject matters of
adapting psychology. He was greatly influenced
to their environment. by the
In the early 20th century, a new work of physiologists like Ivan Pavlov on
perspective classical conditioning. For Watson, mind
called Gestalt psychology emerged in is not
Germany as a reaction to the observable and introspection is
structuralism of subjective
Wundt. It focused on the organisation of because it cannot be verified by another
perceptual experiences. Instead of observer. According to him, scientific
looking at psychology must focus on what is
the components of the mind, the Gestalt observable
psychologists argued that when we look and verifiable. He defined psychology as
at the a study
world our perceptual experience is more of behaviour or responses (to stimuli)
than which
the sum of the components of the can be measured and studied
perception. objectively.
In other words, what we experience is Behaviourism of Watson was further
more developed
than the inputs received from our by many influential psychologists who
environment. are
When, for example, light from a series of known as behaviourists. Most prominent
flashing bulbs falls on our retina, we among them was Skinner who applied
actually behaviourism to a wide range of
experience movement of light. When we situations and
see a popularised the approach. We will
movie, we actually have a series of discuss
rapidly Skinner’s work later in this textbook.
moving images of still pictures falling on Although behaviourists dominated the
our field
retina. Thus, our perceptual experience of psychology for several decades after
is more Watson,
than the elements. Experience is a number of other approaches and
holistic; it is views about
a Gestalt. We will learn more about the psychology and its subject matter were
Gestalt developing around the same time. One
psychology when we discuss about the person
nature who shook the world with his radical
of perception in Chapter 5. view of
human nature was Sigmund Freud. as well as weaknesses in each approach.
Freud Some
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? of these approaches have led to further
9 1879 Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first
viewed human behaviour as a dynamic psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
manifestation of unconscious desires Germany.
and 1890 William James publishes Principles of
Psychology.
conflicts. He founded psychoanalysis as
1895 Functionalism is formulated as a system
a of psychology.
system to understand and cure 1900 Sigmund Freud develops Psychoanalysis.
psychological 1904 Ivan Pavlov wins the Nobel Prize for his
disorders. While Freudian work on digestive system that led to
psychoanalysis understanding of principles of
development of responses.
viewed human beings as motivated by
1905 Intelligence test developed by Binet and
unconscious desire for gratification of Simon.
pleasure 1916 First Psychology Department at Calcutta
seeking (and often, sexual) desires, the University is established.
humanistic perspective in psychology 1920 Gestalt psychology is born in Germany.
took 1922 Psychology is included in Indian Science
Congress Association.
a more positive view of human nature.
1924 Indian Psychological Association is
Humanists, such as Carl Rogers and founded.
Abraham 1924 John B. Watson publishes ‘Behaviourism’,
Maslow, emphasised the free will of a book that led to the foundation of
human behaviourism.
beings and their natural striving to grow 1928 N.N. Sengupta and Radhakamal Mukerjee
publish the first textbook on Social
and
Psychology (London : Allen & Unwin).
unfold their inner potential. They argued 1949 Psychological Research Wing of the
that Defence Science Organisation of India is
behaviourism with its emphasis on established.
behaviour 1951 Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers
as determined by environmental publishes Client-Centred Therapy.
1953 B.F. Skinner publishes ‘Science and
conditions
Human Behaviour’, strengthening
undermines human freedom and dignity
and Box 1.1 Some Interesting
takes a mechanistic view of human Landmarks in the Evolution of
nature. Modern Psychology
These different approaches filled the behaviourism as a major approach to
history of modern psychology and psychology.
provided 1954 Humanistic psychologist Abraham
multiple perspectives to its Maslow
development. Each publishes ‘Motivation and Personality’.
1954 Bureau of Psychology is established at
of these perspectives has its own focus
Allahabad.
and 1955 National Institute of Mental Health and
draws our attention to the complexity of Neurosciences (NIMHANS) is established at
psychological processes. There are Bangalore.
strengths 1962 Hospital for Mental Diseases in Ranchi is
established. environment in specific ways. Some
1973 Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen win cognitive
the
psychologists view the human mind as
Nobel Prize for their work on built-in
speciesspecific
an
animal behaviour patterns that information processing system like the
emerge without any prior experience/ computer. Mind, according to this view is
learning. like
1978 Herbert Simon wins the Nobel Prize for a computer and it receives, processes,
work
transforms, stores and retrieves
on decision-making.
1981 David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel win the
information.
Nobel Modern cognitive psychology views
Prize for their research on vision cells in the human
brain. beings as actively constructing their
1981 Roger Sperry wins the Nobel Prize for minds
splitbrain
through their exploration into the
research.
1989 National Academy of Psychology (NAOP)
physical and
India the social world. This view is sometimes
was founded. called
1997 National Brain Research Centre (NBRC) is constructivism. Piaget’s view of child
established at Gurgaon, Haryana. development which will be discussed
2002 Daniel Kahneman wins the Nobel Prize for
later is
research on human judgment and
decisionmaking
considered a constructivist theory of
under uncertainty. development of the mind. Another
2005 Thomas Schelling wins the Nobel Prize for Russian
his psychologist Vygotsky went even further
work in applying Game Theory to to
understanding of conflict and cooperation in
suggest that the human mind develops
economic behaviour.
Psychology
through social and cultural processes in
10 which
developments in the discipline. Aspects the mind is viewed as culturally
of constructed
Gestalt approach and structuralism were through joint interaction between adults
combined and led to the development of and
the children. In other words, while for Piaget
cognitive perspective which focuses on children actively construct their own
how minds,
we know about the world. Cognition is Vygotsky took a view that mind is a joint
the cultural construction and emerges as a
process of knowing. It involves thinking, result
understanding, perceiving, memorising, of interaction between children and
problem solving and a host of other adults.
mental DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA
processes by which our knowledge of The Indian philosophical tradition is rich
the world in
develops, making us able to deal with its focus on mental processes and
the reflections
on human consciousness, self, mind- psychologist Dr. N.N. Sengupta who was
body trained in USA in the experimental
relations, and a variety of mental tradition
functions of Wundt. Professor G. Bose was trained
such as cognition, perception, illusion, in
attention and reasoning, etc. Freudian psychoanalysis, another area
Unfortunately, which
philosophical roots in the Indian tradition influenced the early development of
have psychology in India. Professor Bose
not influenced the development of established Indian Psychoanalytical
modern Association in 1922. Departments of
psychology in India. The development of Psychology in the Universities of Mysore
the and
discipline in India continues to be Patna were other early centres of
dominated teaching and
by western psychology, although some research in psychology. From these
attempts have been made to find points modest
of beginnings, modern psychology has
departure both within the country and grown as
abroad. a strong discipline in India with a large
These attempts have tried to establish number
the of centres of teaching, research and
truth value of various assertions in applications. There are two centers of
Indian excellence in psychology supported by
philosophical traditions through the
scientific UGC at Utkal University, Bhubaneswar
studies. and
The modern era of Indian psychology at the University of Allahabad. About 70
began in the Department of Philosophy universities offer courses in psychology.
at Durganand Sinha in his book Psychology
Calcutta University where the first in a Third World Country: The Indian
syllabus Experience published in 1986 traces the
of experimental psychology was history of modern psychology as a social
introduced science in India in four phases.
and the first psychology laboratory was According to
established in 1915. Calcutta University him, the first phase till independence
started the first Department of was a
Psychology in phase with emphasis on experimental,
the year 1916 and another Department psychoanalytic and psychological
of testing
Applied Psychology in 1938. The research, which primarily reflected the
beginning of development of the discipline in western
modern experimental psychology at countries. The second phase till the
Calcutta 1960s was
University was greatly influenced by the a phase of expansion of psychology in
Indian India
into different branches of psychology. Indian psychology, which came from our
During ancient texts and scriptures. Thus, this
this phase Indian psychologists showed phase
a is characterised by development in
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? indigenous
11 psychology, which originated from the
desire to have an Indian identity by Indian
seeking to cultural context and was relevant for
link western psychology to the Indian society
context. and Indian psychology based on the
They did this by using western ideas to Indian
understand the Indian situation. traditional knowledge system. While
However, these
psychology in India sought to become developments continue, psychology in
relevant India
for Indian society in the post 1960s is making significant contributions to the
phase of field
problem-oriented research. of psychology in the world. It has
Psychologists become more
became more focused on addressing the contextual emphasising the need for
problems of the Indian society. Further, developing psychological principles,
the which are
limitations of excessive dependence on rooted in our own social and cultural
western psychology for our social context.
context were Alongside, we also find that new
also realised. Leading psychologists research
emphasised the significance of research, studies involving interfaces with
which neurobiological
is of relevance to our situation. The and health sciences are being carried
search for out.
a new identity of psychology in India led Psychology in India is now being applied
to in diverse professional areas. Not only
the phase of indigenisation, which have
started psychologists been working with
during the late 1970s. Besides rejecting children
the having special problems, they are
western framework, Indian psychologists employed
stressed the need for developing an in hospitals as clinical psychologists, in
understanding based on a framework, corporate organisations in the HRD and
which advertising departments, in sports
was culturally and socially relevant. This directorates, in the development sector
trend and
was also reflected in some attempts to in IT industry.
develop BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
psychological approaches based on
Various fields of specialisation in
traditional
psychology
have emerged over the years. Some of substances
these which are responsible for neural
are discussed in this section. communication in different areas of the
Cognitive Psychology investigates brain
mental and therefore in associated mental
processes involved in acquisition, functions.
storage, They do their research on people with
manipulation, and transformation of normal
information received from the functioning brain as well as on people
environment with
along with its use and communication. damaged brain by following advanced
The technologies like EEG, PET and fMRI, etc.
major cognitive processes are attention, about which you will study later.
perception, memory, reasoning, problem Developmental Psychology studies the
solving, decision-making and language. physical, social and psychological
You changes
will be studying these topics later in this that occur at different ages and stages
textbook. In order to study these over a
cognitive life-span, from conception to old age.
processes, psychologists conduct The
experiments primary concern of developmental
in laboratory settings. Some of them Psychology
also follow 12
an ecological approach, i.e. an approach psychologists is how we become what
which we are.
focuses on the environmental factors, to For many years the major emphasis was
study on
cognitive processes in a natural setting. child and adolescent development.
Cognitive psychologists often However
collaborate with today an increasing number of
neuroscientists and computer scientists. developmental
Biological Psychology focuses on the psychologists show strong interest in
relationship between behaviour and the adult
physical system, including the brain and development and ageing. They focus on
the the
rest of the nervous system, the immune biological, socio-cultural and
system, and genetics. Biological environmental
psychologists factors that influence psychological
often collaborate with neuroscientists, characteristics such as intelligence,
zoologists, and anthropologists. cognition,
Neuropsychology has emerged as a field emotion, temperament, morality, and
of social
research where psychologists and relationship. Developmental
neuroscientists are working together. psychologists
Researchers are studying the role of collaborate with anthropologists,
neurotransmitters or chemical educationists, neurologists, social
workers, relations are also investigated. Current
counsellors and almost every branch of topics
knowledge where there is a concern for of research in this field are the extent to
growth which,
and development of a human being. disposal of waste, population explosion,
Social Psychology explores how people conservation of energy, efficient use of
are community resources are associated
affected by their social environments, with and
how are functions of human behaviour.
people think about and influence others. Health Psychology focuses on the role of
Social psychologists are interested in psychological factors (for example,
such stress,
topics as attitudes, conformity and anxiety) in the development, prevention
obedience and
to authority, interpersonal attraction, treatment of illness. Areas of interest for
helpful a
behaviour, prejudice, aggression, social health psychologist are stress and
motivation, inter-group relations and so coping, the
on. relationship between psychological
Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology factors and
examines the role of culture in health, patient-doctor relationship and
understanding ways
behaviour, thought, and emotion. It of promoting health enhancing factors.
assumes Clinical and Counselling Psychology
that human behaviour is not only a deals
reflection with causes, treatment and prevention
of human-biological potential but also a of
product of culture. Therefore behaviour different types of psychological
should disorders such
be studied in its socio-cultural context. as anxiety, depression, eating disorders
As you and
will be studying in different chapters of chronic substance abuse. A related area
this is
book, culture influences human counselling, which aims to improve
behaviour in everyday
many ways and in varying degrees. functioning by helping people solve
Environmental Psychology studies the problems
interaction of physical factors such as in daily living and cope more effectively
temperature, humidity, pollution, and with
natural challenging situations. The work of
disasters on human behaviour. The clinical
influence psychologists does not differ from that
of physical arrangement of the of
workplace on counselling psychologists although a
health, the emotional state, and counselling psychologist sometimes
interpersonal deals with
people who have less serious problems. management structure that would
In increase
many instances, counselling Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
psychologists 13
work with students, advising them about communication between managers and
personal problems and career planning. staff.
Like The background of industrial and
clinical psychologists, psychiatrists also organisational psychologists often
study includes
the causes, treatment, and prevention training in cognitive and social
of psychology.
psychological disorders. How are clinical Educational Psychology studies how
psychologists and psychiatrists people
different? A of all ages learn. Educational
clinical psychologist has a degree in psychologists
psychology, which includes intensive primarily help develop instructional
training methods
in treating people with psychological and materials used to train people in
disorders. both
In contrast, a psychiatrist has a medical educational and work settings. They are
degree also
with years of specialised training in the concerned with research on issues of
treatment of psychological disorders. relevance
One for education, counselling and learning
important distinction is that problems. A related field, school
psychiatrists can psychology,
prescribe medications and give focuses on designing programmes that
electroshock promote intellectual, social, and
treatments whereas clinical psychologist emotional
cannot. development of children, including those
Industrial/Organisational Psychology with
deals special needs. They try to apply
with workplace behaviour, focusing on knowledge of
both the psychology in a school setting.
workers and the organisations that Sports Psychology applies psychological
employ principles to improve sports
them. Industrial/organisational performance by
psychologists enhancing their motivation. Sports
are concerned with training employees, psychology
improving work conditions, and is a relatively new field but is gaining
developing acceptance worldwide.
criteria for selecting employees. For Other Emerging Branches of Psychology
example, :
an organisational psychologist might The interdisciplinary focus on research
recommend that a company may adopt and
a new application of psychology has led to the
emergence of varied areas like aviation research, function more like other
psychology, space psychology, military scientists.
psychology, forensic psychology, rural Like them, they draw conclusions which
psychology, engineering psychology, are
managerial psychology, community supported by data. They design and
psychology, psychology of women, and conduct
political psychology, to name a few. Try experiments or studies under controlled
the conditions on a wide range of
Activity 1.3 to reflect upon your interest psychological
areas phenomena. The purpose is to develop
in psychology. general
THEMES OF RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS principles about behaviour and mental
In the previous section, you got some processes. The conclusions drawn on the
idea of basis
the various branches of psychology. If of such studies apply to everybody and
you are,
were to ask a simple question about therefore, universal. Experimental,
“what comparative, physiological,
psychologists do?”, the usual answer will developmental,
be social, differential and abnormal
that they do several things while psychology
working in a are generally regarded as domains
variety of settings. However, if you try representing “basic psychology”.
to The themes of research in these fields
analyse their work, you will notice that differ
they from each other. For example,
basically engage in two kinds of experimental
activities. One Think about the areas of psychology that you
have
is research in psychology; the other is
read in the text. Go through the list given
application of psychology.
below
What are some of the themes which and rank them from 1 (most interesting) to 11
provide direction to research and (least
application interesting).
of psychology? There are several such Cognitive psychology
Biological psychology
themes.
Developmental psychology
We will focus on some of them.
Social psychology
Theme 1 : Psychology like other Cross-cultural and cultural psychology
sciences Environmental psychology
attempts to develop principles of Health psychology
behaviour and Clinical and counselling psychology
Industrial/Organisational psychology
mental processes.
Educational psychology
In research, the main concern is with the
Sports psychology
understanding and explanation of After going through this textbook and
behaviour completing
and mental events and processes. the course you may like to return to this
Psychologists, who choose to engage in activity
and mark the changes in your ranking. the environment is conceptualised as it
Activity 1.3 is
Psychology perceived or made sense of by the
14 person.
psychologists study the processes of Psychologists have for a long time
perception, learning, memory, thinking, considered
and that no two individuals are the same, if
motivation, etc., using experiment as one
their considers their psychological attributes.
method of enquiry, whereas They
physiological vary with respect to their intelligence,
psychologists attempt to examine interests, values, aptitudes and various
physiological bases of these behaviours. other
Developmental psychologists study personality characteristics. In fact,
qualitative psychological tests came to be
and quantitative changes in behaviour constructed to
from measure such differences. A discipline
the beginning of human life to its end, called, differential psychology, which
whereas focused
social psychologists focus on the study on individual differences emerged and
of flourished in the late nineteenth and
experience and behaviour of individuals early
as twentieth century. Most of it still remains
they take place in social contexts. in
Theme 2 : Human behaviour is a the form of personality psychology.
function of Psychologists believe that although,
the attributes of persons and core
environment. psychological processes are universal,
Kurt Lewin first proposed the famous they are
equation B = f(P,E) – which suggests susceptible to individual dispositions.
that Besides
behaviour is the product of a person and individual differences, psychologists also
her/ believe that there are variations in
his environment. What this equation behaviour
simply which occur due to environmental
tells us is that the variations we find in factors.
human This is a view which psychologists have
behaviour are largely due to the fact taken
that from anthropologists, evolutionary
persons differ with respect to their theorists
various and biologists. Psychologists look for
attributes because of their genetic explanations of various psychological
endowments and diverse experiences phenomena based on individual-
and so environment
do the environments they are placed in. interactions. Although it is difficult,
Here psychologists do seek out the relative
importance of heredity and environment are Euro-American in nature and
in therefore,
explaining human behaviour. do not help us in understanding
Theme 3 : Human behaviour is caused. behaviours
Most psychologists believe that all in other cultural settings. Psychologists
human from
behaviour can be explained in terms of Asia, Africa and Latin America have
causes been
which are internal (to the organism) or critical of Euro-American approaches
external which
having location in the outside are propagated as universal. A similar
environment. critique
Causal explanations are central to all is made by feminists who argue that
sciences psychology offers a male perspective
because without understanding them no and
prediction will be possible. Although, ignores the perspective of women. They
psychologists look for causal argue
explanations of in favour of a dialectical approach which
behaviour, they also realise that simple will
linear accommodate both male and female
explanations, such as X Causing Y do perspectives in understanding human
not hold behaviour.
true. There is no one cause of behaviour. Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
Human behaviour has multiple causes. 15
Psychologists, therefore, look for causal Theme 5 : Human behaviour can be
models where a set of interdependent controlled
variables and modified through the application of
are used to explain a behaviour. When it psychological principles.
is Why do scientists like to know how
said that behaviour has multiple causes, certain
it events can be controlled, be they
means that it is difficult to pinpoint one physical or
cause psychological? Their concern arises from
of a behaviour because it may itself be their
caused desire to develop techniques or methods
by another variable, which in turn may that
be will improve the quality of human life.
caused by some other. Psychologists also seek the same while
Theme 4 : Understanding of human applying knowledge generated by them.
behaviour This often requires removal of certain
is culturally constructed. difficulties or adverse conditions that
This is a theme which has recently individuals experience in different
surfaced. There are psychologists who phases of
believe their life. Consequently, psychologists
that most psychological theories and make
models certain interventions into the lives of
needy matters and broader concerns. There is
people. This applied role of no
psychologists has, sharp cleavage between research and
on the one hand, brought the subject application of psychology. For example,
closer basic
to the life of people in general than psychology provides us with theories
other social and
science subjects and in knowing the principles that form the basis of
limits of application
the applicability of its principles. On the of psychology and applied psychology
other provides
hand, this role has also been very us with different contexts in which the
helpful in theories
popularising psychology as a subject in and principles derived from research can
itself. be
Thus, several independent branches of meaningfully applied. On the other
psychology have emerged that try to hand,
use research is an integral part of even
psychological theories, principles and those fields
facts to of psychology that are mainly
diagnose and resolve problems related characterised
to by or subsumed under the category of
industrial and organisational settings, application. Due to ever increasing
clinical demands
services, education, environment, of psychology in different settings, many
health, fields
community development and so on. that were regarded as primarily
Industrial “researchoriented”
psychology, organisational psychology, in previous decades, have also
clinical gradually turned into “application-
psychology, educational psychology, oriented”.
engineering psychology and sports Newly emerging disciplines like applied
psychology experimental psychology, applied social
represent some of the areas in which psychology, and applied developmental
psychologists are engaged in delivering psychology indicate that in fact all
services to individuals, groups or psychology
institutions. has the potential of application and is
Basic vs Applied Psychology basically
It may be noted at this point that applied in nature.
various areas Thus, there is seemingly no fundamental
put under the rubrics of “basic” and difference between research and
“applied” application
psychology are identified only on the of psychology. These activities are highly
basis of interrelated and mutually reinforcing.
their emphasis on the study of certain Their
subject mutual interactions and pervasive
influences disciplines. In studying brain and
on each other have become so specific behaviour,
that psychology shares its knowledge with
several offshoots have emerged in neurology, physiology, biology, medicine
recent years and
with very specific emphasis on their computer science. In studying human
subject behaviour (its meaning, growth and
matters. Thus, ecological psychology, development) in a socio-cultural
environmental psychology, cross- context,
cultural psychology shares its knowledge with
psychology, biological psychology, anthropology, sociology, social work,
space political
psychology, and cognitive psychology, science and economics. In studying
to mental
mention a few, have come up as new activities involved in creation of literary
and texts,
frontier areas of research and music and drama, psychology shares its
application that knowledge with literature, art and
previously formed part of other fields of music.
psychology. These newer developments Some of the major disciplines linked to
require highly specialised research skills the
and field of psychology are discussed below:
training on the part of researchers than Philosophy : Until the end of the 19th
ever century,
before. certain concerns that are now part of
PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES contemporary psychology like, what is
Any discipline, which deals with people, the
would nature of the mind or how do humans
definitely recognise the relevance of the come
knowledge of psychology. Similarly to know their motivations and emotions
psychologists also acknowledge the were
relevance the concerns of philosophers. In the
of other disciplines in understanding later part
human of the 19th century, Wundt and other
behaviour. This trend has led to the psychologists adopted an experimental
emergence approach to these questions and
of interdisciplinary approach in the field contemporary psychology emerged.
of Despite
psychology. Researchers and scholars in the emergence of psychology as a
science, social science and humanities science, it
have greatly draws from philosophy,
felt the significance of psychology as a particularly
discipline. Figure 1.1 clearly shows the with respect to methods of knowing, and
Psychology various domains of human nature.
16 Medicine : Doctors have realised that
relationship of psychology with other the
maxim, healthy body requires a healthy Prize
mind, in Economics, namely H. Simon, D.
is actually true. A large number of Kahneman
hospitals and T. Schelling. Like economics,
now employ psychologists. The role of political
psychologists in preventing people from science too draws considerably from
engaging in health hazardous psychology, particularly, in
behaviours and understanding
in adhering to the prescribed doctors’ issues related to exercise of power and
regimen authority, nature of political conflicts
are some of the important areas where and their
the resolutions, and voting behaviour.
two disciplines have come together. Sociology
While and psychology come together to
treating patients suffering from cancer, explain and
AIDS, understand the behaviour of individuals
and the physically challenged, or within different socio-cultural contexts.
handling Issues
patients in the Intensive Care Unit, and related to socialisation, group and
patients during post operative care collective
doctors behaviour, and intergroup conflicts gain
have also felt the need for psychological from
counselling. A successful doctor looks at both these disciplines.
the Computer Science : From the very
psychological as well as physical well- beginning,
being the effort of computer science has been
of the patients. in
Economics, Political Science and mimicking the human mind. One can
Sociology : As sister social science see it in
disciplines, terms of how a ‘computer’ is structured,
these three have drawn considerably its
from memory organised, sequential and
psychology and have enriched it as well. simultaneous (read parallel) processing
Psychology has contributed a great deal of
to the information. Computer scientists and
study of micro-level economic engineers are seeking to make
behaviour, computers not
particularly in understanding consumer only more and more intelligent but also
behaviour, savings behaviour and in machines which can sense and feel.
decisionmaking. Developments in both these disciplines
American economists have used data have
on consumer sentiments to predict brought about significant advancement
economic in the
growth. Three scholars who have worked field of cognitive sciences.
on Law and Criminology : A skilled lawyer
such problems have received the Nobel and
a criminologist requires knowledge of lives in a
psychology in answering such questions very big way. They have a major
as: influence on
How well a witness remembers an our thinking, attitudes and our
accident, a emotions. If
street fight, or a murder? How well can they have brought us closer together,
s/he they have
report such facts when taking the also reduced cultural diversities. The
witness impact
stand in the court? What factors of media on the formation of attitudes of
influence the children and their behaviour is a domain
decision which is taken by the jury? where both these disciplines come
What are together.
the dependable signs of guilt and Psychology also helps in developing
falsehood? strategies
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? for better and effective communication.
17 A
What factors are held important in journalist in reporting news must know
holding a the
culprit responsible for her/his action? reader’s interests in the story. Since
What most
degree of punishment is considered just stories deal with human events,
for a knowledge of
criminal act? Psychologists seek to their motives and emotions is very
answer important.
these questions. Currently, a number of A story will have more impact if it is
psychologists are involved in research based on
on such a background of psychological
Fig.1.1 : Psychology and Other Disciplines
knowledge and
Architecture and Engineering
Medicine/Psychiatry
insight.
Computer Science Music and Fine Arts : Music and
Philosophy psychology
Education have converged in many areas.
Music and Fine Arts Scientists have
Sociology
made use of music in raising work
Mass Communication
Law/Criminology
performance. Music and emotions is
Psychology another
Political Science Economics area in which a number of studies have
Psychology been
18 carried out. Musicians in India have
issues, the answers to which would help recently
the started experimenting with what they
legal system of the country in the call
future. ‘Music Therapy’. In this they use
Mass Communication : The print and the different
electronic media have entered in our ‘Ragas’ for curing certain physical
ailments. or
The efficacy of music therapy still with stresses at home or at work. They
remains to work
be proven. either as private practitioners or at
Architecture and Engineering : At first hospitals,
glance mental institutions, or with social
the relationship between psychology agencies.
and They may be involved in conducting
architecture and engineering would interviews and administering
appear psychological
improbable. But such is actually not the tests to diagnose the client’s problems,
case. and
Ask any architect, s/he must satisfy use psychological methods for their
her/his treatment
clients by providing mental and physical and rehabilitation. Job opportunities in
space clinical psychology attract quite a few to
through her design and satisfy this
aesthetically. field of psychology.
Engineers must also take into account Counselling psychologists work with
human persons who suffer from motivational
habits in their plans for safety, for and
example, emotional problems. The problems of
on streets and highways. Psychological their
knowledge helps in a big way in clients are less serious than those of the
designing of clinical psychologists. A counselling
all mechanical devices and displays. psychologist may be involved in
To sum up, psychology is located at the vocational
intersection of many fields of knowledge rehabilitation programmes, or helping
pertaining to human functioning. persons
PSYCHOLOGISTS AT WORK in making professional choices or in
Psychologists today work in a variety of adjusting
settings where they can apply to new and difficult situations of life.
psychological Counselling psychologists work for
principles for teaching and training public
people to agencies such as mental health centres,
cope effectively with the problems of hospitals, schools, colleges and
their lives. universities.
Often referred to as “human service Community psychologists generally
areas” they focus on problems related to community
include clinical, counselling, community, mental health. They work for mental
school and organisational psychology. health
Clinical psychologists specialise in agencies, private organisations and
helping clients with behavioural state
problems by governments. They help the community
providing therapy for various mental and
disorders and in cases of anxiety or fear, its institutions in addressing physical
and consultancy services and organise skill
mental health problems. In rural areas training programmes in order to
they enhance their
may work to establish a mental health efficiency and effectiveness. Some
centre. organisational psychologists specialise
In urban areas they may design a drug in
rehabilitation programme. Many Human Resource Development (HRD),
community while
psychologists also work with special others in Organisational Development
populations such as the elderly or the and
physically or mentally challenged. Change Management programmes.
Besides the PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
redirection and evaluation of various The discussion above may have clarified
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? that
19
psychology is not only a subject that
programmes and plans, community
satisfies
based
some of the curiosities of our mind
rehabilitation (CBR) is of major interest
about
to
human nature, but it is also a subject
community psychologists.
that
School psychologists work in
can offer solutions to a variety of
educational systems, and their roles
problems.
vary
These may range from purely personal
according to the levels of their training.
(for
For
example, a daughter having to face an
example, some school psychologists
alcoholic
only
father or a mother dealing with a
administer tests, whereas others also
problem child)
interpret test results to help students
to those that may be rooted within the
with
family
their problems. They also help in the
set up (for example, lack of
formulation of school policies. They
communication and
facilitate
interaction among family members) or
communication between parents,
in a
teachers
larger group or community setting (for
and administrators, and also provide
example,
teachers
terrorist groups or socially isolated
and parents with information about the
communities) or may have national or
academic progress of a student.
international dimensions. Problems
Organisational psychologists render
related to
valuable help in dealing with problems
education, health, environment, social
that
justice,
the executives and employees of an
women development, intergroup
organisation tend to face in their
relations, etc.
respective
are pervasive. While the solution of
roles. They provide organisations with
these
problems may involve political, surprise
economic and that we find psychologists working in
social reforms, interventions at the diverse
individual settings such as schools, hospitals,
levels are also needed in order to industries,
change. Many prisons, business organisations, military
of these problems are largely of establishments, and in private practice
psychological as
nature and they result from our consultants helping people solve
unhealthy problems in
thinking, negative attitude towards their respective settings.
people and Besides helping you in rendering social
self and undesirable patterns of service to others, the knowledge of
behaviour. A psychology
psychological analysis of these problems is also personally relevant to you in your
helps dayto-
both in having a deeper understanding day life. The principles and methods of
of these psychology that you will learn in this
problems and also in finding their course
effective should be made use of in analysing and
solutions. understanding yourself in relation to
The potential of psychology in solving others.
the It is not that we do not think about
problems of life is being realised more ourselves.
and But very often, some of us think very
more. Media has played a vital role in highly
this of ourselves and any feedback that
respect. You may have seen on contradicts
television our opinion about ourselves is rejected
counsellors and therapists suggesting because we engage in what is called a
solutions to a variety of problems defensive behaviour. In some other
related to cases,
children, adolescents, adults and the persons come to acquire a habit of
elderly running
people. You may also find them down themselves. Both conditions do
analysing vital not
social problems relating to social change permit us to grow. We need to have a
and positive
development, population, poverty, and balanced understanding of
interpersonal or intergroup violence, and ourselves. You
environmental degradation. Many Psychology
psychologists now play an active role in 20
1. What is behaviour? Give examples of overt
designing and executing intervention
and covert behaviour.
programmes in order to provide people 2. How can you distinguish scientific
with a psychology from the popular notions about the
better quality of life. Hence, it is no discipline of psychology?
3. Give a brief account of the evolution of
psychology.
Review Questions
Key Terms
Behaviour, Behaviourism, Cognition, Cognitive
approach, Consciousness, Constructivism,
Developmental psychology, Functionalism,
Gestalt, Gestalt psychology, Humanistic
approach, Introspection, Mind,
Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology,
Psychoanalysis, Sociology, Stimulus,
Structuralism
may use psychological principles in a
positive
manner to develop good habits of study
for
improving your learning and memory,
and for
solving your personal and interpersonal
problems by using appropriate
decisionmaking
strategies. You will also find it of use
to reduce or alleviate the stress of
examination. Thus, the knowledge of
psychology is quite useful in our
everyday life,
and is rewarding from personal as well
as
social points of view.
Summary
• Psychology is a modern discipline aimed at
understanding the complexities of mental
processes, experiences and behaviour of
individuals in different contexts. It is treated as
a
natural as well as a social science.
• The major schools of psychological thought
are structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism,
Gestalt school, psychoanalysis, humanistic
psychology and cognitive psychology.
• Contemporary psychology is multivocal as it
is characterised by many approaches or
diverse views, which explain behaviour at
different levels. These approaches are not
mutually exclusive. Each provides valuable
insights into the complexities of human
functioning. The cognitive approach uses
thought processes as central to psychological
functions. The humanistic approach views
human functioning as characterised by a
desire
to grow, be productive and fulfill human
potential.
• Today psychologists work in many specialised
fields which have their own theories and
methods. They make efforts to develop
theories and solve problems in specific
domains.
Some of the major fields of psychology are:
cognitive psychology, biological psychology,
health psychology, developmental psychology,
social psychology, educational and school
psychology, clinical and counselling
psychology, environmental psychology,
industrial/
organisational psychology, sports psychology.
• More recently a need is felt to have
multi/interdisciplinary initiatives to arrive at a
better
understanding of reality. This has led to a
collaboration across disciplines. Interests of
psychology overlap with social sciences (e.g.,
economics, political science, sociology),
biosciences (e.g., neurology, physiology,
medicine), mass communication, and music
and
fine arts. Such efforts have led to fruitful
research and application.
• Psychology is a discipline not merely
contributing to the development of theoretical
knowledge about human behaviour, but
contributing to the solution of problems at
different
levels. Psychologists are employed to help in
diverse activities in a variety of settings
including schools, hospitals, industries, training
institutes, military and government
establishments. Many of them are doing
private practice and are consultants.
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
21
1. This chapter tells you about several
professionals in the field of psychology. Contact
a
psychologist who fits into one of the categories
and interview the person. Have a list of
questions prepared beforehand. Possible
questions could be: (i) What kind of education
is
necessary for your particular job? (ii) Which
college/university would you recommend for
the study of this discipline? (iii) Are there many
jobs available today in your area of work?
(iv) What would a typical day at work be like for
you – or is there no such thing as
“typical”? (v) What motivated you to enter this
line of work?
Write a report of your interview and include
your specific reactions.
2. Go to the library or some bookstore or surf
the internet and obtain names of some books
(fiction/non-fiction or films), which have
reference to applications of psychology.
Prepare a report giving a brief synopsis.
Project Ideas
4. What are the problems for which
collaboration of psychologists with other
disciplines
can be fruitful? Take any two problems to
explain.
5. Differentiate between (a) a psychologist and
a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a clinical
psychologist.
6. Describe some of the areas of everyday life
where understanding of psychology can be
put to practice.
7. How can knowledge of the field of
environmental psychology be used to promote
environment friendly behaviour?
8. In terms of helping solve an important social
problem such as crime, which branch of
psychology do you think is most suitable.
Identify the field and discuss the concerns of
the psychologists working in this field.
1
Chapter
Whatt iiss
Pssychollogy?
• understand the nature and role of
psychology in understanding mind
and behaviour,
• state the growth of the discipline,
• know the different fields of psychology,
its relationship with other
disciplines, and professions, and
• appreciate the value of psychology in
daily life to help you understand
yourself and others better.
After reading this chapter, you
would be able to
Introduction
What is Psychology?
Psychology as a Discipline
Psychology as a Natural Science
Psychology as a Social Science
Understanding Mind and Behaviour
Popular Notions about the Discipline of
Psychology
Evolution of Psychology
Some Interesting Landmarks in the
Evolution of
Modern Psychology (Box 1.1)
Development of Psychology in India
Branches of Psychology
Themes of Research and Applications
Psychology and Other Disciplines
Psychologists at Work
Psychology in Everyday Life
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
Contents
The growth of the human mind
is still high adventure,
in many ways the highest
adventure on earth.
– Norman Cousins
Psychology
2
psychology was a study of the soul or
mind.
But since then it has moved away
considerably
from this focus and established itself as
a
scientific discipline which deals with
processes such responses as knowing oneself,
underlying human experience and knowing others or more specific
behaviour. responses like
The range of phenomena it studies, knowing why people dream, why people
some of go out of their way to help others or
which we mentioned above, are spread beat
over each other up. All ancient traditions
several levels, viz. individual, dyadic have engaged themselves with
(two questions about
person) group, and organisational. They human nature. The Indian philosophical
also traditions, in particular, deal with
have biological as well as social bases. questions
Naturally, therefore, the methods relating to why people behave in the
required to manner in which they do. Why are
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? people
Any knowledge discipline is hard to generally unhappy? What changes
define. should they bring about in themselves if
Firstly, because it evolves continuously. they
Secondly, because the range of desire happiness in their lives? Like all
phenomena it knowledge, psychological knowledge
studies cannot be captured by any one too
definition. This is even more true of is intended to contribute to human well-
psychology. being. If the world is full of misery, it is
Long time back, students like yourself largely due to humans themselves.
were told Perhaps, you have asked why a 9/11 or
that the term psychology is derived from war
two in Iraq happened. Why innocent people
Greek words psyche meaning soul and in Delhi, Mumbai, Srinagar or in the
logos North-
meaning science or study of a subject. East have to face bombs and bullets?
Thus, Psychologists ask what is in the
You were, perhaps, asked by your experiences
teacher in the first class why you opted of young men which turn them into
for terrorists seeking revenge. But there is
psychology over other subjects. What another
do you hope to learn? If you were asked side to human nature. You may have
this heard the name of Major HPS Ahluwalia,
question, what was your response? paralysed waist down because of an
Generally, the range of responses which injury he suffered in a war with
surface Pakistan,
in class to this question are truly who climbed the Mt. Everest. What
bewildering. Most students give inane moved him to climb such heights?
responses, These are not
like they want to know what others are only questions about human nature
thinking. But then one also comes which psychology addresses as a
across human
science. You will be surprised to learn sense of these data so that they can be
that modern psychology also deals with organised as knowledge. Let us try to
somewhat nebulous micro-level understand the three terms used in the
phenomenon like consciousness, definition, namely, mental processes,
focusing attention experience, and behaviour.
in the face of noise, or supporters trying When we say experiences are internal to
to burn down a shopping complex after the experiencing person, then we refer
their team had scored victory in a to states
football game over its traditional rival. of consciousness or awareness or
Psychology mental
cannot claim that answers have been processes. We use our mental processes
found to these complex questions. But it when
surely has improved upon our we think or try to solve a problem, to
understanding and how we make sense know or
of these remember something. One level at
phenomena. The most striking aspect of which these
the discipline, unlike other sciences, lies mental processes are reflected is the
in brain
the study of psychological processes activity. As we think or solve a
which are largely internal and available mathematical
to problem, our brain activities can be
humans for observation within observed
themselves. using different techniques of brain
imaging.
Introduction However, we cannot say that brain
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? activities
3 and mental processes are the same,
study them also vary greatly depending although
on the they are interdependent. Mental
phenomenon one wants to study. A activities and
discipline neural activities are mutually
is defined both in terms of what it overlapping
studies and processes but, they are not identical.
how it studies. In fact, more in terms of Unlike
how or the brain, the mind does not have a
method/s it uses. Keeping this in view, physical
psychology is defined formally as a structure or has a location. Mind
science emerges and
which studies mental processes, evolves as our interactions and
experiences experiences
and behaviour in different contexts. In in this world get dynamically organised
doing in the
so, it uses methods of biological and form of a system which is responsible for
social the
sciences to obtain data systematically. It occurrence of various mental processes.
makes Brain activities provide important clues
as to encounters. There are some esoteric
how our mind functions. But the experiences also which attract the
consciousness of our own experiences attention of
and psychologists, such as when a Yogi
mental processes are much more than meditates
the to enter a different level of
neural or brain activities. Even when we consciousness and
are creates a new kind of experience or
asleep some mental activities go on. We when a
dream, and receive some information drug addict takes a particular kind of
such drug to
as a knock on the door while we are get a high, even though such drugs are
asleep. extremely harmful. Experiences are
Some psychologists have shown that we influenced
also by internal and the external conditions
learn and remember in our sleep. Mental of the
processes, such as remembering, experiencer. If you are travelling in a
learning, crowded
knowing, perceiving, feeling are of bus during a hot summer day, you may
interest to not
psychologists. They study these experience the usual discomfort if you
processes to are
try to understand how the mind works going for a picnic with some close
and to friends. Thus,
help us improve the uses and the nature of experience can only be
applications of understood
these mental capacities. by analysing a complex set of internal
Psychologists also study experiences of and
people. Experiences are subjective in external conditions.
nature. Behaviours are responses or reactions
We cannot directly observe or know we
someone make or activities we engage in. When
else’s experience. Only the experiencing something is hurled at you, your eyes
person blink in
can be aware or be conscious of her or a simple reflex action. You are taking an
his examination and can feel your heart
experiences. Thus, experiences are pounding.
embedded You decide to go for a particular movie
in our awareness or consciousness. with a
Psychologists have focused on friend. Behaviours may be simple or
experiences of complex,
pain being experienced by terminally ill short or enduring. Some behaviours are
patients or of psychological pain felt in overt.
bereavement, besides experiences They can be outwardly seen or sensed
which lead by an
to positive feelings, such as in romantic observer. Some are internal or covert.
When by seeking to make their analysis
you are in a difficult situation while scientific
playing a and objective. Others seek to explain
game of chess you almost feel your behaviour from the point of view of the
hand experiencing persons because they
muscles twitching, trying to experiment think that
with subjectivity is a necessary aspect of
a move. All behaviours, covert or overt, human
are experience. In the Indian tradition,
associated with or triggered by some selfreflection
stimulus and analysis of our conscious
in the environment or changes that experiences, is held to be a major
happen source of
internally. You may see a tiger and run psychological understanding. Many
or think western
that there is a tiger and decide to flee. psychologists have also begun to
Some emphasise
Psychology the role of self-reflection and self-
4 knowledge
psychologists study behaviour as an in understanding human behaviour and
association between stimulus (S) and experience. Regardless of the
response differences in the
(R). Both stimulus and response can be way psychologists go about the study of
internal or external. behaviour, mental processes and
Psychology as a Discipline experiences,
As we have discussed above, they seek to understand and explain
psychology them in
studies behaviour, experience and a systematic and verifiable manner.
mental Psychology, though it is a very old
processes. It seeks to understand and knowledge discipline, is a young
explain science, if one
how the mind works and how different were to take the year of the founding of
mental the
processes result in different behaviours. first laboratory of psychology in 1879 in
When Leipzig. However, what kind of science
we observe others as lay or common is
persons, psychology, still remains a matter of
our own points of view or our ways of debate,
understanding the world influence our particularly because of the new
interpretations of their behaviours and interfaces of
experiences. Psychologists try to it that have emerged in recent times.
minimise Psychology is generally categorised as a
such biases in their explanations of social
behaviour science. But it should not come to you
and experience in various ways. Some as a
do so surprise that, not only in other
countries, but focuses
in India also, it is also a subject of study largely on biological principles to explain
offered human behaviour. It assumes that all
in the faculty of science, both at the behavioural phenomena have causes
undergraduate and post-graduate which can
levels. be discovered if we can collect data
Many students go on to earn a B.Sc. or systematically under controlled
M.Sc. conditions.
degree in universities. In fact, two of the Here the aim of the researcher is to
most know the
sought after emerging disciplines which cause and effect relationship so that a
continuously borrow from psychology prediction
are of the behavioural phenomenon can be
Neuroscience and Computer Science. made
Some of and behaviour can be controlled if need
us would be aware of the fast be. On
developing brain the other hand, psychology as a social
imaging techniques like fMRI, EEG, etc. science
which focuses on how behavioural phenomena
make it possible to study brain can be
processes in real explained in terms of the interaction
time, i.e. when they are actually taking that takes
place. place between the person and the
Similarly, in IT areas, both human- sociocultural
computer context of which s/he is a part. Each
interaction and artificial intelligence behavioural phenomenon is assumed to
cannot have
possibly grow without psychological multiple causes. Let us now discuss
knowledge these two
in cognitive processes. Thus, psychology streams separately.
as a Psychology as a Natural Science
discipline today has two parallel It has been mentioned earlier that
streams. One psychology
which makes use of the method in has its roots in philosophy. However,
physical and modern
biological sciences and the other which psychology has developed because of
makes the
use of the method of social and cultural application of the scientific method to
sciences in studying various study
psychological and psychological phenomenon. Science
social phenomena. These streams places a
sometimes great deal of emphasis on objectivity
converge only to drift apart and go their which
separate ways. In the first case, can be obtained if there is consensus on
psychology the
considers itself as a discipline, which definition of a concept and how it can be
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? made
5 significant progress. Till date, most of
measured. Psychology was influenced the
by research in psychology follows this
Descartes and later on by the approach.
developments in Apart from this, psychologists have also
physics has grown by following what is been
called considerably influenced by the
a hypothetico-deductive model. The evolutionary
model approach which is dominant in biological
suggests that scientific advancement sciences. This approach has also been
can take used
place if you have a theory to explain a to explain diverse kinds of psychological
phenomenon. For example, physicists phenomenon such as attachment and
have aggression to mention just a few.
what is called a Big-bang theory to Psychology as a Social Science
explain We mentioned above that psychology is
how the universe came to be formed. recognised more as a social science
Theory because
is nothing else but a set of statements it studies the behaviour of human
about beings in
how a certain complex phenomenon can their socio-cultural contexts. Humans
be are not
explained with the help of propositions only influenced by their socio-cultural
which contexts, they also create them.
are interrelated. Based on a theory, Psychology
scientists as a social science discipline focuses on
deduce or propose a hypothesis, that humans as social beings. Consider the
offers a following story of Ranjita and Shabnam.
tentative explanation of how a certain Ranjita and Shabnam were in the same
phenomenon takes place. The class. Although, they were in the same
hypothesis then class,
is tested and proved true or false based they were just acquainted with each
on other and
empirical data that one has gathered. their lives were quite different. Ranjita
The came
theory is revised if data gathered point from a farmer’s family. Her
in a grandparents,
different direction than the one parents and elder brother worked on
suggested by their farm.
the hypothesis. Using the above They lived together in their house in the
approach village.
psychologists have developed theories Ranjita was a good athlete and was the
of best
learning, memory, attention, perception, long distance runner in the school. She
motivation and emotion, etc. and have loved
meeting people and making friends. nature,
Unlike her, Shabnam lived with her experience and mental processes with
mother their
in the same village. Her father worked social and physical environment. But at
in an the
office in a town nearby and came home same time, there are variations in their
during behaviours and experiences which
holidays. Shabnam was a good artist would be
and loved difficult to predict using the known
staying home and taking care of her psychological principles. One can
younger understand
brother. She was shy and avoided why and how individuals in communities
meeting become quite helpful and self-sacrificing
people. in
Last year there was very heavy rain and crisis as was the case with the people in
the river nearby overflowed into the the
village. village of Ranjita and Shabnam. But,
Many houses in the low lying areas were even in
flooded. The villagers got together and that case, not every villager was equally
organised help and gave shelter to helpful
people in and also under similar circumstances
distress. Shabnam’s house was also not
flooded every community is so forthcoming; in
and she came to live in Ranjita’s house fact,
with sometimes, the opposite is true – people
her mother and brother. Ranjita was become antisocial under similar
happy circumstances indulging in looting and
helping the family and making them feel Psychology
comfortable in her house. When the 6
flood water exploitation when some crisis occurs.
receded, Ranjita’s mother and This
grandmother shows that psychology deals with
helped Shabnam’s mother to set-up human
their house. behaviour and experience in the context
The two families became very close. of
Ranjita their society and culture. Thus,
and Shabnam also became very good psychology is
friends. a social science with focus on the
In this case of Ranjita and Shabnam, individuals
both and communities in relation to their
are very different persons. They grew up sociocultural
in and physical environment.
different families under complex social UNDERSTANDING MIND AND BEHAVIOUR
and You will recall that psychology was once
cultural conditions. You can see some defined as a science of the mind. For
regularity in the relationship of their many
decades, the mind remained a taboo in man
psychology because it could not be who suffered brain injury in an accident,
defined in after
concrete behavioural terms or its he returned home from the hospital,
location claimed
could not be indicated. If the term that his parents had been replaced by
“mind” has their
returned to psychology, we should thank “duplicates”. They were imposters. In
neuroscientists like Sperry and each of
physicists like these cases, the person had suffered
Penrose, who have given it the respect from
which damage of some part of the brain but
it deserved and now has. There are his
scientists “mind” had remained intact. It was
in various disciplines including earlier
psychology, believed by scientists that there is no
who think that a unified theory of the relationship between the mind and the
mind is body
a possibility, although it still is far away. and that they were parallel to each
What is mind? Is it the same as brain? It other.
is true that mind cannot exist without Recent studies in affective neuroscience
brain, have
but mind is a separate entity. This can clearly shown that there is a relationship
be between mind and behaviour. It has
appreciated on account of several been
interesting shown that using positive visualisation
cases that have been documented. techniques and feeling positive
Some emotions, one
patients whose occipital lobes, which are can bring about significant changes in
responsible for vision, were surgically bodily
removed processes. Ornish has shown this in a
have been found to be responding number
correctly to of studies with his patients. In these
location and configuration of visual studies a
cues. person with blocked arteries was made
Similarly, an amateur athlete lost his to
arm in visualise that blood was flowing through
a motorcycle accident but continued to her/
feel his blocked arteries. After practicing this
an “arm” and also continued to feel its over
movements. When offered coffee, his a period of time, significant relief was
“phantom arm” reached out to the obtained
coffee cup by these patients as the degree of
and when someone pulled it away, he blockage
protested. There are other similar cases became significantly less. Use of mental
documented by neuroscientists. A young imagery, i.e. images generated by a
person in
her/his mind, have been used to cure
various
kinds of phobias (irrational fears of
objects and
situations). A new discipline called
Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged
which
emphasises the role played by the mind
in
strengthening the immune system.
Imagine and visualise yourself in the following
situations. Mention three psychological
processes
involved in each situation.
1. You are writing an essay for a competition.
2. You are chatting with a friend on an
interesting topic.
3. You are playing football.
4. You are watching a soap opera on TV.
5. Your best friend has hurt you.
6. You are appearing in an examination.
7. You are expecting an important visitor.
8. You are preparing a speech to deliver in your
school.
9. You are playing chess.
10. You are trying to figure out the answer of a
difficult mathematics problem.
Discuss your answers with the teacher and
classmates.
Activity 1.1
POPULAR NOTIONS ABOUT THE DISCIPLINE
OF PSYCHOLOGY
We mentioned above that everyday,
almost
everyone of us acts like a psychologist.
We
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
7
try to understand why someone
behaved in
the manner in which s/he did and come
up
with ready explanations. Not only this,
most
of us have developed our own theory of
human behaviour. If we want some
worker
to perform better than s/he has in the
past,
we know that we will need to push
her/him.
Maybe even use a stick because people
are
basically lazy. Such popular theories of
human behaviour based on common
sense
may or may not be true if investigated
scientifically. In fact, you will find that
common sensical explanations of human
behaviour are based on hindsight and
explain
very little. For example, if a friend you
love
goes away to a distant place, what will
happen to your attraction for her/him?
There
are two sayings which you may recall to
answer this question. One of them is
“Out of
sight, out of mind”. The second one is
“Distance makes the heart grow
fonder”. Both
of them make opposite statements, so
which
one is true. The explanation you choose
will
depend on what happens in your life
after
your friend leaves. Suppose you are able
to
find a new friend, the saying “Out of
sight,
out of mind” will be used by you or
others to
explain your behaviour. If you are unable
to
find a new friend, you will keep
remembering
your friend fondly. In this case, the
saying
“Distance makes the heart grow fonder”
will
explain your behaviour. Notice that in
both
cases the explanation follows the
occurrence
of behaviour. Common sense is based
on
hindsight. Psychology as a science looks
for
patterns of behaviour which can be
predicted
and not explained after the behaviour
occurs.
Scientific knowledge generated by
psychology often runs against common
sense.
One such example is a study performed
by
Dweck (1975). She was concerned with
children who gave up too easily when
faced
with a difficult problem or failure. She
wondered how they could be helped.
Common
sense tells us to give them easy
problems in
order to increase their success rate so
that
their confidence goes up. Only later
should
we give them difficult problems which
they
will be able to solve because of their
new-found
confidence. Dweck’s study tested this.
She took
two groups of students who were trained
for
25 days in solving math problems. The
first
group was given easy problems which
they were
always able to solve. The second group
had a
mix of easy and difficult problems.
Obviously,
in case of difficult problems, they failed.
Whenever this happened Dweck told
them that
their failure was because they had not
tried
hard enough and persuaded them not to
give
up and keep trying. After the training
period
was over, a new set of math problems
were
given to the two groups. What Dweck
found
goes against common belief. Those who
had
always succeeded because they were
given
easy problems, gave up much faster
when they
faced failure than those who had
experience
of both success and failure and were
taught
to attribute failure to their lack of effort.
There are many other common sense
notions which you may not find to be
true.
Not too long ago it was believed in some
cultures that men are more intelligent
than
women or women cause more accidents
than
men. Empirical studies have shown that
both
of these are untrue. Common sense also
tells
us that one is not able to give one’s best
if you
are asked to perform before a large
audience.
Psychological studies have shown that if
you
have practiced well, you may actually
perform
better because the presence of others
helps
your performance.
It is hoped that as you go through this
textbook you will discover that many of
your
beliefs and understanding of human
behaviour
will change. You will also gather that
psychologists are different from
astrologers,
tantriks and palm readers because they
systematically examine propositions
based on
data to develop principles about human
behaviour and other psychological
phenomena.
Ask a cross-section of students about what
they
think psychology is? Draw a comparison
between
what they say and what the textbook tells you.
What conclusion can you draw?
Activity 1.2
Psychology
8 psychology.
EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology as a modern discipline,
which is
influenced to a large extent by Western
developments, has a short history. It
grew out
of ancient philosophy concerned with
questions of psychological significance.
We
mentioned earlier that the formal
beginning
of modern psychology is traced back to
1879
when the first experimental laboratory
was
established in Leipzig, Germany by
Wilhelm
Wundt. Wundt was interested in the
study of
conscious experience and wanted to
analyse
the constituents or the building blocks of
the
mind. Psychologists during Wundt’s time
analysed the structure of the mind
through
introspection and therefore were called
structuralists. Introspection was a
procedure
in which individuals or subjects in
psychological experiments were asked
to
describe in detail, their own mental
processes
or experiences. However, introspection
as a
method did not satisfy many other
psychologists. It was considered less
scientific
because the introspective reports could
not
be verified by outside observers. This
led to
the development of new perspectives in
An American psychologist, William
James,
who had set up a psychological
laboratory in
Cambridge, Massachusetts soon after
the
setting up of the Leipzig laboratory,
developed
what was called a functionalist approach
to
the study of the human mind. William
James
believed that instead of focusing on the
structure of the mind, psychology should
instead study what the mind does and
how
behaviour functions in making people
deal
with their environment. For example,
functionalists focused on how behaviour
enabled people to satisfy their needs.
According to William James,
consciousness
as an ongoing stream of mental process
interacting with the environment formed
the came
core of psychology. A very influential in the form of behaviourism. Around
educational thinker of the time, John 1910,
Dewey, John Watson rejected the ideas of mind
used functionalism to argue that human and
beings seek to function effectively by consciousness as subject matters of
adapting psychology. He was greatly influenced
to their environment. by the
In the early 20th century, a new work of physiologists like Ivan Pavlov on
perspective classical conditioning. For Watson, mind
called Gestalt psychology emerged in is not
Germany as a reaction to the observable and introspection is
structuralism of subjective
Wundt. It focused on the organisation of because it cannot be verified by another
perceptual experiences. Instead of observer. According to him, scientific
looking at psychology must focus on what is
the components of the mind, the Gestalt observable
psychologists argued that when we look and verifiable. He defined psychology as
at the a study
world our perceptual experience is more of behaviour or responses (to stimuli)
than which
the sum of the components of the can be measured and studied
perception. objectively.
In other words, what we experience is Behaviourism of Watson was further
more developed
than the inputs received from our by many influential psychologists who
environment. are
When, for example, light from a series of known as behaviourists. Most prominent
flashing bulbs falls on our retina, we among them was Skinner who applied
actually behaviourism to a wide range of
experience movement of light. When we situations and
see a popularised the approach. We will
movie, we actually have a series of discuss
rapidly Skinner’s work later in this textbook.
moving images of still pictures falling on Although behaviourists dominated the
our field
retina. Thus, our perceptual experience of psychology for several decades after
is more Watson,
than the elements. Experience is a number of other approaches and
holistic; it is views about
a Gestalt. We will learn more about the psychology and its subject matter were
Gestalt developing around the same time. One
psychology when we discuss about the person
nature who shook the world with his radical
of perception in Chapter 5. view of
Yet another reaction to structuralism human nature was Sigmund Freud.
Freud Some
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? of these approaches have led to further
9 1879 Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first
viewed human behaviour as a dynamic psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
manifestation of unconscious desires Germany.
and 1890 William James publishes Principles of
Psychology.
conflicts. He founded psychoanalysis as
1895 Functionalism is formulated as a system
a of psychology.
system to understand and cure 1900 Sigmund Freud develops Psychoanalysis.
psychological 1904 Ivan Pavlov wins the Nobel Prize for his
disorders. While Freudian work on digestive system that led to
psychoanalysis understanding of principles of
development of responses.
viewed human beings as motivated by
1905 Intelligence test developed by Binet and
unconscious desire for gratification of Simon.
pleasure 1916 First Psychology Department at Calcutta
seeking (and often, sexual) desires, the University is established.
humanistic perspective in psychology 1920 Gestalt psychology is born in Germany.
took 1922 Psychology is included in Indian Science
Congress Association.
a more positive view of human nature.
1924 Indian Psychological Association is
Humanists, such as Carl Rogers and founded.
Abraham 1924 John B. Watson publishes ‘Behaviourism’,
Maslow, emphasised the free will of a book that led to the foundation of
human behaviourism.
beings and their natural striving to grow 1928 N.N. Sengupta and Radhakamal Mukerjee
publish the first textbook on Social
and
Psychology (London : Allen & Unwin).
unfold their inner potential. They argued 1949 Psychological Research Wing of the
that Defence Science Organisation of India is
behaviourism with its emphasis on established.
behaviour 1951 Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers
as determined by environmental publishes Client-Centred Therapy.
1953 B.F. Skinner publishes ‘Science and
conditions
Human Behaviour’, strengthening
undermines human freedom and dignity
and Box 1.1 Some Interesting
takes a mechanistic view of human Landmarks in the Evolution of
nature. Modern Psychology
These different approaches filled the behaviourism as a major approach to
history of modern psychology and psychology.
provided 1954 Humanistic psychologist Abraham
multiple perspectives to its Maslow
development. Each publishes ‘Motivation and Personality’.
1954 Bureau of Psychology is established at
of these perspectives has its own focus
Allahabad.
and 1955 National Institute of Mental Health and
draws our attention to the complexity of Neurosciences (NIMHANS) is established at
psychological processes. There are Bangalore.
strengths 1962 Hospital for Mental Diseases in Ranchi is
as well as weaknesses in each approach. established.
1973 Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen win environment in specific ways. Some
the cognitive
Nobel Prize for their work on built-in
psychologists view the human mind as
speciesspecific
animal behaviour patterns that
an
emerge without any prior experience/ information processing system like the
learning. computer. Mind, according to this view is
1978 Herbert Simon wins the Nobel Prize for like
work a computer and it receives, processes,
on decision-making.
transforms, stores and retrieves
1981 David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel win the
Nobel
information.
Prize for their research on vision cells in the Modern cognitive psychology views
brain. human
1981 Roger Sperry wins the Nobel Prize for beings as actively constructing their
splitbrain minds
research.
through their exploration into the
1989 National Academy of Psychology (NAOP)
India
physical and
was founded. the social world. This view is sometimes
1997 National Brain Research Centre (NBRC) is called
established at Gurgaon, Haryana. constructivism. Piaget’s view of child
2002 Daniel Kahneman wins the Nobel Prize for development which will be discussed
research on human judgment and
later is
decisionmaking
under uncertainty.
considered a constructivist theory of
2005 Thomas Schelling wins the Nobel Prize for development of the mind. Another
his Russian
work in applying Game Theory to psychologist Vygotsky went even further
understanding of conflict and cooperation in to
economic behaviour.
suggest that the human mind develops
Psychology
10
through social and cultural processes in
developments in the discipline. Aspects which
of the mind is viewed as culturally
Gestalt approach and structuralism were constructed
combined and led to the development of through joint interaction between adults
the and
cognitive perspective which focuses on children. In other words, while for Piaget
how children actively construct their own
we know about the world. Cognition is minds,
the Vygotsky took a view that mind is a joint
process of knowing. It involves thinking, cultural construction and emerges as a
understanding, perceiving, memorising, result
problem solving and a host of other of interaction between children and
mental adults.
processes by which our knowledge of DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA
the world The Indian philosophical tradition is rich
develops, making us able to deal with in
the its focus on mental processes and
reflections
on human consciousness, self, mind- psychologist Dr. N.N. Sengupta who was
body trained in USA in the experimental
relations, and a variety of mental tradition
functions of Wundt. Professor G. Bose was trained
such as cognition, perception, illusion, in
attention and reasoning, etc. Freudian psychoanalysis, another area
Unfortunately, which
philosophical roots in the Indian tradition influenced the early development of
have psychology in India. Professor Bose
not influenced the development of established Indian Psychoanalytical
modern Association in 1922. Departments of
psychology in India. The development of Psychology in the Universities of Mysore
the and
discipline in India continues to be Patna were other early centres of
dominated teaching and
by western psychology, although some research in psychology. From these
attempts have been made to find points modest
of beginnings, modern psychology has
departure both within the country and grown as
abroad. a strong discipline in India with a large
These attempts have tried to establish number
the of centres of teaching, research and
truth value of various assertions in applications. There are two centers of
Indian excellence in psychology supported by
philosophical traditions through the
scientific UGC at Utkal University, Bhubaneswar
studies. and
The modern era of Indian psychology at the University of Allahabad. About 70
began in the Department of Philosophy universities offer courses in psychology.
at Durganand Sinha in his book Psychology
Calcutta University where the first in a Third World Country: The Indian
syllabus Experience published in 1986 traces the
of experimental psychology was history of modern psychology as a social
introduced science in India in four phases.
and the first psychology laboratory was According to
established in 1915. Calcutta University him, the first phase till independence
started the first Department of was a
Psychology in phase with emphasis on experimental,
the year 1916 and another Department psychoanalytic and psychological
of testing
Applied Psychology in 1938. The research, which primarily reflected the
beginning of development of the discipline in western
modern experimental psychology at countries. The second phase till the
Calcutta 1960s was
University was greatly influenced by the a phase of expansion of psychology in
Indian India
into different branches of psychology. Indian psychology, which came from our
During ancient texts and scriptures. Thus, this
this phase Indian psychologists showed phase
a is characterised by development in
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? indigenous
11 psychology, which originated from the
desire to have an Indian identity by Indian
seeking to cultural context and was relevant for
link western psychology to the Indian society
context. and Indian psychology based on the
They did this by using western ideas to Indian
understand the Indian situation. traditional knowledge system. While
However, these
psychology in India sought to become developments continue, psychology in
relevant India
for Indian society in the post 1960s is making significant contributions to the
phase of field
problem-oriented research. of psychology in the world. It has
Psychologists become more
became more focused on addressing the contextual emphasising the need for
problems of the Indian society. Further, developing psychological principles,
the which are
limitations of excessive dependence on rooted in our own social and cultural
western psychology for our social context.
context were Alongside, we also find that new
also realised. Leading psychologists research
emphasised the significance of research, studies involving interfaces with
which neurobiological
is of relevance to our situation. The and health sciences are being carried
search for out.
a new identity of psychology in India led Psychology in India is now being applied
to in diverse professional areas. Not only
the phase of indigenisation, which have
started psychologists been working with
during the late 1970s. Besides rejecting children
the having special problems, they are
western framework, Indian psychologists employed
stressed the need for developing an in hospitals as clinical psychologists, in
understanding based on a framework, corporate organisations in the HRD and
which advertising departments, in sports
was culturally and socially relevant. This directorates, in the development sector
trend and
was also reflected in some attempts to in IT industry.
develop BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
psychological approaches based on
Various fields of specialisation in
traditional
psychology
have emerged over the years. Some of substances
these which are responsible for neural
are discussed in this section. communication in different areas of the
Cognitive Psychology investigates brain
mental and therefore in associated mental
processes involved in acquisition, functions.
storage, They do their research on people with
manipulation, and transformation of normal
information received from the functioning brain as well as on people
environment with
along with its use and communication. damaged brain by following advanced
The technologies like EEG, PET and fMRI, etc.
major cognitive processes are attention, about which you will study later.
perception, memory, reasoning, problem Developmental Psychology studies the
solving, decision-making and language. physical, social and psychological
You changes
will be studying these topics later in this that occur at different ages and stages
textbook. In order to study these over a
cognitive life-span, from conception to old age.
processes, psychologists conduct The
experiments primary concern of developmental
in laboratory settings. Some of them Psychology
also follow 12
an ecological approach, i.e. an approach psychologists is how we become what
which we are.
focuses on the environmental factors, to For many years the major emphasis was
study on
cognitive processes in a natural setting. child and adolescent development.
Cognitive psychologists often However
collaborate with today an increasing number of
neuroscientists and computer scientists. developmental
Biological Psychology focuses on the psychologists show strong interest in
relationship between behaviour and the adult
physical system, including the brain and development and ageing. They focus on
the the
rest of the nervous system, the immune biological, socio-cultural and
system, and genetics. Biological environmental
psychologists factors that influence psychological
often collaborate with neuroscientists, characteristics such as intelligence,
zoologists, and anthropologists. cognition,
Neuropsychology has emerged as a field emotion, temperament, morality, and
of social
research where psychologists and relationship. Developmental
neuroscientists are working together. psychologists
Researchers are studying the role of collaborate with anthropologists,
neurotransmitters or chemical educationists, neurologists, social
workers, relations are also investigated. Current
counsellors and almost every branch of topics
knowledge where there is a concern for of research in this field are the extent to
growth which,
and development of a human being. disposal of waste, population explosion,
Social Psychology explores how people conservation of energy, efficient use of
are community resources are associated
affected by their social environments, with and
how are functions of human behaviour.
people think about and influence others. Health Psychology focuses on the role of
Social psychologists are interested in psychological factors (for example,
such stress,
topics as attitudes, conformity and anxiety) in the development, prevention
obedience and
to authority, interpersonal attraction, treatment of illness. Areas of interest for
helpful a
behaviour, prejudice, aggression, social health psychologist are stress and
motivation, inter-group relations and so coping, the
on. relationship between psychological
Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology factors and
examines the role of culture in health, patient-doctor relationship and
understanding ways
behaviour, thought, and emotion. It of promoting health enhancing factors.
assumes Clinical and Counselling Psychology
that human behaviour is not only a deals
reflection with causes, treatment and prevention
of human-biological potential but also a of
product of culture. Therefore behaviour different types of psychological
should disorders such
be studied in its socio-cultural context. as anxiety, depression, eating disorders
As you and
will be studying in different chapters of chronic substance abuse. A related area
this is
book, culture influences human counselling, which aims to improve
behaviour in everyday
many ways and in varying degrees. functioning by helping people solve
Environmental Psychology studies the problems
interaction of physical factors such as in daily living and cope more effectively
temperature, humidity, pollution, and with
natural challenging situations. The work of
disasters on human behaviour. The clinical
influence psychologists does not differ from that
of physical arrangement of the of
workplace on counselling psychologists although a
health, the emotional state, and counselling psychologist sometimes
interpersonal deals with
people who have less serious problems. management structure that would
In increase
many instances, counselling Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
psychologists 13
work with students, advising them about communication between managers and
personal problems and career planning. staff.
Like The background of industrial and
clinical psychologists, psychiatrists also organisational psychologists often
study includes
the causes, treatment, and prevention training in cognitive and social
of psychology.
psychological disorders. How are clinical Educational Psychology studies how
psychologists and psychiatrists people
different? A of all ages learn. Educational
clinical psychologist has a degree in psychologists
psychology, which includes intensive primarily help develop instructional
training methods
in treating people with psychological and materials used to train people in
disorders. both
In contrast, a psychiatrist has a medical educational and work settings. They are
degree also
with years of specialised training in the concerned with research on issues of
treatment of psychological disorders. relevance
One for education, counselling and learning
important distinction is that problems. A related field, school
psychiatrists can psychology,
prescribe medications and give focuses on designing programmes that
electroshock promote intellectual, social, and
treatments whereas clinical psychologist emotional
cannot. development of children, including those
Industrial/Organisational Psychology with
deals special needs. They try to apply
with workplace behaviour, focusing on knowledge of
both the psychology in a school setting.
workers and the organisations that Sports Psychology applies psychological
employ principles to improve sports
them. Industrial/organisational performance by
psychologists enhancing their motivation. Sports
are concerned with training employees, psychology
improving work conditions, and is a relatively new field but is gaining
developing acceptance worldwide.
criteria for selecting employees. For Other Emerging Branches of Psychology
example, :
an organisational psychologist might The interdisciplinary focus on research
recommend that a company may adopt and
a new application of psychology has led to the
emergence of varied areas like aviation research, function more like other
psychology, space psychology, military scientists.
psychology, forensic psychology, rural Like them, they draw conclusions which
psychology, engineering psychology, are
managerial psychology, community supported by data. They design and
psychology, psychology of women, and conduct
political psychology, to name a few. Try experiments or studies under controlled
the conditions on a wide range of
Activity 1.3 to reflect upon your interest psychological
areas phenomena. The purpose is to develop
in psychology. general
THEMES OF RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS principles about behaviour and mental
In the previous section, you got some processes. The conclusions drawn on the
idea of basis
the various branches of psychology. If of such studies apply to everybody and
you are,
were to ask a simple question about therefore, universal. Experimental,
“what comparative, physiological,
psychologists do?”, the usual answer will developmental,
be social, differential and abnormal
that they do several things while psychology
working in a are generally regarded as domains
variety of settings. However, if you try representing “basic psychology”.
to The themes of research in these fields
analyse their work, you will notice that differ
they from each other. For example,
basically engage in two kinds of experimental
activities. One Think about the areas of psychology that you
have
is research in psychology; the other is
read in the text. Go through the list given
application of psychology.
below
What are some of the themes which and rank them from 1 (most interesting) to 11
provide direction to research and (least
application interesting).
of psychology? There are several such Cognitive psychology
Biological psychology
themes.
Developmental psychology
We will focus on some of them.
Social psychology
Theme 1 : Psychology like other Cross-cultural and cultural psychology
sciences Environmental psychology
attempts to develop principles of Health psychology
behaviour and Clinical and counselling psychology
Industrial/Organisational psychology
mental processes.
Educational psychology
In research, the main concern is with the
Sports psychology
understanding and explanation of After going through this textbook and
behaviour completing
and mental events and processes. the course you may like to return to this
Psychologists, who choose to engage in activity
and mark the changes in your ranking. the environment is conceptualised as it
Activity 1.3 is
Psychology perceived or made sense of by the
14 person.
psychologists study the processes of Psychologists have for a long time
perception, learning, memory, thinking, considered
and that no two individuals are the same, if
motivation, etc., using experiment as one
their considers their psychological attributes.
method of enquiry, whereas They
physiological vary with respect to their intelligence,
psychologists attempt to examine interests, values, aptitudes and various
physiological bases of these behaviours. other
Developmental psychologists study personality characteristics. In fact,
qualitative psychological tests came to be
and quantitative changes in behaviour constructed to
from measure such differences. A discipline
the beginning of human life to its end, called, differential psychology, which
whereas focused
social psychologists focus on the study on individual differences emerged and
of flourished in the late nineteenth and
experience and behaviour of individuals early
as twentieth century. Most of it still remains
they take place in social contexts. in
Theme 2 : Human behaviour is a the form of personality psychology.
function of Psychologists believe that although,
the attributes of persons and core
environment. psychological processes are universal,
Kurt Lewin first proposed the famous they are
equation B = f(P,E) – which suggests susceptible to individual dispositions.
that Besides
behaviour is the product of a person and individual differences, psychologists also
her/ believe that there are variations in
his environment. What this equation behaviour
simply which occur due to environmental
tells us is that the variations we find in factors.
human This is a view which psychologists have
behaviour are largely due to the fact taken
that from anthropologists, evolutionary
persons differ with respect to their theorists
various and biologists. Psychologists look for
attributes because of their genetic explanations of various psychological
endowments and diverse experiences phenomena based on individual-
and so environment
do the environments they are placed in. interactions. Although it is difficult,
Here psychologists do seek out the relative
importance of heredity and environment are Euro-American in nature and
in therefore,
explaining human behaviour. do not help us in understanding
Theme 3 : Human behaviour is caused. behaviours
Most psychologists believe that all in other cultural settings. Psychologists
human from
behaviour can be explained in terms of Asia, Africa and Latin America have
causes been
which are internal (to the organism) or critical of Euro-American approaches
external which
having location in the outside are propagated as universal. A similar
environment. critique
Causal explanations are central to all is made by feminists who argue that
sciences psychology offers a male perspective
because without understanding them no and
prediction will be possible. Although, ignores the perspective of women. They
psychologists look for causal argue
explanations of in favour of a dialectical approach which
behaviour, they also realise that simple will
linear accommodate both male and female
explanations, such as X Causing Y do perspectives in understanding human
not hold behaviour.
true. There is no one cause of behaviour. Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
Human behaviour has multiple causes. 15
Psychologists, therefore, look for causal Theme 5 : Human behaviour can be
models where a set of interdependent controlled
variables and modified through the application of
are used to explain a behaviour. When it psychological principles.
is Why do scientists like to know how
said that behaviour has multiple causes, certain
it events can be controlled, be they
means that it is difficult to pinpoint one physical or
cause psychological? Their concern arises from
of a behaviour because it may itself be their
caused desire to develop techniques or methods
by another variable, which in turn may that
be will improve the quality of human life.
caused by some other. Psychologists also seek the same while
Theme 4 : Understanding of human applying knowledge generated by them.
behaviour This often requires removal of certain
is culturally constructed. difficulties or adverse conditions that
This is a theme which has recently individuals experience in different
surfaced. There are psychologists who phases of
believe their life. Consequently, psychologists
that most psychological theories and make
models certain interventions into the lives of
needy matters and broader concerns. There is
people. This applied role of no
psychologists has, sharp cleavage between research and
on the one hand, brought the subject application of psychology. For example,
closer basic
to the life of people in general than psychology provides us with theories
other social and
science subjects and in knowing the principles that form the basis of
limits of application
the applicability of its principles. On the of psychology and applied psychology
other provides
hand, this role has also been very us with different contexts in which the
helpful in theories
popularising psychology as a subject in and principles derived from research can
itself. be
Thus, several independent branches of meaningfully applied. On the other
psychology have emerged that try to hand,
use research is an integral part of even
psychological theories, principles and those fields
facts to of psychology that are mainly
diagnose and resolve problems related characterised
to by or subsumed under the category of
industrial and organisational settings, application. Due to ever increasing
clinical demands
services, education, environment, of psychology in different settings, many
health, fields
community development and so on. that were regarded as primarily
Industrial “researchoriented”
psychology, organisational psychology, in previous decades, have also
clinical gradually turned into “application-
psychology, educational psychology, oriented”.
engineering psychology and sports Newly emerging disciplines like applied
psychology experimental psychology, applied social
represent some of the areas in which psychology, and applied developmental
psychologists are engaged in delivering psychology indicate that in fact all
services to individuals, groups or psychology
institutions. has the potential of application and is
Basic vs Applied Psychology basically
It may be noted at this point that applied in nature.
various areas Thus, there is seemingly no fundamental
put under the rubrics of “basic” and difference between research and
“applied” application
psychology are identified only on the of psychology. These activities are highly
basis of interrelated and mutually reinforcing.
their emphasis on the study of certain Their
subject mutual interactions and pervasive
influences disciplines. In studying brain and
on each other have become so specific behaviour,
that psychology shares its knowledge with
several offshoots have emerged in neurology, physiology, biology, medicine
recent years and
with very specific emphasis on their computer science. In studying human
subject behaviour (its meaning, growth and
matters. Thus, ecological psychology, development) in a socio-cultural
environmental psychology, cross- context,
cultural psychology shares its knowledge with
psychology, biological psychology, anthropology, sociology, social work,
space political
psychology, and cognitive psychology, science and economics. In studying
to mental
mention a few, have come up as new activities involved in creation of literary
and texts,
frontier areas of research and music and drama, psychology shares its
application that knowledge with literature, art and
previously formed part of other fields of music.
psychology. These newer developments Some of the major disciplines linked to
require highly specialised research skills the
and field of psychology are discussed below:
training on the part of researchers than Philosophy : Until the end of the 19th
ever century,
before. certain concerns that are now part of
PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES contemporary psychology like, what is
Any discipline, which deals with people, the
would nature of the mind or how do humans
definitely recognise the relevance of the come
knowledge of psychology. Similarly to know their motivations and emotions
psychologists also acknowledge the were
relevance the concerns of philosophers. In the
of other disciplines in understanding later part
human of the 19th century, Wundt and other
behaviour. This trend has led to the psychologists adopted an experimental
emergence approach to these questions and
of interdisciplinary approach in the field contemporary psychology emerged.
of Despite
psychology. Researchers and scholars in the emergence of psychology as a
science, social science and humanities science, it
have greatly draws from philosophy,
felt the significance of psychology as a particularly
discipline. Figure 1.1 clearly shows the with respect to methods of knowing, and
Psychology various domains of human nature.
16 Medicine : Doctors have realised that
relationship of psychology with other the
maxim, healthy body requires a healthy Prize
mind, in Economics, namely H. Simon, D.
is actually true. A large number of Kahneman
hospitals and T. Schelling. Like economics,
now employ psychologists. The role of political
psychologists in preventing people from science too draws considerably from
engaging in health hazardous psychology, particularly, in
behaviours and understanding
in adhering to the prescribed doctors’ issues related to exercise of power and
regimen authority, nature of political conflicts
are some of the important areas where and their
the resolutions, and voting behaviour.
two disciplines have come together. Sociology
While and psychology come together to
treating patients suffering from cancer, explain and
AIDS, understand the behaviour of individuals
and the physically challenged, or within different socio-cultural contexts.
handling Issues
patients in the Intensive Care Unit, and related to socialisation, group and
patients during post operative care collective
doctors behaviour, and intergroup conflicts gain
have also felt the need for psychological from
counselling. A successful doctor looks at both these disciplines.
the Computer Science : From the very
psychological as well as physical well- beginning,
being the effort of computer science has been
of the patients. in
Economics, Political Science and mimicking the human mind. One can
Sociology : As sister social science see it in
disciplines, terms of how a ‘computer’ is structured,
these three have drawn considerably its
from memory organised, sequential and
psychology and have enriched it as well. simultaneous (read parallel) processing
Psychology has contributed a great deal of
to the information. Computer scientists and
study of micro-level economic engineers are seeking to make
behaviour, computers not
particularly in understanding consumer only more and more intelligent but also
behaviour, savings behaviour and in machines which can sense and feel.
decisionmaking. Developments in both these disciplines
American economists have used data have
on consumer sentiments to predict brought about significant advancement
economic in the
growth. Three scholars who have worked field of cognitive sciences.
on Law and Criminology : A skilled lawyer
such problems have received the Nobel and
a criminologist requires knowledge of lives in a
psychology in answering such questions very big way. They have a major
as: influence on
How well a witness remembers an our thinking, attitudes and our
accident, a emotions. If
street fight, or a murder? How well can they have brought us closer together,
s/he they have
report such facts when taking the also reduced cultural diversities. The
witness impact
stand in the court? What factors of media on the formation of attitudes of
influence the children and their behaviour is a domain
decision which is taken by the jury? where both these disciplines come
What are together.
the dependable signs of guilt and Psychology also helps in developing
falsehood? strategies
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? for better and effective communication.
17 A
What factors are held important in journalist in reporting news must know
holding a the
culprit responsible for her/his action? reader’s interests in the story. Since
What most
degree of punishment is considered just stories deal with human events,
for a knowledge of
criminal act? Psychologists seek to their motives and emotions is very
answer important.
these questions. Currently, a number of A story will have more impact if it is
psychologists are involved in research based on
on such a background of psychological
Fig.1.1 : Psychology and Other Disciplines
knowledge and
Architecture and Engineering
Medicine/Psychiatry
insight.
Computer Science Music and Fine Arts : Music and
Philosophy psychology
Education have converged in many areas.
Music and Fine Arts Scientists have
Sociology
made use of music in raising work
Mass Communication
Law/Criminology
performance. Music and emotions is
Psychology another
Political Science Economics area in which a number of studies have
Psychology been
18 carried out. Musicians in India have
issues, the answers to which would help recently
the started experimenting with what they
legal system of the country in the call
future. ‘Music Therapy’. In this they use
Mass Communication : The print and the different
electronic media have entered in our ‘Ragas’ for curing certain physical
ailments. or
The efficacy of music therapy still with stresses at home or at work. They
remains to work
be proven. either as private practitioners or at
Architecture and Engineering : At first hospitals,
glance mental institutions, or with social
the relationship between psychology agencies.
and They may be involved in conducting
architecture and engineering would interviews and administering
appear psychological
improbable. But such is actually not the tests to diagnose the client’s problems,
case. and
Ask any architect, s/he must satisfy use psychological methods for their
her/his treatment
clients by providing mental and physical and rehabilitation. Job opportunities in
space clinical psychology attract quite a few to
through her design and satisfy this
aesthetically. field of psychology.
Engineers must also take into account Counselling psychologists work with
human persons who suffer from motivational
habits in their plans for safety, for and
example, emotional problems. The problems of
on streets and highways. Psychological their
knowledge helps in a big way in clients are less serious than those of the
designing of clinical psychologists. A counselling
all mechanical devices and displays. psychologist may be involved in
To sum up, psychology is located at the vocational
intersection of many fields of knowledge rehabilitation programmes, or helping
pertaining to human functioning. persons
PSYCHOLOGISTS AT WORK in making professional choices or in
Psychologists today work in a variety of adjusting
settings where they can apply to new and difficult situations of life.
psychological Counselling psychologists work for
principles for teaching and training public
people to agencies such as mental health centres,
cope effectively with the problems of hospitals, schools, colleges and
their lives. universities.
Often referred to as “human service Community psychologists generally
areas” they focus on problems related to community
include clinical, counselling, community, mental health. They work for mental
school and organisational psychology. health
Clinical psychologists specialise in agencies, private organisations and
helping clients with behavioural state
problems by governments. They help the community
providing therapy for various mental and
disorders and in cases of anxiety or fear, its institutions in addressing physical
and consultancy services and organise skill
mental health problems. In rural areas training programmes in order to
they enhance their
may work to establish a mental health efficiency and effectiveness. Some
centre. organisational psychologists specialise
In urban areas they may design a drug in
rehabilitation programme. Many Human Resource Development (HRD),
community while
psychologists also work with special others in Organisational Development
populations such as the elderly or the and
physically or mentally challenged. Change Management programmes.
Besides the PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
redirection and evaluation of various The discussion above may have clarified
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? that
19
psychology is not only a subject that
programmes and plans, community
satisfies
based
some of the curiosities of our mind
rehabilitation (CBR) is of major interest
about
to
human nature, but it is also a subject
community psychologists.
that
School psychologists work in
can offer solutions to a variety of
educational systems, and their roles
problems.
vary
These may range from purely personal
according to the levels of their training.
(for
For
example, a daughter having to face an
example, some school psychologists
alcoholic
only
father or a mother dealing with a
administer tests, whereas others also
problem child)
interpret test results to help students
to those that may be rooted within the
with
family
their problems. They also help in the
set up (for example, lack of
formulation of school policies. They
communication and
facilitate
interaction among family members) or
communication between parents,
in a
teachers
larger group or community setting (for
and administrators, and also provide
example,
teachers
terrorist groups or socially isolated
and parents with information about the
communities) or may have national or
academic progress of a student.
international dimensions. Problems
Organisational psychologists render
related to
valuable help in dealing with problems
education, health, environment, social
that
justice,
the executives and employees of an
women development, intergroup
organisation tend to face in their
relations, etc.
respective
are pervasive. While the solution of
roles. They provide organisations with
these
problems may involve political, surprise
economic and that we find psychologists working in
social reforms, interventions at the diverse
individual settings such as schools, hospitals,
levels are also needed in order to industries,
change. Many prisons, business organisations, military
of these problems are largely of establishments, and in private practice
psychological as
nature and they result from our consultants helping people solve
unhealthy problems in
thinking, negative attitude towards their respective settings.
people and Besides helping you in rendering social
self and undesirable patterns of service to others, the knowledge of
behaviour. A psychology
psychological analysis of these problems is also personally relevant to you in your
helps dayto-
both in having a deeper understanding day life. The principles and methods of
of these psychology that you will learn in this
problems and also in finding their course
effective should be made use of in analysing and
solutions. understanding yourself in relation to
The potential of psychology in solving others.
the It is not that we do not think about
problems of life is being realised more ourselves.
and But very often, some of us think very
more. Media has played a vital role in highly
this of ourselves and any feedback that
respect. You may have seen on contradicts
television our opinion about ourselves is rejected
counsellors and therapists suggesting because we engage in what is called a
solutions to a variety of problems defensive behaviour. In some other
related to cases,
children, adolescents, adults and the persons come to acquire a habit of
elderly running
people. You may also find them down themselves. Both conditions do
analysing vital not
social problems relating to social change permit us to grow. We need to have a
and positive
development, population, poverty, and balanced understanding of
interpersonal or intergroup violence, and ourselves. You
environmental degradation. Many Psychology
psychologists now play an active role in 20
1. What is behaviour? Give examples of overt
designing and executing intervention
and covert behaviour.
programmes in order to provide people 2. How can you distinguish scientific
with a psychology from the popular notions about the
better quality of life. Hence, it is no discipline of psychology?
3. Give a brief account of the evolution of
psychology.
Review Questions
Key Terms
Behaviour, Behaviourism, Cognition, Cognitive
approach, Consciousness, Constructivism,
Developmental psychology, Functionalism,
Gestalt, Gestalt psychology, Humanistic
approach, Introspection, Mind,
Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology,
Psychoanalysis, Sociology, Stimulus,
Structuralism
may use psychological principles in a
positive
manner to develop good habits of study
for
improving your learning and memory,
and for
solving your personal and interpersonal
problems by using appropriate
decisionmaking
strategies. You will also find it of use
to reduce or alleviate the stress of
examination. Thus, the knowledge of
psychology is quite useful in our
everyday life,
and is rewarding from personal as well
as
social points of view.
Summary
• Psychology is a modern discipline aimed at
understanding the complexities of mental
processes, experiences and behaviour of
individuals in different contexts. It is treated as
a
natural as well as a social science.
• The major schools of psychological thought
are structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism,
Gestalt school, psychoanalysis, humanistic
psychology and cognitive psychology.
• Contemporary psychology is multivocal as it
is characterised by many approaches or
diverse views, which explain behaviour at
different levels. These approaches are not
mutually exclusive. Each provides valuable
insights into the complexities of human
functioning. The cognitive approach uses
thought processes as central to psychological
functions. The humanistic approach views
human functioning as characterised by a
desire
to grow, be productive and fulfill human
potential.
• Today psychologists work in many specialised
fields which have their own theories and
methods. They make efforts to develop
theories and solve problems in specific
domains.
Some of the major fields of psychology are:
cognitive psychology, biological psychology,
health psychology, developmental psychology,
social psychology, educational and school
psychology, clinical and counselling
psychology, environmental psychology,
industrial/
organisational psychology, sports psychology.
• More recently a need is felt to have
multi/interdisciplinary initiatives to arrive at a
better
understanding of reality. This has led to a
collaboration across disciplines. Interests of
psychology overlap with social sciences (e.g.,
economics, political science, sociology),
biosciences (e.g., neurology, physiology,
medicine), mass communication, and music
and
fine arts. Such efforts have led to fruitful
research and application.
• Psychology is a discipline not merely
contributing to the development of theoretical
knowledge about human behaviour, but
contributing to the solution of problems at
different
levels. Psychologists are employed to help in
diverse activities in a variety of settings
including schools, hospitals, industries, training
institutes, military and government
establishments. Many of them are doing
private practice and are consultants.
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
21
1. This chapter tells you about several
professionals in the field of psychology. Contact
a
psychologist who fits into one of the categories
and interview the person. Have a list of
questions prepared beforehand. Possible
questions could be: (i) What kind of education
is
necessary for your particular job? (ii) Which
college/university would you recommend for
the study of this discipline? (iii) Are there many
jobs available today in your area of work?
(iv) What would a typical day at work be like for
Human
you – or is there no such thing as
“typical”? (v) What motivated you to enter this
line of work?
Write a report of your interview and include
Behaviour
your specific reactions. • understand the evolutionary nature of
2. Go to the library or some bookstore or surf human behaviour,
the internet and obtain names of some books • relate the functions of nervous system
(fiction/non-fiction or films), which have and endocrine system to behaviour,
reference to applications of psychology. • explain the role of genetic factors in
Prepare a report giving a brief synopsis. determining behaviour,
Project Ideas • understand the role of culture in shaping
4. What are the problems for which human behaviour,
collaboration of psychologists with other • describe the processes of enculturation,
disciplines socialisation, and acculturation,
can be fruitful? Take any two problems to and
explain.
• relate biological and socio-cultural
5. Differentiate between (a) a psychologist and
factors in understanding human
a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a clinical
psychologist.
behaviour.
6. Describe some of the areas of everyday life After reading this chapter, you
where understanding of psychology can be
put to practice.
would be able to
7. How can knowledge of the field of Introduction
environmental psychology be used to promote Evolutionary Perspective
environment friendly behaviour? Biological and Cultural Roots
8. In terms of helping solve an important social Biological Basis of Behaviour
problem such as crime, which branch of Neurons
psychology do you think is most suitable. Structure and Functions of Nervous
Identify the field and discuss the concerns of
System and
the psychologists working in this field.
Endocrine System and their Relationship
with
Behaviour and Experience
The Nervous System
The Endocrine System
Heredity: Genes and Behaviour
Cultural Basis : Socio-Cultural Shaping of
Behaviour
Concept of Culture

3
Biological and Cultural Transmission (Box
3.1)
Enculturation
Socialisation
Chapter Acculturation
Key Terms
Summary

The Bases of Review Questions

Project Ideas
Contents Three important features of modern
human beings differentiate them from
There are one hundred and their
ninety-three species of monkeys ancestors: (i) a bigger and developed
and apes. One-hundred and brain with
ninety-two of them are covered with increased capacity for cognitive
hair. The exception is the naked behaviours
ape self-named, homo-sapiens. like perception, memory, reasoning,
– Desmond Morris problem
Psychology solving, and use of language for
44
communication, (ii) ability to walk
Evolution occurs through the process of
upright on
natural selection. You know that
EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
members of
You must have observed that people
each species vary greatly in their
differ
physical
with respect to their physical and
structure and behaviour. The traits or
psychological characteristics. The
characteristics that are associated with
uniqueness
high
of individuals results from the
rate of survival and reproduction of
interaction of
those
their genetic endowments and
species are the most likely ones to be
environmental
passed
demands.
on to the next generations. When
In this world, there are millions of
repeated
different
generation after generation, natural
species of organisms differing in a
selection
variety of
leads to the evolution of new species
ways. Biologists believe that these
that are
species were
more effectively adapted to their
not always like this; they have evolved
particular
to their
environment. This is very similar to the
present form from their pre-existing
selective breeding of horses or other
forms. It
animals
is estimated that the characteristics of
these days. Breeders select the fittest
modern
and the
human beings developed some 2,00,000
fastest male and female horses from
years
their
ago as a result of their continuous
stock, and promote them for selective
interaction
breeding
with the environment.
so that they can get the fittest horses.
Evolution refers to gradual and orderly
Fitness
biological changes that result in a
is the ability of an organism to survive
species from
and
their pre-existing forms in response to
contribute its genes to the next
the
generation.
changing adaptational demands of their
environment. Physiological as well as
behavioural changes that occur due to
the
evolutionary process are so slow that
they
become visible after hundreds of
generations.
Human beings, the homo sapiens, are
the most developed organisms among
all
creatures on this earth. Their ability to
walk upright, larger brain size relative to
body weight, and the proportion of
specialised brain tissues make them
distinct
from other species. These features have
evolved through millions of years and
have
enabled them to engage in several
complex behaviours. Scientists have
attempted
to study the relationship of complex
human behaviour with the processes of
the
nervous system, particularly the brain.
They have tried to discover the neural
basis of thoughts, feelings, and actions.
By understanding the biological aspects
of
human beings, you will be able to
appreciate how the brain, environment
and
behaviour interact to generate unique
forms of behaviour. In this chapter, we
begin with a general description of the
nervous system in an evolutionary
perspective. You will also study the
structure and functions of the nervous
system.
You will learn about the endocrine
system, and its influence on human
behaviour.
Later in this chapter, you will also study
the notion of culture and show its
relevance to the understanding of
behaviour. This will be followed by an
analysis
of the processes of enculturation,
socialisation, and acculturation.
Introduction
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
45
two legs, and (iii) a free hand with a
workable
opposing thumb. These features have
been
with us for several thousand years.
Our behaviours are highly complex and
more developed than those of other
species
because we have got a large and highly
developed brain. Human brain
development is
evidenced by two facts. Firstly, the
weight of
the brain is about 2.35 per cent of the
total
body weight, and it is the highest among
all
species (in elephant it is 0.2 per cent).
Secondly,
the human cerebrum is more evolved
than
other parts of the brain.
These evolutions have resulted due to
the
influence of environmental demands.
Some
behaviours play an obvious role in
evolution.
For example, the ability to find food,
avoid
predators, and defend one’s young are
the
objectives related to the survival of the
organisms as well as their species. The
biological and behavioural qualities,
which are
helpful in meeting these objectives,
increase
an organism’s ability to pass it on to the
future demands
generation through its genes. The also influence our behaviour
environmental demands lead to considerably.
biological and These influences become more potent
behavioural changes over a long period and
of time. visible as we move from infancy to later
BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL ROOTS years
An important determinant of our of life. Thus, besides biological bases,
behaviour there
is the biological structures that we have are cultural bases of behaviour also. You
inherited from our ancestors in the form will
of learn about the role of culture in
developed body and brain. The behaviour at
importance of a later point in this chapter.
such a biological bases becomes BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR
obvious when Neurons
we observe cases in which brain cells Neuron is the basic unit of our nervous
have system. Neurons are specialised cells,
been destroyed by any disease, use of which
drug or possess the unique property of
an accident. Such cases develop various converting
kinds various forms of stimuli into electrical
of physical and behavioural disabilities. impulses. They are also specialised for
Many reception, conduction and transmission
children develop mental retardation and of
other information in the form of
abnormal symptoms due to transmission electrochemical
of a signals. They receive information from
faulty gene from the parents. sense
As human beings, we not only share a organs or from other adjacent neurons,
biological system, but also certain carry
cultural them to the central nervous system
systems. These systems are quite varied (brain and
across spinal cord), and bring motor
human populations. All of us negotiate information from
our the central nervous system to the motor
lives with the culture in which we are organs
born (muscles and glands).
and brought up. Culture provides us with Nearly 12 billion neurons are found in
different experiences and opportunities the
of human nervous system. They are of
learning by putting us in a variety of many
situations types and vary considerably in shape,
or placing different demands on our size,
lives. chemical composition, and function.
Such experiences, opportunities and Despite
these differences, they share three
fundamental components, i.e. soma,
dendrites, and axon.
The soma or cell body is the main body
of
the nerve cell. It contains the nucleus of
the
cell as well as other structures common
to living
cells of all types (Figure 3.1). The
genetic
material of the neuron is stored inside
the
nucleus and it becomes actively
engaged during
cell reproduction and protein synthesis.
The
soma also contains most of the
cytoplasm (cellfluid)
of the neuron. Dendrites are the
branchlike
specialised structures emanating from
the
soma. They are the receiving ends of a
neuron.
Their function is to receive the incoming
neural
impulses from adjacent neurons or
directly
from the sense organs. On dendrites are
found
specialised receptors, which become
active
Psychology
46
when a signal arrives in electrochemical
or
biochemical form. The received signals
are
passed on to soma and then to axon so
that
the information is relayed to another
neuron
or to muscles. The axon conducts the
information along its length, which can
be
several feet in the spinal cord and less
than a
millimeter in the brain. At the terminal
point
the axon branches into small structures,
called
terminal buttons. These buttons have
the
capability for transmitting information to
another neuron, gland and muscle.
Neurons
generally conduct information in one
direction,
that is, from the dendrites through soma
and
axon to the terminal buttons.
The conduction of information from one
place to another in the nervous system
is done
through nerves, which are bundles of
axons.
Nerves are mainly of two types: sensory
and
motor. Sensory nerves, also called
afferent
nerves, carry information from sense
organs
to central nervous system. On the other
hand,
motor nerves, also called efferent
nerves, carry
information from central nervous system
to
muscles or glands. A motor nerve
conducts
neural commands which direct, control,
and
regulates our movements and other
responses.
There are some mixed nerves also, but
sensory
and motor fibers in these nerves are
separate.
Nerve Impulse
Information travels within the nervous
system
in the form of a nerve impulse. When is to
stimulus be conducted to a distant part of the
energy comes into contact with body, a
receptors, number of neurons participate in the
electrical changes in the nerve potential process.
start. In this process, one neuron faithfully
Nerve potential is a sudden change in relays
the the information to a neighboring neuron.
electrical potential of the surface of a The
neuron. axon tip of a preceding neuron make
When the stimulus energy is relatively functional connections or synapse with
weak, dendrites of the other neuron. A neuron
the electrical changes are so small that is
the Fig.3.1 : The Structure of Neuron
nerve impulse is not generated, and we Nucleus
Terminal
do not Dendrites (receiving end) buttons
feel that stimulus. If the stimulus energy Soma
is Cytoplasm
relatively strong, electrical impulses are Axon
(transmitting)
generated and conducted towards the
Myelin sheath
central Nodes of ranvier
nervous system. The strength of the Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
nerve 47
impulse, however, does not depend on functions. Based on location, the
the nervous
strength of the stimulus that started the system can be divided into two parts:
impulse. The nerve fibers work Central
according to Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral
the “all or none principle”, which means Nervous
that System (PNS). The part of the nervous
they either respond completely or do system
not found inside the hard bony cases
respond at all. The strength of the nerve (cranium
impulse remains constant along the and backbone) is classified as CNS.
nerve Brain and
fiber. spinal cord are the organs of this
Synapse system. The
Information is transmitted from one parts of the nervous system other than
place to central
another within the nervous system in nervous system are placed in the PNS.
the form PNS
of a neural impulse. A single neuron can can be further classified into Somatic
carry and
a neural impulse up to a distance Autonomic nervous system. Somatic
covered by nervous
the length of its axon. When the impulse system is concerned with voluntary
actions, Though the nervous system functions as
while the autonomic nervous system a
performs whole, for the ease of study, we can
functions on which we have no voluntary divide it
control. The organisation of the nervous into many parts depending on its
system location or
is schematically presented in Figure 3.3. Fig.3.2 : Transmission of Nerve Impulse
never physically connected with another through
Synapse
neuron; rather there is a small gap
Terminal
between button
the two. This gap is known as synaptic Synaptic
cleft. vesicles
Synaptic cleft
The neural impulse from one neuron is
Neurotransmitter
transmitted by a complex synaptic Dendrite
transmission process to another neuron. Fig.3.3 : Schematic Representation of the
The Nervous
conduction of neural impulse in the axon System
Spinal Cord
is (Ascending Pathways,
electrochemical, while the nature of Interneurons, and
Descending Pathway)
synaptic Somatic Nervous
transmission is chemical (Figure 3.2). System (SNS)
(Sensory and Motor
The Nerves, Voluntary)
chemical substances are known as Brain
(Hindbrain, Midbrain,
neurotransmitters. and Forebrain)
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS Sympathetic
Division
SYSTEM AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND THEIR (Trouble Shooter)
RELATIONSHIP WITH BEHAVIOUR AND Parasympathetic
Division
EXPERIENCE (Housekeeping)
Since our biological structures play an Autonomic Nervous
System (ANS)
important role in organisation and (Internal System,
execution Involuntary)
Nervous System
of behaviour, we shall look at these Central Nervous
structures System (CNS)
in some detail. In particular, you will Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS)
read (Neural Tissue outside
about the nervous system and the Brain and Spinal Cord)
Endocrine System
endocrine
The Peripheral Nervous System
system, which work together in giving a
The PNS is composed of all the neurons
shape
and
to human behaviour and experience.
nerve fibers that connect the CNS to the
The Nervous System
rest
Human nervous system is the most
of the body. The PNS is divided into
complex
Somatic
and most developed of all living
Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous
creatures.
System. The autonomic nervous system
is Each set has sensory and motor nerves.
Psychology Spinal
48 nerves have two functions. The sensory
further divided into Sympathetic and fibers
Parasympathetic systems. The PNS of the spinal nerves collect sensory
provides information
information to the CNS from sensory from all over the body (except the head
receptors region)
(eyes, ears, skin, etc.) and relays back and send them to the spinal cord from
motor where
commands from the brain to the they are then carried out to the brain. In
muscles and addition, motor impulses coming down
glands. from
The Somatic Nervous System the brain are sent to the muscles by the
This system consists of two types of motor
nerves, fibers of the spinal nerves.
called cranial nerves and spinal nerves. The Autonomic Nervous System
There This system governs activities which are
are twelve sets of cranial nerves which normally not under direct control of
either individuals. It controls such internal
emanate from or reach different functions
locations of as breathing, blood circulation,
the brain. There are three types of salivation,
cranial stomach contraction, and emotional
nerves - sensory, motor, and mixed. reactions
Sensory (Figure 3.4). These activities of the
nerves collect sensory information from autonomic
receptors of the head region (vision, system are under the control of different
audition, structures of the brain.
smell, taste, touch, etc.) and carry them The Autonomic Nervous System has two
to divisions: Sympathetic division and
the brain. The motor nerves carry motor Parasympathetic division. Although the
impulses originating from the brain to effect
muscles Parasympathetic
of the head region. For example, Stimulates tear glands
movements Dilates pupil
Inhibits salivation
of the eyeballs are controlled by motor
Increases sweating
cranial Accelerates heart
nerves. Mixed nerves have both sensory Dilates bronchi
and Decreases digestive
functions of stomach
motor fibers, which conduct sensory and
Secretes adrenaline
motor information to and from the brain. Decreases digestive
There are thirty one sets of spinal functions of intestine
nerves Inhibits bladder
coming out of or reaching to the spinal Spinal
cord
cord. Chain of
sympathetic system of the body. When the
ganglia
emergency is
Fig.3.4 : The Functions of the Autonomic
Nervous System
over, the parasympathetic division takes
Constricts pupil over;
Inhibits tear gland it decelerates the sympathetic
Increases salivation activation and
Slows heart
calms down the individual to a normal
Constricts bronchi
Increases digestive condition. As a result all body functions
functions of stomach like
Increases digestive heart beat, breathing, and blood flow
functions of intestine
return
Contracts bladder
Sympathetic to their normal levels.
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour The Central Nervous System
49 The central nervous system (CNS) is the
Brain scanning reveals that while some centre
mental of all neural activity. It integrates all
functions are distributed among incoming
different sensory information, performs all kinds
areas of the brain, many activities are of
localised cognitive activities, and issues motor
also. For example, the occipital lobe of commands to muscles and glands. The
the CNS
brain is a specialised area for vision. comprises of the (a) brain and (b) spinal
of one division is opposite to the effect cord.
of the You will now read about the functions of
other, both work together to maintain a the
state major parts of the brain and for what
of equilibrium. The sympathetic division behaviours is each part responsible.
deals The Brain and Behaviour
with emergencies when the action must It is believed that the human brain has
be evolved
quick and powerful, such as in situations over millions of years from the brains of
of lower
fight or flight. During this period, the animals, and this evolutionary process
digestion still
stops, blood flows from internal organs continues. We can examine the levels of
to the structures in the brain, from its earliest
muscles, and breathing rate, oxygen to the
supply, most recent form in the process of
heart rate, and blood sugar level evolution.
increases. The limbic system, brain stem and
The Parasympathetic division is mainly cerebellum
concerned with conservation of energy. are the oldest structures, while Cerebral
It Cortex is the latest development in the
monitors the routine functions of the course
internal of evolution. An adult brain weighs
about Pons
Medulla
1.36 kg and contains around 100 billion
oblongata
neurons. However, the most amazing Spinal cord
thing Cerebellum
about the brain is not its number of Psychology
neurons 50
but its ability to guide human behaviour a vital role in our behaviour. It regulates
and physiological processes involved in
thought. The brain is organised into emotional
structures and motivational behaviour, such as
and regions that perform specific eating,
functions. drinking, sleeping, temperature
Ask some students to make small slips of regulation,
paper and sexual arousal. It also regulates and
and write names of the parts of the nervous controls the internal environment of the
system on them. Put the slips together in a body
bowl
(e.g., heart rate, blood pressure,
and ask the students from the class to pick one
slip each. Give them a few minutes and ask temperature)
them and regulates the secretion of hormones
to learn the location and function of the part from
mentioned in the slip. Each student is to then various endocrine glands.
come Thalamus : It consists of an egg-shaped
forward and introduce him/herself as that part
cluster
and explain the location and functions of that
part. of neurons situated on the ventral
(upper) side
Activity 3.1
of the hypothalamus. It is like a relay
Structure of the Brain
station
For the convenience of study, the brain
that receives all incoming sensory
can
signals from
be divided into three parts: Hindbrain,
sense organs and sends them to
Midbrain and Forebrain (Figure 3.5).
appropriate
Hindbrain
parts of the cortex for processing. It also
This part of the brain consists of the
receives all outgoing motor signals
following
coming
structures:
from the cortex and sends them to
Medulla Oblongata : It is the lowest part
appropriate
of the
parts of the body.
brain that exists in continuation of the
The Limbic System : This system is
spinal
composed
cord. It contains neural centres, which
of a group of structures that form part of
Fig.3.5 : Structure of the Brain
Hypothalamus
the
Pituitary gland old mammalian brain. It helps in
Cerebrum Thalamus maintaining
(cerebral cortex) internal homeostasis by regulating body
Pineal gland
Brainstem
temperature, blood pressure, and blood
Midbrain sugar
level. It has close links with the is why medulla is known as the vital
hypothalamus. centre of
Besides hypothalamus, the limbic the brain. It has some centres of
system autonomic
comprises the Hippocampus and activities also.
Amygdala. Pons : It is connected with medulla on
The hippocampus plays an important one
role in side and with the midbrain on the other.
long-term memory. The amygdala plays A
an nucleus (neural centre) of pons receives
important role in emotional behaviour. auditory signals relayed by our ears. It is
The Cerebrum : Also known as Cerebral believed that pons is involved in sleep
Cortex, this part regulates all higher mechanism, particularly the sleep
levels of characterised by dreaming. It contains
cognitive functions, such as attention, nuclei
perception, learning, memory, language affecting respiratory movement and
behaviour, reasoning, and problem facial
solving. expressions also.
The cerebrum makes two-third of the Cerebellum : This highly developed part
total of the
mass of the human brain. Its thickness hindbrain can be easily recognised by its
varies wrinkled surface. It maintains and
from 1.5 mm to 4 mm, which covers the controls
entire posture and equilibrium of the body. Its
surface of the brain and contains main
neurons, function is coordination of muscular
neural nets, and bundles of axons. All movements. Though the motor
these commands
make it possible for us to perform originate in the forebrain, the
organised cerebellum
actions and create images, symbols, receives and coordinates them to relay
associations, and memories. to the
The cerebrum is divided into two muscles. It also stores the memory of
symmetrical halves, called the Cerebral movement
Hemispheres. Although the two patterns so that we do not have to
hemispheres concentrate
appear identical, functionally one on how to walk, dance, or ride a bicycle.
hemisphere Midbrain
usually dominates the other. For The midbrain is relatively small in size
example, the and it
left hemisphere usually controls connects the hindbrain with the
language forebrain. A
regulate basic life supporting activities few neural centres related to some
like special
breathing, heart rate, and blood reflexes and visual and auditory
pressure. This sensations
are found here. An important part of memory, learning, and reasoning, but it
midbrain, also
known as Reticular Activating System exerts inhibitory effects on autonomic
(RAS), and
is responsible for our arousal. It makes emotional responses. The Parietal lobe is
us mainly concerned with cutaneous
alert and active by regulating sensory sensations
inputs. and their coordination with visual and
It also helps us in selecting information auditory
from sensations. The Temporal lobe is
the environment. primarily
Forebrain concerned with the processing of
It is considered to be the most important auditory
part information. Memory for symbolic
of the brain because it performs all sounds and
cognitive, words resides here. Understanding of
emotional, and motor activities. We will speech
discuss four major parts of the forebrain: and written language depends on this
hypothalamus, thalamus, limbic system, lobe. The
and Occipital lobe is mainly concerned with
cerebrum. visual
Hypothalamus : The hypothalamus is information. It is believed that
one of interpretation
the smallest structures in the brain, but of visual impulses, memory for visual
plays stimuli
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour and colour visual orientation is
51 performed by
behaviour. The right hemisphere is this lobe.
usually Physiologists and psychologists have
specialised to deal with images, spatial tried
relationships, and pattern recognition. to identify specific functions associated
These with
two hemispheres are connected by a specific brain structures. They have
white found that
bundle of myelinated fibers, called no activity of the brain is performed only
Corpus by a
Callosum that carries messages back single part of the cortex. Normally, other
and forth parts
between the hemispheres. are involved, but it is also correct that
Cerebral cortex has also been divided there is
into some localisation of functions, i.e. for a
four lobes - Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, particular function, a particular part of
Temporal lobe, and Occipital lobe. The the
Frontal cortex plays a more important role than
lobe is mainly concerned with cognitive the
functions, such as attention, thinking, other parts. For example, if you are
driving a impulses
car, you see the road and other vehicles coming from the lower parts of the body
by to
the function of your occipital lobe, hear the brain; and motor impulses
the originating from
horns by the function of your temporal the brain to all over the body. Secondly,
lobe, it
do many motor activities controlled by performs some simple reflexes that do
parietal not
lobe, and make decisions by the help of involve the brain. Simple reflexes
frontal involve a
lobe. The whole brain acts as a well sensory nerve, a motor nerve, and the
coordinated unit in which different parts association neurons of the grey matter
contribute their functions separately. of the
Spinal Cord spinal cord.
The spinal cord is a long rope-like Reflex Action
collection A reflex is an involuntary action that
of nerve fibers, which run along the full occurs
length very quickly after its specific kind of
inside the spine. Its one end is stimulation. The reflex action takes
connected with place
the medulla of the brain and another is automatically without conscious decision
free of
at the tail end. Its structure all along its the brain. Reflex actions are inherited in
length our
is similar. The butterfly shaped mass of nervous system through evolutionary
grey processes, for example, the eye-blinking
matter present in the centre of the reflex.
spinal cord Whenever any object suddenly comes
contains association neurons and other near our
cells. eyes, our eyelids blink. Reflexes serve to
Surrounding the grey matter is the white protect the organism from potential
matter of the spinal cord, which is threats
composed and preserve life. Though several reflex
of the ascending and descending neural actions
tracts. are performed by our nervous system,
These tracts (collections of nerve fibers) the
connect the brain with the rest of the familiar reflexes are the knee jerk, pupil
body. constriction, pulling away from very hot
The spinal cord plays the role of a huge or cold
cable, objects, breathing and stretching. Most
which exchanges innumerable reflex
messages with actions are carried out by the spinal
the CNS. There are two main functions cord and
of the do not involve the brain.
spinal cord. Firstly, it carries sensory The Endocrine System
The endocrine glands play a crucial role Thyroid Gland
in This gland is located in the neck. It
our development and behaviour. They produces
secrete thyroxin that influences the body’s
specific chemical substances, called metabolic
hormones, which control some of our rate. Optimum amount of thyroxin is
Psychology secreted
52 and regulated by an anterior pituitary
behaviours. These glands are called hormone, the Thyroid Stimulating
ductless Hormone.
glands or endocrine glands, because (TSH). The steady secretion of this
they do hormone
not have any duct (unlike other glands) maintains the production of energy,
to send consumption of oxygen and elimination
their secretions to specific places. of
Hormones wastes in body cells. On the other hand,
are circulated by the bloodstream. The underproduction of thyroxin leads to
endocrine glands form the endocrine physical
system and psychological lethargy. If thyroid
of the body. This system works in gland is
conjunction removed in young animals, their growth
with different parts of the nervous is
system. The stunted and they fail to develop
whole system is thus known as sexually.
neuroendocrine system. Figure 3.6 Adrenal Gland
shows the This gland is located above each kidney.
major endocrine glands of the body. It has
Some hormones are secreted at a two parts, adrenal cortex and adrenal
steady medulla, each secreting different
rate throughout life, while others are hormones.
secreted The secretion of adrenal cortex is
at an appropriate time in life. For controlled
example, and regulated by Adrenocorticotrophic
the growth hormone is released steadily Hormone (ACTH) secreted by anterior
through childhood, with some spurt pituitary
during gland. When the secretion of adrenal
adolescence, but gonadotropic cortex
hormones are goes down, anterior pituitary gets the
secreted at the age of puberty, which message
stimulates the secretion of appropriate and increases the secretion of ACTH,
sex which
hormones among boys and girls. As a stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete
result, more
primary and secondary sexual changes hormones.
take The adrenal cortex secretes a group of
place. hormones, called corticoids, which are
utilised by the body for a number of consumption,
physiological purposes, e.g., regulation metabolic rate, muscle tone, etc., take
of place
minerals in the body, particularly through the secretion of these two
sodium, hormones.
potassium, and chlorides. Any Epinephrine and norepinephrine
disturbance in stimulate the
its function seriously affects the hypothalamus, which prolongs emotions
functions of in an
the nervous system. individual even when the stressor has
Pituitary Gland been
This gland is situated within the cranium removed.
just Pancreas
below the hypothalamus. The pituitary The pancreas, lying near the stomach,
gland has a
is divided into anterior pituitary and primary role in digestion of food, but it
posterior also
pituitary. The anterior pituitary is directly secretes a hormone known as insulin.
connected with hypothalamus, which Insulin
regulates its hormonal secretions. The helps the liver to break down glucose for
pituitary gland secretes the growth use
hormone by the body or for storage as glycogen
and many other hormones, which direct by the
and liver. When insulin is not secreted in
regulate the secretions of many other proper
endocrine glands found in our body. This amount, people develop a disease,
is called
why the pituitary gland is known as the diabetic mellitus or simply diabetes.
“master gland”. Gonads
Fig.3.6 : Major Endocrine Glands Gonads refer to testes in males and
Thyroid ovaries in
Pancreas
Adrenal
females. The hormones secreted by
glands these
Ovary glands control and regulate sexual
(in female) behaviours
Testes
and reproductive functions of males and
(in male)
Pituitary females. Secretion of hormones of these
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour glands
53 is initiated, maintained and regulated by
Adrenal medulla secretes two hormones, a
namely epinephrine and norepinephrine hormone, called gonadotrophic hormone
(also known as adrenaline and (GTH) secreted by the anterior pituitary.
noradrenaline, The
respectively). Sympathetic activation, secretion of GTH starts at the age of
such as puberty
increased heart rate, oxygen (10 to 14 years in human beings) and
stimulates gonads to secrete hormones, is
which crucial to our behavioural well-being.
in turn stimulates development of Without
primary and a balanced secretion of hormones, the
secondary sexual characteristics. body
The ovaries in females produce would be unable to maintain the state of
estrogens internal equilibrium. Without the
and progesterone. Estrogens guide the increased
sexual secretion of hormones during the times
development of the female body. of
Primary stress, we would not be able to react
sexual characteristics related with effectively
reproduction, such as development of to potential dangers in our environment.
ovum Finally, without the secretion of
or egg cell, appear on every 28 days or hormones at
so in specific times in our lives, we would not
the ovary of a sexually mature female. be
Secondary sexual characteristics, such able to grow, mature and reproduce.
as HEREDITY : GENES AND BEHAVIOUR
breast development, rounded body We inherit characteristics from our
contours, parents in
widened pelvis, etc., also depend on this the form of genes. A child at birth
hormone. Progesterone has no role in possesses a
sexual unique combination of genes received
development. Its function is related with from
preparation of uterus for the possible both parents. This inheritance provides a
reception distinct biological blueprint and
of fertilised ovum. timetable for
The hormonal system for reproductive an individual’s development. The study
behaviour is much simpler in the male of the
because there is no cyclic pattern. inheritance of physical and
Testes in psychological
males produce sperm continuously and characteristics from ancestors is
secrete male sex hormones called referred to
androgens. as genetics. The child begins life as a
The major androgen is testosterone. single
Testosterone prompts secondary sexual zygote cell (mother’s ovum fertilised by
changes such as physical changes, father’s
growth of sperm). Zygote is a tiny cell with a
facial and body hairs, deepening of nucleus in
voice, and its center containing chromosomes.
increase in sexually oriented behaviour. These
Increased aggression and other chromosomes with all genes are
behaviours are inherited from
also linked with testosterone production. each parent in equal numbers.
The normal functioning of all hormones Chromosomes
Chromosomes are the hereditary of DNA
elements of molecules. The two genes that control
the body. They are threadlike-paired the
structures in the nucleus of each cell. development of each trait are situated
The at the
number of chromosomes per nucleus is same locus, one on each chromosome of
Psychology a
54 particular pair. The exception is the sex
distinctive, and is constant for each chromosomes, i.e. the pair of
living chromosomes
organism. The gametic cells (sperm and that determines an individual’s sex.
ovum) other behavioural traits). The traits,
have 23 chromosomes but not in pairs. which can
A new be passed on to the offspring through
generation results from the fusion of a genetic
sperm material are called its genotype. All
cell and an egg cell. biological
At the time of conception, the organism and psychological characteristics that a
inherits 46 chromosomes from parents, modern
23 man possesses are the result of
from the mother and 23 from the father. genotype
Each inheritance with phenotypical variations.
of these chromosomes contains A given gene can exist in several
thousands of different
genes. However, the sperm cell forms. Change of a gene from one form
(fathers’) differs to
from the egg cell (mother’s) in one another is called mutation. The type of
important mutation that occurs spontaneously in
respect. The 23rd chromosome of the nature
sperm provides variation in genotypes and
cell can be either the capital X or Y type permits
of the the evolution of new species. Mutation
English alphabet. If the X type sperm permits
fertilises recombination of new genes with the
the egg cell, the fertilised egg will have genes
an XX already present. This new combination
23rd chromosome pair, and the child will of
be a genes structure is then put to test in the
female. On the other hand, if a Y type environment, which can select out those
sperm genotypes that turn out to be best fitted
fertilises the egg, the 23rd chromosome for
pair the environment.
will be XY, and the child will be a male. CULTURAL BASIS : SOCIO-CULTURAL
Chromosomes are composed mainly of a
SHAPING OF BEHAVIOUR
substance called Deoxyribonucleic Acid
After reading the biological basis of
(DNA). Our genes are composed chiefly
behaviour
you may have developed an idea that Divide the class in two groups and have a
many of debate
on the topic “Psychologists should leave the
our behaviours are influenced by
study
hormones of neurons, synapses and the nervous system
and many others occur as reflexive to
responses. biologists”. One group should speak in favour
However, hormones and reflexes do not and
explain all of our behaviour. The the other group against the motion.
hormones Activity 3.2
play an important role in regulating Genes
human Every chromosome stores thousands of
physiology, but they do not completely genetic
control commands in the form of genes. These
human behaviour. Similarly stereotype genes
(fixed dictate much of the course of an
pattern), which is the most organism’s
distinguishing development. They contain instructions
feature of a reflex, does not appear with for the
most production of specific proteins, which
human responses. regulate
We can draw examples from several the body’s physiological processes and
domains of our life to argue that our the
behaviour expression of phenotypic traits. The
is more complex than the behaviour of observable
animals. A major reason for this traits of an organism are called
complexity phenotype (e.g.,
is that unlike animals, human beings body built, physical strength,
have a intelligence, and
culture to regulate their behaviour. Let Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
us 55
consider the basic need of hunger. We that so? Try to think how people have
know come to
that it has a biological basis, which is behave so differently in terms of food
common intake. If
among animals and human beings, but you explore further you will also find
the variations
way this need is gratified by human in the manner in which food is eaten
beings is (e.g.,
extremely complex. For example, some directly with hand, or with the help of
people spoons,
eat vegetarian food, while others eat forks and knives).
nonvegetarian Sexual behaviour can be taken as
food. How have they become another
vegetarians and non-vegetarians? Some example. We know that this behaviour
vegetarians take eggs; others do not. involves
Why is hormones and reflexive reactions in
animals interaction of biology and society. It explains
and human beings alike. While among human social behaviour in an evolutionary
framework on the basis of “inclusive fitness”,
animals
which means that each organism is supposed
sexual behaviour is fairly simple and to
reflexive behave in a manner so as to maximise its
(all animals indulge in sexual behaviour reproductive success. Researchers, who have
almost in the same manner), it is so studied several social behaviours (e.g.,
complex courtship,
mating, child rearing), underscore the
among human beings that it can hardly
continuity
be of development of biologically related
described as reflexive. Partner creatures.
preferences are They recognise that human behaviour cannot
a key feature of human sexual be
behaviour. The attributed solely to biological predispositions. It
is greatly affected by learning. Heidi Keller, a
bases of these preferences widely differ
distinguished psychologist, recently argued
within that
and across societies. Human sexual genetic endowment should not be
behaviour misunderstood
is also governed by many rules, as expressing fixed, deterministic relationships
standards, between genes and behaviour. She has
proposed
values, and laws. However, these rules
the notion of “genetic preparedness”, which
and suggests that acquisition of particular
standards also remain in a continuous behaviours
process via learning occurs in fairly efficient ways to
of change. facilitate our adaptations with the
These examples illustrate that biological environment.
It is now believed that human evolution
factors alone cannot help us very much
involves both genetic and cultural
in transmissions.
understanding human behaviour. The These transmission processes are different in
nature certain respects, but they have parallel
of human beings is very different from features.
those Genetic transmission is a process that occurs
in
provided to us by biological scientists.
all organisms in a similar manner, but cultural
Human transmission is a unique human process. It
nature has evolved through an interplay
of
Box 3.1 Biological and Cultural
biological and cultural forces. These Transmission
forces involves intergenerational learning (via
have made us similar in many ways and teaching and
imitation), which makes it distinct from
different in others.
biological
Concept of Culture transmission. In cultural transmission,
You have read that human behaviour individuals are
can influenced by people other than their biological
be understood only by viewing it in the parents, while in biological transmission only
In relatively modern years, a discipline called the
sociobiology has emerged that deals with the parents can be the source of influence. Thus,
only with innumerable products made
human beings have “cultural parents” (e.g., available to
members
us by our predecessors. Although many
of extended families, teachers, and other
influential
other
people). Cultural evolution is also not restricted species are also social like us, human
to beings
intergenerational influences. Ideas are are cultural as well.
transmitted You may ask: what does it mean to be
within generations so much so that it is even
cultural? In order to answer this
possible
for older people to model their behaviour after
question, we
younger will need to understand the meaning of
ones. culture. In the simplest terms, culture
The two processes are also similar in important refers
ways. Both proceed in interaction with the to “the man-made part of the
demands
environment”.
of environment. Both involve changes that
either stay
It comprises diverse products of the
or get lost depending on how adaptive they are behaviour
(i.e., of many people, including ourselves.
how nicely they fit the environment in which These
they first products can be material objects (e.g.,
occurred). Thus, at the human level, we find
tools,
evidence
for a “dual inheritance” theory. Biological
sculptures), ideas (e.g., categories,
inheritance norms) or
takes place through genes, while cultural social institutions (e.g., family, school).
inheritance We find
takes place through memes. The former takes them almost everywhere. They influence
place
behaviour, although we may not always
in a “top-down” manner (i.e. from parents to
children),
be
while the latter may also take place in a aware of it.
“bottom-up” Let us look at some examples. The room
manner (i.e. from children to parents). Dual you might be in now is a cultural
inheritance product. It
theory also shows that although biological and
is the result of someone’s architectural
cultural
forces may involve different processes, they
ideas
work as and building skills. Your room may be
parallel forces, and interact with each other in rectangular, but there are many places
offering where
explanation of an individual’s behaviour. rooms are not rectangular (e.g., those of
Psychology
Eskimos). While reading this chapter you
56
might be sitting on a chair that some
socio-cultural context in which it occurs.
people
Human behaviour is fundamentally
designed and built some time ago. Since
social. It
sitting
involves relationships with other people,
in a chair requires a particular posture,
reactions to their behaviour, and
this
engagement
invention is shaping your behaviour.
There are powerful and change their destiny.
societies without chairs. Just try to think Others
how consider it neither valuable nor do they
people in those societies would be have
sitting in faith in its strength as such. Some
order to do some reading. societies
Students sit on chairs in the emphasise on equal education for boys
“classrooms”, and
but chairs are not found in all schools. In girls; others do not. Some groups widely
schools in most villages there are no participate in the process of schooling,
chairs others
for students. They sit on the ground, or (e.g., some tribal groups) participate
on a little or
piece of sack spread over it. That in not at all. People with special needs
some often
societies children gather in rooms facing remain deprived of school education for
a a
teacher is another kind of cultural number of reasons. People’s views about
product, communities, gender, caste groups and
called “schooling”. This institution may those
have with special needs and their educability
material aspects, such as buildings, and also
ideational aspects, such as the notion differ widely across societies.
that As you look around you will find that
schooling should take place at a specific much of our life as human beings
place involves
and time, or the idea that individuals interacting with various cultural
attending products,
“schools” must be evaluated and given and behaving in accord with them. This
certificates on successful completion of means
schooling. This institution also provides that culture shapes our behaviour in a
with significant manner. However, it may also
behavioural expectation for all those be
who noted at this point that just as culture
participate in it . Both teachers and shapes
students us, we also shape our culture. Several
have a series of roles to play and anthropologists have pointed out the
responsibilities to share. Individuals, mutual
families influences of culture and psyche on each
and communities have different views other. They suggest that the relationship
about between individuals and their social
schooling. Some believe that school surroundings is interactive, and in the
education course
is a valuable thing. They have unshaken of these interactions, they constitute
faith each
that school education can make people other. This perspective emphasises that
human beings are not passive recipients be
of followed by most of us who grow up in
cultural forces. Instead, they themselves that
create context. Such a conceptualisation of
the context in which their behaviour is culture
shaped. tends to place it outside the individual,
Talk to students belonging to different States but
regarding their food, festivals, dress, customs, there are also treatments of culture that
etc.
places
Prepare a list of the differences and
similarities and discuss with your teacher.
it in the minds of individuals. In the
latter case,
Activity 3.3 culture is identified with a historically
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
transmitted pattern of meanings
57
What is Culture? embodied in
In spite of the fact that culture is always symbols. Culture provides meaning by
with creating significant categories like social
us, much confusion exists in defining practices (e.g., marriage) and roles (e.g.,
culture. bridegroom) as well as values, beliefs
It is more like the notion of “energy” in and
physics premises. As Richard Shweder put it, to
or “group” in sociology. Some believe learn
that that “a mother’s sister’s husband is an
culture really exists out there, and it uncle”,
matters one must somehow receive the ‘frame’
to individuals, while others believe that of
culture understanding from others.
does not really exist, instead it is an idea Whether culture is taken as an existing
created and shared by a group of reality, or as an abstraction, or both, it
people. exerts
The innumerable definitions of culture many real influences on human
commonly point to some of its essential behaviour. It
features. One is that culture includes allows us to categorise and explain
behavioural products of others who many
preceded important differences in human
us. It indicates both substantial and behaviour
abstract that were previously attributed to
particulars that have prior existence in biological
one differences. Social and cultural contexts
form or another. Thus, culture is already within
there which human development takes place
as we begin life. It contains values that vary
will be widely over time and place. For
expressed and a language in which to example, some
express twenty years ago children in India would
them. It contains a way of life that will not
have known several products that are
now part we are both biological and socio-cultural
of a child’s world. Similarly an Adivasi creatures. As biological creatures, we
living have
in a remote forest or hilly area would not certain vital needs. Their fulfilment
have enhances
a “pizza” or “sandwich” as breakfast. our chances of surviving. In fulfilling
In the previous paragraphs, we have these
made needs we use most of our acquired
frequent use of the terms culture and skills. We
society. Often they are considered to also have a highly developed capacity to
carry benefit
similar meaning. Let us note at this from experiences of our own and those
point that of
they are not the same thing. A society is others. No other creature has learning
a capacity
group of people who occupy a particular to the same extent as we have. No other
territory and speak a common language creature has created an organised
not system of
generally understood by neighbouring learning, called education, and none in
people. this
A society may or may not be a single universe wants to learn as much as we
nation, do. As
but every society has its own culture, a result, we display many forms of
and it is behaviour
culture that shapes human behaviour that are uniquely human, and creations
from of
society to society. Culture is the label for what we call culture. The processes of
all enculturation and socialisation make us
the different features that vary from cultural beings.
society ENCULTURATION
to society. It is these different features of Enculturation refers to all learning that
society whose influences psychologists takes
want place without direct, deliberate
to examine in their studies of human teaching. We
behaviour. Thus, a group of people, who learn certain ideas, concepts, and values
manage their livelihood through hunting Psychology
and 58
gathering in forests, would present a life simply because of their availability in
characterised by certain features that our
will not cultural context. For example, what is
be found in a society that lives mainly “vegetable” and what is “weed” or what
on is
agricultural produce or wage earnings. “cereal” and what is “non-cereal” is
Cultural Transmission defined
We have seen earlier that as human by what is already there, previously
beings labelled
as “vegetable” or “cereal” and agreed of what is not available in the society to
upon by be
people at large. Such concepts are learned. This leads to an apparent
transmitted, paradox
both directly and indirectly, and are that people who are most thoroughly
learned enculturated are often the least aware
very well because they are an integral of their
part of culture’s role in modeling them.
the life of a cultural group, and are SOCIALISATION
never Socialisation is a process by which
questioned. All such examples of individuals
learning are acquire knowledge, skills and
called “enculturation”. dispositions,
Thus, enculturation refers to all learning which enable them to participate as
that occurs in human life because of its effective
availability in our socio-cultural context. members of groups and society. It is a
The process
key element of enculturation is learning that continues over the entire life-span,
by and
observation. Whenever we learn any through which one learns and develops
content ways
of our society by observation, of effective functioning at any stage of
enculturation development. Socialisation forms the
is in evidence. These contents are basis of
culturally social and cultural transmission from
shaped by our preceding generations. In one
this generation to the next. Its failure in any
sense, enculturation always refers to society
learning may endanger the very existence of that
something that is already available. A society.
major The concept of socialisation suggests
part of our behaviour is the product of that
enculturation. In Indian families, many all human beings are capable of a far
complex activities, like cooking, are greater
learned repertoire of behaviours than they ever
by observation. There is no prescribed exhibit.
curriculum and no textbook for such We begin life in a particular social
activities, context,
and there is also no deliberate and there we learn to make certain
instruction for responses
cooking. and not others. The most clear example
Although the effects of enculturation are is our
obvious, people are generally not aware linguistic behaviour. Although we can
of speak
these effects. They are also generally any language that exists in this world,
not aware we learn
to speak only that language which sense, all socialisation seems to involve
people efforts
around us speak. Within this social by others to control behaviour.
context Socialisation although primarily consists
we also learn many other things (e.g., of deliberate teaching for producing
when “acceptable” behaviour, the process is
to express emotions and when to not
suppress unidirectional. Individuals are not only
them). influenced by their social environment,
The probability of our behaving in a but
particular way is greatly affected by they also influence it. In societies that
people who comprise many social groups,
relate to us. Any one who possesses individuals may
power choose those to which they wish to
relative to us can socialise us. Such belong.
people are With increased migration, individuals are
called “socialisation agents”. These not
agents only socialised once, but are often re-
include parents, teachers and other socialised
elders, who differently in their life-span. This process
are more knowledgeable in the ways of is
their Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
society. Under certain conditions, 59
however, even known as acculturation which we will
our age peers can affect socialisation. discuss
The process of socialisation is not later in this chapter.
always Due to the processes of enculturation
a smooth transition between the and
individual socialisation we find behavioural
and the socialisation agent. It similarities
sometimes within societies and behavioural
involves conflicts. In such situations not differences
only across societies. Both processes involve
are some responses punished, but some learning from other people. In the case
are of
also blocked by the behaviour of others socialisation, the learning involves
in deliberate
effective ways. At the same time, teaching. In the case of enculturation,
several teaching
responses need to be rewarded so that is not necessary for learning to take
they place.
acquire greater strength. Thus, reward Enculturation means engagement of
and people
punishment serve as basic means for in their culture. Since most of the
achieving the goals of socialisation. In learning
this takes place with our engagement in our
culture, socialisation can be easily some of these influences.
subsumed Parents
under the process of enculturation. Parents have most direct and significant
A good deal of our learning involves impact on children’s development.
both Children
enculturation and socialisation. respond in different ways to parents in
Language different situations. Parents encourage
learning is a good example. While a lot certain
of behaviours by rewarding them verbally
language learning takes place (e.g.,
spontaneously, praising) or in other tangible ways (e.g.,
there is also certain amount of direct buying
teaching chocolates or objects of child’s desire).
of the language, such as in grammar They
courses also discourage certain behaviours
in elementary schools. On the other through
hand, non-approving behaviours. They also
learning of language other than the arrange
mother to put children in a variety of situations
tongue, such as learning of Hindi by a that
European child, or of French by a child in provide them with a variety of positive
India, is completely a deliberate process. experiences, learning opportunities, and
Socialisation Agents challenges. While interacting with
A number of people who relate to us children
possess parents adopt different strategies, which
power to socialise us. Such people are are
called generally known as parenting styles. A
“socialisation agents”. Parents and distinction is made between
family authoritative,
members are the most significant authoritarian and democratic or
socialisation permissive
agents. Legal responsibility of child care, parenting styles. Studies indicate that
too, parents
lies with parents. Their task is to nurture vary enormously in the treatment of
children in such a manner that their children
natural in terms of their degree of acceptance
potentials are maximised and negative and
behaviour tendencies are minimised or degree of control. The conditions of life
controlled. Since each child is also part in which
of a parents live (poverty, illness, job stress,
larger community or society, several nature
other of family) also influence the styles they
influences (e.g., teachers, peer groups) adopt
also in socialising children. Grandparental
operate on her/his life. We will briefly proximity and network of social
discuss relationships
play considerable role in child personality. That
socialisation is why we find that even poor parents
directly or through parental influences. want to
School send their children to good schools.
School is another important socialising Psychology
agent. 60
Since children spend a long time in Peer Groups
schools, One of the chief characteristics of the
which provide them with a fairly middle
organised set childhood stage is the extension of
up for interaction with teachers and social
peers, network beyond home. Friendship
school is today being viewed as a more acquires
important agent of child socialisation great significance in this respect. It
than provides
parents and family. Children learn not children not only with a good
only opportunity to
cognitive skills (e.g., reading, writing, be in company of others, but also for
doing organising
mathematics) but also many social skills various activities (e.g., play) collectively
(e.g., with the
ways of behaving with elders and age members of their own age. Qualities like
mates, sharing, trust, mutual understanding,
accepting roles, fulfilling role
responsibilities). They acceptance and fulfilment develop in
also learn and internalise the norms and interaction
rules with peers. Children also learn to assert
of society. Several other positive their
qualities, such own point of view and accept and adapt
as self-initiative, self-control, to those
responsibility, of others. Development of self-identity is
and creativity are encouraged in greatly
schools. facilitated by the peer group. Since
These qualities make children more communication of children with peer
selfreliant. group is
If the transaction has been successful, direct, process of socialisation is
the skills and knowledge children generally
acquire in smooth.
schools either through curriculum or Media Influences
interaction with teachers and peers also In recent years media has also acquired
get the
transferred to other domains of their life. property of a socialisation agent.
Many Through
researchers believe that a good school television, newspapers, books and
can cinema the
altogether transform a child’s external world has made/is making its
way many
into our home and our lives. While individuals and groups adopted several
children aspects of British lifestyle. They
learn about many things from these preferred to
sources, go to the English schools, take up
adolescents and young adults often salaried
derive jobs, dress in English clothes, speak
their models from them, particularly English
from language, and change their religion.
television and cinema. The exposure to Acculturation can take place any time in
violence on television is a major issue of one’s life. Whenever it occurs, it requires
discussion, since studies indicate that re-learning of norms, values,
observing violence on television dispositions, and
enhances patterns of behaviour. Changes in these
aggressive behaviour among children. aspects require re-socialisation.
There Sometimes
is a need to use this agent of people find it easy to learn these new
socialisation in a things,
better way in order to prevent children and if their learning has been
from successful, shifts
developing undesirable behaviours. in their behaviour easily take place in
ACCULTURATION the
Acculturation refers to cultural and direction of the group that brings in
psychological changes resulting from acculturation. In this situation transition
contact to a
with other cultures. Contact may be new life is relatively smooth and free
direct from
(e.g., when one moves and settles in a problems. On the other hand, in many
new situations people experience difficulties
culture) or indirect (e.g., through media in
or dealing with new demands of change.
other means). It may be voluntary (e.g., They
when find change difficult, and are thrown into
one goes abroad for higher studies, a
training, state of conflict. This situation is
job, or trade) or involuntary (e.g., relatively
through painful as it leads to experience of
colonial experience, invasion, political stress and
refuge). other behavioural difficulties by
In both cases, people often need to acculturating
learn (and individuals and groups.
also they do learn) something new to Psychologists have widely studied how
negotiate people psychologically change during
life with people of other cultural groups. acculturation. For any acculturation to
For take
example, during the British rule in India place contact with another cultural
group is
essential. This often generates some
sort of
conflict. Since people cannot live in a
state of
conflict for a long time, they often resort
to
certain strategies to resolve their
conflicts. For
a long time it was felt that social or
cultural
change oriented towards modernity was
Observe 4-5 families belonging to different
cultural and socio-economic background for
about half an hour in the morning and evening
interacting with their children for five days.
Do you find any difference in parental
interaction with their sons and daughters?
Note their distinct pattern of behaviour and
discuss this with your teacher.
Activity 3.4
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
61
unidirectional, which meant that all
people
confronting the problem of change
would move
from a traditional state to a state of
modernity.
However, studies carried out with
immigrants
to western countries and native or tribal
people
in different parts of the world have
revealed
that people have various options to deal
with
the problem of acculturative changes.
Thus,
the course of acculturative change is
multidirectional.
Make an attempt to find out people who have
lived for an extended period of time in
different
cultures. Interview and ask them to give some
examples of cultural differences and
similarities
in attitudes, norms, and values.
Activity 3.5
In order to place some confidence in
conscious acceptance of change, we
need to
analyse them at the subjective level.
John Berry
is well-known for his studies on
psychological
acculturation. He argues that there are
two
important issues that all acculturating
individuals and groups face in culture-
contact
situations. One relates to the degree to
which
there is a desire to maintain one’s
culture and
identity. Another relates to the degree to
which
there is a desire to engage in daily
interactions
with members of other cultural group(s).
Based on people’s positive or negative
answer to these issues, the following
four
acculturative strategies have been
derived:
Integration : It refers to an attitude in
which there is an interest in both,
maintaining
one’s original culture and identity, while
staying in daily interaction with other
cultural
groups. In this case, there is some
degree of
cultural integrity maintained while
interacting
with other cultural groups.
Assimilation : It refers to an attitude,
which people do not wish to maintain
their
cultural identity, and they move to
become
an integral part of the other culture. In
this
case, there is loss of one’s culture and change.
identity. They are referred to as acculturation
Separation : It refers to an attitude in attitudes.
which people seem to place a value on At the objective level, changes are
holding reflected in
on to their original culture, and wish to people’s day-to-day behaviours and
avoid activities.
interaction with other cultural groups. In These are referred to as acculturation
this strategies. In order to understand
case, people often tend to glorify their acculturation, it is necessary to examine
cultural it at
identity. both levels. At the objective level of
Marginalisation : It refers to an attitude acculturation, one can look at a variety
in which there is little possibility or of
interest changes that might be evident in
in one’s cultural maintenance, and little people’s life.
interest in having relations with other Language, dressing style, means of
cultural livelihood,
groups. In this case, people generally housing and household goods,
remain ornaments,
undecided about what they should do, furniture, means of entertainment, use
and of
continue to stay with a great deal of technology, travel experience, and
stress. exposure
You have read in this chapter that to movies, etc. can provide clear
human indications
behaviour is not fully under the control of change that individuals and groups
of might
biological factors alone. Socio-cultural have accepted in their life. Based on
factors these
interact with biological dispositions of indicators, we can easily identify the
individuals to give a particular shape to degree
their to which acculturative change has
behaviour in a given society. Since entered into
societies an individual’s or a group’s life. The only
and cultures across the globe are not problem is that these indicators do not
homogeneous, human behaviour is also always
not indicate conscious acceptance of
expressed in the same way everywhere. change by
This individuals or groups; they are held by
Changes due to acculturation may be people
examined at subjective and objective because they are easily available and
levels. economically affordable. Thus, in some
At the subjective level, changes are cases,
often these indicators appear somewhat
reflected in people’s attitudes towards deceptive.
Psychology
62
Acculturation, All-Or-None Property/Principle,
Arousal, Axons, Brain stem, Central nervous
system, Cerebellum, Cerebral cortex,
Chromosomes, Cortex, Culture,
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), Enculturation,
Endocrine glands, Environment, Evolution,
Genes, Hemispheres, Heredity, Homo
sapiens, Homeostasis, Hypothalamus,
Medulla, Memes, Nerve impulse, Neurons,
Nucleus, Reticular Activating System (RAS),
Skeletal muscles, Socialisation, Soma (Cell
body), Somatic nervous system, Species,
Synaptic vesicles
Key Terms
Summary
• The human nervous system consists of
billions of interconnected, highly specialised
cells
called neurons. Neurons or nerve cells control
and coordinate all human behaviour.
• The central nervous system (CNS) consists of
the brain and spinal cord. Peripheral nervous
system branches out from the CNS to all parts
of the body. It has two divisions: the somatic
nervous system (related to the control of
skeletal muscles) and the autonomic nervous
system
(related to control of internal organs). The
autonomic system is sub-divided into the
sympathetic
and parasympathetic systems.
• Neurons have dendrites, which receive
impulses; and the axon, which transmits
impulses
from cell body to other neurons or to muscle
tissue.
• Every axon is separated by a gap called
synapse. A chemical called neurotransmitter is
released from the axon terminal that carries
the message to the other neuron.
• The central core of the human brain includes
hindbrain (consisting of the medulla, the pons,
the reticular formation, and the cerebellum),
the midbrain, and the thalamus and
hypothalamus.
Above the central core lies the forebrain or
cerebral hemispheres.
• The limbic system is involved in the
regulation of behaviours such as fighting,
fleeing etc. It is
comprised of hippocampus, amygdala and
hypothalamus.
• The endocrine system consists of the glands;
pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland,
pancreas and gonads. The hormones secreted
by them play a crucial role in behaviour and
development.
• In addition to biological factors, culture is
considered an important determinant of
human
behaviour. If refers to the man-made part of
the environment, which has two aspects —
material and subjective. It refers to a shared
way of life of a group of people through which
they derive meanings of their behaviours and
base their practices. These meanings and
practices are transmitted through generations.
• Though, biological factors play a general
enabling role, the development of specific
skills and
competencies is dependent upon the cultural
factors and processes.
• We learn about culture through the
processes of enculturation and socialisation.
Enculturation refers to all learning that take
place without direct, deliberate teaching.
• Socialisation is a process by which individuals
acquire knowledge, skills and dispositions,
allows us to say that besides biological
roots,
there are cultural roots of human
behaviour.
While genes write the script of biological
transmissions, memes write the script of
cultural transmissions. The genes and
memes
work together to allow behaviour to
unfold
partly in some similar and partly in
different
ways within and across societies.
Understanding of cultural basis of
behaviour
will make you realise that behavioural
differences between individuals or
groups are
not due to the structural and functional
properties of their biological system
alone.
Cultural features of individuals and
groups
contribute in significant ways in
generating
behavioural differences.
Chapter 3 • The Bases of Human Behaviour
63
1. How does the evolutionary perspective
explain the biological basis of behaviour?
2. Describe how neurons transmit information?
3. Name the four lobes of the cerebral cortex.
What functions do they perform?
4. Name the various endocrine glands and the
hormones secreted by them. How does the
endocrine system affect our behaviour?
5. How does the autonomic nervous system
help us in dealing with an emergency
situation?
6. Explain the meaning of culture and describe
its important features.
7. Do you agree with the statement that
‘biology plays an enabling role, while specific
aspects
of behaviour are related to cultural factors’?
Give reasons in support of your answer.
8. Describe the main agents of socialisation.
values/beliefs be inferred to underlie common,
shared experiences? (for example, that all
students spend many hours in school on a daily
basis reflects that they come from cultures
which value school education).
Project Ideas
which enable them to participate as effective
members of groups and society. The most
significant socialisation agents are parents,
school, peer groups, mass media, etc.
• Acculturation refers to cultural and
psychological changes resulting from contact
with other
cultures. The acculturative strategies adopted
by individuals during the course of
acculturation are integration, assimilation,
separation, and marginalisation.
Psychology
64

4
9. How can we distinguish between
enculturation and socialisation? Explain.
10. What is meant by acculturation? Is
acculturation a smooth process? Discuss.
11. Discuss the acculturative strategies
adopted by individuals during the course of
Chapter
acculturation.
Review Questions • describe the meaning and process of
1. Collect information on a person with brain development,
damage. You can take help from a doctor, • explain the influence of heredity,
consult books or search the internet. Compare environment and context on human
it with the normal functioning brain and
development,
prepare a report.
• identify the stages of development and
2. Write down your daily routine. This should
include the activity undertaken, as well as the describe the major characteristics
time when it is done. For example, if you watch of infancy, childhood, adolescence,
television between 7 p.m. and 8 p.m. adulthood and old age, and
daily, you should write down the time as well • reflect on your own course of
as the activity. Put in as many details as you development and related experiences.
can. You could include names of the specific
programmes you watch on Television. Make
After reading this chapter, you
a separate schedule for weekdays and would be able to
weekends. The class can examine the daily
schedules,
and see which activities are more common
amongst the students. Can some cultural
Human
Development
girl’s
affectionate gesture to her/his sibling, or
an
Introduction adolescent’s sorrow at losing a match
Meaning of Development are all
Life-Span Perspective on Development reflections of socio-emotional processes
Growth, Development, Maturation, and deeply
Evolution (Box 4.1)
involved in human development.
Factors Influencing Development
Although you would be reading about
Context of Development
the
Overview of Developmental Stages
different processes in different chapters
Prenatal Stage
of this
Infancy
Childhood textbook, it is important to remember
Gender and Sex Roles (Box 4.2) that the
Challenges of Adolescence biological, cognitive, and socio-
Adulthood and Old Age emotional
Key Terms processes are interwoven. These
Summary processes
Review Questions influence changes in the development of
Project Ideas the

Contents individual as a whole throughout the

I wish I could travel by the road that
crosses the baby’s mind, and out
beyond all bounds; where messengers
run errands for no cause between the
kingdoms of kings of no history; where
Reason makes kites of her laws and
flies them, and Truth sets Fact free
from its fetters.
– Rabindranath Tagore
Chapter 4 • Human Development
65
associated with the processes of
knowing,
and experiencing, such as thought,
perception, attention, problem solving,
etc.
Socio-emotional processes that
influence
development refer to changes in an
individual’s interactions with other
people,
changes in emotions, and in personality.
A change in
child’s hug to her/his mother, a young
human
life-span.
Life-Span Perspective on Development
The study of development according to
the
Life-Span Perspective (LSP) includes the
following assumptions :
1. Development is lifelong, i.e. it takes
place
across all age groups starting from
MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT
When we think of development,
invariably we
think of physical changes, as these are
commonly observed at home with
younger
siblings, with parents and grandparents,
in
school with peers or others around us.
From
conception until the moment of death,
we not
only change physically, but we also
the way we think, use language, and
develop
social relationships. Remember that,
changes
are not confined to any one area of a
person’s
life; they occur in the person in an
integrated
manner. Development is the pattern of
progressive, orderly, and predictable
changes
that begin at conception and continue
throughout life. Development mostly
involves
changes — both growth and decline, as
observed during old age.
Development is influenced by an
interplay
of biological, cognitive, and socio-
emotional
processes. Development due to genes
inherited from parents, such as in height
and
weight, brain, heart, and lungs
development,
etc. all point towards the role of
biological
processes. The role of cognitive
processes
in development relate to mental
activities
If you look around, you will notice that
from birth onwards changes of various
kinds are taking place in an individual’s
life, which continue even during old age.
Over a span of time, a human grows
and develops, learns to communicate,
walk,
count, and read and write. S/he also
learns to distinguish between right and
wrong.
S/he makes friends, goes through
puberty, gets married, rears children,
and grows
old. Even though we differ from each
other, we share many commonalities.
Most of
us learn to walk by the first year and
talk by the second year. This chapter
will
familiarise you with the changes
observed in people during the course of
their lifespan
in different domains. You will learn
about key developmental processes and
changes taking place in major periods
during the life-span: prenatal, infancy,
childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and
old age. This would be a journey of
personal
understanding and self-discovery which
should help in your future development.
The study of human development would
also help you to deal with others better.
Introduction
Psychology
66
conception to old age. It includes both
gains
and losses, which interact in dynamic
(change in one aspect goes with
changes in
others) ways throughout the life-span.
2. The various processes of human
development, i.e. biological, cognitive,
and
socio-emotional are interwoven in the
development of a person throughout the
life-span.
3. Development is multi-directional.
Some
dimensions or components of a given
dimension of development may
increase,
while others show decrement. For
example,
the experiences of adults may make
them
wiser and guide their decisions.
However,
with an increase in age, one’s
performance
is likely to decrease on tasks requiring
speed, such as running.
4. Development is highly plastic, i.e.
within
person, modifiability is found in
psychological development, though
plasticity varies among individuals. This
means skills and abilities can be
improved
or developed throughout the life-span.
5. Development is influenced by
historical
conditions. For example, the
experiences
of 20-year olds who lived through the
freedom struggle in India would be very
different from the experiences of 20
year
olds of today. The career orientation of
school students today is very different
from
those students who were in schools 50
years ago.
6. Development is the concern of a
number of disciplines. Different
disciplines like psychology,
anthropology,
sociology, and neuro-sciences study
human development, each trying to
provide answers to development
throughout the life-span.
7. An individual responds and acts on
contexts, which include what was
inherited, the physical environment,
social,
historical, and cultural contexts. For
example, the life events in everyone’s
life
are not the same, such as, death of a
parent, accident, earthquake, etc., affect
the course of one’s life as also the
positive
Growth refers to an increase in the size of body
parts or of the organism as a whole. It can be
measured or quantified, for example, growth in
height, weight, etc. Development is a process
by which an individual grows and changes
throughout the life cycle. The term
development
applies to the changes that have a direction
and
hold definite relationship with what precedes
it,
and in turn, will determine what will come
after.
A temporary change caused by a brief illness,
for example, is not considered a part of
development. All changes which occur as a
result
of development are not of the same kind. Thus,
changes in size (physical growth), changes in
proportion (child to adult), changes in features
(disappearance of baby teeth), and acquiring
new
features are varied in their pace and scope
level.
Development includes growth as one of its
aspects. Maturation refers to the changes that
follow an orderly sequence and are largely
dictated by the genetic blueprint which
produces
Box 4.1 Growth, Development,
Maturation, and Evolution
commonalities in our growth and development.
For example, most children can sit without
support
by 7 months of age, stand with support by 8
months
and walk by one year. Once the underlying
physical
structure is sufficiently developed, proficiency
in these
behaviours requires adequate environment
and little
practice. However, special efforts to accelerate
these
behaviours do not help if the infant is
maturationally
not ready. These processes seem to “unfold
from
within”: following an inner, genetically
determined
timetable that is characteristic of the species.
Evolution refers to species-specific changes.
Natural
selection is an evolutionary process that
favours
individuals or a species that are best adapted
to You have already learned in Chapter 3
survive and reproduce. The evolutionary that
changes are
the principles of heredity explain the
passed from one generation to the next within
a
mechanism for transmission of
species. Evolution proceeds at a very slow characteristics
pace. by every species from one generation to
Emergence of human beings from great apes the
took next. We inherit genetic codes from our
about 14 million years. It has been estimated
parents, which are in every cell of our
that
the ‘Homo sapiens’ came into existence only
body.
about Our genetic codes are alike in one
50,000 years ago. important
Chapter 4 • Human Development way; they contain the human genetic
67 code. It
influences such as winning an award or is because of the human genetic code
getting a good job. People keep on that a
changing fertilised human egg grows into a
with changing contexts. human baby
FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT and cannot grow into an elephant, a bird
Have you observed in your class that or a
some of mouse.
you have dark skin, others have light Genetic transmission is very complex.
coloured Most characteristics that we observe in
skins, colour of your hair and eyes are humans are combinations of larger
different, some of you are tall, others number
short, of genes. You can imagine the
some are quiet or sad while others are combinations
talkative produced by 80,000 or more genes –
or cheerful. People also differ with accounting for a variety of
respect to characteristics and
intelligence, learning abilities, memory, behaviours. It is also not possible to
and possess
other psychological characteristics all the characteristics made available to
besides us by
physical characteristics. Despite these our genetic structure. The actual genetic
variations, no one can be mistaken for material or a person’s genetic heritage
any is
other species: we all are homo sapiens. known as genotype. However, not all of
What this
causes us to be different from each genetic material is apparent or distinctly
other but identifiable in our observable
at the same time more like each other? characteristics.
The Phenotype is the way an individual’s
answer lies in the interaction of heredity genotype
and is expressed in observable and
environment. measurable
characteristics. Phenotypes include than average. This shows that genes set
physical the
traits, such as height, weight, eye and limit and within that limit the
skin environment
colour, and many of the psychological influences development.
characteristics such as intelligence, You know by now that parents provide
creativity, the
and personality. These observable genes for the child’s development. Do
characteristics of an individual are the you
result know that they also play an important
of the interaction between the person’s role in
inherited traits and the environment. determining the type of environment
You their
know it is the genetic code which children will encounter? Sandra Scarr
predisposes (1992)
a child to develop in a particular way. believes that the environment parents
Genes provide
provide a distinct blueprint and for their children depends to some
timetable for extent on
the development of an individual. But their own genetic predisposition. For
genes example,
do not exist in isolation and if parents are intelligent and are good
development readers
occurs within the context of an they would provide their children with
individual’s books
environment. This is what makes each to read, with the likely outcome that
one of their
us a unique person. children would become good readers
What are the environmental influences? who
How does the environment affect enjoy reading. A child’s own genotype
development? Imagine a child, with (what
genotype s/he has inherited) such as being
that predisposes her/him to be cooperative,
introverted, and attentive is likely to result in
in an environment that promotes social teachers and
interaction and extroversion. The parents giving more pleasant response
influence of as
such an environment may make the compared to children who are not
child a cooperative
little extroverted. Let us take another or not attentive. Besides these, children
example. themselves choose certain
An individual with “short” height genes, environments
even Psychology
if s/he is in a very good nutritional 68
environment, will never be able to be based on their genotype. For example,
taller because
of their genotype, children may perform alter during any time of the individual’s
well lifespan.
in music or sports and they will seek and Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of
spend more time in environments, which development emphasises the role of
will environmental factors in the
enable them to perform their musical development of
skills; an individual. This has been depicted in
similarly an athlete would seek sports- Figure 4.1.
related The microsystem is the immediate
environment. These interactions with environment/setting in which the
environment keep changing from individual
infancy lives. It is in these settings where the
through adolescence. Environmental child
influences are as complex as the genes directly interacts with social agents – the
we family, peers, teachers, and
inherit. neighbourhood.
If your class monitor is selected on the The mesosystem consists of relations
basis of being academically bright and a between
popular student, do you think it is these contexts. For instance, how a
because of child’s
her/his genes or the influence of the parents relate to the teachers, or how
environment? If a child from a rural area the
who parents view the adolescent’s friends,
is very intelligent, is not able to get a are
job Fig.4.1 : Bronfenbrenner’s Contextual View of
because of her/his inability to express Development
Exosystem
herself/ Mesosystem
himself fluently or handle computers, do Microsystem
you think - it is because of genes or The
Individual
environment? Chronosystem
CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT Family School
Development does not take place in a Peers
Work
vacuum.
Place
It is always embedded in a particular Mass
sociocultural Media
context. As you shall read in this Friends Neighbour
Religious Neighbourhood
chapter, transition during one’s lifetime
settings
such Time
as entering school, becoming an Macrosystem
Attitudes
adolescent,
deologies
finding jobs, marrying, having children, Beliefs
retirement, etc. all are joint functions of raditions
I
the T
biological changes and changes in one’s experiences likely to influence an
environment. The environment can individual’s
change or
relationships with others. The exosystem impoverished environments have
includes events in social settings where unstimulating environment devoid of
the books,
child does not participate directly, but magazines, toys, etc., lack experiences
they such
influence the childs’ experiences in the as visits to library, museum, zoo, etc.,
immediate context. For example, the have
transfer parents who are ineffective as role
of father or mother may cause tension models, and
among live in overcrowded and noisy
the parents which might affect their surroundings.
interactions with the child or the general As a result of these conditions children
amenities available to the child like are at
quality of a disadvantage and have difficulties in
schooling, libraries, medical care, means learning.
of Durganand Sinha (1977) has presented
entertainment, etc. Macrosystem an
includes the ecological model for understanding the
culture in which the individual lives. You development of children in Indian
have context.
read in Chapter 3 about the importance Ecology of the child could be viewed in
of terms
culture in the development of an of two concentric layers. The “upper and
individual. the
Chronosystem involves events in the more visible layers” consist of home,
individual’s life course, and socio- school,
historical peer groups, and so on. The most
circumstances of the time such as, important
divorce of ecological factors influencing
parents or parents’ economic setback, development of
and the child in the visible upper layer
their effect on the child. constitute
In a nutshell, Bronfenbrenner’s view is the: (i) home, its conditions in terms of
that overcrowding, space available to each
a child’s development is significantly member,
affected toys, technological devices used, etc.,
by the complex world that envelops (ii) nature and quality of schooling,
her/him facilities
– whether it be the minutiae of the to which the child is exposed, and (iii)
conversations s/he has with her/his nature
Chapter 4 • Human Development of interactions and activities undertaken
69 with
playmates, or the social and economic peer groups from childhood onwards.
lifecircumstances These factors do not operate
into which s/he is born. independently but constantly interact
Research has shown that children in with
one another. Since these are also
embedded
in a larger and a more pervasive setting,
the
“surrounding layers” of the child’s
ecology
constantly influence the “upper layer”
factors. However, their influences are
not
always clearly visible. The elements of
the
surrounding layer of ecology constitute
the:
(i) general geographical environment. It
includes space and facilities for play and
other activities available outside the
home
including general congestion of the
locality
and density of population, (ii)
institutional
setting provided by caste, class, and
other
factors, and (iii) general amenities
available
to the child like drinking water,
electricity,
means of entertainment and so on.
The visible and the surrounding layer
factors interact with one another and
may
have different consequences for
development in different people. The
ecological environment can change or
alter
during any time of the individual’s life-
span.
Therefore, to understand differences in
the
functioning of an individual, it is
important
to see the individual in the context of
her/
his experiences.
What would your life be if you lived in a rural
area or a small town, devoid of all amenities,
which you are used to in a city (or vice-versa)?
Discuss in small groups keeping in mind
factors
like poverty, illiteracy, pollution, population,
etc.
Activity 4.1
OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
Development is commonly described in
terms
of periods or stages. You must have
observed
that your younger brother or sister, or
parents,
and even yourself, all behave in
different ways.
If you observe people living in your
neighbourhood, you would find that they
too
do not behave in a similar manner. This
variation is partly because everyone is
in a
different stage of life. Human life
proceeds
through different stages. For example,
you are
at present in the stage of adolescence
and after
a few years you will enter the stage of
adulthood. Developmental stages are
assumed
to be temporary and are often
characterised
by a dominant feature or a leading
characteristic, which gives each period
its
uniqueness. During a particular stage,
individual progresses towards an
assumed
goal - a state or ability that s/he must
achieve
in the same order as other persons
before
progressing to the next stage in the
sequence.
Of course, individuals do vary with
respect to
the time or rate of development from Virus
one stage (HIV) are believed to cause genetic
to another. It may be noted that certain problems
patterns of behaviour and certain skills in the newborn. Another source of threat
are to
learned more easily and successfully prenatal development is teratogens -
during environmental agents that cause
certain stages. These accomplishments deviations
of a in normal development that can lead to
person become the social expectations serious
of that abnormalities or death. Common
stage of development. They are known teratogens
as include drugs, infections, radiations, and
Psychology pollution. Intake of drugs (marijuana,
70 heroin,
developmental tasks. You will now read cocaine, etc.), alcohol, tobacco, etc. by
about the different stages of women
development and during pregnancy may have harmful
their main features. effects
Prenatal Stage on the foetus and increase the
The period from conception to birth is frequency of
known congenital abnormalities. Radiations
as the prenatal period. Typically, it lasts (such as
for X-rays), and certain chemicals near
about 40 weeks. You know by now that industrial
the areas can cause permanent change in
genetic blueprint guides our the
development genes. Environmental pollutants and
during the prenatal period and after toxic
birth. wastes like carbon monoxide, mercury
Both genetic and environmental factors and
affect lead are also sources of danger to the
our development during different unborn
periods of child.
prenatal stage. INFANCY
Prenatal development is also affected by
The brain develops at an amazing rate
maternal characteristics, which include
before
mother’s age, nutrition, and emotional
and after birth. You have already read in
state.
Chapter 3 about the parts of the brain
Disease or infection carried by the
and
mother can
the important role played by cerebrum
adversely affect prenatal development.
in
For
human functions, such as language,
example, rubella (German measles),
perception, and intelligence. Just before
genital
birth
herpes, and Human Immunodeficiency
the newborns have most but not all
brain cells.
The neural connections among these
cells
develop at a rapid rate.
The newborn is not as helpless as you
might think. The activities needed to
sustain
life functions are present in the newborn
— it
breathes, sucks, swallows, and
discharges the
bodily wastes. The newborns in their
first week
of life are able to indicate what direction
a Sensory Abilities : You know by now that
sound is coming from, can distinguish
their
mother’s voice from the voices of other
women,
and can imitate simple gestures like
tongue
protrusion and mouth opening.
Motor Development : The newborn’s
movements are governed by reflexes —
which
are automatic, built-in responses to
stimuli.
They are genetically-carried survival
mechanisms, and are the building blocks
for
subsequent motor development. Before
the
newborns have had the opportunity to
learn,
reflexes act as adaptive mechanisms.
Some
reflexes present in the newborn —
coughing,
blinking, and yawning persist throughout
their
lives. Others disappear as the brain
functions
mature and voluntary control over
behaviour
starts developing (see Table 4.1).
As the brain is developing, physical
development also progresses. As the
infant
grows, the muscles and nervous system
mature which lead to the development
of finer
skills. Basic physical (motor) skills
include
grasping and reaching for objects,
sitting,
crawling, walking and running. The
sequence
of physical (motor) development is
universal,
with minor exceptions.
newborns are not as incompetent as
they look.
They can recognise their mother’s voice
just a
few hours after birth and have other
sensory
capabilities. How well can infants see?
Newborns prefer to look at some stimuli
rather
than others such as faces, although
these
preferences change over the first few
months
of life. The newborn’s vision is estimated
to
be lower than the adult vision. By 6
months it
improves and by about the first year,
vision is
almost the same as that of an adult
(20/20).
Can a newborn see colour? The current
consensus is that they might be able to
distinguish between red and white
colours but
Chapter 4 • Human Development
71
in general they are colour deficient and
full
colour vision develops by 3 months of
age.
What is the nature of hearing in
newborns?
Infants can hear immediately after birth.
As
the infant develops, proficiency at
localising
sound improves. Newborns respond to
touch
and they can even feel pain. Both smell
and
taste capacities are also present in the
newborn.
Cognitive Development : Does a 3 year
old child understand things the same
way as
would an 8 year old? Jean Piaget
stressed that
children actively construct their
understanding of the world. Information
does
not simply enter their minds from the
environment. As children grow,
additional
information is acquired and they adapt
their
thinking to include new ideas, as this
improves
their understanding of the world. Piaget
believed that a child’s mind passes
through a
series of stages of thought from infancy
to
adolescence (see Table 4.2).
Each stage is characterised by a distinct
way of thinking and is age related. It is
important to remember that it is the
different
way of thinking which makes one stage
more
advanced than the other and not the
amount
of information. This also shows why you
at
your age think differently from an 8 year
old.
The child during infancy, i.e. the first
two years
of life, experiences the world through
senses
and interactions with objects — through
looking, hearing, touching, mouthing,
and
grasping. The newborn lives in the
present.
What is out of sight is out of mind. For
example, if you hide the toy in front of
the
child with which the child has been
playing,
the young infant would react as if
nothing has
happened, i.e. s/he will not search for
the toy.
The child assumes the toy does not
exist.
According to Piaget, children at this
stage do
not go beyond their immediate sensory
experience, i.e. lack object permanence
—
the awareness that the objects continue
to
exist when not perceived. Gradually by 8
months of age the child starts pursuing
the
object partially covered in her/his
presence.
The basis of verbal communication
seems
to be present in infants. Vocalisation
begins
with the infant’s babbling, sometime
between
3 to 6 months of age. You will read about
early
language development in Chapter 8.
Socio-emotional Development : Babies
from birth are social creatures. An infant
starts
preferring familiar faces and responds to
parent’s presence by cooing and
gurgling. They
become more mobile by 6 to 8 months months by surrogate (substitute)
of age “mothers”,
and start showing a preference for their one made of wire and the other of cloth.
mother’s company. When frightened by Half
a new the baby monkeys were fed by the wire
face or when separated from their mother,
mother, they half by the cloth mother. Regardless of
Reflex Description Developmental Course whether
Rooting Turning the head and opening the they were fed by the wire or the cloth
Disappears between 3 and 6 months
mother
mouth when touched on the cheek
Moro If there is a loud noise, the baby
the baby monkeys showed a preference
Disappears in 6 to 7 months for the
will throw her/his arms outward (although cloth mother and spent a lot more time
reaction to loud noises is with
while arching her/his back, and permanent) her. This study clearly demonstrates
then bring the arms together as
that
if grasping something
Grasp When a finger or some other object is
providing nourishment or feeding was
Disappears in 3 to 4 months; not
pressed against the baby’s palm, the replaced crucial for attachment and contact-
by voluntary grasping comfort is
baby’s fingers close around it important. You too may have seen
Babinski When the bottom of the baby’s foot
young
Disappears in 8 to 12 months
is stroked, the toes fan out and
children having a strong attachment to a
then curl favourite toy or blanket. There is nothing
Table 4.1 Some Major Reflexes in unusual in this, as the children know
that
the Newborn
Psychology
the blanket or toy is not their mother.
72 Yet it
cry or show distress. On being reunited provides them comfort. As children grow
with and
the parent or caregiver they reciprocate become more sure of themselves, they
with abandon these objects.
smiles or hugs. The close emotional Human babies also form an attachment
bond of with their parents or caregivers who
affection that develop between infants consistently and appropriately
and reciprocate to
their parents (caregivers) is called their signals of love and affection.
attachment. In a classic study by Harlow According to
and Erik Erikson (1968), the first year of life
Harlow (1962), baby monkeys were is the
separated key time for the development of
from their mothers approximately 8 attachment. It
hours represents the stage of developing trust
after birth. The baby monkeys were or
placed in mistrust. A sense of trust is built on a
experimental chambers and reared for 6 feeling of
physical comfort which builds an coordinate different physical attributes of an
expectation object.
Concrete operational 7-11 years The child can
of the world as a secure and good place.
reason logically about concrete
An events and classify objects into different sets.
infant’s sense of trust is developed by Is able to perform reversible mental operations
responsive and sensitive parenting. If on representations of objects.
the Formal operational 11-15 years The adolescent
parents are sensitive, affectionate, and can apply logic more
abstractly; hypothetical thinking develops.
accepting, it provides the infant a strong
base Table 4.2 Piaget’s Stages of
to explore the environment. Such infants Cognitive Development
are Chapter 4 • Human Development
73
likely to develop a secure attachment.
learns to walk, runs, jumps, and plays
On the
with a
other hand, if parents are insensitive
ball. Socially, the child’s world expands
and show
from
dissatisfaction and find fault with the
the parents to the family and adults
child, it
near home
can lead to creating feelings of self-
and at school. The child also begins to
doubt in
acquire
the child. Securely attached infants
the concepts of good and bad, i.e.
respond
develops a
positively when picked up, move freely,
sense of morality. During childhood,
and
children
play whereas insecurely attached infants
have increased physical capacities, can
feel
perform tasks independently, can set
anxious when separated and cry due to
goals,
fear
and meet adult expectations. The
and get upset. A close interactive
increasing
relationship
maturation of the brain along with
with warm and affectionate adults is a
opportunities to experience the world,
child’s
contribute to development of children’s
first step towards healthy development.
cognitive abilities.
CHILDHOOD
Physical Development : Early
The child’s growth slows down during
development
early
follows two principles : (i) development
childhood as compared to infancy. The
proceeds cephalocaudally, i.e. from the
child
cephalic or head region to the caudal or
develops physically, gains height and
tail
weight,
region. Children gain control over the
Stage Approximate Age Characteristics
Sensorimotor 0-2 years Infant explores the upper
world by coordinating part of the body before the lower part.
sensory experiences with physical actions. This is
Preoperational 2-7 years Symbolic thought why you would notice that the infant’s
develops; object head
permanence is established; the child cannot
is proportionately larger than her/his weight is mainly due to increase in the
body size of
during early infancy or if you see an the skeletal and muscular systems, as
infant well as
crawling, s/he will use the arms first and size of some body organs.
then Motor Development : Gross motor skills
shift to using the legs, (ii) growth during the early childhood years involve
proceeds from the
the centre of body and moves towards use of arms and legs, and moving
the around with
extremities or more distal regions — the confidence and more purposefully in the
proximodistal trend, i.e. children gain environment. Fine motor skills — finger
control dexterity and eye-hand coordination —
over their torso before their extremities. improve substantially during early
Initially infants reach for objects by childhood.
turning During these years the child’s
their entire body, gradually they extend preference for
their left or right hand also develops. The
arms to reach for things. These changes major
are accomplishments in gross and fine
the result of a maturing nervous system motor skills
and during early childhood years are given in
not because of any limitation since even Table 4.3.
visually impaired children show the Cognitive Development : The child’s
same ability to acquire the concept of object
sequence. permanence enables her/him to use
As children grow older, they look mental
slimmer symbols to represent objects. However,
as the trunk part of their bodies the
lengthens child at this stage lacks the ability that
and body fat decreases. The brain and allows
the her/him to do mentally what was done
head grow more rapidly than any other physically before. Cognitive
part development in
of the body. The growth and early childhood focuses on Piaget’s
development of stage of
the brain are important as they help in preoperational thought (see Table 4.2).
the The
maturation of children’s abilities, such child gains the ability to mentally
as eyehand represent
coordination, holding a pencil, and an object that is not physically present.
attempts made at writing. During middle You
and may have observed children draw
late childhood years, children increase designs/
significantly in size and strength; figures to represent people, trees, dog,
increase in house,
Age in Years Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor called
Skills this the stage of intuitive thought.
3 years Hopping, jumping, running Build
Another
blocks, pick objects with
forefinger and thumb
feature of thought during preoperational
4 years Climb up and downstairs with Fit jigsaw stage
puzzle precisely is characterised by children having a
one foot on each step tendency
5 years Run hard, enjoy races Hand, arm, and for centration, i.e. focusing on a single
body all coordinate
characteristic or feature for
with eye movement
understanding an
Table 4.3 Major Accomplishments in
event. For example, a child may insist
Gross and Fine Motor Skills on
Psychology
drinking a “big glass” of juice, preferring
74
a tall
etc. This ability of the child to engage in
narrow glass to a short broad one, even
symbolic thought helps to expand
though
her/his
both might be holding the same amount
mental world. The progress in symbolic
of
thought continues. A salient feature of
juice.
preoperational thought is egocentrism
As the child grows and is approximately
(selffocus),
between 7 and 11 years of age (the
i.e. children see the world only in terms
period of
of their own selves and are not able to
middle and late childhood) intuitive
appreciate others’ point of view.
thought
Children
is replaced by logical thought. This is the
because of egocentrism, engage in
stage
animism -
of concrete operational thought, which is
thinking that all things are living, like
made up of operations — mental actions
oneself.
that
They attribute life-like qualities to
allow the child to do mentally what was
inanimate
done
objects. For example, if a child while
physically before. Concrete operations
running
are also
slips on the road, s/he might show
mental actions that are reversible. In a
animism
wellknown
by saying “road hurt me”. As children
test, the child is presented with two
grow
identical balls of clay. One ball is rolled
and are approximately between 4 and 7
by the
years
experimenter into a long thin strip and
of age they want answers to all their
the
questions
other ball remains in its original shape.
like: Why is the sky blue? How do trees
On
grow?
being asked which has more clay, the
and so on. Such questions help the child
child
to
of 7 or 8 years, would answer that, both
know why things are as they are. Piaget
have
the same amount of clay. This is vocabulary and grammar.
because the Take two transparent glasses of the same size
child imagines the ball rolled into thin and pour same amount of water in both. Ask a
child of Class II and Class V of your school:
strip
whether the glasses contain the same amount
and then into a ball, that means s/he is of
able water? Take another tall thin glass and in front
to imagine reversible mental action on of the child empty water from one of the
concrete/real objects. What do you think earlier
a glasses to the third glass. Now ask her/him
which
preoperational child would have done?
glass has more water? Did you find any
S/he difference
is likely to focus on only one aspect- in their responses?
length or
Activity 4.2
height. Concrete operations allow the
Socio-emotional Development : The
child to
important dimensions of children’s
focus on different characteristics and
socioemotional
not focus
development are the self, gender
on one aspect of the object. This helps
and moral development. During the
the
early
child to appreciate that there are
years of childhood, some important
different ways
developments in the self take place. The
of looking at things, which also results in
child
the
due to socialisation has developed a
decline of her/his egocentrism. Thinking
sense of
becomes more flexible, and children can
who s/he is and whom s/he wants to be
think
identified with. The developing sense of
about alternatives when solving
independence makes children do things
problems, or
in
mentally retrace their steps if required.
their own way. According to Erikson, the
Even
way
though the preoperational child
parents respond to their self-initiated
develops the
activities
ability to see relationships between
Chapter 4 • Human Development
different 75
properties of an object, s/he cannot do leads to developing a sense of initiative
abstract thinking, i.e. s/he still cannot or sense
manipulate ideas in the absence of of guilt. For example, giving freedom
objects. and
For example, steps required to complete opportunities for play like cycling,
algebraic equations, or imagining line of running,
longitude or latitude of the earth. skating, etc. and answering children’s
The growing cognitive abilities of questions will create a sense of support
children for
facilitate the acquisition of language. the initiative taken. In contrast, if they
You will are
read in Chapter 8, how children develop made to feel that their questions are
useless,
and games played by them are stupid,
the
children are likely to develop feelings of
guilt
over self-initiated activities, which may
persist
through the children’s later life also.
Selfunderstanding
in early childhood is limited to
defining oneself through physical
characteristics: I am tall, she has black
hair, I
am a girl, etc. During middle and late
childhood, the child is likely to define
oneself
through internal characteristics such as,
“I
am smart and I am popular” or “I feel
proud
when teachers assign me responsibility
in
school”. In addition to defining oneself
through
psychological characteristics, children’s
selfdescriptions
also include social aspects of self,
Is chess a man’s game or woman’s game or
both?
Is baking a woman’s activity or a man’s
activity?
What about driving, debating, and
experimenting
in a physics laboratory? Or consider some of
the
products sold on T.V. for young men and young
women? What do they tell about how girls and
boys should be?
Psychologists have meticulously researched
on whether sex differences exist. Research
shows
that males have been consistently found to be
more aggressive than females. Men perform
better than women on tests of sit-ups, short-
run
speeds and long jumps. Women show better,
fine
eye-hand coordination than men do, and their
joints and limbs are more flexible than men’s.
What do you think is the origin of these
differences? Are these essential, or in other
words, are women born with certain ‘feminine’
traits, and men with certain ‘masculine’ traits?
Or are these differences the creation of the
world
we live in?
The most powerful roles into which people are
socialised are gender roles. They specify the
range
of behaviours which are considered
appropriate
for males or females. While sex refers to the
biological dimension of being male or female,
gender refers to the social dimension of being
male
or female. There are several aspects of gender.
Among these, important ones are gender
identity
of male or female, which most children begin
to
acquire by the time they are about 3 years old
and can accurately label themselves as boys
and
girls. As they grow, preferences can be
evidenced
in their toys and play.
A gender role is a set of expectations that
prescribes how females and males should
think,
act and feel. Parents are important influences
on
gender socialisation especially in the early
years
Box 4.2 Gender and Sex Roles
of development. Through rewards and
punishments,
they induce in children gender appropriate and
inappropriate behaviours. Parents often use
rewards
and punishments to teach their daughters to
be
feminine and boys to be masculine. Peer
influence is
also considered to be a major contributor to
gender
socialisation.
Parents restrict school-aged girls more than
they
restrict school-aged boys, and assign boys and
girls
different types of chores. In everyday
interactions,
parents give their daughters a kind of a member of school’s music club,
‘dependence environment
training’, and their sons a kind of
club, or any religious group. Children’s
‘independence
training’. Media, including cartoons and
selfunderstanding
commercials also includes social
are known to perpetuate gender stereotypes. comparison. Children are likely to think
Research on gender stereotypes in about
commercials what they can do or cannot do in
shows that across cultures authority figures in
comparison
commercials were males, and women were
more likely
with others. For example, “I got more
to be shown in dependent and domestic roles, marks
or than Atul” or “I can run faster than
women were more likely to sell body products, others in
and the class”. This developmental shift
men more likely to sell sports products.
leads to
Once children learn the role of male or female,
they organise their world on the basis of
establishing one’s differences from
gender also. others as
Children’s attention and behaviour are guided an individual.
by an Once the children enter school their
internal motivation to conform to gender based social
sociocultural
world expands beyond their families.
standards and stereotypes. Children also
actively socialise themselves according to the
They also
gender spend greater amount of time with their
mores of their culture. Once they have age
internalised mates or peers. Thus the increased time
gender standards, they begin to expect gender that
appropriate behaviour from themselves. Young
children spend with their peers shapes
boys
may refuse to wear feminine clothes in a fancy
their
dress development.
competition. When playing house (ghar-ghar), actions are wrong because s/he is
girls punished,
may refuse to play the father’s role. Once they and right because s/he is rewarded. As
have
the
identified with their own gender, children may
model
child grows, i.e. by early adolescence,
after a powerful cultural figure of the same s/he
gender. develops moral reasoning through set of
The “gender typing” occurs when individuals rules
are of others, such as parents or laws of the
ready to encode and organise information
society. These rules are accepted by the
along the
lines of what is considered appropriate or
children as their own. These are
typical for “internalised”
males and females in a society. in order to be virtuous and to win
Psychology approval
76 from others (not to avoid punishment).
such as references to social groups like Children view rules as absolute
being guidelines,
which should be followed. Moral thinking children
at come to distinguish right from wrong, to
this stage is relatively inflexible. As they feel
grow, guilty, to put themselves in other
they gradually develop a personal moral people’s
code. position, and to help others when they
You have seen that by the end of are in
childhood trouble, are all components of moral
a more gradual growth rate enables the development. Just as children pass
child through
to develop skills of coordination and the various stages of cognitive
balance. development,
Language develops and the child can according to Lawrence Kohlberg, they
reason pass
logically. Socially the child has become through the various stages of moral
more development, which are age related.
involved in social systems, such as Kohlberg
family and interviewed children in which they were
peer group. The next section traces presented with stories in which the
changes characters
in human development during face moral dilemmas. Children were
adolescence asked
and adulthood. what the characters in the dilemma
A patient is critically ill, hospitalised for many should
years and shows no improvement. Should the do, and why. According to him, children
life
approach thinking about right and wrong
support system of the patient be withdrawn?
What is your view on euthanasia or “mercy
differently at different ages. The young
killing” child,
as it is sometimes called? Discuss with your i.e. before 9 years of age, thinks in
teacher. terms of
Activity 4.4 external authority. According to her/him,
Act like a boy if you are a girl or act like a girl if CHALLENGES OF ADOLESCENCE
you are a boy for atleast one hour in front of The term adolescence derives from the
your Latin
friends and parents. Reflect on your
word adolescere, meaning “to grow into
experience
and note others’ reaction to your behaviour. maturity”. It is the transitional period in
You a
can also ask them about their reactions. How person’s life between childhood and
difficult was it to perform like the other adulthood. Adolescence is commonly
gender? defined
Activity 4.3 as the stage of life that begins at the
Moral Development : Another important onset of
aspect of the child’s development is puberty, when sexual maturity, or the
learning ability
to differentiate between the rightness or to reproduce is attained. It has been
wrongness of human acts. The way regarded
as a period of rapid change, both to reproduction and the secondary sex
biologically characteristics include features or signs
and psychologically. Though the physical of
changes that take place during this achieving sexual maturity. Pubertal
stage are changes
universal, the social and psychological in boys are marked by acceleration in
dimensions of the adolescent’s growth,
experiences facial hair, and changes in voice. In girls,
depend on the cultural context. For rapid
example, growth in height usually begins about
in cultures where the adolescent years two
are years before menarche, the onset of
Chapter 4 • Human Development menstruation. The growth spurt
77 generally
viewed as problematic or confusing, the begins at the age of 12 or 13 for boys
adolescent will have very different and at
experiences the age of 10 or 11 for girls. It is normal
from someone who is in a culture, where to
adolescent years are viewed as have variations in the pubertal
beginning of sequence. For
adult behaviour and, therefore, example, among two boys (or two girls)
undertaking of same
responsible tasks. Although most chronological age, one may complete
societies pubertal
have at least a brief period of sequence before the other has begun it.
adolescence, it Both
is not universal across cultures. genetics and environment play a part in
Physical Development : Puberty or this.
sexual For example, identical twins reach
maturity marks the end of childhood and menarche
signifies the beginning of adolescence, closer in time than do fraternal twins; on
which an
is characterised by dramatic physical average, girls from affluent families go
changes through
in both, growth rate, and sexual menarche earlier than girls from poor
characteristics. However, puberty is not families;
a and historical trends show that the age
sudden event, but is part of a gradual of
process. menarche is declining in industrialised
The hormones released during puberty nations
result reflecting better nutrition and advances
in the development of primary and in
secondary medical care.
sexual characteristics. The primary sex Physical development during
characteristics include those directly adolescence
related is also accompanied by a number of
psychological changes. Around puberty adolescence is accepting one’s physical
adolescents show an increase in interest self/
in maturity. Adolescents need to develop a
members of the opposite sex and in realistic image of their physical
sexual appearance,
matters and a new awareness of sexual which is acceptable to them. It is
feelings develops. This increased important
attention to to keep in mind that puberty also
sexuality is caused by factors such as involves
individual’s awareness of the biological cognitive and social changes along with
changes taking place and the emphasis physical changes.
placed Cognitive Developmental Changes :
on sexuality by peers, parents, and Adolescents’ thought becomes more
society. abstract,
Even then, many adolescents lack logical, and idealistic; they become
adequate more
knowledge or have misconceptions capable of examining their own
about sex thoughts,
and sexuality. Sex is a topic parents find others’ thoughts, and what others are
difficult to discuss with children, so thinking
adolescents tend to become secretive about them. Adolescents’ developing
about ability to
sexual concerns which make exchange reason gives them a new level of
of cognitive and
information and communication difficult. social awareness. Piaget believed that
The formal
concern over adolescent sexuality has operational thought appears between
become the age
intense in recent times because of the of 11 and 15. During this stage
risk of adolescent
AIDS, and other sexually transmitted thinking expands beyond actual
diseases. concrete
The development of a sexual identity experiences and they begin to think
defines the sexual orientation and more in
guides abstract terms and reason about them.
sexual behaviour. As such it becomes an In
important developmental task for addition to being abstract, adolescent
adolescents. thought
How did you think of yourself at the is also idealistic. Adolescents begin to
beginning think
of puberty? Adolescents are preoccupied about ideal characteristics for
with themselves and
what they are like and develop others and compare themselves and
individual others
images of what they look like. Another with these ideal standards. For example,
important developmental task during they
may think what an ideal parent is like protest march for a cause rather than
and adhere/
Psychology conform to college norm.
78 Adolescents also develop a special kind
compare their parents with these ideal of
standards. This may at times make egocentrism. According to David Elkind,
adolescents wonder which of the new- imaginary audience and personal fable
found are
ideal standards they should adopt. In two components of adolescents’
contrast egocentrism.
to trial and error approach used by Imaginary audience is adolescent’s
children belief that
in earlier stages of development, others are as preoccupied with them as
adolescent they
thinking becomes more systematic in are about themselves. They imagine
solving that
problems — they think of possible people are always noticing them and are
courses of observing each and every behaviour of
action, why something is happening the theirs.
way Imagine a boy who thinks that all will
it is, and systematically seek solutions. notice
Piaget the ink spot on his shirt, or a girl with a
called this type of logical thinking — pimple
hypothetical deductive reasoning. feels, all people would think how bad
Logical thought also influences the her skin
development of moral reasoning. Social is. It is this imaginary audience, which
rules makes
are not considered as absolute them extremely self-conscious. The
standards and personal
moral thinking shows some flexibility. fable is part of the adolescents’
The egocentrism
adolescent recognises alternative moral that involves their sense of uniqueness.
courses, explores options, and then Adolescents’ sense of uniqueness makes
decides them
on a personal moral code. For example, think that no one understands them or
should their
I smoke as everyone I know does? Is it feelings. For example, an adolescent girl
ethical thinks
to copy answers in the examinations? that none can sense the hurt that she
This also feels
lends the possibility of adolescents not because of being betrayed by a friend. It
following society’s norms if they conflict is
with quite common to hear the adolescent
personal code of ethics. For example, say to
individuals at this age might participate the parents; ‘you don’t understand me’.
in a To
retain their sense of personal lose their identity in the crowd.
uniqueness they Adolescents
may weave stories filled with fantasy on one hand, may desire independence
around but
them to create a world that is away from may also be afraid of it and show a
reality. Personal fables are often part of great deal
adolescent diaries. of dependence on their parents. Rapid
Forming an Identity : You must have fluctuations between self-confidence
sought answers to questions such as : and
Who insecurity are typical of this stage.
am I? Which subjects should I study? Do Adolescents
I may at one time complain of being
believe in God? The answers to all these “treated
questions involve the quest to define like a baby” whereas on other occasions
one’s they
sense of self or the search for identity. may seek comfort by depending on their
Identity is who you are and what your parents. Seeking an identity involves
values, searching
commitments and beliefs are. The for continuity and sameness in oneself,
primary task greater
of adolescence is to establish an identity responsibility and trying to get a clear
separate from the parents. During sense
adolescence of who one is, i.e. an identity.
a detachment process enables the The formation of identity during
individual adolescence is influenced by several
to develop a personalised set of beliefs factors.
that The cultural background, family and
are uniquely her or his own. In the societal
process of values, ethnic background, and
achieving an identity the adolescent socioeconomic
could status all prevail upon the
experience conflict with parents and adolescents’ search for a place in
within society.
herself or himself. Those adolescents Family relationships become less
who can important
cope with the conflicting identities as the adolescent spends more time
develop a outside
new sense of self. Adolescents who are Chapter 4 • Human Development
not 79
able to cope with this identity crisis are the home and develops a strong need
confused. This “identity confusion”, for peer
according support and acceptance. Increased
to Erikson, can lead to individuals interactions with peers provide them
isolating with
themselves from peers and family; or opportunities for refining their social
they may skills and
trying out different social behaviours. the conflicts, uncertainties, occasional
Peers loneliness, group pressures, we feel it
and parents are dual forces having was
major definitely a vulnerable period. During
influences on adolescents. At times adolescence peer influence, new gained
conflicting freedom, unresolved problems may
situations with parents lead to increased create
identification with peers. But generally difficulties for many of you. Conforming
parents to peer
and peers serve complementary pressure can be both positive and
functions and negative.
fulfil different needs of the adolescents. Adolescents are often confronted with
Vocational commitment is another factor decisions regarding smoking, drugs,
influencing adolescent identity alcohol,
formation. The and breaking parental rules, etc. These
question “What are you going to be decisions are taken without much regard
when you to
grow up?”, requires the ability to think the effect they can have. Adolescents
about may face
the future and to be able to set realistic periods of uncertainty, loneliness, self-
and doubt,
achievable goals. In some cultures anxiety, and concern about themselves
freedom is and
given to the young people to choose an their future, they are also likely to
occupation, whereas in certain other experience
cultures excitement, joy, and feelings of
the option of making this choice is not competence
given as they overcome the developmental
to the children. Here parents’ decision is challenges. You will now read about
likely some of
to be accepted by the children. What the major challenges faced by
has been adolescents like
your experience while making a choice delinquency, substance abuse, and
in the eating
selection of subjects? Career counselling disorders.
in Delinquency : Delinquency refers to a
schools offers information regarding variety of behaviours, ranging from
appraisal socially
of the students for various courses and unacceptable behaviour, legal offences,
jobs to
and provides guidance in making a criminal acts. Examples include truancy,
decision running away from home, stealing or
about career choices. burglary
Some Major Concerns : As adults when or acts of vandalism. Adolescents with
we reflect on our adolescent years and delinquency and behavioural problems
recall tend to
have a negative self-identity, decreased to escape the pressure of school work or
trust, social
and low level of achievement. activities. The addictive powers of
Delinquency is nicotine
often associated with low parental make it difficult to stop smoking. It has
support, been
inappropriate discipline, and family found that adolescents who are more
discord. vulnerable to drugs, alcohol, and
Often adolescents from communities nicotine use,
characterised by poverty, are impulsive, aggressive, anxious,
unemployment, and depressive,
having feelings of alienation from the and unpredictable, have low self-
middle esteem, and
class perform antisocial acts to gain low expectation for achievement. Peer
attention pressure
and to be popular with their peers. and the need to be with their peer group
However, make
most delinquent children do not remain the adolescent either go along with their
delinquent forever. Change in their peer demands to experiment with drugs,
group, alcohol,
becoming more aware of their social and smoking or be ridiculed. Drug use if
responsibilities and developing feelings continued long enough can lead to
of selfworth, Psychology
imitating positive behaviour of the role 80
models, breaking negative attitudes, physiological dependency, i.e. addiction
and to
overcoming poor self-concept help in drugs, alcohol or nicotine may seriously
reduction jeopardise the rest of the adolescents’
of delinquent behaviour. lives.
Substance Abuse : Adolescent years are Positive relationships with parents,
especially vulnerable to smoking, peers,
alcohol and siblings, and adults play an important
drug abuse. Some adolescents take role in
recourse preventing drug abuse. In India, a
to smoking and drugs as a way of successful
coping with anti-drug programme is the Society for
stress. This can interfere with the Theatre
development in Education Programme in New Delhi. It
of coping skills and responsible uses
decisionmaking. street performances to entertain people
The reasons for smoking and drug between 13 to 25 years of age while
use could be peer pressure and the teaching
adolescents’ need to be accepted by the them how to say no to drugs. The United
group, Nations International Drug Control
or desire to act more like adults, or feel Programme
a need (UNDCP) has chosen the programme as
an and
example to be adopted by other well integrated into society. There is a
nongovernmental variation
organisations in the region. in developing these attributes, which
Eating Disorders : Adolescents’ suggests
obsession that there is a shift in timing when an
with self, living in fantasy world and individual becomes an adult or assumes
peer adult
comparisons lead to certain conditions roles. Some people take up jobs along
where with
they become obsessed with their own their college studies or may get married
bodies. and
Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder not pursue their studies. Others may
that continue
involves relentless pursuit of thinness to live with their parents even after
through getting
starvation. It is quite common to see married and being financially
adolescents eliminate certain foods from independent.
their The assumption of adult roles is directed
diets or to eat slimming foods only. The by
media an individual’s social context. The best
also projects thinness, as the most time
desirable for some of the most important life
image and copying such fashionable events (i.e.
image of marriage, job, having children) might be
thinness leads to anorexia nervosa. quite
Bulimia different in different cultures but within
is another form of an eating disorder in a
which culture there is similarity in the course
the individual follows a binge-and-purge of adult
eating development.
pattern. The bulimic goes on an eating In early adulthood, two major tasks are,
binge, exploring the possibilities for adult living
then purges by self-induced vomiting or and
using developing a stable life structure. The
a laxative at times alternating it with twenties
fasting. represent the novice phase of adult
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are development. Gradually, a transition
primarily from
female disorders more common in urban dependence to independence should
families. occur.
ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE This could be marked by an image of the
Adulthood kind
An adult is generally defined as of life the young person wants,
someone who especially in
is responsible, mature, self-supporting, terms of marriage and a career.
Career and Work : Earning a living, How adults experience parenting is
choosing an occupation, and developing affected by
a different situations such as the number
career are important themes for people of
in their children in the family, the availability of
twenties and thirties. Entering work life social
is a support, and the happiness or
challenging event in anyone’s life. There unhappiness
are of the married couple.
apprehensions regarding different Chapter 4 • Human Development
adjustments, proving one’s competence, 81
performance, dealing with competition, Death of a spouse or divorce creates a
and family
coping with expectations both of the structure in which a single parent either
employers the
and oneself. It is also the beginning of mother or the father has to take up the
new responsibility of the children. In recent
roles and responsibilities. Developing times,
and women are increasingly seeking
evaluating a career becomes an employment
important task outside the home thus creating another
of adulthood. type
Marriage, Parenthood, and Family : The of family in which both parents work.
adjustments that young adults have to The
make stressors when both parents are working
when entering a marriage relate to are
knowing quite the same as of a single working
the other person if not known earlier, parent,
coping namely, taking care of children, their
with each other’s likes, dislikes, tastes, schoolwork,
and illness, and coping with workload at
choices. If both the partners are home and in the office, etc. Despite the
working, stresses associated with parenting, it
adjustments are required regarding provides
sharing a unique opportunity for growth and
and performing roles and responsibilities satisfaction and is perceived as a way of
at establishing concern and guiding the
home. next
In addition to getting married, becoming generation.
a Physical changes during middle ages are
parent can be a difficult and stressful caused by maturational changes in the
transition body.
in young adults, even though it is Though individuals may vary in the rate
usually at
accompanied by the feeling of love for which these changes occur, almost all
the baby. middleaged
people notice gradual deterioration in or death in the family. The image of old
some aspects of their physical age is
functioning changing in certain ways. Now there are
such as decline in vision, sensitivity to people
glare, who have crossed seventy years of age
hearing loss and changes in physical or so
appearance (e.g., wrinkles, grey hair or and are quite active, energetic, and
thinning of hair, weight gain). Do creative.
cognitive They are competent and are therefore,
abilities change during adulthood? It is valued
believed that some cognitive abilities by society in many walks of life. In
decline particular,
with age while others do not. Decline in we have aged people in politics,
memory is more in tasks involving long- literature,
term business, art and science. The myth of
memory than short-term memory. For old age
example, a middle-aged person can as an incapacitating and therefore,
remember frightening
the telephone number immediately after phase of life is changing.
s/he Of course, the experience of old age
has heard it but may not remember it so also
efficiently after a few days. Memory depends on the socio-economic
tends to conditions,
show greater decline, while wisdom may availability of health care, attitude of
improve with age. Remember that people,
individual expectations of society and the
differences exist in intelligence at every available
age support system. Work is most important
and as not all children are exceptional, during early adult years, then family
neither becomes
do all adults show wisdom. most important and beyond that health
Old Age becomes the most important issue in
Just when “old age” begins, is not easy the
to person’s life. Clearly, successful ageing
determine. Traditionally, the age of for
retirement much of our adult life focuses on how
was linked to old age. Now that people effective
are we are at work, how loving our
living longer, age of retiring from work is relationships
changing, and the cut-off point for the are in our family, how good our
definition of “old age” is moving upward. friendships
Some are, how healthy we are, and how
of the challenges, which the aged have cognitively
to cope fit we are.
with include retirement, widowhood, Retirement from active vocational life is
illness, quite significant. Some people perceive
retirement as a negative change. They Interview people from three different stages of
consider it as a separation from an life,
for example, 20-35, 35-60 and over 60 years of
important
age. Talk to them about:
source of satisfaction and self-esteem. a. Major transitions that have taken place in
Others their lives.
view it as a shift in life with more time to b. How they feel these transitions have
pursue their own interests. It is seen affected
that them?
Compare the events considered important in
older adults who show openness to new
different groups.
experiences, more striving and
achievementoriented Activity 4.5
behaviour prefer to keep busy and to insecurity and dependency. The
are better adjusted. elderly tend
Older adults also need to adjust to to look towards others to lean on and to
changes care
in the family structure and new roles for them. Indian culture favours
(grand dependency
parenting) that have to be learnt. of elderly on their children, for old age
Children needs
usually are busy in their careers and caring. In fact, parents in most oriental
families cultures rear their children with the fond
and may set up independent homes. hope
Older that they will care for them during old
adults may depend on their children for age. It
financial support and to overcome their is important to give the elderly a sense
loneliness (after children have moved of
out). security and belonging, a feeling that
This might trigger-off feelings of people
hopelessness care for them (especially in the time of
and depression in some people. crisis),
In old age feeling of loss of energy, and and to remember that we all have to
dwindling of health and financial assets, grow old
lead one day.
Psychology spouse is usually seen as the most
82 difficult
Adolescence, Animism, Attachment, loss. Those left behind after the death of
Centration, Cephalocaudal trend, Concrete their
operational stage, Deductive thought,
partner suffer deep grief, cope with
Development, Egocentrism, Evolution, Gender,
Identity, Infancy, Maturation, Menarche, loneliness,
Motor development, Object permanence, depression, financial loss and are also at
Operations, Phenotype, Prenatal period, risk
Preoperational stage, Primary sex of many health related problems.
characteristics, Proximodistal trend, Puberty, Widows by
Reflexes, Secondary sex characteristics, Self,
far out number widowers, because
Sensorimotor stage, Teratogens
studies
Key Terms show that women live longer than men
and
tend to marry men older than
themselves.
During such times, support from
children,
grandchildren, and friends can help the
individual cope with the loss of spouse.
People in different cultures view death
differently. In the Gond culture in our
country,
it is believed that death is caused by
magic
and demon. In the Tanala culture of
Madagascar, natural forces are thought
to
cause death. Human development as
you have
read in this chapter thus, helps you to
understand the influence of various
factors
in an individual’s lifetime.
Summary
• Prenatal development may be affected by
maternal malnutrition, maternal drug use and
some maternal illnesses.
• Motor development follows cephalocaudal
and proximodistal trends. Early motor
development
depends on both maturation and learning.
• Cultural variations in child rearing can affect
the patterns of attachment between the child
and the caregiver.
• According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development, the main characteristics of
sensorimotor
stage is the child’s gradual recognition of the
permanence of objects. The preoperational
stage is marked by certain deficiencies in
thinking such as centration, irreversibility, and
egocentrism.
Although death is more likely to occur in
late adulthood, death can come at any
point
in development. The deaths, especially
of
children and younger adults, are often
perceived to be more tragic than those
of
others. In children and younger adults,
death
is more likely to occur because of
accidents
but in older adults it is more likely to
occur
because of chronic disease. The death of
a
Chapter 4 • Human Development
83
1. Think of your experiences during the last 2-3
years and answer the following : Did you
have confrontations with your parents? What
were the main problems? How did you
solve your problems, and whose help did you
seek? Compare your list with your
classmates. Are there any similarities? Can you
now think of better ways of solving the
problems faced by you?
2. Develop a script from a preoperational (4-7
years old) child’s point of view for playing
with friends. Develop the same script for an
adolescent. How do these scenarios differ?
How are roles played by your friends different?
Project Ideas
1. What is development? How is it different
from growth and maturation?
2. Describe the main features of life-span
perspective on development.
3. What are developmental tasks? Explain by
giving examples.
4. ‘Environment of the child has a major role in
the development of the child’. Support your
answer with examples.
5. How do socio-cultural factors influence
development?
6. Discuss the cognitive changes taking place
in a developing child.
7. Attachment bonds formed in childhood years
have long-term effects. Explain taking
examples from daily life.
8. What is adolescence? Explain the concept of
egocentrism.
9. What are the factors influencing the
formation of identity during adolescence?
Support
your answer with examples.
10. What are the challenges faced by
individuals on entry to adulthood?
Review Questions
• During the concrete operations stage, of infancy, childhood, adolescence,
children develop the ability to perform adulthood and old age, and
operations on • reflect on your own course of
mental representations, making them capable
development and related experiences.
of conservation. The stage of formal operations
is more abstract, systematic, and develops After reading this chapter, you
logical thought. would be able to
• According to Kohlberg, moral reasoning
progresses through three levels that are
related to
age and determined by cognitive development.
Human
Development
• The growth spurt at puberty is a prominent
event involving the development of
reproductive
maturity and secondary sex characteristics. Introduction
According to Erikson, the key challenge of
Meaning of Development
adolescence is to make some progress towards
Life-Span Perspective on Development
a sense of identity.
• During adulthood personality is marked by
Growth, Development, Maturation, and
both stability and change. Many landmarks in Evolution (Box 4.1)
adult development involve transitions in family Factors Influencing Development
relationships, including adjustment to Context of Development
marriage, parenthood, and children leaving Overview of Developmental Stages
home. Prenatal Stage
• Age-related physical transitions during Infancy
adulthood include changes in appearance, Childhood
memory,
Gender and Sex Roles (Box 4.2)
and in the cognitive domain.
Challenges of Adolescence
Adulthood and Old Age
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas

Psychology Contents
64
I wish I could travel by the road that

4
crosses the baby’s mind, and out
beyond all bounds; where messengers
run errands for no cause between the

Chapter kingdoms of kings of no history; where

• describe the meaning and process of
development,
• explain the influence of heredity,
environment and context on human
development,
• identify the stages of development and
describe the major characteristics
Reason makes kites of her laws and
flies them, and Truth sets Fact free
from its fetters.
– Rabindranath Tagore
Chapter 4 • Human Development
65
associated with the processes of
knowing,
and experiencing, such as thought,
perception, attention, problem solving, younger
etc. siblings, with parents and grandparents,
Socio-emotional processes that in
influence school with peers or others around us.
development refer to changes in an From
individual’s interactions with other conception until the moment of death,
people, we not
changes in emotions, and in personality. only change physically, but we also
A change in
child’s hug to her/his mother, a young the way we think, use language, and
girl’s develop
affectionate gesture to her/his sibling, or social relationships. Remember that,
an changes
adolescent’s sorrow at losing a match are not confined to any one area of a
are all person’s
reflections of socio-emotional processes life; they occur in the person in an
deeply integrated
involved in human development. manner. Development is the pattern of
Although you would be reading about progressive, orderly, and predictable
the changes
different processes in different chapters that begin at conception and continue
of this throughout life. Development mostly
textbook, it is important to remember involves
that the changes — both growth and decline, as
biological, cognitive, and socio- observed during old age.
emotional Development is influenced by an
processes are interwoven. These interplay
processes of biological, cognitive, and socio-
influence changes in the development of emotional
the processes. Development due to genes
individual as a whole throughout the inherited from parents, such as in height
human and
life-span. weight, brain, heart, and lungs
Life-Span Perspective on Development development,
The study of development according to etc. all point towards the role of
the biological
Life-Span Perspective (LSP) includes the processes. The role of cognitive
following assumptions : processes
1. Development is lifelong, i.e. it takes in development relate to mental
place activities
across all age groups starting from If you look around, you will notice that
MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT from birth onwards changes of various
When we think of development, kinds are taking place in an individual’s
invariably we life, which continue even during old age.
think of physical changes, as these are Over a span of time, a human grows
commonly observed at home with and develops, learns to communicate,
walk,
count, and read and write. S/he also
learns to distinguish between right and
wrong.
S/he makes friends, goes through
puberty, gets married, rears children,
and grows
old. Even though we differ from each
other, we share many commonalities.
Most of
us learn to walk by the first year and
talk by the second year. This chapter
will
familiarise you with the changes
observed in people during the course of
their lifespan
in different domains. You will learn
about key developmental processes and
changes taking place in major periods
during the life-span: prenatal, infancy,
childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and
old age. This would be a journey of
personal
understanding and self-discovery which
should help in your future development.
The study of human development would
also help you to deal with others better.
Introduction
Psychology
66
conception to old age. It includes both
gains
and losses, which interact in dynamic
(change in one aspect goes with
changes in
others) ways throughout the life-span.
2. The various processes of human
development, i.e. biological, cognitive,
and
socio-emotional are interwoven in the
development of a person throughout the
life-span.
3. Development is multi-directional.
Some
dimensions or components of a given
dimension of development may
increase,
while others show decrement. For
example,
the experiences of adults may make
them
wiser and guide their decisions.
However,
with an increase in age, one’s
performance
is likely to decrease on tasks requiring
speed, such as running.
4. Development is highly plastic, i.e.
within
person, modifiability is found in
psychological development, though
plasticity varies among individuals. This
means skills and abilities can be
improved
or developed throughout the life-span.
5. Development is influenced by
historical
conditions. For example, the
experiences
of 20-year olds who lived through the
freedom struggle in India would be very
different from the experiences of 20
year
olds of today. The career orientation of
school students today is very different
from
those students who were in schools 50
years ago.
6. Development is the concern of a
number of disciplines. Different
disciplines like psychology,
anthropology,
sociology, and neuro-sciences study
human development, each trying to
provide answers to development
throughout the life-span.
7. An individual responds and acts on
contexts, which include what was
inherited, the physical environment,
social,
historical, and cultural contexts. For
example, the life events in everyone’s maturationally
life not ready. These processes seem to “unfold
from
are not the same, such as, death of a
within”: following an inner, genetically
parent, accident, earthquake, etc., affect determined
the course of one’s life as also the timetable that is characteristic of the species.
positive Evolution refers to species-specific changes.
Growth refers to an increase in the size of body Natural
parts or of the organism as a whole. It can be selection is an evolutionary process that
measured or quantified, for example, growth in favours
height, weight, etc. Development is a process individuals or a species that are best adapted
by which an individual grows and changes to
throughout the life cycle. The term survive and reproduce. The evolutionary
development changes are
applies to the changes that have a direction passed from one generation to the next within
and a
hold definite relationship with what precedes species. Evolution proceeds at a very slow
it, pace.
and in turn, will determine what will come Emergence of human beings from great apes
after. took
A temporary change caused by a brief illness, about 14 million years. It has been estimated
for example, is not considered a part of that
development. All changes which occur as a the ‘Homo sapiens’ came into existence only
result about
of development are not of the same kind. Thus, 50,000 years ago.
changes in size (physical growth), changes in Chapter 4 • Human Development
proportion (child to adult), changes in features 67
(disappearance of baby teeth), and acquiring influences such as winning an award or
new getting a good job. People keep on
features are varied in their pace and scope
changing
level.
Development includes growth as one of its
with changing contexts.
aspects. Maturation refers to the changes that FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT
follow an orderly sequence and are largely Have you observed in your class that
dictated by the genetic blueprint which some of
produces
you have dark skin, others have light
Box 4.1 Growth, Development, coloured
Maturation, and Evolution skins, colour of your hair and eyes are
commonalities in our growth and development. different, some of you are tall, others
For example, most children can sit without short,
support some are quiet or sad while others are
by 7 months of age, stand with support by 8 talkative
months
or cheerful. People also differ with
and walk by one year. Once the underlying
physical
respect to
structure is sufficiently developed, proficiency intelligence, learning abilities, memory,
in these and
behaviours requires adequate environment other psychological characteristics
and little besides
practice. However, special efforts to accelerate
physical characteristics. Despite these
these
behaviours do not help if the infant is
variations, no one can be mistaken for
any is
other species: we all are homo sapiens. known as genotype. However, not all of
What this
causes us to be different from each genetic material is apparent or distinctly
other but identifiable in our observable
at the same time more like each other? characteristics.
The Phenotype is the way an individual’s
answer lies in the interaction of heredity genotype
and is expressed in observable and
environment. measurable
You have already learned in Chapter 3 characteristics. Phenotypes include
that physical
the principles of heredity explain the traits, such as height, weight, eye and
mechanism for transmission of skin
characteristics colour, and many of the psychological
by every species from one generation to characteristics such as intelligence,
the creativity,
next. We inherit genetic codes from our and personality. These observable
parents, which are in every cell of our characteristics of an individual are the
body. result
Our genetic codes are alike in one of the interaction between the person’s
important inherited traits and the environment.
way; they contain the human genetic You
code. It know it is the genetic code which
is because of the human genetic code predisposes
that a a child to develop in a particular way.
fertilised human egg grows into a Genes
human baby provide a distinct blueprint and
and cannot grow into an elephant, a bird timetable for
or a the development of an individual. But
mouse. genes
Genetic transmission is very complex. do not exist in isolation and
Most characteristics that we observe in development
humans are combinations of larger occurs within the context of an
number individual’s
of genes. You can imagine the environment. This is what makes each
combinations one of
produced by 80,000 or more genes – us a unique person.
accounting for a variety of What are the environmental influences?
characteristics and How does the environment affect
behaviours. It is also not possible to development? Imagine a child, with
possess genotype
all the characteristics made available to that predisposes her/him to be
us by introverted,
our genetic structure. The actual genetic in an environment that promotes social
material or a person’s genetic heritage interaction and extroversion. The
influence of as
such an environment may make the compared to children who are not
child a cooperative
little extroverted. Let us take another or not attentive. Besides these, children
example. themselves choose certain
An individual with “short” height genes, environments
even Psychology
if s/he is in a very good nutritional 68
environment, will never be able to be based on their genotype. For example,
taller because
than average. This shows that genes set of their genotype, children may perform
the well
limit and within that limit the in music or sports and they will seek and
environment spend more time in environments, which
influences development. will
You know by now that parents provide enable them to perform their musical
the skills;
genes for the child’s development. Do similarly an athlete would seek sports-
you related
know that they also play an important environment. These interactions with
role in environment keep changing from
determining the type of environment infancy
their through adolescence. Environmental
children will encounter? Sandra Scarr influences are as complex as the genes
(1992) we
believes that the environment parents inherit.
provide If your class monitor is selected on the
for their children depends to some basis of being academically bright and a
extent on popular student, do you think it is
their own genetic predisposition. For because of
example, her/his genes or the influence of the
if parents are intelligent and are good environment? If a child from a rural area
readers who
they would provide their children with is very intelligent, is not able to get a
books job
to read, with the likely outcome that because of her/his inability to express
their herself/
children would become good readers himself fluently or handle computers, do
who you think - it is because of genes or
enjoy reading. A child’s own genotype environment?
(what CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT
s/he has inherited) such as being Development does not take place in a
cooperative, vacuum.
and attentive is likely to result in It is always embedded in a particular
teachers and sociocultural
parents giving more pleasant response context. As you shall read in this
chapter, transition during one’s lifetime Religious Neighbourhood
settings
such
Time
as entering school, becoming an Macrosystem
adolescent, Attitudes
deologies
finding jobs, marrying, having children,
Beliefs
retirement, etc. all are joint functions of raditions
the I
T
biological changes and changes in one’s
experiences likely to influence an
environment. The environment can
individual’s
change or
relationships with others. The exosystem
alter during any time of the individual’s
includes events in social settings where
lifespan.
the
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of
child does not participate directly, but
development emphasises the role of
they
environmental factors in the
influence the childs’ experiences in the
development of
immediate context. For example, the
an individual. This has been depicted in
transfer
Figure 4.1.
of father or mother may cause tension
The microsystem is the immediate
among
environment/setting in which the
the parents which might affect their
individual
interactions with the child or the general
lives. It is in these settings where the
amenities available to the child like
child
quality of
directly interacts with social agents – the
schooling, libraries, medical care, means
family, peers, teachers, and
of
neighbourhood.
entertainment, etc. Macrosystem
The mesosystem consists of relations
includes the
between
culture in which the individual lives. You
these contexts. For instance, how a
have
child’s
read in Chapter 3 about the importance
parents relate to the teachers, or how
of
the
culture in the development of an
parents view the adolescent’s friends,
individual.
are
Chronosystem involves events in the
Fig.4.1 : Bronfenbrenner’s Contextual View of
Development individual’s life course, and socio-
Exosystem historical
Mesosystem circumstances of the time such as,
Microsystem
The
divorce of
Individual parents or parents’ economic setback,
Chronosystem and
Family School
their effect on the child.
Peers
Work In a nutshell, Bronfenbrenner’s view is
Place that
Mass a child’s development is significantly
Media
affected
Friends Neighbour
by the complex world that envelops (ii) nature and quality of schooling,
her/him facilities
– whether it be the minutiae of the to which the child is exposed, and (iii)
conversations s/he has with her/his nature
Chapter 4 • Human Development of interactions and activities undertaken
69 with
playmates, or the social and economic peer groups from childhood onwards.
lifecircumstances These factors do not operate
into which s/he is born. independently but constantly interact
Research has shown that children in with
impoverished environments have one another. Since these are also
unstimulating environment devoid of embedded
books, in a larger and a more pervasive setting,
magazines, toys, etc., lack experiences the
such “surrounding layers” of the child’s
as visits to library, museum, zoo, etc., ecology
have constantly influence the “upper layer”
parents who are ineffective as role factors. However, their influences are
models, and not
live in overcrowded and noisy always clearly visible. The elements of
surroundings. the
As a result of these conditions children surrounding layer of ecology constitute
are at the:
a disadvantage and have difficulties in (i) general geographical environment. It
learning. includes space and facilities for play and
Durganand Sinha (1977) has presented other activities available outside the
an home
ecological model for understanding the including general congestion of the
development of children in Indian locality
context. and density of population, (ii)
Ecology of the child could be viewed in institutional
terms setting provided by caste, class, and
of two concentric layers. The “upper and other
the factors, and (iii) general amenities
more visible layers” consist of home, available
school, to the child like drinking water,
peer groups, and so on. The most electricity,
important means of entertainment and so on.
ecological factors influencing The visible and the surrounding layer
development of factors interact with one another and
the child in the visible upper layer may
constitute have different consequences for
the: (i) home, its conditions in terms of development in different people. The
overcrowding, space available to each ecological environment can change or
member, alter
toys, technological devices used, etc., during any time of the individual’s life-
span. individual progresses towards an
Therefore, to understand differences in assumed
the goal - a state or ability that s/he must
functioning of an individual, it is achieve
important in the same order as other persons
to see the individual in the context of before
her/ progressing to the next stage in the
his experiences. sequence.
What would your life be if you lived in a rural Of course, individuals do vary with
area or a small town, devoid of all amenities, respect to
which you are used to in a city (or vice-versa)?
the time or rate of development from
Discuss in small groups keeping in mind
factors
one stage
like poverty, illiteracy, pollution, population, to another. It may be noted that certain
etc. patterns of behaviour and certain skills
Activity 4.1 are
learned more easily and successfully
OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
during
Development is commonly described in
certain stages. These accomplishments
terms
of a
of periods or stages. You must have
person become the social expectations
observed
of that
that your younger brother or sister, or
stage of development. They are known
parents,
as
and even yourself, all behave in
Psychology
different ways. 70
If you observe people living in your developmental tasks. You will now read
neighbourhood, you would find that they about the different stages of
too development and
do not behave in a similar manner. This their main features.
variation is partly because everyone is Prenatal Stage
in a The period from conception to birth is
different stage of life. Human life known
proceeds as the prenatal period. Typically, it lasts
through different stages. For example, for
you are about 40 weeks. You know by now that
at present in the stage of adolescence the
and after genetic blueprint guides our
a few years you will enter the stage of development
adulthood. Developmental stages are during the prenatal period and after
assumed birth.
to be temporary and are often Both genetic and environmental factors
characterised affect
by a dominant feature or a leading our development during different
characteristic, which gives each period periods of
its prenatal stage.
uniqueness. During a particular stage, Prenatal development is also affected by
maternal characteristics, which include before
mother’s age, nutrition, and emotional and after birth. You have already read in
state. Chapter 3 about the parts of the brain
Disease or infection carried by the and
mother can the important role played by cerebrum
adversely affect prenatal development. in
For human functions, such as language,
example, rubella (German measles), perception, and intelligence. Just before
genital birth
herpes, and Human Immunodeficiency the newborns have most but not all
Virus brain cells.
(HIV) are believed to cause genetic The neural connections among these
problems cells
in the newborn. Another source of threat develop at a rapid rate.
to The newborn is not as helpless as you
prenatal development is teratogens - might think. The activities needed to
environmental agents that cause sustain
deviations life functions are present in the newborn
in normal development that can lead to — it
serious breathes, sucks, swallows, and
abnormalities or death. Common discharges the
teratogens bodily wastes. The newborns in their
include drugs, infections, radiations, and first week
pollution. Intake of drugs (marijuana, of life are able to indicate what direction
heroin, a
cocaine, etc.), alcohol, tobacco, etc. by sound is coming from, can distinguish
women their
during pregnancy may have harmful mother’s voice from the voices of other
effects women,
on the foetus and increase the and can imitate simple gestures like
frequency of tongue
congenital abnormalities. Radiations protrusion and mouth opening.
(such as Motor Development : The newborn’s
X-rays), and certain chemicals near movements are governed by reflexes —
industrial which
areas can cause permanent change in are automatic, built-in responses to
the stimuli.
genes. Environmental pollutants and They are genetically-carried survival
toxic mechanisms, and are the building blocks
wastes like carbon monoxide, mercury for
and subsequent motor development. Before
lead are also sources of danger to the the
unborn newborns have had the opportunity to
child. learn,
INFANCY reflexes act as adaptive mechanisms.
The brain develops at an amazing rate Some
reflexes present in the newborn —
coughing,
blinking, and yawning persist throughout
their
lives. Others disappear as the brain
functions
mature and voluntary control over
behaviour
starts developing (see Table 4.1).
As the brain is developing, physical
development also progresses. As the
infant
grows, the muscles and nervous system
mature which lead to the development
of finer
skills. Basic physical (motor) skills
include
grasping and reaching for objects,
sitting,
crawling, walking and running. The
sequence
of physical (motor) development is
universal,
with minor exceptions.
Sensory Abilities : You know by now that
newborns are not as incompetent as
they look.
They can recognise their mother’s voice
just a
few hours after birth and have other
sensory
capabilities. How well can infants see?
Newborns prefer to look at some stimuli
rather
than others such as faces, although
these
preferences change over the first few
months
of life. The newborn’s vision is estimated
to
be lower than the adult vision. By 6
months it
improves and by about the first year,
vision is
almost the same as that of an adult
(20/20).
Can a newborn see colour? The current
consensus is that they might be able to
distinguish between red and white
colours but
Chapter 4 • Human Development
71
in general they are colour deficient and
full
colour vision develops by 3 months of
age.
What is the nature of hearing in
newborns?
Infants can hear immediately after birth.
As
the infant develops, proficiency at
localising
sound improves. Newborns respond to
touch
and they can even feel pain. Both smell
and
taste capacities are also present in the
newborn.
Cognitive Development : Does a 3 year
old child understand things the same
way as
would an 8 year old? Jean Piaget
stressed that
children actively construct their
understanding of the world. Information
does
not simply enter their minds from the
environment. As children grow,
additional
information is acquired and they adapt
their
thinking to include new ideas, as this
improves
their understanding of the world. Piaget
believed that a child’s mind passes
through a
series of stages of thought from infancy
to
adolescence (see Table 4.2).
Each stage is characterised by a distinct
way of thinking and is age related. It is
important to remember that it is the
different
way of thinking which makes one stage
more
advanced than the other and not the
amount
of information. This also shows why you
at
your age think differently from an 8 year
old.
The child during infancy, i.e. the first
two years
of life, experiences the world through
senses
and interactions with objects — through
looking, hearing, touching, mouthing,
and
grasping. The newborn lives in the
present.
What is out of sight is out of mind. For
example, if you hide the toy in front of
the
child with which the child has been
playing,
the young infant would react as if
nothing has
happened, i.e. s/he will not search for
the toy.
The child assumes the toy does not
exist.
According to Piaget, children at this
stage do
not go beyond their immediate sensory
experience, i.e. lack object permanence
— then curl
the awareness that the objects continue
to
exist when not perceived. Gradually by 8
months of age the child starts pursuing
the
object partially covered in her/his
presence.
The basis of verbal communication
seems
to be present in infants. Vocalisation
begins
with the infant’s babbling, sometime
between
3 to 6 months of age. You will read about
early
language development in Chapter 8.
Socio-emotional Development : Babies
from birth are social creatures. An infant
starts
preferring familiar faces and responds to
parent’s presence by cooing and
gurgling. They
become more mobile by 6 to 8 months
of age
and start showing a preference for their
mother’s company. When frightened by
a new
face or when separated from their
mother, they
Reflex Description Developmental Course
Rooting Turning the head and opening the
Disappears between 3 and 6 months
mouth when touched on the cheek
Moro If there is a loud noise, the baby
Disappears in 6 to 7 months
will throw her/his arms outward (although
reaction to loud noises is
while arching her/his back, and permanent)
then bring the arms together as
if grasping something
Grasp When a finger or some other object is
Disappears in 3 to 4 months;
pressed against the baby’s palm, the replaced
by voluntary grasping
baby’s fingers close around it
Babinski When the bottom of the baby’s foot
Disappears in 8 to 12 months
is stroked, the toes fan out and
Table 4.1 Some Major Reflexes in
the Newborn
Psychology
72
cry or show distress. On being reunited
with
the parent or caregiver they reciprocate
with
smiles or hugs. The close emotional
bond of
affection that develop between infants
and
their parents (caregivers) is called their signals of love and affection.
attachment. In a classic study by Harlow According to
and Erik Erikson (1968), the first year of life
Harlow (1962), baby monkeys were is the
separated key time for the development of
from their mothers approximately 8 attachment. It
hours represents the stage of developing trust
after birth. The baby monkeys were or
placed in mistrust. A sense of trust is built on a
experimental chambers and reared for 6 feeling of
months by surrogate (substitute) physical comfort which builds an
“mothers”, expectation
one made of wire and the other of cloth. of the world as a secure and good place.
Half An
the baby monkeys were fed by the wire infant’s sense of trust is developed by
mother, responsive and sensitive parenting. If
half by the cloth mother. Regardless of the
whether parents are sensitive, affectionate, and
they were fed by the wire or the cloth accepting, it provides the infant a strong
mother base
the baby monkeys showed a preference to explore the environment. Such infants
for the are
cloth mother and spent a lot more time likely to develop a secure attachment.
with On the
her. This study clearly demonstrates other hand, if parents are insensitive
that and show
providing nourishment or feeding was dissatisfaction and find fault with the
not child, it
crucial for attachment and contact- can lead to creating feelings of self-
comfort is doubt in
important. You too may have seen the child. Securely attached infants
young respond
children having a strong attachment to a positively when picked up, move freely,
favourite toy or blanket. There is nothing and
unusual in this, as the children know play whereas insecurely attached infants
that feel
the blanket or toy is not their mother. anxious when separated and cry due to
Yet it fear
provides them comfort. As children grow and get upset. A close interactive
and relationship
become more sure of themselves, they with warm and affectionate adults is a
abandon these objects. child’s
Human babies also form an attachment first step towards healthy development.
with their parents or caregivers who CHILDHOOD
consistently and appropriately The child’s growth slows down during
reciprocate to early
childhood as compared to infancy. The follows two principles : (i) development
child proceeds cephalocaudally, i.e. from the
develops physically, gains height and cephalic or head region to the caudal or
weight, tail
Stage Approximate Age Characteristics region. Children gain control over the
Sensorimotor 0-2 years Infant explores the upper
world by coordinating
part of the body before the lower part.
sensory experiences with physical actions.
Preoperational 2-7 years Symbolic thought
This is
develops; object why you would notice that the infant’s
permanence is established; the child cannot head
coordinate different physical attributes of an is proportionately larger than her/his
object. body
Concrete operational 7-11 years The child can
during early infancy or if you see an
reason logically about concrete
events and classify objects into different sets.
infant
Is able to perform reversible mental operations crawling, s/he will use the arms first and
on representations of objects. then
Formal operational 11-15 years The adolescent shift to using the legs, (ii) growth
can apply logic more proceeds from
abstractly; hypothetical thinking develops.
the centre of body and moves towards
Table 4.2 Piaget’s Stages of the
Cognitive Development extremities or more distal regions — the
Chapter 4 • Human Development proximodistal trend, i.e. children gain
73
control
learns to walk, runs, jumps, and plays
over their torso before their extremities.
with a
Initially infants reach for objects by
ball. Socially, the child’s world expands
turning
from
their entire body, gradually they extend
the parents to the family and adults
their
near home
arms to reach for things. These changes
and at school. The child also begins to
are
acquire
the result of a maturing nervous system
the concepts of good and bad, i.e.
and
develops a
not because of any limitation since even
sense of morality. During childhood,
visually impaired children show the
children
same
have increased physical capacities, can
sequence.
perform tasks independently, can set
As children grow older, they look
goals,
slimmer
and meet adult expectations. The
as the trunk part of their bodies
increasing
lengthens
maturation of the brain along with
and body fat decreases. The brain and
opportunities to experience the world,
the
contribute to development of children’s
head grow more rapidly than any other
cognitive abilities.
part
Physical Development : Early
of the body. The growth and
development
development of
the brain are important as they help in preoperational thought (see Table 4.2).
the The
maturation of children’s abilities, such child gains the ability to mentally
as eyehand represent
coordination, holding a pencil, and an object that is not physically present.
attempts made at writing. During middle You
and may have observed children draw
late childhood years, children increase designs/
significantly in size and strength; figures to represent people, trees, dog,
increase in house,
weight is mainly due to increase in the Age in Years Gross Motor Skills Fine Motor
size of Skills
3 years Hopping, jumping, running Build
the skeletal and muscular systems, as
blocks, pick objects with
well as forefinger and thumb
size of some body organs. 4 years Climb up and downstairs with Fit jigsaw
Motor Development : Gross motor skills puzzle precisely
during the early childhood years involve one foot on each step
the 5 years Run hard, enjoy races Hand, arm, and
body all coordinate
use of arms and legs, and moving
with eye movement
around with
Table 4.3 Major Accomplishments in
confidence and more purposefully in the
environment. Fine motor skills — finger Gross and Fine Motor Skills
Psychology
dexterity and eye-hand coordination —
74
improve substantially during early
etc. This ability of the child to engage in
childhood.
symbolic thought helps to expand
During these years the child’s
her/his
preference for
mental world. The progress in symbolic
left or right hand also develops. The
thought continues. A salient feature of
major
preoperational thought is egocentrism
accomplishments in gross and fine
(selffocus),
motor skills
i.e. children see the world only in terms
during early childhood years are given in
of their own selves and are not able to
Table 4.3.
appreciate others’ point of view.
Cognitive Development : The child’s
Children
ability to acquire the concept of object
because of egocentrism, engage in
permanence enables her/him to use
animism -
mental
thinking that all things are living, like
symbols to represent objects. However,
oneself.
the
They attribute life-like qualities to
child at this stage lacks the ability that
inanimate
allows
objects. For example, if a child while
her/him to do mentally what was done
running
physically before. Cognitive
slips on the road, s/he might show
development in
animism
early childhood focuses on Piaget’s
by saying “road hurt me”. As children
stage of
grow identical balls of clay. One ball is rolled
and are approximately between 4 and 7 by the
years experimenter into a long thin strip and
of age they want answers to all their the
questions other ball remains in its original shape.
like: Why is the sky blue? How do trees On
grow? being asked which has more clay, the
and so on. Such questions help the child child
to of 7 or 8 years, would answer that, both
know why things are as they are. Piaget have
called the same amount of clay. This is
this the stage of intuitive thought. because the
Another child imagines the ball rolled into thin
feature of thought during preoperational strip
stage and then into a ball, that means s/he is
is characterised by children having a able
tendency to imagine reversible mental action on
for centration, i.e. focusing on a single concrete/real objects. What do you think
characteristic or feature for a
understanding an preoperational child would have done?
event. For example, a child may insist S/he
on is likely to focus on only one aspect-
drinking a “big glass” of juice, preferring length or
a tall height. Concrete operations allow the
narrow glass to a short broad one, even child to
though focus on different characteristics and
both might be holding the same amount not focus
of on one aspect of the object. This helps
juice. the
As the child grows and is approximately child to appreciate that there are
between 7 and 11 years of age (the different ways
period of of looking at things, which also results in
middle and late childhood) intuitive the
thought decline of her/his egocentrism. Thinking
is replaced by logical thought. This is the becomes more flexible, and children can
stage think
of concrete operational thought, which is about alternatives when solving
made up of operations — mental actions problems, or
that mentally retrace their steps if required.
allow the child to do mentally what was Even
done though the preoperational child
physically before. Concrete operations develops the
are also ability to see relationships between
mental actions that are reversible. In a different
wellknown properties of an object, s/he cannot do
test, the child is presented with two abstract thinking, i.e. s/he still cannot
manipulate ideas in the absence of
objects.
For example, steps required to complete
algebraic equations, or imagining line of
longitude or latitude of the earth.
The growing cognitive abilities of
children
facilitate the acquisition of language.
You will
read in Chapter 8, how children develop
vocabulary and grammar.
Take two transparent glasses of the same size
and pour same amount of water in both. Ask a
child of Class II and Class V of your school:
whether the glasses contain the same amount
of
water? Take another tall thin glass and in front
of the child empty water from one of the
earlier
glasses to the third glass. Now ask her/him
which
glass has more water? Did you find any
difference
in their responses?
Activity 4.2
Socio-emotional Development : The
important dimensions of children’s
socioemotional
development are the self, gender
and moral development. During the
early
years of childhood, some important
developments in the self take place. The
child
due to socialisation has developed a
sense of
who s/he is and whom s/he wants to be
identified with. The developing sense of
independence makes children do things
in
their own way. According to Erikson, the
way
parents respond to their self-initiated
activities
Chapter 4 • Human Development
75
leads to developing a sense of initiative
or sense
of guilt. For example, giving freedom
and
opportunities for play like cycling,
running,
skating, etc. and answering children’s
questions will create a sense of support
for
the initiative taken. In contrast, if they
are
made to feel that their questions are
useless,
and games played by them are stupid,
the
children are likely to develop feelings of
guilt
over self-initiated activities, which may
persist
through the children’s later life also.
Selfunderstanding
in early childhood is limited to
defining oneself through physical
characteristics: I am tall, she has black
hair, I
am a girl, etc. During middle and late
childhood, the child is likely to define
oneself
through internal characteristics such as,
“I
am smart and I am popular” or “I feel
proud
when teachers assign me responsibility
in
school”. In addition to defining oneself
through
psychological characteristics, children’s
selfdescriptions
also include social aspects of self,
Is chess a man’s game or woman’s game or
both?
Is baking a woman’s activity or a man’s
activity?
What about driving, debating, and
experimenting
in a physics laboratory? Or consider some of
the
products sold on T.V. for young men and young
women? What do they tell about how girls and
boys should be? be
Psychologists have meticulously researched feminine and boys to be masculine. Peer
on whether sex differences exist. Research influence is
shows also considered to be a major contributor to
that males have been consistently found to be gender
more aggressive than females. Men perform socialisation.
better than women on tests of sit-ups, short- Parents restrict school-aged girls more than
run they
speeds and long jumps. Women show better, restrict school-aged boys, and assign boys and
fine girls
eye-hand coordination than men do, and their different types of chores. In everyday
joints and limbs are more flexible than men’s. interactions,
What do you think is the origin of these parents give their daughters a kind of
differences? Are these essential, or in other ‘dependence
words, are women born with certain ‘feminine’ training’, and their sons a kind of
traits, and men with certain ‘masculine’ traits? ‘independence
Or are these differences the creation of the training’. Media, including cartoons and
world commercials
we live in? are known to perpetuate gender stereotypes.
The most powerful roles into which people are Research on gender stereotypes in
socialised are gender roles. They specify the commercials
range shows that across cultures authority figures in
of behaviours which are considered commercials were males, and women were
appropriate more likely
for males or females. While sex refers to the to be shown in dependent and domestic roles,
biological dimension of being male or female, or
gender refers to the social dimension of being women were more likely to sell body products,
male and
or female. There are several aspects of gender. men more likely to sell sports products.
Among these, important ones are gender Once children learn the role of male or female,
identity they organise their world on the basis of
of male or female, which most children begin gender also.
to Children’s attention and behaviour are guided
acquire by the time they are about 3 years old by an
and can accurately label themselves as boys internal motivation to conform to gender based
and sociocultural
girls. As they grow, preferences can be standards and stereotypes. Children also
evidenced actively socialise themselves according to the
in their toys and play. gender
A gender role is a set of expectations that mores of their culture. Once they have
prescribes how females and males should internalised
think, gender standards, they begin to expect gender
act and feel. Parents are important influences appropriate behaviour from themselves. Young
on boys
gender socialisation especially in the early may refuse to wear feminine clothes in a fancy
years dress
Box 4.2 Gender and Sex Roles competition. When playing house (ghar-ghar),
girls
of development. Through rewards and
may refuse to play the father’s role. Once they
punishments,
have
they induce in children gender appropriate and
identified with their own gender, children may
inappropriate behaviours. Parents often use
model
rewards
after a powerful cultural figure of the same
and punishments to teach their daughters to
gender. develops moral reasoning through set of
The “gender typing” occurs when individuals rules
are
of others, such as parents or laws of the
ready to encode and organise information
along the
society. These rules are accepted by the
lines of what is considered appropriate or children as their own. These are
typical for “internalised”
males and females in a society. in order to be virtuous and to win
Psychology approval
76
from others (not to avoid punishment).
such as references to social groups like
Children view rules as absolute
being
guidelines,
a member of school’s music club,
which should be followed. Moral thinking
environment
at
club, or any religious group. Children’s
this stage is relatively inflexible. As they
selfunderstanding
grow,
also includes social
they gradually develop a personal moral
comparison. Children are likely to think
code.
about
You have seen that by the end of
what they can do or cannot do in
childhood
comparison
a more gradual growth rate enables the
with others. For example, “I got more
child
marks
to develop skills of coordination and
than Atul” or “I can run faster than
balance.
others in
Language develops and the child can
the class”. This developmental shift
reason
leads to
logically. Socially the child has become
establishing one’s differences from
more
others as
involved in social systems, such as
an individual.
family and
Once the children enter school their
peer group. The next section traces
social
changes
world expands beyond their families.
in human development during
They also
adolescence
spend greater amount of time with their
and adulthood.
age A patient is critically ill, hospitalised for many
mates or peers. Thus the increased time years and shows no improvement. Should the
that life
children spend with their peers shapes support system of the patient be withdrawn?
their What is your view on euthanasia or “mercy
killing”
development.
as it is sometimes called? Discuss with your
actions are wrong because s/he is teacher.
punished,
and right because s/he is rewarded. As
Activity 4.4
Act like a boy if you are a girl or act like a girl if
the you are a boy for atleast one hour in front of
child grows, i.e. by early adolescence, your
s/he friends and parents. Reflect on your
experience word adolescere, meaning “to grow into
and note others’ reaction to your behaviour. maturity”. It is the transitional period in
You
a
can also ask them about their reactions. How
difficult was it to perform like the other
person’s life between childhood and
gender? adulthood. Adolescence is commonly
defined
Activity 4.3
as the stage of life that begins at the
Moral Development : Another important
onset of
aspect of the child’s development is
puberty, when sexual maturity, or the
learning
ability
to differentiate between the rightness or
to reproduce is attained. It has been
wrongness of human acts. The way
regarded
children
as a period of rapid change, both
come to distinguish right from wrong, to
biologically
feel
and psychologically. Though the physical
guilty, to put themselves in other
changes that take place during this
people’s
stage are
position, and to help others when they
universal, the social and psychological
are in
dimensions of the adolescent’s
trouble, are all components of moral
experiences
development. Just as children pass
depend on the cultural context. For
through
example,
the various stages of cognitive
in cultures where the adolescent years
development,
are
according to Lawrence Kohlberg, they
Chapter 4 • Human Development
pass 77
through the various stages of moral viewed as problematic or confusing, the
development, which are age related. adolescent will have very different
Kohlberg experiences
interviewed children in which they were from someone who is in a culture, where
presented with stories in which the adolescent years are viewed as
characters beginning of
face moral dilemmas. Children were adult behaviour and, therefore,
asked undertaking
what the characters in the dilemma responsible tasks. Although most
should societies
do, and why. According to him, children have at least a brief period of
approach thinking about right and wrong adolescence, it
differently at different ages. The young is not universal across cultures.
child, Physical Development : Puberty or
i.e. before 9 years of age, thinks in sexual
terms of maturity marks the end of childhood and
external authority. According to her/him, signifies the beginning of adolescence,
CHALLENGES OF ADOLESCENCE which
The term adolescence derives from the is characterised by dramatic physical
Latin changes
in both, growth rate, and sexual menarche earlier than girls from poor
characteristics. However, puberty is not families;
a and historical trends show that the age
sudden event, but is part of a gradual of
process. menarche is declining in industrialised
The hormones released during puberty nations
result reflecting better nutrition and advances
in the development of primary and in
secondary medical care.
sexual characteristics. The primary sex Physical development during
characteristics include those directly adolescence
related is also accompanied by a number of
to reproduction and the secondary sex psychological changes. Around puberty
characteristics include features or signs adolescents show an increase in interest
of in
achieving sexual maturity. Pubertal members of the opposite sex and in
changes sexual
in boys are marked by acceleration in matters and a new awareness of sexual
growth, feelings develops. This increased
facial hair, and changes in voice. In girls, attention to
rapid sexuality is caused by factors such as
growth in height usually begins about individual’s awareness of the biological
two changes taking place and the emphasis
years before menarche, the onset of placed
menstruation. The growth spurt on sexuality by peers, parents, and
generally society.
begins at the age of 12 or 13 for boys Even then, many adolescents lack
and at adequate
the age of 10 or 11 for girls. It is normal knowledge or have misconceptions
to about sex
have variations in the pubertal and sexuality. Sex is a topic parents find
sequence. For difficult to discuss with children, so
example, among two boys (or two girls) adolescents tend to become secretive
of same about
chronological age, one may complete sexual concerns which make exchange
pubertal of
sequence before the other has begun it. information and communication difficult.
Both The
genetics and environment play a part in concern over adolescent sexuality has
this. become
For example, identical twins reach intense in recent times because of the
menarche risk of
closer in time than do fraternal twins; on AIDS, and other sexually transmitted
an diseases.
average, girls from affluent families go The development of a sexual identity
through defines the sexual orientation and
guides abstract terms and reason about them.
sexual behaviour. As such it becomes an In
important developmental task for addition to being abstract, adolescent
adolescents. thought
How did you think of yourself at the is also idealistic. Adolescents begin to
beginning think
of puberty? Adolescents are preoccupied about ideal characteristics for
with themselves and
what they are like and develop others and compare themselves and
individual others
images of what they look like. Another with these ideal standards. For example,
important developmental task during they
adolescence is accepting one’s physical may think what an ideal parent is like
self/ and
maturity. Adolescents need to develop a Psychology
realistic image of their physical 78
appearance, compare their parents with these ideal
which is acceptable to them. It is standards. This may at times make
important adolescents wonder which of the new-
to keep in mind that puberty also found
involves ideal standards they should adopt. In
cognitive and social changes along with contrast
physical changes. to trial and error approach used by
Cognitive Developmental Changes : children
Adolescents’ thought becomes more in earlier stages of development,
abstract, adolescent
logical, and idealistic; they become thinking becomes more systematic in
more solving
capable of examining their own problems — they think of possible
thoughts, courses of
others’ thoughts, and what others are action, why something is happening the
thinking way
about them. Adolescents’ developing it is, and systematically seek solutions.
ability to Piaget
reason gives them a new level of called this type of logical thinking —
cognitive and hypothetical deductive reasoning.
social awareness. Piaget believed that Logical thought also influences the
formal development of moral reasoning. Social
operational thought appears between rules
the age are not considered as absolute
of 11 and 15. During this stage standards and
adolescent moral thinking shows some flexibility.
thinking expands beyond actual The
concrete adolescent recognises alternative moral
experiences and they begin to think courses, explores options, and then
more in decides
on a personal moral code. For example,
should
I smoke as everyone I know does? Is it
ethical
to copy answers in the examinations?
This also
lends the possibility of adolescents not
following society’s norms if they conflict
with
personal code of ethics. For example,
individuals at this age might participate
in a
protest march for a cause rather than
adhere/
conform to college norm.
Adolescents also develop a special kind
of
egocentrism. According to David Elkind,
imaginary audience and personal fable
are
two components of adolescents’
egocentrism.
Imaginary audience is adolescent’s
belief that
others are as preoccupied with them as
they
are about themselves. They imagine
that
people are always noticing them and are
observing each and every behaviour of
theirs.
Imagine a boy who thinks that all will
notice
the ink spot on his shirt, or a girl with a
pimple
feels, all people would think how bad
her skin
is. It is this imaginary audience, which
makes
them extremely self-conscious. The
personal
fable is part of the adolescents’
egocentrism
that involves their sense of uniqueness.
Adolescents’ sense of uniqueness makes
them
think that no one understands them or
their
feelings. For example, an adolescent girl
thinks
that none can sense the hurt that she
feels
because of being betrayed by a friend. It
is
quite common to hear the adolescent
say to
the parents; ‘you don’t understand me’.
To
retain their sense of personal
uniqueness they
may weave stories filled with fantasy
around
them to create a world that is away from
reality. Personal fables are often part of
adolescent diaries.
Forming an Identity : You must have
sought answers to questions such as :
Who
am I? Which subjects should I study? Do
I
believe in God? The answers to all these
questions involve the quest to define
one’s
sense of self or the search for identity.
Identity is who you are and what your
values,
commitments and beliefs are. The
primary task
of adolescence is to establish an identity
separate from the parents. During
adolescence
a detachment process enables the
individual
to develop a personalised set of beliefs
that
are uniquely her or his own. In the
process of
achieving an identity the adolescent
could
experience conflict with parents and
within
herself or himself. Those adolescents
who can important
cope with the conflicting identities as the adolescent spends more time
develop a outside
new sense of self. Adolescents who are Chapter 4 • Human Development
not 79
able to cope with this identity crisis are the home and develops a strong need
confused. This “identity confusion”, for peer
according support and acceptance. Increased
to Erikson, can lead to individuals interactions with peers provide them
isolating with
themselves from peers and family; or opportunities for refining their social
they may skills and
lose their identity in the crowd. trying out different social behaviours.
Adolescents Peers
on one hand, may desire independence and parents are dual forces having
but major
may also be afraid of it and show a influences on adolescents. At times
great deal conflicting
of dependence on their parents. Rapid situations with parents lead to increased
fluctuations between self-confidence identification with peers. But generally
and parents
insecurity are typical of this stage. and peers serve complementary
Adolescents functions and
may at one time complain of being fulfil different needs of the adolescents.
“treated Vocational commitment is another factor
like a baby” whereas on other occasions influencing adolescent identity
they formation. The
may seek comfort by depending on their question “What are you going to be
parents. Seeking an identity involves when you
searching grow up?”, requires the ability to think
for continuity and sameness in oneself, about
greater the future and to be able to set realistic
responsibility and trying to get a clear and
sense achievable goals. In some cultures
of who one is, i.e. an identity. freedom is
The formation of identity during given to the young people to choose an
adolescence is influenced by several occupation, whereas in certain other
factors. cultures
The cultural background, family and the option of making this choice is not
societal given
values, ethnic background, and to the children. Here parents’ decision is
socioeconomic likely
status all prevail upon the to be accepted by the children. What
adolescents’ search for a place in has been
society. your experience while making a choice
Family relationships become less in the
selection of subjects? Career counselling disorders.
in Delinquency : Delinquency refers to a
schools offers information regarding variety of behaviours, ranging from
appraisal socially
of the students for various courses and unacceptable behaviour, legal offences,
jobs to
and provides guidance in making a criminal acts. Examples include truancy,
decision running away from home, stealing or
about career choices. burglary
Some Major Concerns : As adults when or acts of vandalism. Adolescents with
we reflect on our adolescent years and delinquency and behavioural problems
recall tend to
the conflicts, uncertainties, occasional have a negative self-identity, decreased
loneliness, group pressures, we feel it trust,
was and low level of achievement.
definitely a vulnerable period. During Delinquency is
adolescence peer influence, new gained often associated with low parental
freedom, unresolved problems may support,
create inappropriate discipline, and family
difficulties for many of you. Conforming discord.
to peer Often adolescents from communities
pressure can be both positive and characterised by poverty,
negative. unemployment, and
Adolescents are often confronted with having feelings of alienation from the
decisions regarding smoking, drugs, middle
alcohol, class perform antisocial acts to gain
and breaking parental rules, etc. These attention
decisions are taken without much regard and to be popular with their peers.
to However,
the effect they can have. Adolescents most delinquent children do not remain
may face delinquent forever. Change in their peer
periods of uncertainty, loneliness, self- group,
doubt, becoming more aware of their social
anxiety, and concern about themselves responsibilities and developing feelings
and of selfworth,
their future, they are also likely to imitating positive behaviour of the role
experience models, breaking negative attitudes,
excitement, joy, and feelings of and
competence overcoming poor self-concept help in
as they overcome the developmental reduction
challenges. You will now read about of delinquent behaviour.
some of Substance Abuse : Adolescent years are
the major challenges faced by especially vulnerable to smoking,
adolescents like alcohol and
delinquency, substance abuse, and drug abuse. Some adolescents take
eating recourse
to smoking and drugs as a way of successful
coping with anti-drug programme is the Society for
stress. This can interfere with the Theatre
development in Education Programme in New Delhi. It
of coping skills and responsible uses
decisionmaking. street performances to entertain people
The reasons for smoking and drug between 13 to 25 years of age while
use could be peer pressure and the teaching
adolescents’ need to be accepted by the them how to say no to drugs. The United
group, Nations International Drug Control
or desire to act more like adults, or feel Programme
a need (UNDCP) has chosen the programme as
to escape the pressure of school work or an
social example to be adopted by other
activities. The addictive powers of nongovernmental
nicotine organisations in the region.
make it difficult to stop smoking. It has Eating Disorders : Adolescents’
been obsession
found that adolescents who are more with self, living in fantasy world and
vulnerable to drugs, alcohol, and peer
nicotine use, comparisons lead to certain conditions
are impulsive, aggressive, anxious, where
depressive, they become obsessed with their own
and unpredictable, have low self- bodies.
esteem, and Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder
low expectation for achievement. Peer that
pressure involves relentless pursuit of thinness
and the need to be with their peer group through
make starvation. It is quite common to see
the adolescent either go along with their adolescents eliminate certain foods from
demands to experiment with drugs, their
alcohol, diets or to eat slimming foods only. The
and smoking or be ridiculed. Drug use if media
continued long enough can lead to also projects thinness, as the most
Psychology desirable
80 image and copying such fashionable
physiological dependency, i.e. addiction image of
to thinness leads to anorexia nervosa.
drugs, alcohol or nicotine may seriously Bulimia
jeopardise the rest of the adolescents’ is another form of an eating disorder in
lives. which
Positive relationships with parents, the individual follows a binge-and-purge
peers, eating
siblings, and adults play an important pattern. The bulimic goes on an eating
role in binge,
preventing drug abuse. In India, a then purges by self-induced vomiting or
using developing a stable life structure. The
a laxative at times alternating it with twenties
fasting. represent the novice phase of adult
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are development. Gradually, a transition
primarily from
female disorders more common in urban dependence to independence should
families. occur.
ADULTHOOD AND OLD AGE This could be marked by an image of the
Adulthood kind
An adult is generally defined as of life the young person wants,
someone who especially in
is responsible, mature, self-supporting, terms of marriage and a career.
and Career and Work : Earning a living,
well integrated into society. There is a choosing an occupation, and developing
variation a
in developing these attributes, which career are important themes for people
suggests in their
that there is a shift in timing when an twenties and thirties. Entering work life
individual becomes an adult or assumes is a
adult challenging event in anyone’s life. There
roles. Some people take up jobs along are
with apprehensions regarding different
their college studies or may get married adjustments, proving one’s competence,
and performance, dealing with competition,
not pursue their studies. Others may and
continue coping with expectations both of the
to live with their parents even after employers
getting and oneself. It is also the beginning of
married and being financially new
independent. roles and responsibilities. Developing
The assumption of adult roles is directed and
by evaluating a career becomes an
an individual’s social context. The best important task
time of adulthood.
for some of the most important life Marriage, Parenthood, and Family : The
events (i.e. adjustments that young adults have to
marriage, job, having children) might be make
quite when entering a marriage relate to
different in different cultures but within knowing
a the other person if not known earlier,
culture there is similarity in the course coping
of adult with each other’s likes, dislikes, tastes,
development. and
In early adulthood, two major tasks are, choices. If both the partners are
exploring the possibilities for adult living working,
and adjustments are required regarding
sharing a unique opportunity for growth and
and performing roles and responsibilities satisfaction and is perceived as a way of
at establishing concern and guiding the
home. next
In addition to getting married, becoming generation.
a Physical changes during middle ages are
parent can be a difficult and stressful caused by maturational changes in the
transition body.
in young adults, even though it is Though individuals may vary in the rate
usually at
accompanied by the feeling of love for which these changes occur, almost all
the baby. middleaged
How adults experience parenting is people notice gradual deterioration in
affected by some aspects of their physical
different situations such as the number functioning
of such as decline in vision, sensitivity to
children in the family, the availability of glare,
social hearing loss and changes in physical
support, and the happiness or appearance (e.g., wrinkles, grey hair or
unhappiness thinning of hair, weight gain). Do
of the married couple. cognitive
Chapter 4 • Human Development abilities change during adulthood? It is
81 believed that some cognitive abilities
Death of a spouse or divorce creates a decline
family with age while others do not. Decline in
structure in which a single parent either memory is more in tasks involving long-
the term
mother or the father has to take up the memory than short-term memory. For
responsibility of the children. In recent example, a middle-aged person can
times, remember
women are increasingly seeking the telephone number immediately after
employment s/he
outside the home thus creating another has heard it but may not remember it so
type efficiently after a few days. Memory
of family in which both parents work. tends to
The show greater decline, while wisdom may
stressors when both parents are working improve with age. Remember that
are individual
quite the same as of a single working differences exist in intelligence at every
parent, age
namely, taking care of children, their and as not all children are exceptional,
schoolwork, neither
illness, and coping with workload at do all adults show wisdom.
home and in the office, etc. Despite the Old Age
stresses associated with parenting, it Just when “old age” begins, is not easy
provides to
determine. Traditionally, the age of for
retirement much of our adult life focuses on how
was linked to old age. Now that people effective
are we are at work, how loving our
living longer, age of retiring from work is relationships
changing, and the cut-off point for the are in our family, how good our
definition of “old age” is moving upward. friendships
Some are, how healthy we are, and how
of the challenges, which the aged have cognitively
to cope fit we are.
with include retirement, widowhood, Retirement from active vocational life is
illness, quite significant. Some people perceive
or death in the family. The image of old retirement as a negative change. They
age is consider it as a separation from an
changing in certain ways. Now there are important
people source of satisfaction and self-esteem.
who have crossed seventy years of age Others
or so view it as a shift in life with more time to
and are quite active, energetic, and pursue their own interests. It is seen
creative. that
They are competent and are therefore, older adults who show openness to new
valued experiences, more striving and
by society in many walks of life. In achievementoriented
particular, behaviour prefer to keep busy and
we have aged people in politics, are better adjusted.
literature, Older adults also need to adjust to
business, art and science. The myth of changes
old age in the family structure and new roles
as an incapacitating and therefore, (grand
frightening parenting) that have to be learnt.
phase of life is changing. Children
Of course, the experience of old age usually are busy in their careers and
also families
depends on the socio-economic and may set up independent homes.
conditions, Older
availability of health care, attitude of adults may depend on their children for
people, financial support and to overcome their
expectations of society and the loneliness (after children have moved
available out).
support system. Work is most important This might trigger-off feelings of
during early adult years, then family hopelessness
becomes and depression in some people.
most important and beyond that health In old age feeling of loss of energy, and
becomes the most important issue in dwindling of health and financial assets,
the lead
person’s life. Clearly, successful ageing Psychology
82
Adolescence, Animism, Attachment,
Centration, Cephalocaudal trend, Concrete
operational stage, Deductive thought,
Development, Egocentrism, Evolution, Gender,
Identity, Infancy, Maturation, Menarche,
Motor development, Object permanence,
Operations, Phenotype, Prenatal period,
Preoperational stage, Primary sex
characteristics, Proximodistal trend, Puberty,
Reflexes, Secondary sex characteristics, Self,
Sensorimotor stage, Teratogens
Key Terms
Interview people from three different stages of
life,
for example, 20-35, 35-60 and over 60 years of
age. Talk to them about:
a. Major transitions that have taken place in
their lives.
b. How they feel these transitions have
affected
them?
Compare the events considered important in
different groups.
Activity 4.5
to insecurity and dependency. The
elderly tend
to look towards others to lean on and to
care
for them. Indian culture favours
dependency
of elderly on their children, for old age
needs
caring. In fact, parents in most oriental
cultures rear their children with the fond
hope
that they will care for them during old
age. It
is important to give the elderly a sense
of
security and belonging, a feeling that
people
care for them (especially in the time of
crisis),
and to remember that we all have to
grow old
one day.
spouse is usually seen as the most
difficult
loss. Those left behind after the death of
their
partner suffer deep grief, cope with
loneliness,
depression, financial loss and are also at
risk
of many health related problems.
Widows by
far out number widowers, because
studies
show that women live longer than men
and
tend to marry men older than
themselves.
During such times, support from
children,
grandchildren, and friends can help the
individual cope with the loss of spouse.
People in different cultures view death
differently. In the Gond culture in our
country,
it is believed that death is caused by
magic
and demon. In the Tanala culture of
Madagascar, natural forces are thought
to
cause death. Human development as
you have
read in this chapter thus, helps you to
understand the influence of various
factors
in an individual’s lifetime.
Summary
• Prenatal development may be affected by
maternal malnutrition, maternal drug use and
some maternal illnesses.
• Motor development follows cephalocaudal
and proximodistal trends. Early motor
development
depends on both maturation and learning.
• Cultural variations in child rearing can affect
the patterns of attachment between the child
and the caregiver.
• According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development, the main characteristics of
sensorimotor
stage is the child’s gradual recognition of the
permanence of objects. The preoperational
stage is marked by certain deficiencies in
thinking such as centration, irreversibility, and
egocentrism.
Although death is more likely to occur in
late adulthood, death can come at any
point
in development. The deaths, especially
of
children and younger adults, are often
perceived to be more tragic than those
of
others. In children and younger adults,
death
is more likely to occur because of
accidents
but in older adults it is more likely to
occur
because of chronic disease. The death of
a related to
Chapter 4 • Human Development
83
1. Think of your experiences during the last 2-3
years and answer the following : Did you
have confrontations with your parents? What
were the main problems? How did you
solve your problems, and whose help did you
seek? Compare your list with your
classmates. Are there any similarities? Can you
now think of better ways of solving the
problems faced by you?
2. Develop a script from a preoperational (4-7
years old) child’s point of view for playing
with friends. Develop the same script for an
adolescent. How do these scenarios differ?
How are roles played by your friends different?
Project Ideas
1. What is development? How is it different
from growth and maturation?
2. Describe the main features of life-span
perspective on development.
3. What are developmental tasks? Explain by
giving examples.
4. ‘Environment of the child has a major role in
the development of the child’. Support your
answer with examples.
5. How do socio-cultural factors influence
development?
6. Discuss the cognitive changes taking place
in a developing child.
7. Attachment bonds formed in childhood years
have long-term effects. Explain taking
examples from daily life.
8. What is adolescence? Explain the concept of
egocentrism.
9. What are the factors influencing the
formation of identity during adolescence?
Support
your answer with examples.
10. What are the challenges faced by
individuals on entry to adulthood?
Review Questions
• During the concrete operations stage,
children develop the ability to perform
operations on
mental representations, making them capable
of conservation. The stage of formal operations
is more abstract, systematic, and develops
logical thought.
• According to Kohlberg, moral reasoning
progresses through three levels that are
age and determined by cognitive development.
• The growth spurt at puberty is a prominent
event involving the development of
reproductive
maturity and secondary sex characteristics.
According to Erikson, the key challenge of
adolescence is to make some progress towards
a sense of identity.
• During adulthood personality is marked by
both stability and change. Many landmarks in
adult development involve transitions in family
relationships, including adjustment to
marriage, parenthood, and children leaving
home.
• Age-related physical transitions during
adulthood include changes in appearance,
memory,
and in the cognitive domain.
Psychology
84
 5
(Box 5.4)
Perceptual Processes
Processing Approaches in Perception
The Perceiver
Chapter Principles of Perceptual Organisation
Perception of Space, Depth, and Distance
Monocular Cues and Binocular Cues
Perceptual Constancies
• understand the nature of sensory
Illusions
processes,
Socio-Cultural Influences on Perception
• explain the processes and types of
Key Terms
attention,
Summary
• analyse the problems of form and space
Review Questions
perception,
Project Ideas
• examine the role of socio-cultural factors
in perception, and
• reflect on sensory, attentional and
Contents
perceptual processes in everyday life. The quality of life is determined
by its activities.
After reading this chapter, you
– Aristotle
would be able to Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and
Perceptual Processes

Sensory, 85
not only from the external world, but
also from
Attentional our own body. The information collected
by
our sense organs forms the basis of all
and our
knowledge. The sense organs register

Perceptual
several
kinds of information about various
objects.

Processes However, in order to be registered, the

objects
and their qualities (e.g., size, shape,
Introduction
colour)
Knowing the World
must be able to draw our attention. The
Nature and Varieties of Stimulus
registered information must also be sent
Sense Modalities
Visual Sensation to
Other Human Senses (Box 5.1) the brain that constructs some meaning
Auditory Sensation out
Attentional Processes of them. Thus, our knowledge of the
Selective Attention world
Divided Attention (Box 5.2) around us depends on three basic
Sustained Attention processes,
Span of Attention (Box 5.3) called sensation, attention, and
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder perception.
These processes are highly interrelated; know
hence, about (trees, animals, buildings). Such
they are often considered as different experiences are very common in our
elements day-today
of the same process, called cognition. life. We hardly have to make any efforts
NATURE AND VARIETIES OF STIMULUS to know them.
The external environment that If someone asks you, “How can you say
surrounds us that these various things exist in your
contains a wide variety of stimuli. Some room,
of or house, or in the outside
them can be seen (e.g., a house), while environment?”, you
some will most probably answer that you see
can be heard only (e.g., music). There or
are experience them all around you. In
several others that we can smell (e.g., doing so,
fragrance you are trying to tell the person that the
of a flower) or taste (e.g., sweets). There knowledge about various objects
are becomes
still others that we can experience by possible with the help of our sense
touching organs (e.g.,
(e.g., softness of a cloth). All these eyes, ears). These organs collect
stimuli information
KNOWING THE WORLD In the previous chapters you have
The world in which we live is full of already learnt how we respond to
variety of various stimuli
objects, people, and events. Look at the present in the external and internal
room environment with the help of our
you are sitting in. You will find so many receptors.
things While some of these receptors are
around. Just to mention a few, you may clearly observable (for example, eyes or
see ears),
your table, your chair, your books, your others lie inside our body, and are not
bag, observable without the help of electrical
your watch, pictures on the wall and or
many mechanical devices. This chapter will
other things. Their sizes, shapes, and introduce you to various receptors that
colours collect
are also different. If you move to other a variety of information from the
rooms external and internal worlds. The focus
of your house, you will notice several will be
other particularly on the structure and
new things (e.g., pots and pans, almirah, function of eye and ear, including some
TV). interesting
If you go beyond your house, you will processes associated with vision and
find still audition. You will also know some
many more things that you generally important
things about attention, which helps us inside
to notice and register the information our skin. Besides these five external
that sense
our sense organs carry to us. Different organs, we have also got two deep
types of attention will be described senses. They
along are called kinesthetic and vestibular
with the factors that influence them. At systems.
the end, we will discuss the process of They provide us with important
perception that allows us to understand information
the world in a meaningful way. You will about our body position and movement
also have an opportunity to know how of
we are sometimes deceived by certain body parts related to each other. With
types these
of stimuli such as figures and pictures. seven sense organs, we register ten

Introduction
Psychology
86
provide us with various kinds of
information.
We have very specialised sense organs
to deal
with these different stimuli. As human
beings
we are bestowed with a set of seven
sense
organs. These sense organs are also
known
as sensory receptors or information
gathering
systems, because they receive or gather
information from a variety of sources.
Five of
these sense organs collect information
from
the external world. These are eyes, ears,
nose,
tongue, and skin. While our eyes are
primarily
responsible for vision, ears for hearing,
nose
for smell, and tongue for taste, skin is
responsible for the experiences of touch,
warmth, cold, and pain. Specialised
receptors
of warmth, cold, and pain are found
different
variety of stimuli. For example, you may
notice
whether a light is bright or dim, whether
it is
yellow, red or green, and so on. With
sound
you may notice whether it is loud or
faint,
whether it is melodious or distracting,
and so
on. These different qualities of stimuli
are also
registered by our sense organs.
SENSE MODALITIES
Our sense organs provide us with first-
hand
information about our external or
internal
world. The initial experience of a
stimulus or
an object registered by a particular
sense
organ is called sensation. It is a process
through which we detect and encode a
variety
of physical stimuli. Sensation also refers
to
immediate basic experiences of stimulus
attributes, such as “hard”, “warm”,
“loud”, and
“blue”, which result from appropriate
stimulation of a sensory organ. Different a glass of water, you may not
sense experience any
organs deal with different forms of sweetness in that water. Addition of a
stimuli and second
serve different purposes. Each sense granule to water may also not make it
organ is taste
highly specialised for dealing with a sweet. But if you go on adding sugar
particular granules
kind of information. Hence, each one of one after another, there will come a
them point when
is known as a sense modality. you will say that the water is now sweet.
Functional Limitations of Sense Organs The
Before we move on to a discussion of minimum number of sugar granules
sense required
organs, it is important to note that our to say that the water is sweet will be the
sense AL of
organs function with certain limitations. sweetness.
For It may be noted at this point that the AL
example, our eyes cannot see things is
which not a fixed point; instead it varies
are very dim or very bright. Similarly our considerably
ears across individuals and situations
cannot hear very faint or very loud depending
sounds. on the people’s organic conditions and
The same is true for other sense organs their
also. motivational states. Hence, we have to
As human beings, we function within a assess
limited it on the basis of a number of trials. The
range of stimulation. For being noticed number of sugar granules that may
by a produce
sensory receptor, a stimulus has to be of the experience of “sweetness” in water
an on
optimal intensity or magnitude. The 50 per cent of occasions will be called
relationship between stimuli and the the AL
sensations they evoke has been studied of sweetness. If you add more number
in a of sugar
discipline, called psychophysics. granules, the chances are greater that
In order to be noticed a stimulus has to the
carry a minimum value or weight. The water will be reported more often as
minimum value of a stimulus required to sweet than
activate a given sensory system is plain.
called As it is not possible for us to notice all
absolute threshold or absolute limen stimuli, it is also not possible to
(AL). differentiate
For example, if you add a granule of between all stimuli. In order to notice
sugar to two
stimuli as different from each other, physical
there has stimulus that is capable of producing a
to be some minimum difference sensation difference on 50 per cent of
between the the
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and trials.
Perceptual Processes You may realise by now that
87
understanding
value of those stimuli. The smallest
of sensations is not possible without
difference
understanding the AL and DL of different
in the value of two stimuli that is
types
necessary to
of stimuli (for example, visual, auditory),
notice them as different is called
but
difference
that is not enough. Sensory processes
threshold or difference limen (DL). To
do not
understand it, we may continue with our
depend only on the stimulus
“sugar water” experiment. As we have
characteristics.
seen,
Sense organs and the neural pathways
the plain water is experienced as sweet
connecting them to various brain
after
centers also
the addition of certain number of sugar
play a vital role in this process. A sense
granules. Let us remember this
organ
sweetness. The
receives the stimulus and encodes it as
next question is: how many sugar
an
granules
electrical impulse. For being noticed this
will be needed in the water in order to
electrical impulse must reach the higher
experience its sweetness as different
brain
from the
centers. Any structural or functional
previous sweetness. Go on adding sugar
defect or
granules one after another tasting the
damage in the receptor organ, its neural
water
pathway, or the concerned brain area
each time. After addition of a few
may lead
granules,
to a partial or complete loss of
you will notice at a point that the water
sensation.
is now
Visual Sensation
sweeter than the previous one. The
Among all sense modalities, vision is the
number
most
of sugar granules added to the water to
highly developed in human beings.
generate an experience of sweetness
Various
that is
estimates indicate that we use it in
different from the previous sweetness
approximately 80 per cent of our
on 50
transactions
per cent of the occasions will be called
with the external world. Audition and
the DL
other
of sweetness. Thus, difference threshold
senses also contribute significantly to
is the
information gathering from the external
minimum amount of change in a
world.
We shall discuss vision and audition in is smaller in size and is filled with a
some waterlike
detail. The main features of other substance, called aqueous humor. The
senses can vitreous chamber is located between the
be found in Box 5.1. lens
Visual sensation starts when light enters and the retina. It is filled with a jelly like
the eyes and stimulates our visual protein, called vitreous humor. These
receptors. fluids
Our eyes are sensitive to a spectrum of help in holding the lens at its
light, appropriate place
the wavelength of which ranges from and in proper shape. They also allow
380 nm enough
to 780 nm (nm refers to nanometer, flexibility for the occurrence of
which is accommodation
one billionth of a meter). No sensation is — a process through which the lens
registered beyond this range of light. changes
The Human Eye its shape in order to focus the objects at
A diagram of the human eye is shown in varying distances. This process is
Figure 5.1. As you can see, our eye is regulated
made by ciliary muscles, which are attached to
up of three layers. In the outer layer, the
there is lens. These muscles flatten the lens to
a transparent cornea and a tough sclera focus
that the distant objects and thicken it to
surrounds the rest of the eye. It protects focus the
the near objects. Like a camera, the eye
eye and maintains its shape. The middle also has
layer a mechanism to control the amount of
is called choroid, which is richly supplied light
with Psychology
blood vessels. The inner layer is known 88
as (colour) vision. Each eye contains about
retina. It contains the photoreceptors 100
(rods million rods and about 7 million cones.
and cones) and an elaborate network of The
interconnecting neurons. cones are highly concentrated in the
The eye is generally compared with a central
camera. For example, the eye and region of the retina surrounding the
camera have fovea,
a lens. The lens divides the eye into two which is a small circular region of the
unequal chambers, namely aqueous size of a
chamber pea. It is also known as the yellow spot.
and vitreous chamber. The aqueous It is
chamber the region of maximum visual acuity.
is located between the cornea and the Besides
lens. It photoreceptors, retina also contains a
bundle contained in the air. They enter the nasal
of axons of a cell (called ganglion cell) passage where they dissolve in moist nasal
tissues. This brings them in contact with
that
receptor cells contained in olfactory
forms the optic nerve, which leads to epithelium. Human beings possess about 50
the million of these receptors, whereas dogs
brain. possess more than 200 million of these
Working of the Eye receptors. Nevertheless, our ability to detect
Passing through conjunctiva, cornea, smell is impressive. It is indicated that human
beings can recognise and distinguish among
and
approximately 10,000 different odours. The
pupil, the light enters the lens, which sense of smell also shows sensory
focuses adaptation like other senses.
entering into it. The iris serves this 2. Taste : The sensory receptors for taste are
purpose. located inside small bumps on the tongue,
It is a disc-like coloured membrane lying known as papillae. In each papilla there is a
cluster of taste buds. Human beings possess
between the cornea and the lens. It
almost 10,000 taste buds. While people claim
controls to distinguish a large number of flavours in
the amount of light entering the eye by food, there are only four basic tastes, namely
regulating pupil dilation. In dim light the sweet, sour, bitter and salty. How is it then
pupil that we perceive many more? The answer is
dilates; in bright light it contracts. that we are aware not only of the taste of
the food, but also of its smell, its texture, its
Retina is the inner most layer of an eye.
It Box 5.1 Other Human Senses
is made up of five types of temperature, its pressure on our tongue, and
many other sensations. When these factors are
photosensitive cells
removed, we are left with only four basic
among which rods and cones are most
tastes.
important. Rods are the receptors for Besides, the combination of different flavours
scotopic in
vision (night vision). They operate at low varied proportions results in a different kind of
intensities of light, and lead to flavour which may be quite unique.
3. Touch and other skin senses : Skin is a
achromatic
sensory
(colourless) vision. Cones are the
organ that produces sensations of touch
receptors for (pressure), warmth, cold, and pain. In our skin
photopic (day light) vision. They operate there are specialised receptors for each one of
at high these sensations. The receptors of touch are
levels of illumination, and lead to not
evenly distributed in our skin. That is why
chromatic
some
Besides vision and audition, there are other
areas of our body (e.g., face, fingertips) are
senses that enrich our perceptions. For
more
example,
sensitive than others (e.g., legs). Pain
an orange looks attractive not only because of
sensation
it
has no specific stimulus. Hence, determining
is colour but also because it has got a special
its
flavour and taste. These other senses are
mechanism has been fairly difficult.
briefly
4. The Kinesthetic system : Its receptors are
described here.
found
1. Smell : The stimulus for smell sensation
primarily in joints, ligaments, and muscles.
consists of molecules of various substances
This
system gives us information about the location inverted image of the object is formed
of our body parts in relation to each other, and on the
allows us to perform simple (e.g., touching
retina. The neural impulse is transmitted
one’s
nose) and complex movements (e.g., dancing).
to
Our the visual cortex through the optic nerve
visual system provides a great deal of help in where
this respect. the image is re-inverted and processed.
5. The Vestibular system : This system gives us You
information about our body position,
can see in Fig.5.1 that the optic nerve
movement,
and acceleration — the factors that are critical
leaves
for maintaining our sense of balance. The the retina from the area that has no
sensory photoreceptors. In this area visual
organs of this sense are located in the inner sensitivity
ear. is completely absent. Therefore, it is
While vestibular sacs inform us of our body
called the
positions, the semicircular canals inform us
about
blind spot.
our movements and acceleration. Adaptation
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and The human eye can function at a very
Perceptual Processes large
89 range of light intensities. Sometimes we
it on to the retina. Retina is divided into have
two to undergo a rapid change in
parts: the nasal half and the temporal illumination
half. levels. For example, when we go to a
The inner half portion of the eye matinee
(towards the show movie, we find it difficult to see
nose), taking the center of fovea as mid- things
point, in the hall on entering into it. However,
is called the nasal half. The outer half after
portion spending about 15 to 20 minutes there,
of the eye (towards the temple) from the we
center are able to see everything. After the
of fovea is called the temporal half. Light show when
from we go out into the open, we find the
the right visual field stimulates the left light
half of outside the hall too bright to see things,
each eye (i.e. the nasal half of the right or
eye sometimes even to keep our eyes open.
and the temporal half of the left eye), However, within a minute or so we feel
and light comfortable, and are able to see things
from the left visual field stimulates the properly. This adjustment is faster than
right the
half of each eye (i.e. the nasal half of one made on entering the hall. The
the left process of
eye and the temporal half of the right getting adjusted to different intensities
eye). An of light
is called ‘visual adaptation’. experience. It is created when our brain
Light adaptation refers to the process of interprets the information received from
adjusting to bright light after exposure the
to dim external world. It may be remembered
light. This process takes nearly a minute that
or light is described physically in terms of
two. On the other hand, dark adaptation wavelength, not in terms of colour. As
Fig.5.1 : Structure of the Human Eye we have
Cornea read earlier, the visible spectrum is a
Iris
Aqueous
range
humor of energy (380-780 nm) that our
Pupil photoreceptors can detect. The energy
Lens lower
Ciliary muscle Retina
or higher than the visible spectrum is
Blind spot
Optic nerve harmful
Vitreous humor to the eyes. The sun light is a perfect
Fovea mixture
Distal
of seven colours just like a rainbow. The
stimulus
Proximal colours observed are violet, indigo, blue,
stimulus green, yellow, orange, and red,
Psychology abbreviated
90 as ‘VIBGYOR’.
refers to the process of adjusting to a The Dimensions of Colour
dimly A person with normal colour vision can
illuminated environment after exposure distinguish more than seven million
to different
bright light. This may take half an hour shades of colour. Our experiences of
or colour
even longer depending on the previous can be described in terms of three basic
level dimensions, called hue, saturation, and
of exposure of the eye to light. There are brightness. Hue is a property of
certain chromatic
ways in which these processes can be colours. In simple words, it refers to the
facilitated. An interesting activity is name
given of the colour, e.g., red, blue, and green.
below to demonstrate this process to Hue
you. varies with wavelength, and each colour
Colour Vision is
In our interaction with the environment identified with a specific wavelength. For
we example, blue has a wavelength of
not only experience a variety of objects, about 465
but nm, and green of about 500 nm.
also their colours. It may be noted that Achromatic
colour colours like black, white or grey are not
is a psychological property of our characterised by hues. Saturation is a
sensory psychological attribute that refers to the
relative amount of hue of a surface or of
object. light the molecules of this chemical
The light of single wavelength substance
(monochromatic) get bleached or broken down. Under
appears to be highly saturated. As we such
mix conditions the light adaptation takes
different wavelengths, the saturation place in
decreases. The colour grey is completely the eyes. On the other hand, the dark
unsaturated. Brightness is the perceived adaptation is achieved by the removal of
intensity of light. It varies across both light,
chromatic and achromatic colours. and thereby allowing for restorative
White and processes
black represent the top and bottom of to regenerate the pigment in the rods
the with the
brightness dimension. White has the help of vitamin A. The regeneration of
highest rhodopsin in rods is a time consuming
degree of brightness, whereas black has process. That is why dark adaptation is a
the slower process than light adaptation. It
lowest degree. has
Move from a lighted area to a dark room and been found that people who suffer from
note vitamin A deficiency do not achieve dark
how much time you take to see things clearly
adaptation at all, and find it really
in
that room.
difficult to
Next time put on red goggles while you stay move in the dark. This condition is
in the lighted place. Then move into the dark generally
room known as night blindness. A parallel
and note how much time you take to see chemical
things
believed to be found in cones is known
clearly in that room.
You will notice that the use of red goggles has
as
greatly reduced the time required for dark iodopsin.
adaptation. Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and
Do you know why has this happened? Perceptual Processes
Discuss with your friends and the teacher. 91
Colour Mixtures
Activity 5.1
There is an interesting relationship
Photochemical Basis of Light and Dark
among
Adaptation : You may wonder why the
colours. They form complementary
light
pairs.
and dark adaptations take place.
When mixed in correct proportions the
According
complementary colours yield an
to the classical view, light and dark
achromatic
adaptations occur due to certain
grey or white. Examples of
photochemical processes. The rods have
complementary
a
colours are red-green and yellow-blue.
photo-sensitive chemical substance,
Red,
called
green and blue are called primary
rhodopsin or visual purple. By the action
colours, after image of green colour.
because on mixing, the light of these Auditory Sensation
three Audition or hearing is also an important
colours can produce almost any colour. sense
The modality that carries great value for us.
most common example is the television It
screen. provides us with reliable spatial
It contains spots of blue, red and green information.
colours. The combinations of these three Besides orienting us to certain objects or
produce different colours and shades individuals, it plays a vital role in spoken
that we communication also. Auditory sensation
see on the TV screen. begins when sound enters our ear and
After Images stimulates the chief organs of hearing.
This is quite an interesting phenomenon The Human Ear
related to visual sensations. The effect Ear is the primary receptor of auditory
of a stimuli.
visual stimulus persists for some time While its well-known function is hearing,
even it
after the removal of that stimulus from also helps us in maintaining our body
the balance.
visual field. This effect is called after The structure of an ear is divided into
image. three
After images are positive and negative. segments, called the external ear, the
Positive after images resemble the middle
original ear, and the inner ear (Fig.5.2).
stimulus in terms of hue, saturation, and External Ear : It contains two main
brightness. They usually occur after a structures,
brief namely pinna and auditory meatus.
intense stimulation of dark adapted Pinna is
eyes. On a cartilaginous funnel-shaped structure
the other hand, negative after images that
appear collects sound waves from the
in complementary colours. These surroundings.
images Auditory meatus is a canal protected by
appear when a person stares at the hair
patch of a and wax that carries sound waves from
particular colour for at least 30 seconds, pinna
and to the tympanum or ear drum.
then transfers the gaze to a neutral Middle Ear : The middle ear starts with
background (e.g., a white or grey tympanum, a thin membrane highly
surface). If sensitive
the person looks at the blue colour, the to sound vibrations. This is followed by
negative after image will appear in the
yellow. tympanic cavity. It is connected to the
Similarly, a red stimulus will yield a pharynx with the help of Eustachian
negative tube,
which maintains the air pressure in hearing.
tympanic Psychology
cavity. From the cavity the vibrations 92
pass to Working of the Ear
three ossicles known as malleus Pinna collects the sound vibrations and
(hammer), serves
incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup). They them to the tympanum through the
increase the intensity of sound auditory
vibrations meatus. From the tympanic cavity the
about 10 times, and send them to the vibrations are transferred to the three
inner ossicles,
ear. which increase their strength and
Inner Ear : The inner ear has a transmit
complicated them to the inner ear. In the inner ear
structure known as membranous the
labyrinth, cochlea receives the sound waves.
which is encapsulated in a bony shell Through
called vibrations the endolymph is set in
bony labyrinth. A lymph-like fluid is motion,
found in which also vibrates the organ of corti.
the space between bony labyrinth and Finally,
membranous labyrinth. This is called the impulses are sent to the auditory
perilymph. nerve,
The bony labyrinth has three which emerges at the base of cochlea
semicircular and
canals at right angle to each other, a reaches the auditory cortex where the
cavity, called vestibule, and a coiled impulse
structure, is interpreted.
called cochlea. The semicircular canals Sound as a Stimulus
have We all know that sound is the stimulus
fine hair cells, which are highly sensitive for
to ears. It results from pressure variations
postural changes as well as changes in in the
the external environment. Any physical
body orientation. Inside the bony movement
cochlea, disturbs the surrounding medium (i.e.
there is a membranous cochlea, which is air),
also and pushes the air molecules back and
known as scala media. It is filled with forth.
endolymph, and has a spirally coiled This results in changes in pressure that
membrane, called basilar membrane. It spread
has outward in the form of sound waves,
got fine hair cells arranged in a series to travelling
form at a rate of about 1,100 ft/sec. These
the organ of corti. This is the main organ changes
for travel in waves much like the ripples set
up crests. Sound waves are basically
by a stone thrown into a pond. When formed due
these to alternate compression and
sound waves strike our ears, they decompression
initiate a (rarefaction) of air molecules. A
set of mechanical pressure changes that complete
ultimately trigger the auditory receptors. change in pressure from compression to
The simplest kind of sound wave is one rarefaction and again to compression
that causes successive pressure makes
changes over a cycle of the wave.
time in the form of a single repeating sound reflects the complexity of its
sine wave sound
(Fig.5.3). Sound waves vary in amplitude waves. Most of the sounds found in
as natural
well as in wavelength. Amplitude is a environments are complex.
general Vision and hearing are generally believed to be
measure of stimulus magnitude. It is the the two most highly prized senses. What would
your life be if you lost any one of your senses?
amount of change in pressure, i.e. the
Which sense would you find more traumatic to
extent lose? Why? Think and write down.
of displacement of the molecules from What if you could magically improve the
the performance of one of your senses, which
position of rest. In Fig.5.3 the amplitude sense
of would you choose to improve? Why? Could you
improve the performance of this one sense
sound wave is represented as the
without
distance of magic? Think and write down.
Fig.5.2 : Structure of the Human Ear Discuss with your teacher.
Hammer
External Activity 5.2
canal Fig.5.3 : Sound Waves
Anvil Amplitude
Semicircular one cycle
canals Sound waves are described in terms of
Saccule
their frequency, which is measured in
Utricle
Facial nerve terms
Auditory nerve of cycles per second. Its unit is called
Eustachian tube Hertz
Round
(Hz). Frequency and wavelength have an
Stirrup window
Tympanic inverse relationship. When the
membrane wavelength
Pinna Cochlea increases, the frequency decreases, and
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and when
Perceptual Processes
the wavelength decreases, the
93
frequency
the crest or trough from its mean
increases. Amplitude and frequency
position.
both are
Wavelength is the distance between the
physical dimensions. Besides these,
two
there are
three psychological dimensions of you enter your classroom you encounter
sound, several things in it, such as doors, walls,
namely loudness, pitch and timbre. windows, paintings on walls, tables,
Loudness of the sound is determined by chairs,
its amplitude. Sound waves with large students, schoolbags, water bottles, and
amplitude are perceived as loud; those so
with on, but you selectively focus only on one
small amplitude are perceived as soft. or
Loudness is measured in decibels (db). two of them at one time. The process
Pitch through
refers to highness or lowness of a sound. which certain stimuli are selected from
The a group
seven notes used in Indian classical of others is generally referred to as
music attention.
represent a gradual increase in their At this point it may be noted that
pitch. besides
Frequency determines the pitch of a selection, attention also refers to several
sound other
wave. The higher the frequency, the properties like alertness, concentration,
higher will and
be the pitch. The range of hearing is search. Alertness refers to an
generally individual’s
20 Hz-20,000 Hz. Timbre refers to the readiness to deal with stimuli that
nature appear
or quality of a sound. For example, the before her/him. While participating in a
sound race
of a car engine and a person talking in your school, you might have seen the
differ with participants on the starting line in an
respect to quality or timbre. The timbre alert
of a state waiting for the whistle to blow in
ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES order
In the previous section we have to run. Concentration refers to focusing
discussed of
some sensory modalities that help us in awareness on certain specific objects
collecting information from the external while
world excluding others for the moment. For
and also from our internal system. A example,
large in the classroom, a student concentrates
number of stimuli impinge upon our on
sense Psychology
94
organs simultaneously, but we do not
the teacher’s lecture and ignores all
notice
sorts of
all of them at the same time. Only a
noises coming from different corners of
selected
the
few of them are noticed. For example,
school. In search an observer looks for
when
some with
specified subset of objects among a set the selection of a limited number of
of stimuli or
objects. For example, when you go to objects from a large number of stimuli.
fetch We
your younger sister and brother from the have already indicated that our
school, you just look for them among perceptual
innumerable boys and girls. All these system has a limited capacity to receive
activities and
require some kind of effort on the part of process information. This means that it
people. Attention in this sense refers to can
“effort deal only with a few stimuli at a given
allocation”. moment
Attention has a focus as well as a fringe. of time. The question is, which of those
When the field of awareness is centered stimuli
on a will get selected and processed?
particular object or event, it is called Psychologists
focus or have identified a number of factors that
the focal point of attention. On the determine the selection of stimuli.
contrary, Factors Affecting Selective Attention
when the objects or events are away Several factors influence selective
from the attention.
center of awareness and one is only These generally relate to the
vaguely characteristics
aware of them, they are said to be at of stimuli and the characteristics of
the fringe individuals. They are generally classified
of attention. as
Attention has been classified in a “external” and “internal” factors.
number External factors are related to the
of ways. A process-oriented view divides features
it into of stimuli. Other things held constant,
two types, namely selective and the size,
sustained. intensity, and motion of stimuli appear
We will briefly discuss the main features to be
of important determinants of attention.
these types of attention. Sometimes we Large,
can bright, and moving stimuli easily catch
also attend to two different things at the our
same attention. Stimuli, which are novel and
time. When this happens, it is called moderately complex, also easily get into
divided our
attention. Box 5.2 describes when and focus. Studies indicate that human
how photographs are more likely to be
the division of attention is possible. attended to
Selective Attention than the photographs of inanimate
Selective attention is concerned mainly objects.
Similarly, rhythmic auditory stimuli are or social needs. When we are hungry,
more we notice
readily attended to than verbal even a faint smell of food. A student
narrations. taking an
Sudden and intense stimuli have a examination is likely to focus on a
wonderful teacher’s
capacity to draw attention. instructions more than other students.
Internal factors lie within the individual. Cognitive factors include factors like
These may be divided into two main interest,
categories, attitude, and preparatory set. Objects or
viz. motivational factors and cognitive events, which appear interesting, are
factors. readily
Motivational factors relate to our attended by individuals. Similarly we
biological pay
In day-to-day life we attend to several things at quick attention to certain objects or
the same time. You must have seen people events to
driving
which we are favourably disposed.
a car and talking to a friend, or attending to
phone
Preparatory
calls on a mobile set, or putting on sunglasses, set generates a mental state to act in a
or certain
listening to music. If we watch them closely, we way and readiness of the individual to
will notice that they are still allocating more respond
effort
to one kind of stimuli and not to others.
to driving than to other activities, even though
some attention is given to other activities. It
Theories of Selective Attention
indicates that on certain occasions attention A number of theories have been
can developed to
be allocated to more than one thing at the explain the process of selective
same attention. We
Box 5.2 Divided Attention will briefly discuss three of these
time. However, this becomes possible only with theories.
highly Filter theory was developed by
practiced activities, because they become
Broadbent
almost
(1956). According to this theory, many
automatic and require less attention to
perform than stimuli
new or slightly practiced activities. simultaneously enter our receptors
Automatic processing has three main creating
characteristics; (i) It occurs without intention, a kind of “bottleneck” situation. Moving
(ii) It takes
through the short-term memory system,
place unconsciously, and (iii) It involves very
they
little (or
no) thought processes (e.g., we can read words enter the selective filter, which allows
or tie only one
our shoelaces without giving any thought to stimulus to pass through for higher
these levels of
activities). processing. Other stimuli are screened
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and
out at
Perceptual Processes
95 that moment of time. Thus, we become
aware consciousness. It is also suggested that
of only that stimulus, which gets access more
through the selective filter. processing requires more mental effort.
Filter-attenuation theory was developed When
by Triesman (1962) by modifying the messages are selected on the basis
Broadbent’s of stage
theory. This theory proposes that the one processing (early selection), less
stimuli mental
not getting access to the selective filter effort is required than when the
at a selection is
given moment of time are not based on stage three processing (late
completely selection).
blocked. The filter only attenuates Sustained Attention
(weakens) While selective attention is mainly
their strength. Thus some stimuli concerned
manage to with the selection of stimuli, sustained
escape through the selective filter to attention is concerned with
reach concentration. It
higher levels of processing. It is Our attention has a limited capacity to receive
indicated that stimuli. The number of objects one can attend
to at
personally relevant stimuli (e.g., one’s
a brief exposure (i.e. a fraction of a second) is
name called
in a collective dinner) can be noticed “span of attention” or “perceptual span”. More
even at a specifically, the span of attention refers to the
very low level of sound. Such stimuli, amount of information an observer can grasp
even from
a complex array of stimuli at a single
though fairly weak, may also generate
momentary
response occasionally by slipping exposure. This can be determined by the use
through the of an
selective filter. instrument, called “tachistoscope”. On the
Multimode theory was developed by basis of
Johnston and Heinz (1978). This theory several experiments, Miller has reported that
our
believes that attention is a flexible
system that Box 5.3 Span of Attention
allows selection of a stimulus over span of attention varies within the limit of
seven plus
others at
or minus two. This is popularly known as the
three stages. At stage one the sensory
“magic
representations (e.g., visual images) of number”. It means that at a time, people can
stimuli attend to
are constructed; at stage two the a set of five to seven numbers, which can be
semantic extended
to nine or more under exceptional conditions.
representations (e.g., names of objects)
That is
are
perhaps the reason why motorbikes or cars are
constructed; and at stage three the given
sensory a number plate that contains only four digit
and semantic representations enter the numbers
with some alphabets. In case of violation of a third factor. When stimuli appear at
driving rules regular
a traffic police can easily read and note these
intervals of time they are attended
numbers
along with the alphabets.
better than
Psychology when they appear at irregular intervals.
96 Spatial uncertainty is a fourth factor.
refers to our ability to maintain attention Stimuli
on that appear at a fixed place are readily
an object or event for longer durations. attended, whereas those that appear at
It is random locations are difficult to attend.
also known as “vigilance”. Sometimes Attention has several practical
people implications. The number of objects one
have to concentrate on a particular task can
for readily attend to in a single glance is
many hours. Air traffic controllers and used to
radar design the number plates of motorbikes
readers provide us with good examples and
of this cars so that the traffic police can easily
phenomenon. They have to constantly notice
watch them in the case of traffic rule violations
and monitor signals on screens. The (Box 5.3). A number of children fail to
occurrence of signals in such situations perform
is well in school simply due to the problem
usually unpredictable, and errors in of
detecting attention. Box 5.4 presents some
signals may be fatal. Hence, a great interesting
deal of information about a disorder of
vigilance is required in those situations. attention.
Factors Influencing Sustained Attention This is a very common behavioural disorder
Several factors can facilitate or inhibit found
among children of the primary school age. It is
an
characterised by impulsivity, excessive motor
individual’s performance on tasks of activity, and an inability to attend. The disorder
sustained is
attention. Sensory modality is one of more prevalent among boys than among girls.
them. If
Performance is found to be superior not managed properly, the attention difficulties
may
when the
persist into adolescence or adult years.
stimuli (called signals) are auditory than Difficulty
when in sustaining attention is the central feature of
they are visual. Clarity of stimuli is this
another disorder, which gets reflected in several other
factor. Intense and long lasting stimuli domains of the child. For example, such
children
facilitate sustained attention and result
are highly distractible; they do not follow
in instructions, have difficulty in getting along
better performance. Temporal with
uncertainty is parents, and are negatively viewed by their
peers. are combined with training in the use of verbal
They do poorly in school, and show difficulties selfinstructions
in (stop, think, and then do). With this
reading or learning basic subjects in schools in procedure, the ADHD children learn to shift
spite of the fact that there is no deficit in their their
intelligence. attention less frequently and to behave
Studies generally do not provide evidence for reflectively —
a biological basis of the disorder, whereas a learning that is relatively stable over time.
some Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and
relationship of the disorder with dietary Perceptual Processes
factors, 97
particularly food colouring, has been PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES
documented.
In the previous section we have
On the other hand, social-psychological factors
examined that
(e.g.,
home environment, family pathology) have the stimulation of sensory organs leads
been us to
Box 5.4 Attention Deficit experience something such as, a flash of
light
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or a sound, or a smell. This elementary
found to account for ADHD more reliably than
experience, called sensation, does not
other
factors. Currently ADHD is considered to have
provide
multiple us with any understanding of the
causes and effects. stimulus
Disagreement remains over the most effective that stimulated the sense organ. For
method of treatment of ADHD. A drug, called example,
Ritalin, is
it does not inform us about the source of
widely used, which decreases children’s over-
activity
the
and distractibility, and at the same time light, sound or fragrance. In order to
increases their make
attention and ability to concentrate. However, sense out of the raw material provided
it does by the
not “cure” the problem, and often also results
sensory system, we process it further. In
in such
negative side-effects as the suppression in
doing
normal so, we give meaning to stimuli by using
growth of height and weight. On the other our
hand, learning, memory, motivation, emotions,
behavioural management programmes, and
featuring
other psychological processes. The
positive reinforcement and structuring learning
materials and tasks in such a way that
process by
minimises errors which we recognise, interpret or give
and maximises immediate feedback and meaning
success, have to the information provided by sense
been found quite useful. Successful organs is
modification of
called perception. In interpreting stimuli
ADHD is claimed with cognitive behavioural
training
or
programme in which rewards for desired events, individuals often construct them
behaviours in
their own ways. Thus perception is not recognition or identification of stimuli.
merely Studies
an interpretation of objects or events of show that in perception both the
the processes
external or internal world as they exist, interact with each other to provide us
instead with an
it is also a construction of those objects understanding of the world.
and THE PERCEIVER
events from one’s own point of view. Human beings are not just mechanical
The process of meaning-making involves and
certain sub-processes. These are shown passive recipients of stimuli from the
in external
Fig.5.4. world. They are creative beings, and try
Processing Approaches in Perception to
How do we identify an object? Do we understand the external world in their
identify own
a dog because we have first recognised ways. In this process their motivations
its furry and
coat, its four legs, its eyes, ears, and so expectations, cultural knowledge, past
on, or experiences, and memories as well as
do we recognise these different parts values,
because beliefs, and attitudes play an important
we have first identified a dog? The idea role
that in giving meaning to the external world.
recognition process begins from the Some
parts, of these factors are described here.
which serve as the basis for the Motivation
recognition of The needs and desires of a perceiver
the whole is known as bottom-up strongly
processing. influence her/his perception. People
The notion that recognition process want to
begins fulfil their needs and desires through
from the whole, which leads to various
identification means. One way to do this is to perceive
of its various components is known as objects in a picture as something that
topdown will
processing. The bottom-up approach satisfy their need. Experiments were
lays emphasis on the features of stimuli conducted to examine the influence of
in hunger
perception, and considers perception as on perception. When hungry persons
a were
process of mental construction. The top- Fig.5.4 : Sub-processes of Perception
down Psychology
approach lays emphasis on the 98

perceiver, and shown ambiguous pictures, they were

considers perception as a process of found
to perceive them as pictures of food perception. People coming from a
objects pictureless
more often than satiated (non-hungry) environment fail to recognise objects in
persons. pictures. Hudson studied the perception
Expectations or Perceptual Sets of
The expectations about what we might pictures by African subjects, and noted
perceive in a given situation also several
influence our difficulties. Many of them were unable to
perception. This phenomenon of identify objects depicted in pictures
perceptual (e.g.,
familiarisation or perceptual antelope, spear). They also failed to
generalisation perceive
reflects a strong tendency to see what distance in pictures, and interpreted
we pictures incorrectly. Eskimos have been
expect to see even when the results do found
not to make fine distinction among a variety
accurately reflect external reality. For of
example, snow that we may be unable to notice.
if your milkman delivers you milk daily Some
at aboriginal groups of Siberian region
about 5.30 A.M., any knocking at the have been
door found to differentiate among dozens of
around that time is likely to be skin
perceived as colours of reindeers, which we would not
the presence of the milkman even if it is be
someone else. able to do.
To demonstrate expectancy tell your friend to These studies indicate that the perceiver
close plays a key role in the process of
her eyes. Write 12, 13, 14, 15 on the board.
perception.
Ask
her to open her eyes for 5 seconds, look at the
People process and interpret stimuli in
board, and note down what she saw. Repeat their
replacing only the 12, 14, 15 with A, C, D viz. ‘A own ways depending on their personal,
13 C D’. Ask her again to note down what she social
saw. Most people write down B in place of 13. and cultural conditions. Due to these
Activity 5.3 factors
the triangle. Those who can do it quickly our perceptions are not only finely
will tuned, but
be called “field independent”; those who also modified.
take Cognitive Styles
long time will be called “field Cognitive style refers to a consistent
dependent”. way of
Cultural Background and Experiences dealing with our environment. It
Different experiences and learning significantly
opportunities available to people in affects the way we perceive the
different environment.
cultural settings also influence their There are several cognitive styles that
people objects are organised into a meaningful
use in perceiving their environment. One whole.
most You may also ask if there are certain
extensively used in studies is the “field factors
dependent and field independent” that facilitate or inhibit this process of
cognitive organisation.
style. Field dependent people perceive Several scholars have tried to answer
the such
external world in its totality, i.e. in a questions, but the most widely accepted
global or answer has been given by a group of
holistic manner. On the other hand, field researchers, called Gestalt
independent people perceive the psychologists.
external Prominent among them are Köhler,
world by breaking it into smaller units, Koffka,
i.e. in and Wertheimer. Gestalt means a
an analytic or differentiated manner. regular
Look at Fig.5.5. Can you find out the figure or a form. According to Gestalt
triangle hidden in the picture? How psychologists, we perceive different
much time stimuli not
do you take to locate it? Try to find out as discrete elements, but as an
the organised
time other students of your class take to “whole” that carries a definite form.
locate They
Fig.5.5 : An Item to test the ‘Field Dependent’ believe that the form of an object lies in
and its
‘Field Independent’ Cognitive Style
whole, which is different from the sum of
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and
Perceptual Processes
their
99 parts. For example, a flower pot with a
PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION bunch
Our visual field is a collection of different of flowers is a whole. If the flowers are
elements, such as points, lines, and removed,
colours. the flower pot still remains a whole. It is
However, we perceive these elements the
as configuration of the flower pot that has
organised wholes or complete objects. changed. Flower pot with flowers is one
For configuration; without flowers it is
example, we see a bicycle as a complete another
object, configuration.
not as a collection of different parts The Gestalt psychologists also indicate
(e.g., that
saddle, wheel, handle). The process of our cerebral processes are always
organising visual field into meaningful oriented
wholes towards the perception of a good figure
is known as form perception. or
You may wonder how different parts of pragnanz. That is the reason why we
an perceive
everything in an organised form. The 5. Figure appears more clear, limited,
most and
primitive organisation takes place in the relatively nearer, while the background
form appears relatively unclear, unlimited,
of figure-ground segregation. When we and
look away from us.
at a surface, certain aspects of the The discussion presented above
surface indicates
clearly stand out as separate entities, that human beings perceive the world in
whereas organised wholes rather than in discrete
others do not. For example, when we parts.
see words The Gestalt psychologists have given us
on a page, or a painting on a wall, or several
birds laws to explain how and why different
flying in the sky, the words, the painting, stimuli
and in our visual field are organised into
the birds stand out from the meaningful whole objects. Let us look at
background, and some
are perceived as figures, while the page, of these principles.
wall, Psychology
and sky stay behind the figure and are 100
perceived as background. The Principle of Proximity
To test this experience, look at the Objects that are close together in space
Fig.5.6 or time
given below. You will see either the are perceived as belonging together or
white part as a
of the figure, which looks like a vase group. For example, Fig.5.7 does not
(flower look like
pot), or the black part of the figure, a square pattern of dots, but as a series
which looks of
like two faces. columns of dots. Similarly, Fig.5.7 also
Fig.5.6 : Rubin’s Vase looks
We distinguish figure from the ground on like a group of dots together in rows.
the basis of the following characteristics: Fig.5.10 : Smallness
Fig.5.9 : Continuity
1. Figure has a definite form, while the
Fig.5.8 : Similarity
background is relatively formless.
The Principle of Similarity
2. Figure is more organised as compared
Objects that are similar to one another
to
and
its background.
have similar characteristics are
3. Figure has a clear contour (outline),
perceived as
while
a group. In Fig.5.8 the little circles and
the background is contourless.
squares
4. Figure stands out from the
are evenly spaced both horizontally and
background,
vertically so that the proximity does not
while the background stays behind the
come
figure.
into play. Instead, we tend to see According to this principle, the areas
alternating surrounded by others tend to be
columns of circles and squares. perceived as
The Principle of Continuity figures. For example, the image in
This principle states that we tend to Fig.5.12
perceive looks like five figures against the white
objects as belonging together if they background rather than the word ‘LIFT’.
appear Fig.5.7 : Proximity
to form a continuous pattern. For Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and
Perceptual Processes
instance,
101
we are more likely to identify two lines
Monocular Cues (Psychological Cues)
a-b
Monocular cues of depth perception are
and c-d crossing than to identify four
effective when the objects are viewed
lines
with only
meeting at the center p.
one eye. These cues are often used by
The Principle of Smallness
artists
According to this principle, smaller areas
to induce depth in two dimensional
tend
paintings.
to be seen as figures against a larger
Hence, they are also known as pictorial
background. In Fig.5.10 we are more
cues.
likely to
Some important monocular cues that
see a black cross rather than a white
help us
cross
in judging the distance and depth in two
within the circle because of this
dimensional surfaces are described
principle.
below. You
The Principle of Symmetry
will find some of them applied in
This principle suggests that symmetrical
Fig.5.14.
areas
The Principle of Closure
tend to be seen as figures against
We tend to fill the gaps in stimulation
asymmetrical backgrounds. For
and
example, in
perceive the objects as whole rather
Fig.5.11 the black areas are seen as
than their
figures
separate parts. For example, in Fig.5.13
(as they have symmetrical properties)
the
against
small angles are seen as a triangle due
their white asymmetrical background.
to our
Fig.5.11 : Symmetry
Fig.5.12 : Surroundedness
tendency to fill the gaps in the object
provided

LIFT
by our sensory input.
Fig.5.13 : Closure
PERCEPTION OF SPACE, DEPTH, AND DISTANCE
The visual field or surface in which
things
exist, move or can be placed is called
space.
The Principle of Surroundedness
The space in which we live is organised to change a two dimensional image into
in three a three
dimensions. We perceive not only the dimensional perception.
spatial Relative Size : The size of retinal image
attributes (e.g., size, shape, direction) of allows
various objects, but also the distance us to judge distance based on our past
between and
the objects found in this space. While present experience with similar objects.
the As
images of objects projected on to our the objects get away, the retinal image
retina becomes smaller and smaller. We tend
are flat and two dimensional (left, right, to
up, perceive an object farther away when it
down), we still perceive three appears small, and closer when it
dimensions in appears
the space. Why does it happen so? It bigger.
occurs Interposition or Overlapping : These
due to our ability to transfer a two cues occur
dimensional when some portion of the object is
retinal vision into a three dimensional covered by
perception. The process of viewing the another object. The overlapped object is
world considered farther away, whereas the
in three dimensions is called distance or object
depth that covers it appears nearer.
perception. Linear Perspective : This reflects a
Depth perception is important in our phenomenon by which distant objects
daily appear
life. For example, when we drive, we use to be closer together than the nearer
depth objects.
to assess the distance of an approaching For example, parallel lines, such as rail
automobile, or when we decide to call a tracks,
person Fig.5.14 : Monocular Cues
walking down the street, we determine The above picture will help you to understand
some
the
monocular cues: Interposition and relative size
loudness with which to call. (see the
In perceiving depth, we depend on two trees). Which other cues can you locate in the
main sources of information, called picture?
cues. One Psychology
is called binocular cues because they 102
require appear to converge with increasing
both eyes. Another is called monocular distance
cues, with a vanishing point at the horizon.
because they allow us to perceive depth The more
with the lines converge, the farther away
just one eye. A number of such cues are they
used appear.
Aerial Perspective : The air contains objects move “against” the direction of
microscopic particles of dust and the bus,
moisture whereas the farther objects move “with”
that make distant objects look hazy or the
blurry. direction of the bus.
This effect is called aerial perspective. Binocular Cues (Physiological Cues)
For Some important cues to depth
example, distant mountains appear blue perception in
due three dimensional space are provided by
to the scattering of blue light in the both
atmosphere, whereas the same the eyes. Three of them have
mountains are particularly been
perceived to be closer when the found to be interesting.
atmosphere Retinal or Binocular Disparity : Retinal
is clear. disparity occurs because the two eyes
Light and Shade : In the light some parts have
of different locations in our head. They are
the object get highlighted, whereas separated from each other horizontally
some parts by a
become darker. Highlights and shadows distance of about 6.5 centimeters.
provide us with information about an Because of
object’s this distance, the image formed on the
distance. retina
Relative Height : Larger objects are of each eye of the same object is slightly
perceived different. This difference between the
as being closer to the viewer and two
smaller images is called retinal disparity. The
objects as being farther away. When we brain
expect interprets a large retinal disparity to
two objects to be the same size and mean a
they are close object and a small retinal disparity
not, the larger of the two will appear to
closer mean a distant object, as the disparity is
and the smaller will appear farther away. less
Texture Gradient : It represents a for distant objects and more for the near
phenomenon objects.
by which the visual field having more Convergence : When we see a nearby
density object
of elements is seen farther away. In the our eyes converge inward in order to
Fig.5.15 the density of stones increases bring the
as we image on the fovea of each eye. A group
look farther away. of
that are close. The rate of an object’s muscles send messages to the brain
movement provides a cue to its regarding
distance. For the degree to which eyes are turning
example, when we travel in a bus, closer inward,
and these messages are interpreted as is sent to the brain, which provides the
cues cue
to the perception of depth. The degree for distance.
of the image that it casts on the retina is a
convergence decreases as the object circle,
moves or an ellipse, or roughly a short line (if
further away from the observer. You can the
experience convergence by holding a plate is viewed from the edge). It is also
finger in called
front of your nose and slowly bringing it form constancy.
closer. Brightness Constancy
The more your eyes turn inward or Visual objects not only appear constant
converge, in their
the nearer the object appears in space. shape and size, they also appear
Accommodation : Accommodation refers constant in
to a their degree of whiteness, greyness, or
process by which we focus the image on blackness even though the amount of
the physical
retina with the help of ciliary muscle. energy reflected from them changes
These considerably. In other words, our
muscles change the thickness of the experience
lens of of brightness does not change in spite of
the eye. If the object gets away (more the
than 2 changes in the amount of reflected light
meters), the muscle is relaxed. As the reaching our eyes. The tendency to
object maintain
moves nearer, the muscle contracts and apparent brightness constant under
the different
thickness of the lens increases. The amount of illumination is called
signal brightness
Fig.5.15 : Texture Gradient constancy. For example, surface of a
Motion Parallax : It is a kinetic paper
monocular cue, which appears white in the sunlight, is
and hence not considered as a pictorial still
cue. perceived as white in the room light.
It occurs when objects at different Similarly,
distances coal that looks black in the sun also
move at a different relative speed. The looks
distant black in room light.
objects appear to move slowly than the ILLUSIONS
objects Our perceptions are not always veridical.
Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and
Sometime we fail to interpret the
Perceptual Processes
sensory
103
about the degree of contraction of the information correctly. This results in a
muscle mismatch between the physical stimuli
and
its perception. These misperceptions our environment constantly changes as
resulting we
from misinterpretation of information move around. Yet we form a stable
received perception
by our sensory organs are generally of an object seen from any position and
known as in
illusions. These are experienced more or any intensity of light. Perception of the
less objects
by all of us. They result from an external as relatively stable in spite of changes in
stimulus situation and generate the the
same kind stimulation of sensory receptors is
of experience in each individual. That is called
why perceptual constancy. Here we will
illusions are also called “primitive examine
organisations”. Although illusions can be three types of perceptual constancies
experienced by the stimulation of any of that we
our commonly experience in our visual
senses, psychologists have studied domain.
them more Size Constancy
commonly in the visual than in other The size of an image on our retina
sense changes
modalities. with the change in the distance of the
Some perceptual illusions are universal object
and found in all individuals. For from the eye. The further away it is, the
example, the smaller
rail tracks appear to be converging to all is the image. On the other hand, our
of experience shows that within limits the
us. These illusions are called universal object
illusions or permanent illusions as they appears to be about the same size
do irrespective
not change with experience or practice. of its distance. For example, when you
Some approach your friend from a distance,
other illusions seem to vary from your
individual perception of the friend’s size does not
Hold a pencil in front of you. Close your right change
eye much despite the fact that the retinal
and focus on the pencil. Now open the right
image
eye
and close the left eye. Keep doing it
(image on retina) becomes larger. This
simultaneously tendency for the perceived size of
with both the eyes. The pencil will appear to objects to
move remain relatively unchanged with
from side to side in front of your face. changes in
Activity 5.4 their distance from the observer and the
PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES size
The sensory information that we receive of the retinal image is called size
from constancy.
Shape Constancy different
In our perceptions the shapes of familiar points appearing one after another,
objects remain unchanged despite without
changes in any experience of motion.
the pattern of retinal image resulting Experience of illusions indicates that
from people do not always perceive the world
differences in their orientation. For as it
example, is; instead they engage in its
a dinner plate looks the same shape construction,
whether sometimes based on the features of
Psychology stimuli
104 and sometimes based on their
to individual; these are called personal experiences in
illusions. In this section, we will describe a given environment. This point will be
some further
important visual illusions. made clear in the section that follows
Geometrical Illusions now.
In Fig.5.16 the Muller-Lyer illusion has SOCIO-CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON
been
PERCEPTION
shown. All of us perceive line A as
Several psychologists have studied the
shorter than
processes of perception in different
line B, although both the lines are equal.
sociocultural
This
settings. The questions they try to
illusion is experienced even by children.
answer through these studies are: Does
There
perceptual organisation of people living
are some studies that suggest that even
in
animals experience this illusion more or
different cultural settings take place in
less
an
like us. Besides Muller-Lyer illusion,
uniform manner? Are the perceptual
several
processes
other visual illusions are experienced by
universal, or they vary across different
human beings (also birds and animals).
cultural
In
settings? Because we know, people
Fig.5.17 you can see the illusion of
living in
vertical
different parts of the world look
and horizontal lines. Although both the
different, many
lines
psychologists hold the view that their
are equal, we perceive the vertical line
ways of
as longer
perceiving the world must be different in
than the horizontal line.
some
Fig.5.17 : Vertical-Horizontal Illusion
respects. Let us examine some studies
to be important. In the absence of these,
relating
the
to perception of illusion figures and
light points will not appear as moving.
other
They
pictorial materials.
will appear either as one point, or as
You are already familiar with Muller-Lyer
and Vertical-Horizontal illusion figures. be experimentally studied with the help
Psychologists have used these figures of an
with instrument by presenting two or more
several groups of people living in lights
Europe, in a succession. For the experience of
Africa, and many other places. Segall, this
Campbell, and Herskovits carried out the illusion, Wertheimer had reported the
most presence
extensive study of illusion susceptibility of appropriate level of brightness, size,
by spatial
comparing samples from remote African gap, and temporal contiguity of different
villages and Western urban settings. It lights
was Chapter 5 • Sensory, Attentional and
found that African subjects showed Perceptual Processes
105
greater
susceptibility to horizontal-vertical Key Terms
illusion, Absolute threshold, After images, Binocular
whereas Western subjects showed cues, Bottom-up processing, Cochlea, Cones,
greater Dark adaptation, Depth perception, Difference
susceptibility to Muller-Lyer illusion. threshold, Divided attention, Eustachian tube,
Figure-ground segregation, Filter theory,
Similar
Filter-attenuation theory, Gestalt, Light
findings have been reported in other adaptation, Loudness, Monocular cues, Organ
studies of corti, Perceptual constancies,
also. Living in dense forests the African Phiphenomenon,
subjects regularly experienced Pitch, Primary colours, Retina,
verticality (e.g., Rhodopsin, Rods, Selective attention,
Sustained attention, Timbre, Top-down
long trees) and developed a tendency to
processing, Visual illusions, Wavelength
overestimate it. The Westerners, who
an environment characterised by right
lived in
angles,
Fig.5.16 : Muller-Lyer Illusion
AB
developed a tendency to underestimate
Apparent Movement Illusion the
This illusion is experienced when some length of lines characterised by
motionless pictures are projected one enclosure (e.g.,
after arrowhead). This conclusion has been
another at an appropriate rate. This confirmed in several studies. It suggests
illusion that
is referred to as “phi-phenomenon”. the habits of perception are learnt
When we differently
see moving pictures in a cinema show, in different cultural settings.
we are In some studies people living in different
influenced by this kind of illusion. The cultural settings have been given
succession of flickering electrical lights pictures for
also identification of objects and
generate this illusion. This phenomenon interpretation of
can depth or other events represented in
them.
Hudson did a seminal study in Africa,
and
found that people, who had never seen
pictures, had great difficulty in
recognising
objects depicted in them and in
interpreting
depth cues (e.g., superimposition). It
was
indicated that informal instruction in
home
and habitual exposure to pictures were
necessary to sustain the skill of pictorial
depth
perception. Sinha and Mishra have
carried out
several studies on pictorial perception
using
a variety of pictures with people from
diverse
cultural settings, such as hunters and
gatherers living in forests, agriculturists
living
in villages, and people employed and
living in
cities. Their studies indicate that
interpretation of pictures is strongly
related
to cultural experiences of people. While
people
in general can recognise familiar objects
in
pictures, those less exposed to pictures
have
difficulty in the interpretation of actions
or
events depicted in them.
Summary
• Knowledge of our internal and external world
becomes possible with the help of senses. Five
of them are external senses, and two are
internal senses. The sense organs receive
various
stimuli and send them in the form of neural
impulses to specialised areas of brain for
interpretation.
• Vision and audition are the two most widely
used senses. Rods and cones are the receptors
for vision. Rods function in low intensities of
light, whereas cones function at high
intensities
of light. They are responsible for achromatic
and chromatic vision, respectively.
• Light and dark adaptations are two
interesting phenomena of the visual system.
Hue, saturation
and brightness are the basic dimensions of
colour.
• Sound serves as stimulus for auditory
sensations. Loudness, pitch, and timbre are the
properties
of sound. Organ of corti located in the basilar
membrane is the chief organ of hearing.
• Attention is a process through which we
select certain information by filtering out many
others
that appear to be irrelevant at a given moment
of time. Activation, concentration, and search
are important properties of attention.
• Selective and sustained attention are two
major types of attention. Divided attention is
evident
in the case of highly practiced tasks in which
there is much automaticity of information
processing.
• The span of attention is the magical number
of seven plus and minus two.
• Perception refers to the processes of
interpretation and informed construction of the
information
received from sensory organs. Human beings
perceive their world in terms of their
motivations,
expectations, cognitive styles, and cultural
background.
• Form perception refers to the perception of a
visual field set off from rest of the field by
visible
contours. The most primitive form of
organisation takes place in the form of figure-
ground
segregation.
Psychology
106
1. Explain the functional limitations of sense
organs.
2. What is meant by light and dark adaptation?
How do they take place?
3. What is colour vision and what are the
dimensions of colour?
4. How does auditory sensation take place?
5. Define attention. Explain its properties.
6. State the determinants of selective
attention. How does selective attention differ
from
sustained attention?
7. What is the main proposition of Gestalt
psychologists with respect to perception of the
visual field?
8. How does perception of space take place?
9. What are the monocular cues of depth
perception? Explain the role of binocular cues
in
the perception of depth?
10. Why do illusions occur?
11. How do socio-cultural factors influence our
perceptions?
Review Questions
• Gestalt psychologists have identified several
principles that determine our perceptual
organisations.
• The image of an object projected on to the
retina is two dimensional. Three dimensional
perception is a psychological process that
depends on correct utilisation of certain
monocular
and binocular cues.
the
visually challenged children feel by touching
the toy model for some time. Ask the children
to describe the model. Show the same toy
model to sighted children. Compare their
descriptions and find out their similarities and
differences.
Take another toy model (e.g., a parrot) and
give it to a few visually challenged children
to have a feel of it by touching. Then give a
sheet of paper and a pencil and ask them to
draw the parrot on the sheet. Show the same
parrot to sighted children for some time,
remove the parrot from their sight, and ask to
draw the parrot on a sheet of paper.
Compare the drawings of the visually
challenged and sighted children and examine
their similarities and differences.
Project Ideas

6
• Perceptual constancies refer to invariance of
our perceptions of an object seen from any
position and in any intensity of light. There is
good evidence for size, shape, and brightness
constancies.
• Illusions are the examples of nonveridical
Chapter
perceptions. They refer to misperceptions

Learning
resulting
from misinterpretation of information received
by our sensory organs. Some illusions are
universal, while others are more personal and • describe the nature of learning,
culture-specific.
• explain different forms or types of
• Socio-cultural factors play an important role
learning and the procedures used in
in our perceptions by generating differential
familiarity with and salience of stimuli as well such types of learning,
as certain habits of perceptual inference • understand various psychological
among people. processes that occur during learning
1. Collect ten advertisements from magazines. and influence its course,
Analyse the content and message being • explain the determinants of learning,
conveyed in each advertisement. Comment on and
the use of various attentional and perceptual • familiarise yourself with some
factors to promote the given product.
applications of learning principles.
2. Give a toy model of a horse/elephant to
visually challenged and sighted children. Let After reading this chapter, you
would be able to
Introduction
Nature of Learning
Paradigms of Learning
Classical Conditioning
Determinants of Classical Conditioning
Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
Determinants of Operant Conditioning
Classical and Operant Conditioning
Differences (Box 6.1)
Key Learning Processes
Learned Helplessness (Box 6.2)
Observational Learning
Cognitive Learning
Verbal Learning
Concept Learning
Skill Learning
Transfer of Learning
Factors Facilitating Learning
The Learner : Learning Styles
Learning Disabilities
Applications of Learning Principles
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
experience of satisfaction after doing
something in a specified manner leads
to the
formation of habit. Sometimes a single
experience can lead to learning. A child
strikes
a matchstick on the side of a matchbox,
and
: gets her/his fingers burnt. Such an
experience
makes the child learn to be careful in
handling
the matchbox in future.
Behavioural changes that occur due to
learning are relatively permanent. They
must
be distinguished from the behavioural
changes
that are neither permanent nor learned.
For
NATURE OF LEARNING
As indicated above learning is a key
process
in human behaviour. It refers to a
spectrum

Contents of changes that take place as a result of

one’s
Learning preserves errors experience. Learning may be defined as
of the past as well as its “any
wisdom. relatively permanent change in
– A.N. Whitehead behaviour or
Psychology behavioural potential produced by
108 experience”.
always involves some kinds of One must remember that some
experience. We behavioural
experience an event occurring in a changes occur due to the use of drugs,
certain or
sequence on a number of occasions. If fatigue. Such changes are temporary.
an event They are
happens then it may be followed by not considered learning. Changes due to
certain practice and experience, which are
other events. For example, one learns relatively
that if permanent, are illustrative of learning.
the bell rings in the hostel after sunset, Features of Learning
then The process of learning has certain
dinner is ready to be served. Repeated distinctive
characteristics. The first feature is that one
learning learns. A number of learning methods
At the time of birth every human baby is that account for simple to complex
equipped with the capacity to make a types of
limited number of responses. These learning are described. In the third
responses occur reflexively whenever section, some empirical phenomena,
appropriate stimuli are present in the that occur
environment. As the child grows and in the course of learning, are explained.
matures, s/he becomes capable of In the fourth section, different factors
making diverse types of responses. that
These determine the speed and extent of
include identifying the images of some learning are described including
persons as one’s mother, father or different
grandfather, using a spoon when eating learning styles and learning disabilities.

Introduction
food, and learning how to identify
alphabets, to write, and to combine
them into words. S/he also observes Chapter 6 • Learning
others 109
doing things in specific environmental example, changes in behaviour often
conditions, and imitates them. Learning occur
names of objects such as book, orange, due to the effects of fatigue,
mango, cow, boy, and girl, and retaining habituation, and
them is another important task. As one drugs. Suppose you are reading your
grows older, one observes many events textbook
or of psychology for sometime or you are
objects, and learns their distinct trying
features. Objects are categorised as to learn how to drive a motor car, a time
‘furniture’, comes
‘fruits’, and so on. One also learns to when you will feel tired. You stop
drive a scooter or a car, to communicate reading or
with driving. This is a behavioural change
others effectively, and to interact with due to
others. It is all due to learning that a fatigue, and is temporary. It is not
person considered
becomes hard working or indolent, learning.
socially knowledgeable, skilled, and Let us take another case of change in
professionally competent. Each one’s
individual manages her or his life and behaviour. Suppose in the vicinity of
solves all your
kinds of problems because of the residence a marriage is being
capacity to learn and adapt. This performed. It
chapter focuses generates a lot of noise, which
on the various aspects of learning. First, continues till
learning is defined and characterised as late night. In the beginning, the noise
a psychological process. Second, an distracts
account is presented that explains how you from whatever you are doing. You
feel processed
disturbed. While the noise continues, information is recalled by the person. By
you comparing the number of words which a
make some orienting reflexes. These person now knows as compared to what
reflexes s/he
become weaker and weaker, and knew in the pre-test, one infers that
eventually learning
become undetectable. This is also one did take place.
kind of Thus, learning is an inferred process and
behavioural change. This change is due is different from performance.
to Performance
continuous exposure to stimuli. It is is a person’s observed behaviour or
called response
habituation. It is not due to learning. You or action. Let us understand what is
must meant
have noticed that people who are on by the term inference. Suppose you are
sedatives asked
or drugs or alcohol, their behaviour by your teacher to memorise a poem.
changes You read
as it affects physiological functions. that poem a number of times. Then you
Such say
changes are temporary in nature and that you have learned the poem. You are
disappear, as the effect wears out. asked
Learning involves a sequence of to recite the poem and you are able to
psychological events. This will become recite
clear if it. The recitation of the poem by you is
we were to describe a typical learning your
experiment. Suppose psychologists are performance. On the basis of your
interested in understanding how a list of performance, the teacher infers that you
words have
is learned. They will go through the learned the poem.
following PARADIGMS OF LEARNING
sequence : (i) do a pre-test to know how Learning takes place in many ways.
much There are
the person knows before learning, (ii) some methods that are used in
present acquisition of
the list of words to be remembered for a simple responses while other methods
fixed are
time, (iii) during this time the list of used in the acquisition of complex
words is responses.
processed towards acquiring new In this section you will learn about all
knowledge, these
(iv) after processing is complete, new methods. The simplest kind of learning
knowledge is acquired (this is is
LEARNING), and called conditioning. Two types of
(v) after some time elapses, the conditioning
have been identified. The first one is experimental setup is illustrated in
called Figure 6.1.
classical conditioning, and the second Psychology
instrumental/operant conditioning. In 110
addition, we have observational In the second phase of the experiment,
learning, the
cognitive learning, verbal learning, dog was kept hungry and placed in
concept harness
learning, and skill learning. with one end of the tube ending in the
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING jaw
and the other end in the glass jar. A bell
This type of learning was first
was
investigated by
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and
Ivan P. Pavlov. He was primarily
salivation
interested in
which follows it, an Unconditioned
the physiology of digestion. During his
Response
studies
(UR). After conditioning, salivation
he noticed that dogs, on whom he was
started to
doing
occur in the presence of the sound of
his experiments, started secreting saliva
the bell.
as
The bell becomes a Conditioned
soon as they saw the empty plate in
Stimulus
which
(CS) and saliva secretion a Conditioned
food was served. As you must be aware,
Response (CR). This kind of conditioning
saliva
is
secretion is a reflexive response to food
called classical conditioning. The
or
procedure
something in the mouth. Pavlov
is illustrated in Table 6.1. It is obvious
designed an
that
experiment to understand this process
the learning situation in classical
in detail
conditioning
in which dogs were used once again. In
is one of S–S learning in which one
the
stimulus
first phase, a dog was placed in a box
(e.g., sound of bell) becomes a signal for
and
another stimulus (e.g., food). Here one
harnessed. The dog was left in the box
stimulus
for some
signifies the possible occurrence of
time. This was repeated a number of
another
times on
stimulus.
different days. In the meantime, a
Examples of classical conditioning
simple
abound
surgery was conducted, and one end of
in everyday life. Imagine you have just
a tube
finished
was inserted in the dog’s jaw and the
your lunch and you are feeling satisfied.
other end
Then
of the tube was put in a measuring
you see some sweet dish served on the
glass. The
adjoining table. This signals its taste in was
your allowed to eat it. For the next few days,
mouth, and triggers the secretion of everytime the meat powder was
saliva. You presented, it
feel like eating it. This is a conditioned was preceded by the sound of a bell.
response After a
(CR). Let us take another example. In number of such trials, a test trial was
the early introduced in which everything was the
stages of childhood, one is naturally same
afraid of as the previous trials except that no
any loud noise. Suppose a small child food
catches followed the sounding of the bell. The
an inflated balloon which bursts in dog still
her/his salivated to the sound of the bell,
hands making a loud noise. The child expecting
becomes presentation of the meat powder as the
afraid. Now the next time s/he is made sound
to hold of bell had come to be connected with it.
a balloon, it becomes a signal or cue for This
noise association between the bell and food
and elicits fear response. This happens resulted
because in acquisition of a new response by the
of contiguous presentation of balloon as dog,
a i.e. salivation to the sound of the bell.
conditioned stimulus (CS) and loud noise This has
as been termed as conditioning. You may
an unconditioned stimulus (US). have
Determinants of Classical Conditioning noticed that all dogs salivate when they
How quickly and strongly acquisition of are
a presented with food. Food is thus an
response occurs in classical conditioning Fig.6.1 : A Dog in Pavlovian Harness for
depends on several factors. Some of the Conditioning
One-way
major
glass wall
Stages of Nature of Stimulus Nature of Tube from
Response salivary glands
Conditioning Cup for
Before Food (US) Salivation (UR) measuring saliva
Sound of the Bell Alertness (No Specific Recording
Response) device
During Sound of the Bell (CS) + Food (US) Food
Salivation (UR) Chapter 6 • Learning
After Sound of the Bell (CS) Salivation (CR) 111
Table 6.1 Relationship of Stages of 3. Intensity of Conditioned Stimuli : This
Conditioning and Operations influences the course of both appetitive
sounded and immediately thereafter and
food (meat aversive classical conditioning. More
powder) was served to the dog. The dog intense
conditioned stimuli are more effective in precedes the onset of CS.
accelerating the acquisition of It is now well established that delayed
conditioned conditioning procedure is the most
responses. It means that the more effective
intense the way of acquiring a CR. Simultaneous and
conditioned stimulus, the fewer are the trace
number of acquisition trials needed for conditioning procedures do lead to
conditioning. acquisition
In order to understand and explain of a CR, but they require greater number
conditioning, of
you may carry out the following exercise. Take
acquisition trials in comparison to the
a few pieces of mango pickle on a plate and
show it to the students in the classroom. Ask
delayed
them what they experienced in their mouth? conditioning procedure. It may be noted
Most of your classmates are likely to report that
some salivation in their mouth. the acquisition of response under
Activity 6.1 backward
factors influencing learning a CR are conditioning procedure is very rare.
described 2. Type of Unconditioned Stimuli : The
below: unconditioned stimuli used in studies of
1. Time Relations between Stimuli : The classical conditioning are basically of
classical conditioning procedures, two
discussed types, i.e. appetitive and aversive.
below, are basically of four types based Appetitive
on the unconditioned stimuli automatically
time relations between the onset of elicits
conditioned approach responses, such as eating,
stimulus (CS) and unconditioned drinking,
stimulus caressing, etc. These responses give
(US). The first three are called forward satisfaction and pleasure. On the other
conditioning procedures, and the fourth hand,
one aversive US, such as noise, bitter taste,
is called backward conditioning electric
procedure. shock, painful injections, etc. are
The basic experimental arrangements of painful,
these harmful, and elicit avoidance and
procedures are as follows: escape
a) When the CS and US are presented responses. It has been found that
together, it is called simultaneous appetitive
conditioning. classical conditioning is slower and
b) In delayed conditioning, the onset of requires
CS precedes the onset of US. The CS greater number of acquisition trials, but
ends before the end of the US. aversive classical conditioning is
c) In trace conditioning, the onset and established
end of the CS precedes the onset of US in one, two or three trials depending on
with some time gap between the two. the
d) In backward conditioning, the US intensity of the aversive US.
OPERANT/INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING plate.
This type of conditioning was first The hungry rat eats it. In the next trial,
investigated after
by B.F. Skinner. Skinner studied a while the exploratory behaviour again
occurrence starts.
of voluntary responses when an As the number of trials increases, the rat
organism takes
operates on the environment. He called Psychology
112
them
lesser and lesser time to press the lever
operants. Operants are those
for food.
behaviours or
Conditioning is complete when the rat
responses, which are emitted by
presses
animals and
the lever immediately after it is placed
human beings voluntarily and are under
in the
their
chamber. It is obvious that lever
control. The term operant is used
pressing is
because the
an operant response and getting food is
organism operates on the environment.
its
Conditioning of operant behaviour is
consequence.
called
response. They include its types –
operant conditioning.
positive or
Skinner conducted his studies on rats
negative, number or frequency, quality –
and
superior or inferior, and schedule –
pigeons in specially made boxes, called
continuous
the
or intermittent (partial). All these
Skinner Box. A hungry rat (one at a
features
time) is
influence the course of operant
placed in the chamber, which was so
conditioning.
built that
Another factor that influences this type
the rat could move inside but could not
of
come
learning is the nature of the response or
out. In the chamber there was a lever,
behaviour that is to be conditioned. The
which
interval or length of time that lapses
was connected to a food container kept
between
on the
occurrence of response and
top of the chamber (see Figure 6.2).
reinforcement also
When the
influences operant learning. Let us
lever is pressed, a food pellet drops on
examine
the
some of these factors in detail.
plate placed close to the lever. While
Types of Reinforcement
moving
Reinforcement may be positive or
around and pawing the walls
negative.
(exploratory
Positive reinforcement involves stimuli
behaviour), the hungry rat accidentally
that
presses
have pleasant consequences. They
the lever and a food pellet drops on the
strengthen punishment
and maintain the responses that have has no effect. The stronger the
caused punishment,
them to occur. Positive reinforcers the more lasting is the suppression
satisfy effect but
needs, which include food, water, it is not permanent.
medals, Sometimes punishment has no effect
praise, money, status, information, etc. irrespective of its intensity. On the
Negative reinforcers involve unpleasant contrary,
and the punished person may develop dislike
painful stimuli. Responses that lead and
organisms In the above situation the response is
to get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and instrumental in getting the food. That is
escape why,
from them provide negative this type of learning is also called
reinforcement. instrumental conditioning. Examples of
Thus, negative reinforcement leads to instrumental conditioning abound in our
learning everyday life. Children who want to have
of avoidance and escape responses. For some
instance, one learns to put on woollen sweets in the absence of their mother
clothes, learn to
burn firewood or use electric heaters to locate the jar in which mother hides the
avoid sweets
the unpleasant cold weather. One learns for safekeeping and eat it. Children learn
to to
move away from dangerous stimuli be polite and say ‘please’ to get favours
because from
they provide negative reinforcement. It their parents and others. One learns to
may operate
be noted that negative reinforcement is mechanical gadgets such as radio,
not camera,
punishment. Use of punishment reduces T.V., etc. based on the principle of
or instrumental conditioning. As a matter
suppresses the response while a of fact
negative human beings learn short cuts to attain
reinforcer increases the probability of desired goals or ends through
avoidance or escape response. For instrumental
instance, conditioning.
drivers and co-drivers wear their seat Determinants of Operant Conditioning
belts to You have noted that operant or
avoid getting injured in case of an instrumental
accident or conditioning is a form of learning in
to avoid being fined by the traffic police. which
It should be understood that no behaviour is learned, maintained or
punishment suppresses a response changed
permanently. Mild and delayed through its consequences. Such
consequences reinforcement influences the course of
are called reinforcers. A reinforcer is conditioning in its own way; and thus
defined conditioned responses occur with
as any stimulus or event, which differential
increases the characteristics. The organism being
probability of the occurrence of a subjected
(desired) to operant conditioning may be given
response. A reinforcer has numerous reinforcement in every acquisition trial
features, or in
which affect the course and strength of some trials it is given and in others it is
a omitted. Thus, the reinforcement may
Fig.6.2 : Skinner Box be
Chapter 6 • Learning continuous or intermittent. When a
113
desired
hatred for the punishing agent or the
response is reinforced every time it
person
occurs we
who administers the punishment.
call it continuous reinforcement. In
Number of Reinforcement and other
contrast,
Features
in intermittent schedules responses are
It refers to the number of trials on which
sometimes reinforced, sometimes not. It
an
is
organism has been reinforced or
known as partial reinforcement and has
rewarded.
been
Amount of reinforcement means how
found to produce greater resistance to
much
extinction – than is found with
of reinforcing stimulus (food or water or
continuous
intensity of pain causing agent) one
reinforcement.
receives
Delayed Reinforcement
on each trial. Quality of reinforcement
The effectiveness of reinforcement is
refers
dramatically altered by delay in the
to the kind of reinforcer. Chickpeas or
occurrence
pieces
of reinforcement. It is found that delay
of bread are of inferior quality as
in the
compared
delivery of reinforcement leads to
with raisins or pieces of cake as
poorer level
reinforcer.
of performance. It can be easily shown
The course of operant conditioning is
by
usually
asking children which reward they will
accelerated to an extent as the number,
prefer
amount, and quality of reinforcement
for doing some chore. Smaller rewards
increases.
immediately after doing the chore will
Schedules of Reinforcement
be
A reinforcement schedule is the
preferred rather than a big one after a
arrangement
long
of the delivery of reinforcement during
gap.
conditioning trials. Each schedule of
Key Learning Processes
When learning takes place, be it specifiable conditions, discrimination
classical or between reinforcing and non-reinforcing
operant conditioning, it involves the stimuli, and spontaneous recovery.
occurrence of certain processes. These Reinforcement
include Reinforcement is the operation of
1. In classical conditioning, the responses are administering a reinforcer by the
under the control of some stimulus because experimenter.
they are reflexes, automatically elicited by
Reinforcers are stimuli that increase the
the appropriate stimuli. Such stimuli are
selected as US and responses elicited by
rate
them as UR. Thus Pavlovian conditioning, in or probability of the responses that
which US elicits responses, is often called precede.
respondent conditioning. We have noted that reinforced
In instrumental conditioning, responses responses
are under the control of the organism and
increase in rate, while non-reinforced
are voluntary responses or ‘operants’. Thus,
in the two forms of conditioning different
responses decrease in rate. A positive
types of responses are conditioned. reinforcer increases the rate of response
2. In classical conditioning the CS and US are that
well-defined, but in operant conditioning CS precedes its presentation. Negative
is not defined. It can be inferred but is not reinforcers
directly known.
increase the rate of the response that
Box 6.1 Classical and Operant precedes
Conditioning : Differences their removal or termination. The
3. In classical conditioning, the experimenter reinforcers
controls the occurrence of US, while in operant may be primary or secondary. A primary
conditioning the occurrence of the reinforcer is reinforcer is biologically important since
under the control of the organism that is it
learning.
determines the organism’s survival
Thus, for US in classical conditioning the
organism remains passive, while in operant (e.g., food
conditioning the subject has to be active in for a hungry organism). A secondary
order reinforcer
to be reinforced. is one which has acquired
4. In the two forms of conditioning, the characteristics of
technical
the reinforcer because of the organism’s
terms used to characterise the experimental
proceedings are different. Moreover what is experience with the environment. We
called frequently use money, praise, and
reinforcer in operant conditioning is called US grades as
in reinforcers. They are called secondary
classical conditioning. An US has two functions. reinforcers. Systematic use of
In the beginning it elicits the response and also
reinforcers can
reinforces the response to be associated and
elicited later on by the CS. lead to the desired response. Such a
Psychology response
114 is shaped by reinforcing successive
reinforcement, extinction or non- approximations to the desired response.
occurrence Extinction
of learned response, generalisation of Extinction means disappearance of a
learning to other stimuli under some learned
response due to removal of
reinforcement from
the situation in which the response used
to
occur. If the occurrence of CS-CR is not
followed by the US in classical
conditioning,
or lever pressing is no more followed by
food
pellets in the Skinner box, the learned
behaviour will gradually be weakened
and
ultimately disappear.
Learning shows resistance to extinction.
It means that even though the learned
response is now not reinforced, it would
continue to occur for sometime.
However, with
increasing number of trials without
reinforcement, the response strength
gradually diminishes and ultimately it
stops
occurring. How long a learned response
shows
resistance to extinction depends on a
number
of factors. It has been found that with
increasing number of reinforced trials
resistance to extinction increases and
learned
response reaches its highest level. At
this level
performance gets stabilised. After that
the
number of trials do not make a
difference in
It is an interesting phenomenon, which is a
result
of an interaction between the two forms of
conditioning. Learned helplessness underlies
psychological cases of depression. Seligman
and
Maier demonstrated this phenomenon in a
study
on dogs. First, they subjected dogs to sound
(CS)
and electric shock (US) using classical
conditioning
procedure. The animal had no scope to escape
or
avoid the shock. This pairing was repeated a
number of times. Then the dogs were
subjected to
shock in an operant conditioning procedure.
The
dogs could escape the shock by pressing their
heads against the wall. After having
experienced
inescapable shock in the Pavlovian
contingency,
the dog failed to escape or avoid shock in the
operant conditioning procedure. The dog just
Box 6.2 Learned Helplessness
suffered the shock through, and did not
attempt to
escape. This behaviour of the dog was called
learned
helplessness.
This phenomenon has been shown to be
operative
in humans also. It has been found that
continuous
failure in a set of tasks shows the occurrence
of
learned helplessness. In an experimental
study, the
subjects are initially given failure experience
irrespective of their performance. In the
second phase
the subjects are given a task. Learned
helplessness
is often measured in terms of the subject’s
ability and
persistence before they give up the task.
Continuous
failure leads to little persistence and poor
performance.
This shows helplessness. There are numerous
studies
that demonstrate that persistent depression is
often
caused by learned helplessness.
Chapter 6 • Learning
115
the response strength. Resistance to
extinction
increases with increasing number of
reinforcements during acquisition trials,
beyond that any increase in number of
reinforcement reduces the resistance to suppose a child has learned the location
extinction. Studies have also indicated of a
that jar of a certain size and shape in which
as the amount of reinforcement (number sweets
of are kept. Even when the child’s mother
food pellets) increases during the is not
acquisition around, the child finds the jar and
trials, resistance to extinction decreases. obtains the
If the reinforcement is delayed during sweets. This is a learned operant. Now
acquisition trials, the resistance to the
extinction sweets are kept in another jar of a
increases. Reinforcement in every different
acquisition size and shape and at a different
trial makes the learned response to be location in
less the kitchen. In the absence of the
resistant to extinction. In contrast, mother the
intermittent or partial reinforcement child locates the jar and obtains the
during sweets.
acquisition trials makes a learned This is also an example of
response generalisation. When
more resistant to extinction. a learned response occurs or is elicited
Generalisation and Discrimination by a
The processes of generalisation and new stimulus, it is called generalisation.
discrimination occur in all kinds of Another process, which is
learning. complimentary
However, they have been extensively to generalisation, is called
investigated in the context of discrimination.
conditioning. Generalisation is due to similarity while
Suppose an organism is conditioned to discrimination is a response due to
elicit a difference.
CR (saliva secretion or any other For example, suppose a child is
reflexive conditioned
response) on presentation of a CS (light to be afraid of a person with a long
or moustache
sound of bell). After conditioning is and wearing black clothes. In
established, subsequent
and another stimulus similar to the CS situation, when s/he meets another
(e.g., person
ringing of telephone) is presented, the dressed in black clothes with a beard,
organism the child
makes the conditioned response to it. shows signs of fear. The child’s fear is
This generalised. S/he meets another
phenomenon of responding similarly to stranger who
similar is wearing grey clothes and is clean-
stimuli is known as generalisation. shaven.
Again, The child shows no fear. This is an
example of (3)
Spontaneous
discrimination. Occurrence of
recovery
generalisation (CS alone)
means failure of discrimination. Rest
Discriminative response depends on the Trials
discrimination capacity or discrimination Psychology
116
learning of the organism.
Spontaneous Recovery OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Spontaneous recovery occurs after a The next form of learning takes place by
learned observing others. Earlier this form of
response is extinguished. Suppose an learning
organism has learned to make a was called imitation. Bandura and his
response for colleagues in a series of experimental
getting reinforcement, then the studies
response is investigated observational learning in
extinguished and some time lapses. A detail.
question In this kind of learning, human beings
now may be asked, whether the learn
response is social behaviours, therefore, it is
completely extinguished, and will not sometimes
occur if called social learning. In many situations
the CS is presented. It has been individuals do not know how to behave.
demonstrated They
that after lapse of considerable time, the observe others and emulate their
learned or CR recovers and occurs to the behaviour.
CS. This form of learning is called modeling.
The amount of spontaneous recovery Examples of observational learning
depends abound in our social life. Fashion
on the duration of the time lapsed after designers
the employ tall, pretty, and gracious young
extinction session. The longer the girls
duration of and tall, smart, and well-built young
time lapsed, the greater is the recovery boys for
of popularising clothes of different designs
learned response. Such a recovery and
occurs fabrics. People observe them on
spontaneously. Fig.6.3 shows the televised
phenomenon of spontaneous recovery. fashion shows and advertisements in
Fig.6.3 : Phenomenon of Spontaneous magazines and newspapers. They
Recovery imitate these
Strength of the CR models. Observing superiors and
Baseline likeable
(1)
Acquisition
persons and then emulating their
(CS+US) behaviour
(2) in a novel social situation is a common
Extinction experience.
(CS alone)
In order to understand the nature of
observational learning we may refer to
the
studies conducted by Bandura. In one of
his
well-known experimental study, Bandura
showed a film of five minutes duration
to
children. The film shows that in a large
room
there are numerous toys including a
large
sized ‘Bobo’ doll. Now a grown-up boy
enters
the room and looks around. The boy
starts
showing aggressive behaviour towards
the toys
in general and the bobo doll in
particular. He
hits the doll, throws it on the floor,
kicking it
and sitting on it. This film has three
versions.
In one version a group of children see
the boy
(model) being rewarded and praised by
an
adult for being aggressive to the doll. In
the
second version another group of
children see
the boy being punished for his
aggressive
behaviour. In the third version the third
group
of children are not shown the boy being
either
rewarded or punished.
After viewing a specific version of the
film
all the three groups of children were
placed in
an experimental room in which similar
toys
were placed around. The children were
allowed
to play with the toys. These groups were
secretly observed and their behaviours
noted.
It was found that those children who saw
aggressive behaviour being rewarded
were
most aggressive; children who had seen
the
aggressive model being punished were
least
aggressive. Thus, in observational
learning
observers acquire knowledge by
observing the
model’s behaviour, but performance is
influenced by model’s behaviour being
rewarded or punished.
You must have noticed that children
observe adults’ behaviours, at home and
during social ceremonies and functions.
They
enact adults in their plays and games.
For
instance, young children play games of
marriage ceremonies, birthday parties,
thief
and policeman, house keeping, etc.
Actually
they enact in their games what they
observe in society, on television, and
read in
books.
Children learn most of the social
behaviours by observing and emulating
adults.
The way to put on clothes, dress one’s
hair,
and conduct oneself in society are
learned
through observing others. It has also
been
shown that children learn and develop
various
personality characteristics through
observational learning. Aggressiveness,
prosocial experiments with chimpanzees that
behaviour, courtesy, politeness, involved
diligence, and indolence are acquired by solving complex problems. Kohler placed
this chimpanzees in an enclosed play area
method of learning. where
You can have first-hand experience of food was kept out of their reach. Tools
observational such
learning by doing the following exercise.
as poles and boxes were placed in the
Collect four or five school going children and
demonstrate how to make a boat out of a
enclosure. The chimpanzees rapidly
sheet of learned
paper. Do it two or three times and ask the how to use a box to stand on or a pole
children to move
to observe carefully. After having shown how the food in their direction. In this
to
experiment,
fold the paper in different ways for a number of
times, give them sheets of paper and ask them
learning did not occur as a result of trial
to and
make a toy boat. error and reinforcement, but came about
Most children will be able to do it somewhat in
successfully. sudden flashes of insight. The
Activity 6.2 chimpanzees
Chapter 6 • Learning would roam about the enclosure for
117 some time
COGNITIVE LEARNING and then suddenly would stand on a
Some psychologists view learning in box, grab
terms of a pole and strike a banana, which was
cognitive processes that underlie it. out of
They have normal reach above the enclosure. The
developed approaches that focus on chimpanzee exhibited what Kohler
such called
processes that occur during learning insight learning – the process by which
rather the
than concentrating solely on S-R and S-S solution to a problem suddenly becomes
connections, as we have seen in the clear.
case of In a normal experiment on insight
classical and operant conditioning. Thus, learning, a problem is presented,
in followed by
cognitive learning, there is a change in a period of time when no apparent
what progress is
the learner knows rather than what s/he made and finally a solution suddenly
does. emerges.
This form of learning shows up in insight In insight learning, sudden solution is
learning and latent learning. the rule.
Insight Learning Once the solution has appeared, it can
Kohler demonstrated a model of learning be
which could not be readily explained by repeated immediately the next time the
conditioning. He performed a series of problem is confronted. Thus, it is clear
that in their explorations. They just never
what is learned is not a specific set of displayed
conditioned associations between their latent learning until the
stimuli and reinforcement
responses but a cognitive relationship was provided. Instead, the rats
between developed a
a means and an end. As a result, insight cognitive map of the maze, i.e. a mental
learning can be generalised to other representation of the spatial locations
similar and
problem situations. directions, which they needed to reach
Latent Learning their
Another type of cognitive learning is goal.
known VERBAL LEARNING
as latent learning. In latent learning, a Verbal learning is different from
new conditioning
behaviour is learned but not and is limited to human beings. Human
demonstrated beings, as you must have observed,
until reinforcement is provided for acquire
displaying knowledge about objects, events, and
it. Tolman made an early contribution to their
the features largely in terms of words.
concept of latent learning. To have an Words then
idea of come to be associated with one another.
latent learning, we may briefly Psychologists have developed a number
understand his of
experiment. Tolman put two groups of methods to study this kind of learning in
rats in a
a maze and gave them an opportunity laboratory setting. Each method is used
to to
explore. In one group, rats found food at investigate specific questions about
the learning
end of the maze and soon learned to of some kind of verbal material. In the
make study
their way rapidly through the maze. On of verbal learning, psychologists use a
the variety
other hand, rats in the second group of materials including nonsense
were not syllables,
rewarded and showed no apparent signs familiar words, unfamiliar words (see
of Table
learning. But later, when these rats were 6.2 for sample items), sentences, and
reinforced, they ran through the maze paragraphs.
as Psychology
efficiently as the rewarded group. 118
Tolman contended that the unrewarded Methods used in Studying Verbal
rats had learned the layout of the maze Learning
early 1. Paired-Associates Learning : This
method becomes
is similar to S-S conditioning and S-R the measure of paired-associates
learning. learning.
It is used in learning some foreign 2. Serial Learning : This method of
language verbal
equivalents of mother tongue words. learning is used to find out how
First, a participants
list of paired-associates is prepared. The learn the lists of verbal items, and what
first processes are involved in it. First, lists of
word of the pair is used as the stimulus, verbal
and items, i.e. nonsense syllables, most
the second word as the response. familiar
Members of or least familiar words, interrelated
each pair may be from the same words, etc.
language or are prepared. The participant is
two different languages. A list of such presented the
words entire list and is required to produce the
is given in Table 6.3. items
The first members of the pairs (stimulus in the same serial order as in the list. In
term) are nonsense syllables the
(consonantvowel- first trial, the first item of the list is
consonant), and the second are English shown,
nouns (response term). The learner is Stimulus - Response Stimulus - Response
first GEN – LOOT LUR – ROOF
BEM – TIME RUL – GOLD
shown both the stimulus-response pairs
DIV – LAMP VAK – HILL
together, and is instructed to remember WUF – DEER KER – NAME
and JIT – LION HOZ – GOAT
recall the response after the DAX – COAL MUW – BULL
presentation of Table 6.3 Examples of Stimulus –
each stimulus term. After that a learning Response Pairs used in Paired-
trial
Associates Learning
begins. One by one the stimulus words Nonsense syllables Unfamiliar words Familiar
are words
presented and the participant tries to YOL ZILCH BOAT
give the RUV PLUMB NOSE
correct response term. In case of failure, TOJ VERVE KNOW
LIN BLOUT GOAL
s/he
LUF THILL BOWL
is shown the response word. In one trial GOW SCOFF LOAD
all NOK TENOR FEET
the stimulus terms are shown. Trials RIC WRACK MEET
continue NEZ BOUGH TENT
until the participant gives all the TAM MALVE FOAM
SUK PATTER TALE
response
KOZ MANSE JOKE
words without a single error. The total GUD KYDRA MALE
number MUP BORGE BALM
of trials taken to reach the criterion KUG DEVEN SOLE
Table 6.2 Sample Lists of Items used used to study how participants organise
in Verbal Learning Experiments words
Chapter 6 • Learning for storage in memory. Studies indicate
119 that
and the participant has to produce the the items placed in the beginning or end
second of
item. If s/he fails to do so within the the lists are easier to recall than those
prescribed placed
time, the experimenter presents the in the middle, which are more difficult to
second recall.
item. Now this item becomes the Determinants of Verbal Learning
stimulus and Verbal learning has been subjected to
the participant has to produce the third the most
item extensive experimental investigations.
that is the response word. If s/he fails, These
the studies have indicated that the course of
experimenter gives the correct item, verbal
which learning is influenced by a number of
becomes the stimulus item for the factors.
fourth word. The most important determinants are
This procedure is called serial the
anticipation different features of the verbal material
method. Learning trials continue until to be
the learned. They include length of the list
participant correctly anticipates all the to be
items learned and meaningfulness of the
in the given order. material.
3. Free Recall : In this method, Meaningfulness of material is measured
participants in
are presented a list of words, which they several ways. The number of
read associations
and speak out. Each word is shown at a elicited in a fixed time, familiarity of the
fixed material and frequency of usage,
rate of exposure duration. Immediately relations
after among the words in the list, and
the presentation of the list, the sequential
participants dependence of each word of the list on
are required to recall the words in any the
order preceding words, are used for assessing
they can. Words in the list may be meaningfulness. Lists of nonsense
interrelated syllables are
or unrelated. More than ten words are available with different levels of
included in the list. The presentation associations.
order of The nonsense syllables should be
words varies from trial to trial. This selected
method is from a list containing the same
association words were presented to participants
value. On the basis of research findings, one by
the one in random order. The participants
following generalisations have been were
made. required to make free recall of the
Learning time increases with increase in words.
length of the list, occurrence of words However, they recalled the words of
with low each
association values or lack of relations category together. He called it category
among clustering. It is worth noting that,
the items in the list. The more time it though,
takes to the words were presented randomly the
learn the list, stronger will be the participants organised them category-
learning. In wise in
this respect psychologists have found recall. Here category clustering occurred
that the because of the nature of the list. It has
total time principle operates. This also
principle been demonstrated that free recall is
states that a fixed amount of time is always
necessary organised subjectively. Subjective
to learn a fixed amount of material, organisation
regardless shows that the participants organise
of the number of trials into which that words
time is or items in their individual ways and
divided. The more time it takes to learn, recall
the accordingly.
stronger becomes the learning. Verbal learning is usually intentional but
If participants are not restricted to the a person may learn some features of the
serial learning method and are allowed words
to give unintentionally or incidentally. In this
free recall, verbal learning becomes kind of
organisational. It implies that in free learning, participants notice features
recall such as
participants recall the words not in their whether two or more words rhyme, start
order with
of presentation, but in a new order or identical letters, have same vowels, etc.
sequence. Bousfield first demonstrated Thus,
this verbal learning is both intentional as
experimentally. He made a list of 60 well as
words incidental.
that consisted of 15 words drawn from Psychology
each 120
of the four semantic categories, i.e. CONCEPT LEARNING
names, The world, in which we live, consists of
animals, professions, and vegetables. innumerable objects, events and living
These beings.
These objects and events are different in colour,
their size, number, shape, smoothness,
structures and functions. One of the roughness,
many softness, and hardness are called
things human beings have to do is to features.
organise Rules that are used to connect the
the objects, events, animals, etc., into features
categories so that within the category, to form a concept may be very simple or
objects complex. A rule is an instruction to do
are treated as equivalent even though something. Keeping in view the rules
they are that are
different in their features. Such used in defining concepts, psychologists
categorisations involve concept have
learning. studied two types of concepts : artificial
What is a Concept? concepts and natural concepts or
A concept is a category that is used to categories.
refer to Artificial concepts are those that are
a number of objects and events. Animal, welldefined
fruit, and rules connecting the features are
building, and crowd are examples of precise and rigid. In a well-defined
concepts concept the
or categories. It may be noted that the features that represent the concept are
terms, both
concept and category, are singly necessary and jointly sufficient.
interchangeably Every object must have all the features
used. A concept is defined as ‘a set of in order
features to become an instance of the concept.
or attributes connected by some rule’. On the
Instances other hand, natural concepts or
of a concept are those objects or events categories are
or usually ill-defined. Numerous features
behaviours, which have common are
features. A found in the instances of a natural
feature is any characteristic or aspect of category.
an Such concepts include biological objects,
object or event or living organism that is real
observed in them, and can be world products, and human artefacts
considered such as
equivalent to some features observed or tools, clothes, houses, etc.
discriminated in other objects. Features Let us take the example of the concept
are of of
innumerable kinds and their a square. It is a well-defined concept. It
discriminability must
depends upon the degree of the have four attributes, i.e. closed figure,
observer’s four
perceptual sensitivity. Properties like sides, each side of equal length, and
equal
angles. Thus a square consists of four
features
connected by a conjunctive rule. In
order to
understand various rules for creating
welldefined
concepts let us look at Figure 6.4.
Take the following words and write them on
separate cards, and ask the participants to
read
them aloud one by one. After completion of
two
readings, ask them to write down the words in
any order : book, law, bread, shirt, coat, paper,
pencil, biscuit, pen, life, history, rice, curd,
shoes,
sociology, sweet, pond, potato, ice-cream,
muffler,
and prose. After the presentation, ask them to
write down the words they read, without
bothering
about the order of presentation.
Analyse your data to see whether recalled
words show any organisation.
Activity 6.3
Fig.6.4 : Sixteen figures containing two shapes
–
square and triangle, two shades – pink and
grey,
cross on top and bottom, circles – right or left
sides
of figures. These figures are used as instances
of
and non-instances of an artificial concept.
Chapter 6 • Learning
121
In Figure 6.4 there are 16 cards having
two
shapes - square and triangle, two
shades-pink
and grey, signs of cross on top or
bottom, and
small circle on right side or left side.
With the
help of these cards one can create a
number of
concepts by using different rules. The
set of
features that are connected by some
rule are
called relevant features. The features
that are
not included in the rule are considered
to be
irrelevant features. For example, in the
cards
shown in Figure 6.4 there are four
features —
shape, shade, cross or no cross on the
top, and
circle on the right or left side. In creating
a
conjunctive concept by using two
features
one may use shape and side as the
relevant
ones, and leave out two others as
irrelevant.
For such a concept, the exemplars and
nonexemplars
are given in Figure 6.5. You will
study more about concepts in Chapter 8
on
thinking.
shorthand writing, and writing and
reading are
examples of skills. Such skills are
learned by
practice and exercise. A skill consists of
a
chain of perceptual motor responses or
as a
sequence of S-R associations.
Phases of Skill Acquisition
Skill learning passes through several
qualitatively different phases. With each
successive attempt at learning a skill,
one’s
performance becomes smoother and
less effort
demanding. In other words, it becomes
more
spontaneous or automatic. It has also
been
shown that in each phase the to be attentive to all the sensory inputs
performance and
improves. In transition from one phase maintain concentration on the task.
to the Then the
next, when the level of performance third phase, i.e. autonomous phase,
stands begins.
still, it is called performance plateau. In this phase, two important changes
Once take
the next phase begins, performance place in performance: the attentional
starts demands of the associative phase
improving and its level starts going up. decrease,
One of the most influential accounts of and interference created by external
the factors
phases of skill acquisition is presented reduces. Finally, skilled performance
by attains
Fitts. According to him, skill learning automaticity with minimal demands on
passes conscious effort.
through three phases, viz. cognitive, SKILL LEARNING
associative and autonomous. Each Nature of Skills
phase or A skill is defined as the ability to perform
stage of skill learning involves different some
types complex task smoothly and efficiently.
of mental processes. In the cognitive Car
phase of driving, airplane piloting, ship
skill learning, the learner has to navigating,
understand Fig.6.5 : The four figures on the top are the
and memorise the instructions, and also exemplars of the concept, and rest of the
understand how the task has to be figures are
non-exemplars. The exemplars of the concept
performed.
must
In this phase, every outside cue, be triangle and grey. Other features are
instructional irrelevant.
demand, and one’s response outcome Psychology
have to 122
be kept alive in consciousness. Group of Participants Phase 1 Phase 2
Experimental Learns task A Learns task B
The second phase is associative. In this
Control Does not learn but rests Learns task B
phase, different sensory inputs or stimuli
Table 6.4 Experimental Design used
are
linked with appropriate responses. As in the Study of Transfer Effects of
the Learning
practice increases, errors decrease, Transitions from one phase to the other
performance improves and time taken is clearly show that practice is the only
also means
reduced. With continued practice, of skill learning. One has to keep on
errorless exercising
performance begins, though, the learner and practicing. As the practice
has increases,
improvement rate gradually increases; is
and tested to find out its achievement scores
automaticity of errorless performance in
becomes the hallmark of skill. That is French. The control group in the first
why it phase
is said that ‘practice makes a man does not learn English language and just
perfect’. does
TRANSFER OF LEARNING its routine work for one year. In the
The term transfer of learning is often second
called year, these participants learn French for
transfer of training or transfer effect. It a year
refers and their achievement scores are
to the effects of prior learning on new obtained.
learning. The achievement scores in French of the
Transfer is considered to be positive if two
the groups are then compared. If the
earlier learning facilitates current achievement
learning. It score of the experimental group is
is considered to be negative transfer if higher than
new that of the control group, it implies that
learning is retarded. Absence of positive transfer has taken place. If the
facilitative or score
retarding effect means zero transfer. is lower than the control group, it means
Psychologists use specific experimental negative transfer has taken place. If the
designs in the study of transfer effects. two
One groups perform equally well, then it
such design is presented in Table 6.4 shows that
Suppose you want to know whether transfer effect is zero.
learning of English language affects It must be noted that in the study of
learning transfer effect, a distinction is made
of French. To study this you select a between
large general transfer and specific transfer. It
sample of participants. Now you is
randomly now a well-known fact that prior
divide the sample into two groups, one learning
to be always leads to positive general
used in the experimental condition and transfer. It is
the only in specific transfer that transfer
other as control group. The effects
experimental are positive or negative, and in some
group of participants learn English conditions there is zero effect, though in
language reality, due to general transfer, zero
for a year and is tested to find out their transfer
achievement in English. In the second is theoretically untenable. Let us try to
year, understand the nature of general
they study French. In the end this group transfer and
specific transfer. but responses are the same. Therefore
General (Generic) Transfer new
General transfer is not clearly associations with responses are to be
conceptualised learned. In this case positive transfer is
and defined in its details. However, prior obtained.
learning predisposes one to learn 5. In the fifth case, stimuli and
another task responses are
in a better manner. The learning of one the same, but associations are altered.
task Because of this alteration, negative
warms-up the learner to learn the next transfer
task occurs in the learning of the second
more conveniently. You must have seen task.
a It is so because the associations learned
cricketer going to the pitch to take in the initial task interfere in the learning
her/his of new associations. Such interferences
position near the wicket. The cricketer are
walks discussed in Chapter 7 which deals with
by jumping on one foot then on the human memory.
other. learning. Only in that session one can
S/he moves her/his two hands holding learn two
the bat or more tasks.
sideways to loosen up. When you write Specific Transfer
answers Whenever an organism learns
while appearing at the examination, something, it
your consists of a series of stimulus-response
writing is slow and sitting position associations. Any task can be
awkward understood as a
for efficient writing. However, you get chain of discriminable stimuli, each of
warmed which
up after having written two or three has to be associated with a specific
pages. Your response.
speed increases and your body gets well Specific transfer means the effect of
adjusted to the writing task. This learning
continues of task A on learning of task B. The
until the writing of the last answer is learning of
over. After task A may make the learning of task B
some time, warm-up effect disappears. easier
Warm-up effect lasts over one session of or more difficult or have no such effect.
Chapter 6 • Learning Such
123 transfers depend on similarity-
3. In the third case, the stimuli are same dissimilarity
but responses are different. In such between the initial learning task and the
conditions also some positive transfer second
occurs. task. The possible relationships between
4. In the fourth case, the stimuli are stimuli and responses are shown in Table
different, 6.5.
S.No. Initial Task Second Task Comments
1. SA – RA SC – RD Both stimuli and responses
are different
2. SA – RA SA – RA Stimuli are the same and
responses are similar
3. SA – RA SA – RD Stimuli same but responses
are different
4. SA – RA SC – RA Stimuli are different but
responses same
5. SA – RA SA – RA Same stimuli and responses
but associations
interchanged
Table 6.5 Similarity-Dissimilarity
Relationship between the Initial
and Subsequent Learning Tasks
On the basis of a long series of
experimental studies, the following
conclusions have been drawn about
specific
transfer with reference to the situations
shown
in Table 6.5.
1. In the first instance, the initial and
transfer
tasks are very different both in stimuli
as
well as in responses. Hence no specific
transfer is expected. However, due to
the
mechanism of general transfer some
degree of positive transfer may occur.
2. In the second case, the stimuli of the
two
tasks are the same and responses are
highly similar. Therefore, maximum
transfer may occur. It has been regularly
shown that in this condition positive
transfer takes place.
FACTORS FACILITATING LEARNING
In the preceding section we examined
the
specific determinants of learning, such
as
contiguous presentation of CS and US in
classical conditioning; number, amount,
and
delay of reinforcement in operant
conditioning;
status and attractiveness of models in
observational learning; procedure in
verbal
learning; and the nature of rules and
perceptual features of objects and
events in
concept learning. Now, we shall discuss
some
general determinants of learning. This
discussion is not exhaustive. Rather it
deals
with some salient factors only which are
found
very important.
Psychology
124
organism to act for fulfilling the current
need.
In other words, motivation energises an
organism to act vigorously for attaining
some
goal. Such acts persist until the goal is
attained and the need is satisfied.
Motivation
is a prerequisite for learning. Why does
a child
forage in the kitchen when the mother is
not
in the house? S/he does so because s/he
needs sweets to eat for which s/he is
trying to
locate the jar in which sweets are kept.
During
the course of foraging the child learns
the
location of the jar. A hungry rat is placed
in a
box. The animal forages in the box for
food.
Incidentally it presses a lever and food
drops
in the box. With repeated experience of
such
activity, the animal learns to press the
lever
immediately after the animal is placed impossible
there. for cats and rats. It implies that one can
Have you ever asked yourself why you learn
are only those associations for which one is
studying psychology and other subjects genetically prepared.
in Continuous vs Partial Reinforcement
Class XI? You are doing so to pass with In experiments on learning the
good experimenter
marks or grades in your final can arrange to deliver reinforcement
examination. according
The more motivated you are, the more to a specific schedule. In the context of
hard learning, two kinds of schedules namely
work you do for learning. Your continuous and partial have been found
motivation for very
learning something arises from two important. In continuous reinforcement
sources. the
You learn many things because you participant is given reinforcement after
enjoy each
them (intrinsic motivation) or they target response. This kind of schedule of
provide you reinforcement produces a high rate of
the means for attaining some other goal responding. However, once the
(extrinsic motivation). reinforcement
Preparedness for Learning is withheld, response rates decrease
The members of different species are very
very quickly, and the responses acquired
different from one another in their under this
sensory schedule tend to extinguish. Since
capacities and response abilities. The organism
mechanisms necessary for establishing is getting reinforcement on each trial,
associations, such as S-S or S-R, also the
vary effectiveness of that reinforcer is
from species to species. It can be said reduced. In
that such schedules where reinforcement is
species have biological constraints on not
their continuous, some responses are not
learning capacities. The kinds of S-S or reinforced. Hence, they are called partial
S-R or
learning an organism can easily acquire intermittent reinforcement. There are
depends on the associative mechanism several
it is ways in which one might reinforce
genetically endowed with or prepared responses
for. A according to an intermittent schedule. It
particular kind of associative learning is has
easy been found that partial reinforcement
for apes or human beings but may be schedules often produce very high rates
extremely difficult and sometimes of
responding, particularly when responses are those
are learning tasks for which those members
reinforced according to ratio. In this kind are
of not prepared at all and cannot learn
schedule, an organism often makes them. In
several the middle of the continuum fall those
responses that are not reinforced. tasks
Therefore, and associations for which the members
it becomes difficult to tell when a are
reinforcement has been discontinued neither prepared nor unprepared. They
completely and when it has merely been can
delayed. When reinforcement is learn such tasks, but only with great
continuous it difficulty
is easier to tell when it has been and persistence.
discontinued. THE LEARNER : LEARNING STYLES
This kind of difference has been found You may have observed that some
crucial children,
for extinction. It has been found that sometimes from the same family,
extinction perform well
of a response is more difficult following in school whereas others do not. There
partial has
reinforcement than following continuous been a great deal of research on
reinforcement. The fact that the learning styles
responses over the last several decades. It
acquired under partial reinforcement are demonstrates
highly resistant to extinction is called the differences in the way people learn
partial within
reinforcement effect. the same class, culture, community or
Motivation socioeconomic
All living organisms have survival needs group and those belonging to
and different groups.
human beings, in addition, have growth Learning style may be defined as
needs. ‘a learner’s consistent way of
Motivation is a mental as well as a responding to
physiological state, which arouses an and using stimuli in the context of
Chapter 6 • Learning learning’. In
125
other words, it is ‘the way in which each
The concept of preparedness may be
learner begins to concentrate,
best
processes, and
understood as a continuum or
retains new and complex information’. It
dimension, on
may
one end of which are those learning
be noted that this interaction occurs
tasks or
differently
associations which are easy for the
for everyone. For example, you may
members
have
of some species, and on the other end
noticed that children in your class are
unique etc.
in their personalities, cultural 3. Personality Patterns are the way we
experiences, interact with our surroundings. Each one
and values. Different students prefer of us has a preferred, consistent, and
different distinct way of perceiving, organising,
learning environments, learning and
modalities retaining information. This approach
and they all have unique strengths, focuses on understanding how
talents, personality
and weaknesses. affects the way people interact with the
Therefore, it is necessary to examine environment, and how this affects the
each way
individual’s personal characteristics to individuals respond to each other within
determine what is most likely to trigger the learning environment.
each There are several dimensions along
learner’s concentration, maintain it, which
respond learning styles differ. For example,
to her or his natural processing style Anderson
and differentiated between analytic and
facilitate long-term memory. There are relational
various styles of learning. These have been
instruments which are used to illustrated
determine a in Table 6.6. It is clear that people with a
student’s learning style. relational style learn material best
Learning styles are mainly derived from through
Perceptual Modality, Information exposure to a full unit or phenomenon.
Processing, They
and Personality Patterns. A brief comprehend parts of the unit only by
description understanding their relationship to the
of these approaches are given below: whole.
1. Perceptual Modality are biologically- On the other hand, people with an
based analytical
reactions to the physical environment. It learning style learn more easily when
refers to the preferences of persons information is presented step by step in
through which they take in information a
such as auditory, visual, smell, cumulative sequential pattern that
kinesthetic, and tactile. builds
2. Information Processing distinguishes towards a conceptual understanding.
between the way we are structured to One must remember that the various
think, solve problems, and remember learning styles are points along a scale
information. This may be thought of as that
the help us to discover the different forms of
way we process information. For mental representation. They do not
example, characterise people. Therefore, we
active/reflective, sensing/intuitive, should not
sequential/global, serial/simultaneous, divide the population into a set category
(e.g., activities. The sources of such disorders
visual person, extrovert, etc.). We are are
capable inherent in the child. It is presumed that
of learning under any style, no matter these
what difficulties originate from problems with
our preference may be. the
Psychology functioning of the central nervous
126 system. It
LEARNING DISABILITIES may occur in conjunction with physical
You must have heard, observed or read handicaps, sensory impairment,
that intellectual
thousands of children get enrolled for disability or without them.
education in schools. Some of them, It must be noted that learning
however, disabilities
find the demands of educational process may be observed as a distinct
too handicapping
difficult to meet, and they drop out. condition in children of average to
Such superior
students are called “drop-outs”. The intelligence, adequate sensory motor
reasons systems,
for this are numerous, such as sensory and adequate learning opportunities. If
impairment, intellectual disability, social it is
and not remedied, it may continue
emotional disturbance, poor economic throughout life
conditions of the family, cultural beliefs and affect self-esteem, vocation, social
and relations, and daily living activities.
norms or other environmental Symptoms of Learning Disabilities
influences. There are many symptoms of learning
Apart from these conditions, there is disabilities. They become manifest in
another different
source of obstacle in the continuance of combinations in children who suffer from
education that is called learning this
disabilities. disorder irrespective of their
It makes school learning, i.e. acquisition intelligence,
of motivation, and hard work for learning.
knowledge and skills too difficult to 1. Difficulties in writing letters, words
grapple and
with. Such children also fail to move phrases, reading out text, and speaking
forward appear quite frequently. Quite often they
in their learning activities. have listening problems, although they
Learning disability is a general term. It may not have auditory defects. Such
refers to a heterogeneous group of Relational Style
disorders 1. Perceive information as part of total
manifested in terms of difficulty in the picture
2. Exhibit intuitive thinking
acquisition of learning, reading, writing,
3. Learn materials that have a human,
speaking, reasoning, and mathematical
social content and are characterised by
experiential/cultural relevance more inadequate
easily sense of time are common symptoms.
4. Have a good memory for verbally
Such children do not get easily oriented
presented ideas and information,
especially if relevant
to
5. Are more task-oriented concerning new surroundings and get lost. They
nonacademic lack
areas a sense of time and are late or
6. Are influenced by authority figures’ sometimes
expression of confidence or doubt in
too early in their routine work. They also
students’ ability
7. Prefer to withdraw from unstimulating
show confusion in direction and
task performance misjudge
8. Style conflicts with the traditional right, left, up and down.
school environment 4. Learning-disabled children have poor
Table 6.6 Learning Styles motor coordination and poor manual
Analytical Style dexterity. This is evident in their lack of
1. Able to disembed information from total balance, inability to sharpen pencil,
picture (focus on detail)
handle
2. Exhibit sequential and structured
thinking
doorknobs, difficulty in learning to ride a
3. Learn materials that are inanimate and bicycle, etc.
impersonal more easily 5. These children fail to understand and
4. Have a good memory for abstract ideas follow oral directions for doing things.
and irrelevant information 6. They misjudge relationships as to
5. Are more task-oriented concerning
which
academics
6. Are not greatly affected by the opinions
classmates are friendly and which ones
of others are
7. Show ability to persist unstimulating indifferent. They fail to learn and
task understand body language.
8. Style matches most school 7. Learning-disabled children usually
environments
show
Chapter 6 • Learning
127
perceptual disorders. These may include
children are very different from others in visual, auditory, tactual, and kinesthetic
developing learning strategies and misperception. They fail to differentiate
plans. a
2. Learning-disabled children have call-bell from the ring of the telephone.
disorders It
of attention. They get easily distracted is not that they do not have sensory
and acuity.
cannot sustain attention on one point for They simply fail to use it in performance.
long. More often than not, attentional 8. Fairly large number of learning-
deficiency leads to hyperactivity, i.e. disabled
they children have dyslexia. They quite often
are always moving, doing different fail to copy letters and words; for
things, example,
trying to manipulate things incessantly. they fail to distinguish between b and d,
3. Poor space orientation and p and q, P and 9, was and saw, unclear
and nuclear, etc. They fail to organise
verbal leave,
materials. indiscipline, and lack of proper skills
It must be noted that learning pose
disabilities are not incurable. Remedial serious problems. Applying the
teaching methods go a long way in principles of
helping learning may solve these problems. To
them to learn and become like other increase attendance and reduce
students. absenteeism,
Educational psychologists have an interesting device is used in some
developed organisations. At the end of every third
appropriate techniques for correcting month,
most name slips of employees, not being
of the symptoms related to learning absent on
disabilities. a single working day are placed in a
APPLICATIONS OF LEARNING PRINCIPLES drum.
The principles of learning have great Four to five per cent of the names are
value for randomly
enriching human life in all spheres of drawn and they are given attractive
life. All rewards
activities and behaviours that make for not being absent on a single working
personal, day.
social, and economic life peaceful and Such rewards have been found to
pleasurable are learned. Their learning reduce
should absenteeism. To increase the number of
be psychologically guided. employees, who have not gone on
Contemporary medical leave
psychologists have developed for full one year, various benefits are
techniques and given.
procedures based on the principles of Such partial rewards reduce the
classical incidence of
and operant conditioning, social medical leave. With a view to improving
learning, discipline, managers start functioning as
verbal learning, concept learning, and models for employees, or employees are
skill placed
learning for improving many aspects of under such model managers.
life. Based on the principles of learning, a
We can have a glimpse of the number of therapeutic procedures have
applications of been
learning principles in four areas, i.e. developed to modify maladaptive and
organisations, in treatment of socially
maladjustive incapacitating habits and behaviours. In
behaviours, in rearing children, and these
school procedures, the principle of extinction is
learning. employed. In the case of those children
In organisations, a number of problems and
such as absenteeism, frequent medical Psychology
128 a new
Associative learning, Biofeedback, Cognitive conditioned response. In order to
map, Concept, Conditioned response,
eliminate
Conditioned stimulus, Conditioning,
Discrimination, Dyslexia, Extinction, Free
habits that are undesirable and injurious
recall, Generalisation, Insight, Learning for
disabilities, Mental set, Modeling, Negative health and happiness, aversion therapy
reinforcement, Operant or instrumental is
conditioning, Positive reinforcement, used. The therapist arranges things in
Punishment, Reinforcement, Serial learning,
such a
Spontaneous recovery, Transfer of learning,
Unconditioned response, Unconditioned
way that occurrence of maladjustive
stimulus, Verbal learning habits
generates painful experiences and to
Key Terms avoid
adults who exhibit irrational and them clients learn to give them up. For
unfounded example, alcohol is paired with an
fear with accompanying avoidance emetic drug
behaviour, (which induces severe nausea and
implosive therapy and flooding are used. vomiting)
Implosive therapy starts with the person so that nausea and vomiting become a
imagining their most feared form of conditioned response to alcohol.
contact Modeling
with the feared object, accompanied by and systematic use of reinforcement for
vivid shaping and developing competence are
verbal descriptions by the therapist. The extensively used. Persons suffering from
therapist functions as a coach. On the excessive shyness and having
other difficulties in
hand, flooding is exposure that takes interpersonal interactions are subjected
place in to
vivo (e.g., with an actual feared object) assertive learning. This therapy is also
and is based
considered to be the most effective of on the principles of learning. There are
all persons
treatments for fear. To help those who lose mental peace with accelerated
suffering rate
from excessive anxieties and fears, the of breathing, loss of appetite, and rise in
technique of systematic desensitisation blood
is pressure at the slightest provocation. In
used. It is a form of behaviour therapy such
used cases psychotherapists give biofeedback
to reduce phobic patients’ anxiety treatment. This technique is based on
responses the
through counterconditioning, i.e. an interaction between classical and
attempt instrumental
to reverse the process of classical conditioning. In biofeedback, a bodily
conditioning function
by associating the crucial stimulus with (such as heart rate or blood pressure) is
monitored and information about the children
function are made to learn necessary signs of
is fed back to the person to facilitate danger
improved and safety. The behaviour of children
control of the physiological process. You can
will easily be modified and shaped through
read in detail about these therapies in the
Class XII. use of operant conditioning procedure.
The principles of learning are widely By
used using rewards judiciously parents can
in teaching. Educational objectives are make
decided children enthusiastic learners. As
after analysing the instructional tasks models and
and mentors, parents make children socially
fitting them into various types of skillful, duty oriented and resourceful.
learning such Chapter 6 • Learning
as S-S or S-R, verbal, observational, and 129
1. What is learning? What are its distinguishing
skill
features?
learning. Students are told what they 2. How does classical conditioning demonstrate
have to learning by association?
learn and appropriate practice 3. Define operant conditioning. Discuss the
conditions factors that influence the course of operant
are provided. Students are made active conditioning.
4. A good role model is very important for a
participants in the acquisition of
growing up child. Discuss the kind of learning
information, that supports it.
meaning, and correct responses. 5. Explain the procedures for studying verbal
Teachers act learning.
as models and mentors for students to 6. What is a skill? What are the stages through
emulate them with a view to promote which skill learning develops?
appropriate social behaviours and Review Questions
personal • Learning is any relatively permanent change
habits. Students are provided ample in behaviour or behavioural potential produced
by experience or practice. It is an inferred
opportunities for practice as they are
process and differs from performance which is
required
the
to do homework. Skills are analysed as observed behaviour/response/action.
S-R • The main types of learning are: classical and
chains and students are allowed to learn operant conditioning, observational learning,
skills cognitive learning, verbal learning, concept
learning, and skill learning.
practically.
• Pavlov first investigated classical
The principles of learning are best
conditioning in the course of studies on
applied digestion in dogs.
in child rearing, provided both the In this kind of learning an organism comes to
parents are associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus (CS) that
aware of the principles of learning. By signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins
to produce a response (CR) that anticipates
using
and prepares the organism for US.
the classical conditioning procedure
• Skinner first investigated operant or
instrumental conditioning (OC). An operant is
any
response voluntarily emitted by an organism.
OC is a type of learning in which response is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement. A
reinforcer can be any event that increases the
frequency of preceding response. Thus, the
consequence of a response is crucial. The rate
of
OC is influenced by the type, number,
schedule, and delay of reinforcement.
• Observational learning is also known as
imitation, modeling and social learning. We
acquire
knowledge by observing a model’s behaviour.
The performance depends on whether the
model’s behaviour is rewarded or punished.
• In verbal learning words get associated with
one another on the basis of structural,
phonetic,
and semantic similarity and contrast. They are
often organised in clusters. In experimental
studies, paired-associates learning, serial
learning, and free recall methods are used.
Meaningfulness of material, and subjective
organisation influence learning. It may be
incidental also.
• Concept is a category. It involves a set of
features connected with a rule or instruction. A
concept can be natural or artificial. Artificial
concepts are well-defined while natural
concepts
are usually ill-defined. Experimental studies of
well-defined concepts have been undertaken
through selection and reception procedures.
The natural concepts have fuzzy boundaries.
• Skill refers to the ability to carry out complex
tasks smoothly and efficiently. They are
learned
by practice and exercise. The skilled
performance is the organisation of S-R chain
into large
response patterns. It passes through cognitive,
associative, and autonomous phases.
• Effect of prior learning on new learning is
called transfer of learning. It may be general
(e.g.,
warm-up) or specific. It depends on similarity
of S-R associations in the two learning tasks.
• Factors facilitating learning include
motivation and preparedness of the organism.
• Learning style refers to the way in which
each learner begins to concentrate on,
process,
and retain new and difficult information.
• Learning disabilities (e.g., reading, writing)
restrict learning in people. They are
hyperactive,
lack sense of time, and eye-hand coordination,
etc.
• The principles of learning are applied in
organisations, treatment of maladjustive
reactions,
child rearing, and school learning.
Summary
Psychology
130
1. How do your parents reinforce you for
behaving in the ways they think are good for
you?
Select five different instances. Compare these
with the reinforcement employed by teachers
in the classroom and relate them to the
concepts taught in the class.
2. If your younger sister or brother has
indulged in some undesirable behaviour, how
would
you help her/him to get rid of that behaviour.
Make use of the learning principles discussed
in the chapter.
Project Ideas
7. How can you distinguish between
generalisation and discrimination?
8. How does transfer of learning takes place?
9. Why is motivation a prerequisite for
learning?
10. What does the notion of preparedness for
learning mean?
11. Explain the different forms of cognitive
learning?
12. How can we identify students with learning
disabilities?
 memory are represented and

7
organised,
• appreciate the constructive and
reconstructive processes in memory,
Chapter • understand the nature and causes of
forgetting, and
• learn the strategies for improving

Human
memory.
After reading this chapter, you
would be able to
Memory The advantage of bad
memory is that one
Introduction enjoys several times,
Nature of Memory the same good things
Information Processing Approach : The for the first time.
Stage Model
– Friedrich Nietzsche
Memory Systems : Sensory, Short-term
Psychology
and Long-term Memories 132
Working Memory (Box 7.1) you perhaps learned during your early
Levels of Processing
schooling. Memory is conceptualised as
Types of Long-term Memory
a
Declarative and Procedural; Episodic and
process consisting of three independent,
Semantic
though interrelated stages. These are
Long-term Memory Classification (Box 7.2)
Methods of Memory Measurement (Box
encoding, storage, and retrieval. Any
7.3) information received by us necessarily
Knowledge Representation and goes
Organisation in Memory through these stages.
Memory Making: Eyewitness and False (a) Encoding is the first stage which
Memories (Box 7.4) refers to
Memory as a Constructive Process a process by which information is
Nature and Causes of Forgetting recorded
Forgetting due to Trace Decay, and registered for the first time so that
Interference and Retrieval Failure it
Repressed Memories (Box 7.5) becomes usable by our memory system.
Enhancing Memory Whenever an external stimulus impinges
Mnemonics using Images and Organisation on
Key Terms NATURE OF MEMORY
Summary
Memory refers to retaining and recalling
Review Questions
information over a period of time,
Project Ideas
depending
Contents upon the nature of cognitive task you
• understand the nature of memory, are
• distinguish between different types of required to perform. It might be
memory, necessary to
• explain how the contents of long-term hold an information for a few seconds.
For
example, you use your memory to retain
an
unfamiliar telephone number till you
have
reached the telephone instrument to
dial, or
for many years you still remember the
techniques of addition and subtraction
which
All of us are aware of the tricks that
memory plays on us throughout our
lives. Have
you ever felt embarrassed because you
could not remember the name of a
known
person you were talking to? Or anxious
and helpless because everything you
memorised well the previous day before
taking your examination has suddenly
become unavailable? Or felt excited
because you can now flawlessly recite
lines of
a famous poem you had learnt as a
child? Memory indeed is a very
fascinating yet
intriguing human faculty. It functions to
preserve our sense of who we are,
maintains
our interpersonal relationships and
helps us in solving problems and taking
decisions. Since memory is central to
almost all cognitive processes such as
perception, thinking and problem
solving, psychologists have attempted
to
understand the manner in which any
information is committed to memory,
the
mechanisms through which it is retained
over a period of time, the reasons why it
is lost from memory, and the techniques
which can lead to memory
improvement.
In this chapter, we shall examine all
these aspects of memory and
understand
various theories which explain the
mechanisms of memory.
The history of psychological research on
memory spans over hundred years.
The first systematic exploration of
memory is credited to Hermann
Ebbinghaus, a
German psychologist of late nineteenth
century (1885). He carried out many
experiments on himself and found that
we do not forget the learned material at
an
even pace or completely. Initially the
rate of forgetting is faster but eventually
it
stabilises. Another view on memory was
suggested by Frederick Bartlett (1932)
who contended that memory is not
passive but an active process. With the
help of
meaningful verbal materials such as
stories and texts, he demonstrated that
memory
is a constructive process. That is, what
we memorise and store undergoes
many
changes and modifications over time. So
there is a qualitative difference in what
was initially memorised by us and what
we retrieve or recall later. There are
other
psychologists who have influenced
memory research in a major way. We
shall
review their contributions in this chapter
at appropriate places.
Introduction
Chapter 7 • Human Memory
133
our sensory organs, it generates neural
impulses. These are received in different
areas
of our brain for further processing. In
encoding, incoming information is
received information that we knew was kept so
and some meaning is derived. It is then that
represented in a way so that it can be we could retrieve and use it as and
processed further. when
(b) Storage is the second stage of needed. But with the advent of the
memory. computer,
Information which was encoded must human memory came to be seen as a
also be system
stored so that it can be put to use later. that processes information in the same
Storage, therefore, refers to the process way
through which information is retained as a computer does. Both register, store,
and and
held over a period of time. manipulate large amount of information
(c) Retrieval is the third stage of and
memory. act on the basis of the outcome of such
Information can be used only when one manipulations. If you have worked on a
is able computer then you would know that it
to recover it from her/his memory. has a
Retrieval temporary memory (random access
refers to bringing the stored information memory
to or RAM) and a permanent memory (e.g.,
her/his awareness so that it can be used a hard
for disk). Based on the programme
performing various cognitive tasks such commands,
as the computer manipulates the contents
problem solving or decision-making. It of its
may memories and displays the output on
be interesting to note that memory the
failure can screen. In the same way, human beings
occur at any of these stages. You may too
fail to register information, store and
recall an information because you did manipulate the
not stored information depending on the
encode it properly, or the storage was task that
weak they need to perform. For example,
so you could not access or retrieve it when you
when are required to solve a mathematical
required. problem,
INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH : the memory relating to mathematical
THE STAGE MODEL operations, such as division or
Initially, it was thought that memory is subtraction are
the carried out, activated and put to use,
capacity to store all information that we and
acquire through learning and receive the output (the problem
experience. It solution). This
was seen as a vast storehouse where all analogy led to the development of the
first the
model of memory, which was proposed sensory memory. Sensory memory has a
by large
Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. It is known capacity. However, it is of very short
as duration,
Stage Model. i.e. less than a second. It is a memory
MEMORY SYSTEMS : SENSORY, SHORT-TERM system
AND LONG-TERM MEMORIES that registers information from each of
According to the Stage Model, there are the
three senses with reasonable accuracy. Often
memory systems : the Sensory Memory, this
the system is referred to as sensory
Short-term Memory and the Long-term memories or
Memory. Each of these systems have sensory registers because information
different from all
features and perform different functions the senses are registered here as exact
with replica
respect to the sensory inputs (see of the stimulus. If you have experienced
Fig.7.1). Let visual
us examine what these systems are: after-images (the trail of light that stays
Fig.7.1 : The Stage Model of Memory after
Information the bulb is switched off) or when you
Sensory Memory hear
Iconic (Sight)
reverberations of a sound when the
Echoic (Sound)
sound has
and other senses
Store Capacity - ceased, then you are familiar with iconic
large (visual) or echoic (auditory) sensory
Duration - less registers.
than one second Short-term Memory
Attention
You will perhaps agree that we do not
Short-term
attend
Memory
Store Capacity - to all the information that impinge on
small our
Duration - less senses. Information that is attended to
than 30 seconds enters
Elaborative
the second memory store called the
Rehearsals
short-term
Long-term
Memory memory (abbreviated as STM), which
Permanent holds
Store Capacity - small amount of information for a brief
unlimited period
Duration - upto of time (usually for 30 seconds or less).
a lifetime
Atkinson and Shiffrin propose that
Psychology
134 information in STM is primarily encoded
Sensory Memory acoustically, i.e. in terms of sound and
The incoming information first enters unless
rehearsed continuously, it may get lost information travel from one store to
from another
the STM in less than 30 seconds. Note and by what mechanisms it continues to
that stay
the STM is fragile but not as fragile as in any particular memory store. Let us
sensory examine
registers where the information decays the answers to these questions.
automatically in less than a second. How does information travel from one
Long-term Memory store
Materials that survive the capacity and to another? As an answer to this
duration limitations of the STM finally question,
enter Atkinson and Shiffrin propose the notion
the long-term memory (abbreviated as of
LTM) control processes which function to
which has a vast capacity. It is a monitor
permanent the flow of information through various
storehouse of all information that may In recent years, psychologists have suggested
be as that
the short-term memory is not unitary, rather it
recent as what you ate for breakfast
may
yesterday consist of many components. This
to as distant as how you celebrated your multicomponent
sixth view of short-term memory was first
birthday. It has been shown that once proposed by Baddeley (1986) who suggested
any that
the short-term memory is not a passive
information enters the long-term
storehouse
memory but rather a work bench that holds a wide
store it is never forgotten because it variety
gets of memory materials that are constantly
encoded semantically, i.e. in terms of handled,
the manipulated and transformed as people
perform
meaning that any information carries.
various cognitive tasks. This work bench is
What called
you experience as forgetting is in fact the working memory. The first component of
retrieval the
failure; for various reasons you cannot working memory is the phonological loop
retrieve which
the stored information. You will read Box 7.1 Working Memory
about holds a limited number of sounds and unless
retrieval related forgetting later in this rehearsed
they decay within 2 seconds. The second
chapter.
component
So far we have only discussed the
visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and
structural spatial
features of the stage model. Questions information and like phonological loop the
which capacity of
still remain to be addressed are how the sketchpad too is limited. The third
component, which
does
Baddeley calls the Central Executive, organises to
information from phonological loop, expand its capacity, is Chunking.
visuospatial
Through
sketchpad as well as from the long-term
memory. Like
chunking it is possible to expand the
a true executive, it allocates attentional capacity
resources to be of STM which is otherwise 7+2. For
distributed to various information needed to example,
perform a if you are told to remember a string of
given cognitive operation and monitors, plans,
digits
and
controls behaviour.
such as 194719492004 (note that the
Chapter 7 • Human Memory number
135 exceeds the capacity of STM), you may
memory stores. As suggested earlier, all create
informations which our senses receive the chunks as 1947, 1949, and 2004
are not and
registered; if that be the case, imagine remember them as the year when India
the kind became
of pressure that our memory system will independent, the year when the Indian
have Constitution was adopted, and the year
to cope with. Only that information when
which is the tsunami hit the coastal regions of
attended to enters the STM from India and
sensory South East Asian countries.
registers and in that sense, selective From the STM, information enters the
attention, longterm
as you have already read in Chapter 5, memory through elaborative rehearsals.
is the As against maintenance rehearsals,
first control process that decides what which are
will carried through silent or vocal repetition,
travel from sensory registers to STM. this
Sense rehearsal attempts to connect the ‘to be
impressions, which do not receive retained information’ to the already
attention, existing
fade away quickly. The STM then sets information in long-term memory. For
into example, the task of remembering the
motion another control process of meaning
maintenance rehearsal to retain the of the word ‘humanity’ will be easier if
information for as much time as the
required. As meanings of concepts such as
the name suggests, these kinds of ‘compassion’,
rehearsals ‘truth’ and ‘benevolence’ are already in
simply maintain information through place.
repetition and when such repetitions The number of associations you can
discontinue the information is lost. create
Another around the new information will
control process, which operates in STM determine its
permanence. In elaborative rehearsals
one
attempts to analyse the information in
terms
of various associations it arouses. It
involves
organisation of the incoming information
in
as many ways as possible. You can
expand
the information in some kind of logical
framework, link it to similar memories or
else
can create a mental image. Figure 7.1,
that
presents the stage model of memory,
also
depicts the arrows to show the manner
in
which information travels from one
stage to
another.
Experiments, which were carried out to
test the stage model of memory, have
produced
mixed results. While some experiments
unequivocally show that the STM and
LTM
are indeed two separate memory stores,
other
evidences have questioned their
distinctiveness. For example, earlier it
was
shown that in the STM information is
encoded
acoustically, while in LTM it is encoded
semantically, but later experimental
evidences
show that information can also be
encoded
semantically in STM and acoustically in
LTM.
I. Try to remember the following list of digits
(individual digits)
19254981121
Now try to memorise them in the following
groups:
1 9 25 49 81 121
Finally memorise them in the following
manner:
12 32 52 72 92 112
What difference do you observe?
II. Read out the lists given below in a row at
the
speed of one digit per second to your friend
and ask her/him to repeat all the digits in
the same order:
List Digits
1 (6 digits) 2-6-3-8-3-4
2 (7 digits) 7-4-8-2-4-1-2
3 (8 digits) 4-3-7-2-9-0-3-6
4 (10 digits) 9-2-4-1-7-8-2-6-5-3
5 (12 digits) 8-2-5-4-7-4-7-7-3-9-1-6
Remember that your friend will recall the
digits as soon as you finish the list. Note how
many digits are recalled. The memory score
of your friend will be the number of digits
correctly recalled by her/him. Discuss your
findings with your classmates and teacher.
Activity 7.1
Psychology
136
Shallice and Warrington in the year 1970
had cited the case of a man known as
KF who
met with an accident and damaged a
portion
of the left side of his cerebral
hemisphere.
Subsequently, it was found that his long-
term
memory was intact but the short-term
memory
was seriously affected. The stage model
suggests that information are
committed to the
long-term memory via STM and if KF’s
STM
was affected, how can his long-term
memory
be normal? Several other studies have
also
shown that memory processes are
similar
irrespective of whether any information
is shallowest
retained for a few seconds or for many level of processing. At an intermediate
years level
and that memory can be adequately one might consider and attend to the
understood without positing separate phonetic
memory sounds that are attached to the letters
stores. All these evidences led to the and
development of another therefore the structural features are
conceptualisation transformed into at least one
about memory which is discussed below meaningful word
as say, a word cat that has three specific
the second model of memory. letters.
LEVELS OF PROCESSING Analysing information at these two
The levels of processing view was levels
proposed produces memory that is fragile and is
by Craik and Lockhart in 1972. This view likely
suggests that the processing of any new to decay rather quickly. However, there
information relates to the manner in is a
which it third and the deepest level at which
is perceived, analysed, and understood information can be processed. In order
which to
in turn determines the extent to which it ensure that the information is retained
will for a
eventually be retained. Although this longer period, it is important that it gets
view has analysed and understood in terms of its
undergone many revisions since then, meaning. For instance, you may think of
yet its cat
basic idea remains the same. Let us as an animal that has furs, has four legs,
examine a
this view in greater detail. tail, and is a mammal. You can also
Craik and Lockhart proposed that it is invoke an
possible to analyse the incoming image of a cat and connect that image
information with
at more than one level. One may your experiences. To sum up, analysing
analyse it in information in terms of its structural and
terms of its physical or structural phonetic features amounts to shallower
features. processing while encoding it in terms of
For example, one might attend only to the
the meaning it carries (the semantic
shape of letters in a word say cat - encoding) is
inspite of the deepest processing level that leads
whether the word is written in capital or to
small memory that resists forgetting
letters or the colour of the ink in which it considerably.
is Understanding memory as an outcome
written. This is the first and the of
the manner in which information is
encoded
initially has an important implication for
learning. This view of memory will help
you
realise that while you are learning a new
lesson, you must focus on elaborating
the
meaning of its contents in as much
detail as
possible and must not depend on rote
memorisation. Attempt this and you will
soon
realise that understanding the meaning
of
information and reflecting on how it
relates
to other facts, concepts, and your life
experiences is a sure way to long-term
retention.
TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY
As you have read in Box 7.1, the short-
term
memory is now seen as consisting of
more than
one component (working memory). In
the same
way it is suggested that long-term
memory too
is not unitary because it contains a wide
variety of information. In view of this,
contemporary formulations envisage
longterm
memory as consisting of various types.
For instance, one major classification
within
the LTM is that of Declarative and
Procedural
(sometimes called nondeclarative)
memories.
All information pertaining to facts,
names,
dates, such as a rickshaw has three
wheels or
that India became independent on
August 15
Chapter 7 • Human Memory
137
1947 or a frog is an amphibian or you
and
your friend share the same name, are
part of
declarative memory. Procedural
memory, on
the other hand, refers to memories
relating to
procedures for accomplishing various
tasks
and skills such as how to ride a bicycle,
how
to make tea or play basketball. Facts
retained
in the declarative memory are amenable
to
verbal descriptions while contents of
procedural memory cannot be described
easily. For example, when asked you can
describe how the game of cricket is
played but
if someone asks you how do you ride a
bicycle,
you may find it difficult to narrate.
Tulving has proposed yet another
classification and has suggested that
the
declarative memory can either be
Episodic or
Semantic.
Episodic memory contains biographical
details of our lives. Memories relating to
our
personal life experiences constitute the
episodic memory and it is for this reason
that
its contents are generally emotional in
nature.
How did you feel when you stood first in
your
class? Or how angry was your friend and
what
did s/he say when you did not fulfil a
promise?
If such incidents did actually happen in
your
life, you perhaps will be able to answer
these
questions with reasonable accuracy.
Although
such experiences are hard to forget, yet
it is
equally true that many events take
place
continuously in our lives and that we do
not
remember all of them. Besides, there
are
painful and unpleasant experiences
which are
not remembered in as much detail as
pleasant
life experiences.
The study of memory is a fascinating field and
researchers have reported many new
phenomena.
The following phenomena show the complex
and
dynamic nature of human memory.
Flashbulb Memories : These are memories of
events that are very arousing or surprising.
Such
memories are very detailed. They are like a
photo
taken with an advanced model camera. You
can
push the button, and after one minute you
have a
recreation of the scene. You can look at the
photograph whenever you want. Flashbulb
memories are like images frozen in memory
and
tied to particular places, dates, and times.
Perhaps, people put in greater effort in the
formation of these memories, and highlighting
details might lead to deeper levels of
processing
as well as offer more cues for retrieval.
Autobiographical Memory : These are personal
memories. They are not distributed evenly
throughout our lives. Some periods in our lives
produce more memories than others. For
instance,
no memories are reported pertaining to early
childhood particularly during the first 4 to 5
years.
This is called childhood amnesia. There is a
dramatic increase in the frequency of
memories
just after early adulthood, i.e. in the twenties.
Perhaps emotionality, novelty, and importance
of
Box 7.2 Long-term Memory
Classification
events contribute to it. During old age, the
most recent
years of life are likely to be well remembered.
However,
before this, around 30 years of age, decline in
certain
kinds of memory starts.
Implicit Memory : Recent studies have
indicated
that many of the memories remain outside the
conscious awareness of a person. Implicit
memory is
a kind of memory that a person is not aware of.
It is
a memory that is retrieved automatically. One
interesting example of implicit memory comes
from
the experience of typing. If someone knows
typing
that means s/he also knows the particular
letters
on the keyboard. But many typists cannot
correctly
label blank keys in a drawing of a keyboard.
Implicit
memories lie outside the boundaries of
awareness.
In other words, we are not conscious of the fact
that
a memory or record of a given experience
exists.
Nevertheless, implicit memories do influence
our
behaviour. This kind of memory was found in
patients
suffering from brain injuries. They were
presented a
list of common words. A few minutes later the
patient
was asked to recall words from the list. No
memory
was shown for the words. However, if s/he was
prompted to say a word that begins with these
letters
and two letters are given, the patient was able
to
recall words. Implicit memories are also
observed in
people with normal memories.
Psychology
138
for various other classifications of long-
term
memory.
1. Think about your early school days. Write
down two separate events that occurred during
those days, and which you remember vividly.
Use separate sheets for writing about each
event.
2. Think of the first month in Class XI. Write
down
two separate events that occurred during the
month, and which you remember vividly. Use
separate sheets for each event.
Compare these in terms of length, felt
emotions,
and coherence.
Activity 7.2
Write the sentences given below on separate
cards. Invite some junior students to play this
game with you. Seat her/him across a table in
front of you. Tell her/him “In this game you will
be shown some cards one by one at a steady
pace, you have to read the question written on
each card and answer it in yes or no”.
Note down the answers.
1. Is the word written in capital letters? BELT
2. Does the word rhyme with the word crew?
grew
3. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“____________ study in school”. Students
4. Does the word rhyme with the word gold?
mood
5. Is the word written in capital letters? bread
6. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“The son of my uncle is my ____________.”
cousin
7. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
My _________ is a vegetable. home
8. Does the word fit in the following sentence?
“__________ is a piece of furniture”. Potato
9. Is the word written in capital letters? TABLE
10. Does the word rhyme with the word wears?
bears
11. Is the word written in capital letters? marks
12. Does the word rhyme with the word clear?
five
13. Does the word fit in the following
sentence?
“Children like to play __________ .” games
14. Does the word fit in the following
sentence?
“People usually meet __________ in the bucket.”
friends
15. Does the word fit in the following
sentence?
“My class room is filled with ________.” shirts
16. Does the word fit in the following
sentence?
“My mother gives me enough pocket
__________.” money
After completing the task of reading the cards,
ask the students to recall the words about
which
the questions were asked. Note down the
words recalled. Count the number of words
recalled in
the structural, phonological, and semantic
types of processing required by the question.
Discuss results with your teacher.
Activity 7.3
Semantic memory, on the other hand, is
the memory of general awareness and
knowledge. All concepts, ideas and rules
of
logic are stored in semantic memory. For
instance, it is because of semantic
memory
that we remember the meaning of say
‘nonviolence’
or remember that 2+6=8 or the STD
code of New Delhi is 011 or that the
word
‘elaphant’ is misspelt. Unlike episodic
memory
this kind of memory is not dated; you
perhaps
will not be able to tell when you learnt
the
meaning of non-violence or on which
date you
came to know that Bangalore is the
capital of
Karnataka. Since the contents of take variable lengths of time in
semantic answering
memory relate to facts and ideas of questions, which require semantic
general judgments.
awareness and knowledge, it is affect- While responding to question ‘Do birds
neutral fly?’ a
and not susceptible to forgetting. See person will take not more than a second
Box 7.2 but
Chapter 7 • Human Memory answering a question ‘Are birds
139 animals’? may
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION AND take longer. Depending upon how much
ORGANISATION IN MEMORY time
In this section we will take a look at the people take in responding to questions
organisational structure that the such
contents of as these, the nature of organisation in
long-term memory acquire over a period longterm
of memory has been inferred.
time. Since long-term memory holds a The most important unit of
very representation
large amount of information which is put of knowledge in long-term memory is a
to concept. Concepts are mental
use with amazing efficiency, it would be categories for
very objects and events, which are similar to
useful to know how our memory system each
organises its contents so that the right other in one or in more than one way.
information is available at the right Concepts once formed get organised in
moment. categories — a category itself is a
It is important to note at this point that concept but
many it also functions to organise similarities
ideas relating to organisation of the among
content other concepts based on common
of long-term memory have resulted from features. For
experiments that have employed example, the word mango is a category
semantic because different varieties of mangoes
retrieval tasks. You will perhaps agree can be
that subsumed within it and it is also a
there cannot be any error in recalling concept
the within the category of fruit. Concepts
contents of semantic memory. For may also
anyone who There are many ways in which memory is
knows that birds fly will not make a measured experimentally. Since there are
mistake many
kinds of memories, any method appropriate for
in answering a question — Do birds fly?
studying one type of memory may not be
The suited
answer will be in affirmative. But people for studying another. The major methods which
may are used for memory measurement are being
presented here : more
a) Free Recall and Recognition (for measuring quickly than parts of words they had not seen.
facts/episodes related memory) : In free recall When asked, they are often unaware of this
method, participants are presented with and
some words which they are asked to report that they have only guessed.
memorise and after some time they are asked Psychology
to recall them in any order. The more they 140
are able to recall, the better their memory is. get organised in schema. They are
In recognition, instead of being asked to mental
generate items, participants see the items
frameworks which represent our
that they had memorised along with
distracter items (those that they had not seen)
knowledge
and their task is to recognise which one of and assumptions about the world. For
those they had learnt. The greater the example, think of a schema of a drawing
number of recognition of ‘old items’, better is room.
the memory. It will have different objects/things, like
b) Sentence Verification Task (for measuring
a sofa
semantic memory) : As you have already read,
set, center table, paintings, etc., which
Box 7.3 Methods of Memory are
Measurement found in a drawing room and where they
semantic memory is not amenable to any are
forgetting because it embodies general found in the drawing room.
knowledge So far we have examined the concept as
that we all possess. In sentence verification
the basic level at which knowledge is
task,
the participants are asked to indicate whether represented in the long-term memory
the and the
given sentences are true or false. Faster the notions of category and schema as the
participants respond, better retained is the first
information needed to verify those sentences level at which concepts are organised.
(see
Let
Activity 7.3 for use of this task in measurement
of us now look at a higher level of
semantic knowledge). organisation
c) Priming (for measuring information we that concepts acquire in the long-term
cannot memory.
report verbally) : We store many kinds of In the year 1969, Allan Collins and Ross
information that we can’t report verbally - for
Quillian published a landmark research
instance, information necessary to ride a
bicycle paper
or play a sitar. Besides, we also store in which they suggested that knowledge
information in
that we are not aware of, which is described as long-term memory is organised
implicit memory. In priming method, hierarchically
participants
and assumes a network structure.
are shown a list of words, such as garden,
playground, house, etc. and then they are Elements
shown of this structure are called nodes. Nodes
parts of these words like gar, pla, ho, along are
with concepts while connections between
parts of other words they had not seen. nodes are
Participants complete parts of seen words
labelled relationships, which indicate
category of cognitive economy, which means
membership or concept attributes. maximum and efficient use of the
In order to verify the proposed network capacity of
structure of long-term knowledge, long-term memory with minimum
participants redundancy.
of experiments were asked to verify the Fig.7.2 : The Hierarchical Network Model
truth Can bite Is dangerous
Animal
of the statements such as ‘canary is a Has skin
bird’ or Can move around
‘a canary is an animal’ (answer was in Eats food
Yes/ Breathes
Has wings
No). These were generally class-
Has feathers
inclusion Can fly
statements in which the subject was Can sing Is yellow
word Canary
Ostrich
‘canary’ (perhaps, you know, it is a bird)
Has long thin legs
and Can’t fly
the predicate took the form ‘is a’. A Is tall
critical Swims upstream
to lay eggs
finding of such experiments was that as
Is pink
the Is edible
predicate became hierarchically more Shark
remote Bird
Fish Can swim
from the subject in a sentence,
Has fins
participants Has gills
took longer time to verify that it is true Salmon
or false. Chapter 7 • Human Memory
Thus, people took longer to verify that a 141
‘canary is an animal’ compared to that So far we have discussed concept as
which unit
said ‘canary is a bird’ because bird is an of representation of knowledge in the
immediate superordinate category in longterm
which memory and looked at various ways in
canary is subsumed while animal is a which concepts get organised. Does this
superordinate category which is more mean
distant that knowledge is encoded only in word-
and remote from the concept canary. like
According to this view, we can store all format or can there be other ways of
knowledge at a certain level that encoding?
‘applies to It has been shown that information can
all the members of a category without be
having coded in a perceptual format or in terms
to repeat that information at the lower of
levels images. An image is a concrete form of
in the hierarchy’. This ensures a high representation which directly conveys
degree the
perceptual attributes of an object. If you
were
to come across the word ‘school’, an
image of
your own school will get generated. In
fact,
almost all concrete objects (and
concepts)
generate images and the knowledge
related to
them is encoded both verbally as well as
visually. This is known as dual coding
hypothesis, originally proposed by
Paivio.
According to this hypothesis, concrete
nouns
and information related to concrete
objects are
encoded and stored in the form of
images while
information related to abstract concepts
assume a verbal and a descriptive code.
For
example, if you are asked to describe a
bird,
the first thing that happens is that an
image
of a bird is generated and based on this
image,
you describe a bird. But, on the other
hand,
the meanings of concepts like ‘truth’ or
‘honesty’ will not have such
accompanying
images. So, any information which has
been
encoded verbally as well as in the form
of
images is recalled with greater ease.
Eyewitness Memory
Court procedures followed in criminal trials,
use
the testimony given by the eyewitness of the
offense. It is considered to be the most reliable
evidence for or against the accused. Some
experiments carried out by Loftus and her
colleagues during the mid-seventies showed
that
the eyewitness’s memory is susceptible to
many
flaws.
The experimental procedure followed by Loftus
was very simple. A film clipping of an event
(usually
a car accident) was shown to the participants.
This
was followed by some questions, which
interferes
with encoding of the event. One of the
questions
was “how fast were the cars going when they
smashed into each other”. In another question
the
verb smashed was replaced with the verb
contacted. Those who were asked the first
question
(which included the word ‘smashed’) estimated
the
speed of the cars as 40.8 mph. Those who
were
given the second question (i.e. with the word
‘contacted’) estimated that the speed of the
cars
was only 31.8 mph. Clearly, the nature of
leading
questions changed the memory. In fact, the
encoding of the event was ‘overwritten’ by
misleading questions. Some of these errors are
also
committed because of affective nature of the
event
itself. For example, events depicting violence
or a
tragedy tend to arouse strong emotions, the
eyewitnesses get overwhelmed and do not pay
attention to details while encoding.
Box 7.4 Memory Making :
Eyewitness and False
Memories
False Memory
An interesting phenomenon called false
memory can
be induced by powerful imagination of events
that did
not take place at all. Surprised? Let us look at
one
such study carried out by Garry, Manning and
Loftus
in 1996 and understand the features of false
memory. For example, following a road direction,
Initially they presented before the participants assembling a bicycle or even preparing
of their experiments, a list of events that could
to cook
have
occurred in their lives. In the first phase of this
an exotic dish from instructions given in
experiment, they rated the likelihood that each a
of cookery book require that spatial mental
these events actually took place in their lives models are created from verbal
to the descriptions.
best of their childhood memories. Two weeks
Mental models, therefore, refer to our
later,
they were invited again to the laboratory and
belief
were about the manner in which our
asked to imagine those events and visualise as environment
if is structured and such beliefs are
they actually happened to them. In particular, formed with
events
the help of concrete images as well as
which were rated low in terms of their
likelihood of
verbal
occurrence, were chosen for the task of descriptions.
visualising MEMORY AS A CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS
and imagining. This was the second phase of If you were to carefully examine the
the
initial
experiment. Finally, in the third phase, the
explorations about memory processes,
experimenters pretended that they had
misplaced you will
the event likelihood ratings which they had perhaps conclude that memory primarily
obtained consists of reproduction of stored
during the first phase and therefore requested materials.
the
This view was held by Ebbinghaus and
participants to respond to the list, once again.
his
Interestingly, events which were rated low on
likelihood in the first phase but were later followers who emphasised the quantity
visualised of
and imagined as real were now rated high. The information that can be stored in the
participants reported that those events memory
actually took and judged its accuracy by matching the
place in their lives. These findings suggest that
contents of storage and reproduction. If
memory can be induced and implanted
through the
imagination inflation — a finding that provides reproduced version of the stored
useful material
insights into memory processes. showed any deviation, it was seen as an
Psychology error
142
and a case of memory failure. This
Information which has been encoded
storage
and
metaphor of memory implied that the
stored in the form of images leads to the
memory
development of mental models. There
was a passive occurrence of learnt
are many
material
routine tasks which require mental
that has been transported to its long-
models.
term
storehouse. This position was committed
challenged by a wide variety of ‘errors’ which Bartlett
Bartlett in the early thirties who considered useful in understanding the
contended process of memory construction. His
that memory is an active process and all participants altered the texts to make
that them
we have stored undergoes continuous more consistent with their knowledge,
change glossed
and modification. What we memorise is over the unnecessary details, elaborated
influenced by the meaning we assign to the
the main theme and transformed the
stimulus material and once it is material to
committed to look more coherent and rational.
our memory system, it cannot remain in In order to explain such findings, Bartlett
isolation from other cognitive processes. invoked the term schema, which
In essence, therefore, Bartlett saw according
memory to him ‘was an active organisation of
as a constructive and not a reproductive past
process. Using meaningful materials reactions and past experiences’.
such as Schemas refer
texts, folk tales, fables, etc. Bartlett to an organisation of past experiences
attempted and
to understand the manner in which knowledge, which influence the way in
content which
of any specific memory gets affected by incoming information is interpreted,
a stored,
person’s knowledge, goals, motivation, and later retrieved. Memory, therefore,
preferences and various other becomes an active process of
psychological construction
processes. He conducted simple where information is encoded and
experiments stored in
in which reading of such stimulus terms of a person’s understanding and
materials within
was followed by fifteen minutes break her/his previous knowledge and
and then expectations.
the participants of his experiment NATURE AND CAUSES OF FORGETTING
recalled what Each one of us has experienced
they had read. Bartlett used the method forgetting and
of its consequences almost routinely. Why
serial reproduction in which the do we
participants forget? Is it because the information we
of his experiments recalled the memory commit to our long-term memory is
materials repeatedly at varying time somehow
intervals. lost? Is it because we did not memorise
While engaging in serial reproduction of it well
learned material his participants enough? Is it because we did not encode
the memories and therefore, interference is
information correctly or is it because the
during main cause of forgetting.
storage, it got distorted or misplaced? Forgetting due to Interference
Many If forgetting is not due to trace decay
theories have been forwarded to explain then why
forgetting and now you will read about does it take place? A theory of forgetting
those that
that seem plausible and have received has perhaps been the most influential
considerable attention. one is
The first systematic attempt to the interference theory which suggests
understand that
the nature of forgetting was made by forgetting is due to interference
Hermann between
Ebbinghaus, who memorised lists of various information that the memory
nonsense store
syllables (CVC trigrams such as NOK or contains. This theory assumes that
SEP learning
Chapter 7 • Human Memory and memorising involve forming of
143 associations between items and once
decay due to disuse, then people who acquired,
go to these associations remain intact in the
sleep after memorising should forget memory. People keep acquiring
more numerous
compared to those who remain awake, such associations and each of these
simply rests
because there is no way in which independently without any mutual
memory conflict.
traces can be put to use during sleep. However, interference comes about at a
Results, time
however, show just the opposite. Those of retrieval when these various sets of
who associations compete with each other
remain awake after memorising (waking for
condition) show greater forgetting than retrieval. This interference process will
those become
who sleep (sleeping condition). clearer with a simple exercise. Request
Because trace decay theory did not your
explain friend to learn two separate lists of
forgetting adequately, it was soon nonsense
replaced by syllables (list A and list B) one after the
another theory of forgetting which other
suggested and after a while ask her/him to recall
that new information that enters the the
long-term nonsense syllables of list A. If while
memory interferes with the recall of trying to
earlier recall the items of list A, s/he recalls
some of forgetting.
the items of list B, it is because of the Forgetting due to Trace Decay
association formed while learning list B Trace decay (also called disuse theory)
are is the
interfering with the earlier association earliest theory of forgetting. The
which assumption
were formed while learning list A. here is that memory leads to
There are atleast two kinds of modification in
interferences the central nervous system, which is
that may result in forgetting. akin to
Interference can physical changes in the brain called
be proactive (forward moving) which memory
means traces. When these memory traces are
what you have learnt earlier interferes not
with used for a long time, they simply fade
etc.) and then measured the number of away
trials and become unavailable. This theory
he took to relearn the same list at has been
varying time proved inadequate on several grounds.
intervals. He observed that the course of If
forgetting follows a certain pattern forgetting takes place because memory
which you traces
can see in Figure 7.3. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 30 31 100
As the figure indicates, the rate of Fig.7.3 : Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting
20 min.
forgetting 1 hr.
is maximum in the first nine hours, 8.8 hrs.
particularly Amount
forgotten
during the first hour. After that the rate Amount
slows retained
down and not much is forgotten even Amount retained (per cent)
Amount forgotten (per cent)
after
Time since learning (in days)
many days. Although Ebbinghaus’s 75 50 25 0
experiments constituted initial 25 50 75 100
explorations Psychology
and were not very sophisticated yet 144
they have the recall of your subsequent learning or
influenced memory research in many retroactive (backward moving) which
important ways. It is now upheld, almost refers to
unanimously, that there is always a difficulty in recalling what you have
sharp learnt
drop in memory and thereafter the earlier because of learning a new
decline is material. In
very gradual. Let us now examine the other words, in proactive interference,
main past
theories, which have been advanced to learning interferes with the recall of later
explain learning while in retroactive interference
the of
later learning interferes with the recall of recall.
past Retroactive Interference Phase 1 Phase 2
learning. For example, if you know Testing Phase
Experimental participant/group Learns A Learns
English
B Recalls A
and you find it difficult to learn French, it Control participant/group Learns A Rests
is Recalls A
because of proactive interference and if, Proactive Interference
on Experimental participant/group Learns A Learns
the other hand, you cannot recall B Recalls B
Control participant/group Rests Learns B
English
Recalls B
equivalents of French words that you are
Table 7.1 Experimental Designs for
currently memorising, then it is an
example Retroactive and Proactive
of retroactive interference. A typical Interference
experimental design that is used to Some individuals undergo experiences that are
traumatic. A traumatic experience emotionally
demonstrate proactive and retroactive
hurts a person. Sigmund Freud posited that
interference has been presented in Table such
7.1. experiences are repressed into the
Forgetting due to Retrieval Failure unconscious
Forgetting can occur not only because and are not available for retrieval from
the memory.
It is a kind of repression — painful, threatening,
memory traces have decayed over time
and embarrassing memories are held out of
(as consciousness.
suggested by the disuse theory) or In some persons, traumatic experiences may
because give rise to psychological amnesia. Some
independent sets of stored associations individuals experience crisis, and are utterly
compete at the time of recall (as incapable of coping with such events. They
close
suggested by
their eyes, ears and mind to such harsh
the interference theory) but also realities
because at of life, and take mental flight from them. It
the time of recall, either the retrieval results
cues are Box 7.5 Repressed Memories
absent or they are inappropriate. in highly generalised amnesia. One of the
Retrieval results of
cues are aids which help us in such flights is the emergence of a disorder
recovering known as
information stored in the memory. This ‘fugue state’. Persons who become victims of
such a
view was advanced by Tulving and his
state assume a new identity, name, address,
associates who carried out several etc.
experiments to show that contents of They have two personalities and one knows
memory nothing
may become inaccessible either due to about the other.
absence or inappropriateness of Forgetfulness or loss of memory under stress
and high anxiety is not uncommon. Many hard
retrieval cues
working and ambitious students aspire for high
that are available/employed at the time scores in final examinations and to achieve
such memory related processes, you certainly
ends they put in long hours in studies. But would
when
like to know how your memory can be
they receive the question paper, they become
extremely nervous and forget everything they
improved. There are a number of
had strategies for
prepared well. improving memory called mnemonics
Chapter 7 • Human Memory (pronounced ni-mo-nicks) to help you
145 improve
Let us understand this with the help of your memory. Some of these mnemonics
an involve use of images whereas others
example. Suppose you have memorised emphasise self-induced organisation of
a list learned information. You will now read
of meaningful words like hut, wasp, about
cottage, mnemonics and some suggestions given
gold, bronze, ant, etc. in which words for
belonged memory improvement.
to six categories (like places of living, Mnemonics using Images
names Mnemonics using images require that
of insects, types of metal, etc.). If after a you
while create vivid and interacting images of
you are asked to recall those you may and
recall a around the material you wish to
couple of them but if during the second remember.
recall The two prominent mnemonic devices,
attempt, you are also provided with which
category make interesting use of images, are the
names, then you may find that your keyword method and the method of loci.
recall is (a) The Keyword Method : Suppose you
near total. Category names in this want
example to learn words of any foreign language.
act as retrieval cues. Besides category In
names, keyword method, an English word (the
the physical context in which you learn assumption here is that you know
also English
provides effective retrieval cues. language) that sounds similar to the
ENHANCING MEMORY word of
All of us desire to possess an excellent a foreign language is identified. This
memory English
system that is robust and dependable. Given below are two lists of words. First
Who, memorise the list in such a way that you are
after all, likes to face situations of able to
recall the words without any error. Now you
memory
take up the second list and memorise it to the
failures that lead to so much of anxiety criterion of correct recall error. Forget about
and the list and read something else for an hour.
embarrassment? After learning about Now
various recall the words in the first list and write them
down. Note the total number of words correctly the
recalled and the number of words incorrectly method of loci, items you want to
recalled.
remember
List 1
Goat Sheep Leopard
are placed as objects arranged in a
Jackal Monkey Camel physical
Mule Deer Squirrel space in the form of visual images. This
Horse Cheetah Wolf method is particularly helpful in
Snake Rabbit Parrot remembering
List 2
items in a serial order. It requires that
Pig Elephant Donkey
Pigeon Cobra Tiger
you
Mynah Lion Calf first visualise objects/places that you
Bears Fox Crow know
Buffalo Mouse well in a specific sequence, imagine the
Get the cooperation of one of your friends and objects
request her/him to memorise the words of List
you want to remember and associate
1
to the criterion as stated above. Request
them one
her/him to sing a song and have a cup of tea by one to the physical locations. For
with you. example,
Keep her/him engaged in some conversation suppose you want to remember bread,
for an hour or so. Then request her/him to eggs,
write
tomatoes, and soap on your way to the
down the words s/he had memorised earlier.
Compare your recall with the one made by
market,
your friend. you may visualise a loaf of bread and
eggs
Activity 7.4
placed in your kitchen, tomatoes kept on
Psychology
146 a
word will function as the keyword. For table and soap in the bathroom. When
example, you
if you want to remember the Spanish enter the market all you need to do is to
word for take
duck which is ‘Pato’, you may choose a mental walk along the route from your
‘pot’ as kitchen to the bathroom recalling all the
the keyword and then evoke images of items
keyword of your shopping list in a sequence.
and the target word (the Spanish word Mnemonics using Organisation
you want Organisation refers to imposing certain
to remember) and imagine them as order
interacting. on the material you want to remember.
You might, in this case, imagine a duck Mnemonics of this kind are helpful
in a because of
pot full of water. This method of learning the framework you create while
words organisation
of a foreign language is much superior makes the retrieval task fairly easy.
compared to any kind of rote (a) Chunking : While describing the
memorisation. features
(b) The Method of Loci : In order to use of short-term memory, we noted how
chunking
can increase the capacity of short-term
memory. In chunking, several smaller
units
are combined to form large chunks. For
creating chunks, it is important to
discover
some organisation principles, which can
link
smaller units. Therefore, apart from
being a
control mechanism to increase the
capacity
of short-term memory, chunking can be
used
to improve memory as well.
(b) First Letter Technique : In order to
employ
the first letter technique, you need to
pick up
the first letter of each word you want to
remember and arrange them to form
another
word or a sentence. For example,
colours of a
rainbow are remembered in this way
(VIBGYOR- that stands for Violet, Indigo,
Blue,
Green, Yellow, Orange and Red).
Mnemonic strategies for memory
enhancement are too simplistic and
perhaps
underestimate complexities of memory
tasks
and difficulties people experience while
memorising. In place of mnemonics, a
more
comprehensive approach to memory
improvement has been suggested by
many
psychologists. In such an approach,
emphasis
is laid on applying knowledge about
memory
processes to the task of memory
improvement.
Let us examine some of these
suggestions.
It is suggested that one must :
(a) Engage in Deep Level Processing : If
you
want to memorise any information well,
engage in deep level processing. Craik
and
Lockhart have demonstrated that
processing
information in terms of meaning that
they
convey leads to better memory as
compared
to attending to their surface features.
Deep
processing would involve asking as
many
questions related to the information as
possible, considering its meaning and
examining its relationships to the facts
you
already know. In this way, the new
information
will become a part of your existing
knowledge
framework and the chances that it will
be
remembered are increased.
(b) Minimise Interference : Interference,
as we
have read, is a major cause of forgetting
and
therefore you should try to avoid it as
much
as possible. You know that maximum
interference is caused when very similar
materials are learned in a sequence.
Avoid this.
Arrange your study in such a way that
you do
not learn similar subjects one after the
other.
Instead, pick up some other subject
unrelated
to the previous one. If that is not
possible,
distribute your learning/practice. This
means
giving yourself intermittent rest periods
while
studying to minimise interference.
Chapter 7 • Human Memory
147
Key Terms
Chunking, Cognitive economy, Concepts,
Control process, Dual coding, Echoic memory,
Encoding, Episodic memory, Elaborative
rehearsals, Fugue state, Information
processing approach, Maintenance
rehearsals, Memory making, Mnemonics,
Schema, Semantic memory, Serial
reproduction, Working memory
Summary
• Memory is seen as consisting of three
interrelated processes of encoding, storage
and retrieval.
• While encoding is registering the incoming
information in a way that it becomes
compatible
to the memory system, storage and retrieval
refers to holding the information over a period
of time and bringing the information back to
one’s awareness, respectively.
• The Stage Model of Memory compares
memory processes with the working of a
computer
and suggests that incoming information is
processed through three distinct stages of
sensory
memory, short-term memory and long-term
memory.
• Levels of processing view of memory
contends that the information can be encoded
at any
of the three levels, namely, the structural, the
phonetic and the semantic. If an information
is analysed and encoded semantically, which is
the deepest level of processing, then it
leads to better retention.
• Long-term memory has been classified in
many ways. One major classification is that of
declarative and procedural memory and
another is that of episodic and semantic
memory.
• Contents of long-term memory get
represented in terms of concepts, categories
and images
and are organised hierarchically.
• Forgetting refers to loss of stored information
over a period of time. After a material is learnt,
there is a sharp drop in its memory and then
the decline is very gradual.
• Forgetting has been explained as resulting
from trace decay and interference. It may also
be caused due to absence of appropriate cues
at the time of retrieval.
• Memory is not only a reproductive but also a
constructive process. What we store undergoes
change and modification within one’s past
knowledge and schema.
• Mnemonics are strategies for improving
memory. While some mnemonics use images,
other
emphasise organisation of the learnt material.
(c) Give Yourself enough Retrieval Cues :
While you learn something, think of
retrieval
cues inherent in your study material.
Identify
them and link parts of the study
material to
these cues. Cues will be easier to
remember
compared to the entire content and the
links
you have created between cues and the
content will facilitate the retrieval
process.
Thomas and Robinson have developed
another strategy to help students in
remembering more which they called
the
methods of PQRST. This acronym stands
for
Preview, Question, Read, Self-recitation,
and
Test. Preview refers to giving a cursory
look at
the chapter and familiarising oneself
with its
contents. Question means raising
questions
and seeking answers from the lesson.
Now ‘memory is a constructive process’?
start reading and look for answers of 9. Define mnemonics? Suggest a plan to
improve your own memory.
questions
you had raised. After reading try to Review Questions
rewrite 1. Recall and write down an event of your life
that you remember very clearly. Also request
what you have read and at the end test
others (those who were participants of that
how
event such as your brother/sister, parents or
much you have been able to other relatives/friends) to do the same.
understand. Compare the two recalled versions and look for
At the end, a note of caution must be discrepancies and similarities. Try to reason
sounded. There is no one method that why there are similarities and discrepancies.
2. Narrate a story to your friend and ask
can
her/him to write it down after an hour. Also
solve all problems related to retention
request
and bring her/him to narrate what s/he had written to
about an overnight memory another person. Continue this process till
improvement. In you have at least 5 versions of the original
order to improve your memory, you story. Compare the various versions and
identify constructive processes in memory.
need to
attend to a wide variety of factors which Project Ideas
affect
your memory such as your health
status, your
interest and motivation, your familiarity
with
the subject matter and so on. In
addition, you

8
must learn to use strategies for memory
improvement depending upon the
nature of
memory tasks you are required to
accomplish. Chapter
Psychology
148
1. What is the meaning of the terms ‘encoding’,
‘storage’ and ‘retrieval’?
2. How is information processed through
Thinking
sensory, short-term and long-term memory • describe the nature of thinking and
systems? reasoning,
3. How are maintenance rehearsals different • demonstrate an understanding of some
from elaborative rehearsals? cognitive processes involved in
4. Differenciate between declarative and problem solving and decision-making,
procedural memories? • understand the nature and process of
5. Describe the hierarchical organisation in
creative thinking and learn ways
long-term memory?
of enhancing it,
6. Why does forgetting take place?
7. How is retrieval related forgetting different
• understand the relationship between
from forgetting due to interference? language and thought, and
8. What evidence do we have to say that • describe the process of language
development and its use.
After reading this chapter, you
would be able to
Introduction
Nature of Thinking
Building Blocks of Thought
Culture and Thinking (Box 8.1)
The Processes of Thinking
Problem Solving
Reasoning
Decision-making
Nature and Process of Creative Thinking
Nature of Creative Thinking
Lateral Thinking (Box 8.2)
Process of Creative Thinking
Developing Creative Thinking
Barriers to Creative Thinking
Strategies for Creative Thinking
Thought and Language
Development of Language and Language
Use
Bilingualism and Multilingualism (Box 8.3)
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
Contents
But whatever the process, the result is
wonderful, gradually from naming an
object we advance step-by-step until
we have traversed the vast difference
between our first stammered syllable
and the sweep of thought in a
line of Shakespeare.
– Helen Keller
Psychology
150
Thinking is mostly organised and goal
directed. All day-to-day activities,
ranging from
cooking to solving a math problem have
a goal.
One desires to reach the goal by
planning,
recalling the steps that one has already
followed in the past if the task is familiar
or
inferring strategies if the task is new.
Thinking is an internal mental process,
which can be inferred from overt
behaviour.
If you see a chess player engrossed in
thinking
for several minutes before making a
move, you
cannot observe what he is thinking. You
can
simply infer what he was thinking or
what
strategies he was trying to evaluate,
from his
next move.
Building Blocks of Thought
We already know that thinking relies on
knowledge we already possess. Such
knowledge is represented either in the
form
of mental images or words. People
usually
NATURE OF THINKING
Thinking is the base of all cognitive
activities
or processes and is unique to human
beings.
It involves manipulation and analysis of
information received from the
environment.
For example, while seeing a painting,
you are
not simply focusing on the colour of the
painting or the lines and strokes, rather
you
are going beyond the given text in
interpreting
its meaning and you are trying to relate
the
information to your existing knowledge.
Understanding of the painting involves
creation of new meaning that is added
to your
knowledge. Thinking, therefore, is a
higher want to follow (“not this”, “a little
mental process through which we small”, “a
manipulate tree at the back”), evaluation of the
and analyse the acquired or existing design (“nice”). You also might have
information. Such manipulation and experienced
analysis talking to yourself while solving a
occur by means of abstracting, problem. Why do we talk while we
reasoning, think? What
imagining, problem solving, judging, and is the relationship between language
decision-making. and thought? In this chapter, we shall
Think for a moment: how many times also be
and in what ways you are using the discussing the development of language
word and the relationship between language
‘think’ in your day-to-day conversations. and thought. Before starting our
Sometimes probably, you use it as a discussion on thinking, it is necessary to
synonym to remember (I can’t think of discuss
her name), pay attention (think about thinking as the base of human
it ) or cognition.

Introduction
convey uncertainty (I think today my
friend will visit me). ‘Think’ has a wide
range Chapter 8 • Thinking
of meanings which cover a number of 151
psychological processes. However, in think by means of mental images or
psychology, thinking is a core subject words.
area with an independent existence and Suppose you are travelling by road to
a reach a
meaning of its own. In this chapter, we place, which you had visited long back.
will discuss thinking as a mental activity You
directed at solving a problem, making would try to use the visual
inferences, judging certain facts, and representation of
deciding the street and other places. On the
and choosing between options. Further, other hand,
the nature and characteristics of when you want to buy a storybook your
creative choice
thinking, what it involves and how it can would depend upon your knowledge
be developed will also be discussed. about
Have you ever seen a small child different authors, themes, etc. Here,
building a tower with blocks or sand? your
The child thinking is based on words or concepts.
would build a tower, dismantle it, make We
another one and so on and so forth. shall first discuss mental image and
While then move
doing this, the child sometimes talks to on to concepts as the base of human
herself or himself. The speech would thought.
primarily Mental Image
include the steps s/he is following or Suppose, I ask you to imagine a cat
sitting
on a tree with its tail slightly raised and
curved. You would most likely try to form
a S/he
visual image of the whole situation,
something similar to what the girl in the
picture is doing (Fig.8.1). Or think of
another
situation where you are asked to
imagine
yourself standing in front of the Taj
Mahal
and describe what you see. While doing
this
you are actually forming a visual image
of
the event. You are probably trying to see
through your mind’s eye, just like the
way
you would see a picture. Why is it useful
to
draw a map while giving directions to
someone? Try to remember your earlier
experience in reading a map,
remembering
the different places and subsequently
locating
them in a physical map in your
examination.
In doing this, you were mostly forming
and
using mental images. An image is a
mental
representation of a sensory experience;
it
can be used to think about things,
places,
and events. You can try out Activity 8.1,
which demonstrates how images are
formed.
Give a map, like the following in Fig.8.2a, to
your
friend to observe for 2 minutes and tell her/him
that later on s/he will be asked to locate the
marked places in a blank map. Then present a
map, like the one in Fig.8.2b, with no
indications
of the different places. Ask your friend to
locate
the places s/he has seen in the first map. Then
ask how s/he was able to locate the places.
will probably be able to tell you the way s/he
formed an image of the whole situation.
Activity 8.1
Concepts
How do you know that a lion is not a bird
but a parrot is? You have already read
this in
Chapter 7. Whenever we come across
an
object or event familiar or unfamiliar, we
try
to identify the object or event by
extracting
its characteristics, matching it with the
already
existing category of objects and events.
For
example, when we see an apple, we
categorise
Fig.8.2a : A Map Showing Places
Fig.8.1 : The Girl forming a Mental Image
Psychology
152
it as fruit, when we see a table we
categorise
it as furniture, when we see a dog we
categorise it as an animal, and so on.
When
we see a new object, we try to look for
its
characteristics, match them with
characteristics of an existing category,
and if
matching is perfect we give it the name
of that
category. For example, while walking on
the
road you come across an unfamiliar
quadruped of a very small size, with a
face
like a dog, wagging its tail and barking
at
strangers. You would no doubt identify it Take a piece of cardboard and cut triangles,
as circles, and squares of three different sizes
each,
a dog and probably think that it is of a
small, medium and large. Then colour them
new yellow.
breed, which you have never seen Similarly prepare a second set and colour them
before. You green and a third set and colour them red. Now
would also conclude that it would bite you have a set of 27 cards varying in shape,
strangers. A concept thus, is a mental size,
and colour. Ask a child of five to six years of
representation of a category. It refers to
age
a class to group the similar cards together.
of objects, ideas or events that share
common
Activity 8.2
If you will try the above activity with a
properties.
group of small children, you will observe
Why do we need to form concepts?
that
Concept formation helps us in organising
there are a number of ways in which the
our
child
knowledge so that whenever we need to
would respond. S/he would pile them up
access our knowledge, we can do it with
into
less
different groups based on:
time and effort. It is something similar to
1. size: all small triangles, squares, and
what we do to organise our things at
circles together, all medium sized
home.
together,
Children who are very systematic and
and so on.
organised, put their things such as
2. shape: all triangles together, all
books,
circles
note books, pen, pencil, and other
together, and so on
accessories
3. colour: all reds together, all yellows
in specific places in their cupboard, so
together, and so on
that
4. both size and shape: all small
in the morning, they don’t have to
triangles
struggle
together, all medium triangles together,
to find a particular book or the geometry
and so on.
box.
5. size, shape and colour: all small
In the library too you have seen books
circles of
organised as per subject areas and
red colour together, all medium circles
labelled
of
so that you would be able to find them
yellow colour together, and so on.
quickly with less effort. Thus, for making
You have already learned about concept
our
learning in Chapter 6, and the use of
thought process quick and efficient, we
concepts
form
in Human Memory in Chapter 7.
concepts and categorise objects and
Concepts
events.
usually fall into hierarchies or levels of
You can find out how children form
understanding. The levels are classified
concepts
as
by doing Activity 8.2.
superordinate (the highest level), basic intended message. Children also learn
(an intermediate level), and subordinate basic
(the lowest level). While speaking we level concepts first and then the other
mostly levels.
use basic level concepts. When a person Most of the concepts people use in
says, thinking
“I saw a dog” a basic level is used. Such are neither clear nor unambiguous. They
a are
statement is much more likely to be fuzzy. They overlap one another and are
made than often
Fig.8.2b : A Blank Map Up Side Down poorly defined. For example, under
Chapter 8 • Thinking which
153
category would you put a small stool?
category of “chair” otherwise under the
Would
category of “table”. Consider another
you put it under the category of ‘chair’
example:
or
the concept ‘cup’. Cups : (i) are concrete
under the category of ‘table’? The
objects, (ii) are concave, (iii) can hold
answer to
solids
these questions is that we construct a
and liquids, (iv) have handles. What
model
about
or prototype. A prototype is the best
cups we see in the market: with no
representative member of the category.
handle,
Eleanor Rosch argues that in considering
with a square shape or unusually big in
how
size?
people think about concepts, prototypes
In an experiment, the participants were
are
shown
often involved in real life. In prototype
the pictures of cups as in Fig.8.3 and W.
matching, people decide whether an
Labov
item is a
asked them: which of these would you
member of a category by comparing it
describe
with
as the prototype for the concept “cup”?
the most typical item(s) of the category.
Participants mostly chose number 5.
Therefore, in the above example of the
Interestingly, some participants call
stool,
number
you would try to compare it with a
4 a bowl and number 9 a vase because
standard
they
study chair (if you consider it as the
were so different.
typical
“I saw a four legged animal that barks
example of a chair) and a small study
and
table (if
wags its tail” or “an animal”. The first
you consider it as the typical example of
(subordinate) is far too specific than is
a
needed
table) and then match the properties of
for conversation, while the second
the
(superordinate) is far too vague to
stool with these two concepts. If it
convey the
matches
with a chair you would put it under the We also learnt that thinking uses mental
Our beliefs, values, and social practices images and concepts as the base. Now
influence we will
the way we think. In a study conducted on
discuss how thinking proceeds in a
American and Asian students, pictures like the
following (underwater scene) were used. The
particular
subjects were asked to have a look at the area: problem solving.
scene PROBLEM SOLVING
for a brief period and then were asked to How do we proceed while repairing a
describe
broken
what they saw. The American students
cycle, or planning a summer tour or
focussed
on the biggest, brightest, and most patching
outstanding up a broken friendship? In some cases
features (for example, “the large fish the
swimming solution is reached quickly as in repair of
to the right”). In contrast, the Japanese
a
students
bicycle based on immediately available
focussed on the background (for example, “the
bottom was rocky” or “the water was green”). cues
Based on these kinds of findings, researchers whereas others are more complex and
concluded that Americans usually analyse each require
Box 8.1 Culture and Thinking time and effort. Problem solving is
object separately which is called “analytical thinking
thinking”. that is goal-directed. Almost all our day-
Asian people (Japanese, Chinese, Koreans) today
think more activities are directed towards a goal.
about the relationship between objects and
Here
backgrounds, which is called “holistic
thinking”. it is important to know that problems
Fig.8.3 : When is a Cup a “Cup”? are not
1234 always in the form of obstacles or
5
hurdles that
6
7 one faces. It could be any simple activity
8 that
9 you perform to reach a defined goal, for
10
11 example, preparing a quick snack for
12 your
13 friend who has just arrived at your
14
15 place. In
16 problem solving there is an initial state
17 (i.e.
18
19
the problem) and there is an end state
Psychology (the goal).
154 These two anchors are connected by
THE PROCESSES OF THINKING means of
So far we have been discussing what we several steps or mental operations.
mean Table 8.1
by thinking and what is the nature of would clarify your understanding of
thinking. various
steps through which one solves a for yourself as well as for your friends.
problem. 7. Rethink and redefine problems After this
special occasion you can still think about
You can try out the problems given in
and solutions ways to plan a better play in
Activity 8.3 with your friends and future.
observe how
Table 8.1 Mental Operations
they are approaching the problem. You
Involved in Solving a Problem
can
Chapter 8 • Thinking
ask them the steps they follow while 155
solving experienced this while solving
these problems. mathematical
Obstacles to Solving Problems problems. After completing a couple of
Two major obstacles to solving a questions, you form an idea of the steps
problem are that
mental set and lack of motivation. are required to solve these questions
Mental Set and
Mental set is a tendency of a person to subsequently you go on following the
solve same
problems by following already tried steps, until a point where you fail. At this
mental point
operations or steps. Prior success with a you may experience difficulty in
Let us look at the problem of organising a play
avoiding the
in school on the occasion of Teachers’ Day.
Problem solving would involve the following already used steps. Those steps would
sequence. interfere in your thought for new
Mental operation Nature of problem strategies.
1. Identify the problem A week is left for However, in day-to-day activities we
teachers’ day and you are given often rely
the task of organising a play.
on past experiences with similar or
2. Represent the problem Organising a play
would involve identification of related
an appropriate theme, screening of actors, problems.
actresses, arranging money, etc. Like mental set, functional fixedness in
3. Plan the solution: Search and survey various problem solving occurs when people fail
available themes for to
Set sub-goals a play, and consult teachers and
solve a problem because they are fixed
friends who have
the expertise. The play to be decided, based
on a
on thing’s usual function. If you have ever
such considerations as cost, duration, used
suitability a hardbound book to hammer a nail,
for the occasion, etc. then you
4. Evaluate all solutions (plays) Collect all the
have overcome functional fixedness.
information/stage rehearsal.
5. Select one solution and execute it Compare
Lack of Motivation
and verify the various options to get the People might be great at solving
best solution (the play). problems, but
6. Evaluate the outcome If the play (solution) is all their skills and talents are of no use if
appreciated, think about they
the steps you have followed for future
are not motivated. Sometimes people
reference
give up or strategies. Thus, while in some
easily when they encounter a problem situations
or failure mental set can enhance the quality and
in implementing the first step. speed
Therefore, there of problem solving, in other situations it
is a need to persist in their effort to find hinders problem solving. You might have
a Activity 8.3
solution. Problem 1
REASONING Anagrams : Rearrange the letters to form a
If you find a person desperately running word.
on (You can also construct some similar words)
NAGMARA
the railway platform, you could infer a
BOLMPER
number SLEVO
of things such as: he is running to catch STGNIH
the TOLUSONI
train which is about to leave, he wants Problem 2
to see Joining dots : Without lifting your pencil from
the
off his friend sitting in the train which is
paper, connect all nine dots by drawing four
about straight lines.
to leave, he has left his bag in the train Problem 3
and Try out the ‘water in three bottles’ activity with
wants to get in before the train leaves your friend.
the There are three bottles, A, B, and C. Bottle A
can hold 21 ml., B can hold 127 ml., and C can
station. To figure out why this person is
hold 3 ml. The task for your friend is to get 100
running, you could use different kinds of ml
reasoning, deductive or inductive. of water with the help of these three bottles.
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning There
Since your previous experience indicates are six more problems like this. These seven
that problems are given below.
Problems The required The capacity of the
people run on the platform to catch a
quantity bottles in ml.
train, ABC
you would conclude that this person is 1. 100 21 127 3
getting 2. 99 14 163 25
late and is running to catch the train. 3. 5 18 43 10
The kind of reasoning that begins with 4. 21 9 42 6
5. 31 20 59 4
an
6. 20 23 49 3
assumption is called deductive 7. 25 28 76 3
reasoning. (Answers are given at the end of the chapter)
particular strategy would sometimes Psychology
help in 156
solving a new problem. However, this conclude that the person had left his
tendency bag in
also creates a mental rigidity that the train. One mistake you would
obstructs probably
the problem solver to think of any new make here is jumping to a conclusion
rules without
knowing all possible facts.
From the above discussion we can
conclude that reasoning is the process
of
gathering and analysing information to
arrive
at conclusions. In this sense, reasoning
is also
a form of problem solving. The goal is to
determine what conclusion can be
drawn from
certain given information.
Most cases of scientific reasoning are
inductive in nature. Scientists and even
lay persons consider a number of
instances
and try to determine what general rule
covers
them all. Think of yourself using your
knowledge of problem solving steps
discussed
earlier in planning for a play, or
conducting a
project. Your inductive reasoning is
being
applied here.
Analogy is another form of reasoning
which involves four parts, A is to B as C
is to
D with the relation between the first two
parts
being the same as the relation between
the
last two. For example, water is to fish as
air is
to human; white is to snow as black is to
coal. Analogies can be helpful in solving
problems. They help us in identifying
and
visualising the salient attributes of an
object or event, which would otherwise
go
unnoticed.
DECISION-MAKING
Inductive and deductive reasonings
allow us
to make judgments. In judgment we
draw
conclusions, form opinions, evaluate
events,
objects, based on knowledge and
available
evidences. Consider this example, the
man is
very talkative, likes to mix with people,
can
convince others with ease — he would
be most
suitable for a salesperson’s job. Our
judgment
of this person is based on the specific
characteristics of an expert salesperson.
Here
we will discuss how we make decisions
and
judgments.
Sometimes judgments are automatic
and
require no conscious effort by the
person and
occur as a matter of habit, for example,
Thus deductive reasoning begins with
making
a general assumption that you know or
believe
to be true and then drawing specific
conclusion based on this assumption. In
other
words, it is reasoning from general to
particular. Your general assumption is
that
people run on the railway platform only
when
they are getting late for the train. The
man is
running on the platform. Therefore, he is
getting late for the train. One mistake
that you
are making (and generally people do
commit
such mistakes in deductive reasoning) is
that
you (they) assume but do not always requires reference to your past
know if knowledge and
the basic statement or assumption is experience. Judging the beauty of a
true. If painting
the base information is not true, i.e. would involve your personal
people preferences. Thus
also run on the platform for other our judgments are not independent of
reasons then our
your conclusion would be invalid or beliefs and attitudes. We also make
wrong. changes
Look at the mouse in Fig.8.4. in our judgments based on newly
Another way to figure out why the man acquired
is information. Consider this example. A
running on the platform is to use new
inductive teacher joins the school, students make
reasoning. Sometimes you would onthe-
analyse spot judgment of the teacher as being
other possible reasons and observe very
what the strict. However, in subsequent classes,
man is actually doing and then draw a they
conclusion about his behaviour. closely interact with the teacher and
Reasoning, make
that is based on specific facts and changes in their evaluation. Now they
observation, judge the teacher to be extremely
is called inductive reasoning. Inductive studentfriendly.
reasoning is drawing a general Many of the problems you solve each
conclusion day
based on particular observation. In the require you to make decisions. What to
earlier wear
example, you observed the other for the party? What to eat for dinner?
person’s What to
subsequent action or actions such as: say to your friend? The answer to all
entering these
into the train compartment and lies in picking or choosing one of several
returning with choices. In decision-making, we
a bag. Based on your observation you sometimes
would choose among options based on choices
Fig.8.4 : Is the mouse making a True and of
Valid Conclusion? personal significance. Judgment and
All cats have four legs,
decisionmaking
I have four legs,
therefore I am a cat are interrelated processes. In
Chapter 8 • Thinking decisionmaking
157 the problem before us is to choose
applying brakes on seeing the red light. among alternatives by evaluating the
However, evaluating a novel or a literary cost and
text benefit associated with each alternative.
For
example, when you have the option to
choose
between psychology and economics as
subjects in Class XI, your decision would
be
based upon your interest, future
prospects,
availability of books, efficiency of
teachers, etc.
You could evaluate them by talking to
seniors
and faculty members and attending a
few
classes, etc. Decision-making differs
from
other types of problem solving. In
decisionmaking
we already know the various solutions
or choices and one has to be selected.
Suppose
your friend is a very good player of
badminton.
S/he is getting an opportunity to play at
the
state level. At the same time the final
examination is approaching and s/he
needs
to study hard for it. S/he will have to
choose
between two options, practising for
badminton
or studying for the final examination. In
this
situation her/his decision will be based
upon
evaluation of all possible outcomes.
You would observe that people differ in
their priorities and therefore their
decisions
will differ. In real life situations we take
quick
decisions and therefore, it is not possible
always to evaluate every situation
thoroughly
and exhaustively.
NATURE AND PROCESS OF CREATIVE
THINKING
You might have wondered at times how
some
one for the first time, thought of acts
like
planting a seed, or devising a wheel, or
decorating the walls of caves with
drawings,
etc. Perhaps not satisfied with the old
ways of
carrying out day-to-day activities, such
persons thought of something original.
There
are countless others whose creativity
has led
to the present day scientific and
technological
progress that we now enjoy. Music,
painting,
poetry, and other forms of art that give
us
pleasure and joy, are all products of
creative
thinking.
You might have heard about A.D. Karve,
a
botanist from our country, who got the
UK’s
top energy award for devising a
smokeless
‘Chullah’. He converted dry, useless
sugarcane
leaves into clean fuel. You might have
also
heard of Class XI student Ashish Panwar,
who
won a bronze medal for assembling a
five feet
tall robot at the First International
Robotics
Olympiad held at Glasgow. These are
only a
few examples of creativity. Try to think
of some
other examples of creativity in different
fields. of
It is important to remember that thinking or thinking differently. However,
creative it is
thinking is not always expressed in important to know that, besides novelty,
extraordinary work. One does not have originality is also an important
to be a characteristic
scientist or an artist to be a creative of creative thinking. Every year new
thinker. models
Everyone has the potential to be of household appliances, tape-recorders,
creative. cars,
Creative thinking can be applied in scooters, and television sets produced
almost any may not
area of human activity at different be original unless unique features are
levels. It added
could be reflected in activities like to these products. Creative thinking thus
writing, refers to originality and uniqueness of
teaching, cooking, enacting roles, story ideas
telling, or solutions that did not previously exist.
conversation, dialogues, asking Creative thinking is also generally
questions, characterised by what Bruner calls
playing games, trying to solve day-to- “effective
day surprise”. If the product or idea is
problems, organising activities, helping unusual,
others the response of most who experience it
resolve conflicts, and so on. This is one
concept of of instant surprise or of being startled.
‘Everyday Creativity’, which is reflected Another important criterion that
in one’s characterises creative thinking is its
way of perceiving thinking and problem appropriateness in a particular context.
solving, Simply thinking of being different
is different from the ‘special talent without any
creativity’ purpose, doing things in one’s own
seen in outstanding creative ways, being
achievements. non-conformist, indulging in fantasy
Psychology without
158 any purpose or coming out with a
Nature of Creative Thinking bizarre idea,
Creative thinking is distinguished from is at times mistaken for creative
other thinking.
types of thinking by the fact that it Researchers tend to agree that thinking
involves is said
the production of novel and original to be creative when it is reality-oriented,
ideas or appropriate, constructive, and socially
solutions to problems. Sometimes, desirable.
creative J.P. Guilford, a pioneer in creativity
thinking is understood just as a new way research, proposed two types of
thinking:
convergent and divergent. Convergent
thinking refers to thinking that is
required to
solve problems which have only one
correct
answer. The mind converges to the
correct
solution. To illustrate, look at the
question
given below. It is based on a number
series,
where you have to find the next number.
Only
one right answer is expected.
Q. 3,6,9….. what will come next?
Ans. 12.
Now you try to think of certain questions
for which there is no one right answer
but
many answers. A few such questions are
given
below:
• What are the various uses of cloth?
• What improvements will you suggest
in a
chair so that it becomes more
comfortable
and aesthetically pleasing?
• What will happen if examinations are
abolished in schools?
Answers to the above questions require
divergent thinking which is an open-
ended
thinking where the individual can think
of
different answers to the questions or
problems
in terms of her/his experiences. Such
kind of
thinking helps in producing novel and
original
ideas.
Divergent thinking abilities generally
include fluency, flexibility, originality,
and
elaboration.
• Fluency is the ability to produce many
ideas for a given task or a problem. The
more ideas a person produces, the
higher
his fluency ability. For example, more
the
number of uses of a paper cup, more
would
be the fluency.
• Flexibility indicates variety in thinking.
It may be thinking of different uses of an
object, or different interpretation of a
picture, story or different ways of
solving
a problem. In case of uses of a paper
cup,
for example, one may give an idea to
use it
as a container or to draw a circle, etc.
Fig.8.5 : Thinking Divergently
Chapter 8 • Thinking
159
• Originality is the ability to produce
ideas
that are rare or unusual by seeing new
relationships, combining old ideas with
new ones, looking at things from
different
perspectives etc. Research has shown
that
fluency and flexibility are the necessary
conditions for originality. The more and
varied ideas one produces, the greater
the
likelihood of original ideas.
• Elaboration is the ability that enables
a
person to go into details and workout
implications of new ideas.
Divergent thinking abilities facilitate
generation of a variety of ideas which
may not
seem to be related. For example, what
are the
common ideas for enhancing food
production?
The likely answers would be related to
quality
of seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, and so on.
If
someone thinks of cultivation in a desert
for
extracting protein from weeds, it would
be a
remote idea. The association here is
between
‘food production’ and ‘desert’ or
‘weeds’.
Ordinarily, we do not associate these
together.
But, if we let our mind free to seek new
and
remote associations, a number of
combination
of ideas may arise out of which one or
two
may turn out to be original. You must
remember that both convergent and
divergent
thinking are important for creative
thinking.
Divergent thinking is essential in
generating
a wide range of ideas. Convergent
thinking is
important to identify the most useful or
appropriate idea.
Edward de Bono has used the term ‘lateral
thinking’ to what Guilford termed as divergent
thinking. He makes a distinction between
vertical
thinking and lateral thinking. Vertical thinking
involves mental operations that move in a
straight
line back and forth between lower and higher
level concepts whereas lateral thinking
involves
looking for alternative ways of defining and
interpreting problems. He states “vertical
(logical)
thinking digs the same hole deeper, i.e.
thinking
deeper in the same direction; lateral thinking is
concerned with digging a hole in another
place”.
De Bono suggests that lateral thinking can help
make mental leaps and is likely to create a
number of ways of thinking. De Bono
developed
Box 8.2 Lateral Thinking
the ‘Six thinking hats’ technique to stimulate
different
modes of thinking. One can put on or take off
these
hats according to the type of thinking required
to be
used. White hat means gathering information,
facts,
figures, and filling gaps in information. Red hat
covers
expression of feelings, and emotions on the
subject.
Black hat represents judgment, caution and
logic.
Yellow hat covers thinking on what will work
and
why it will be beneficial. Green hat is for
creativity,
alternatives and changes. Blue hat represents
thinking about the process and not the ideas
as such.
The ‘six thinking hats’ reflect different
perspectives
from which an issue or problem is viewed. The
technique can be used individually as well as in
groups.
Frame five different kinds of questions
requiring
divergent thinking on issues and problems
related
to traffic management/pollution/corruption/
illiteracy/poverty. Share and discuss in the
class.
Activity 8.4
Process of Creative Thinking
In recent years, more and more
attention has
been given to the way the human mind
operates. Research has made it clear
that
thinking of new and unusual ideas
involve
more than a flash of insight. There are
stages
before and after the new ideas come. task for sometime. This is the stage of
The starting point in creative process is incubation. Research shows that
the need to think or bring out something creative
new ideas may not occur immediately during
which initiates the effort. Not everyone incubation when the individual is not
experiences this need, as one can be consciously thinking about the problem
happy but
and contented, in carrying out routine seeking relaxation from conscious effort.
work. They
The need for search of new ideas and may occur or strike when a person is
solutions doing
arises from sensing problems and gaps something else, for example, going to
in sleep,
information. The process of creative waking up, taking a bath or just walking
thinking along.
begins with the preparation stage that Followed by incubation is the stage of
Psychology illumination - the ‘Aha’! or ‘I have found
160 it’
requires one to understand the task or experience, the moment we normally
problem in hand, analyse the problem, associate
and with emergence of creative ideas. There
become aware of the background facts usually
and is, a feeling of excitement, even
related information. The process evokes satisfaction,
curiosity and excitement to think more of having found a creative idea. Last is
and the
more in different directions. The person stage of verification when the worth or
tries appropriateness of ideas or solutions are
to look at the task or problem from tested and judged. Here, convergent
different thinking
angles and viewpoints. Here, divergent plays its role in selecting the appropriate
thinking abilities discussed earlier play idea
their or solution that works.
role to help one extend in new DEVELOPING CREATIVE THINKING
directions.
As discussed in the previous section,
Coming back to the process, when the
you may
person is trying to generate alternative
recall that the potential for creative
ideas
thinking
and trying to view the problem or task
is in all of us. It is not limited to a few
from
talented
an unusual perspective, there may be a
artists or scientists or to a chosen few.
feeling
The
of getting stuck. One may even get
expression of creative thinking may vary
disgusted
from
with failure and may leave the problem
individual to individual. Although
or the
hereditary
factors are important in determining the discussing, you may analyse how you
extent approach your tasks and problems.
to which one can be creative, There are blocks to creative thinking
environmental which
factors facilitate or hamper the can be categorised as habitual,
development perceptual,
of creative thinking abilities. Research in motivational, emotional, and cultural.
different countries including India has Although much habitual learning is
shown necessary
a slump in the level of creative thinking for smooth and efficient functioning
of within the
school children at different stages due to daily routine, the tendency to be
environmental factors. On the other overpowered
hand, by habits particularly in one’s ways of
research also indicates that children thinking
from Fig.8.6 : The Creative Process
lower socio-economic groups, ethnic and Chapter 8 • Thinking
161
minority groups have substantial
to block creative thinking. Cultural
untapped
blocks arise
creativity and that they are creative in
due to the fear of being different, the
many
tendency
different ways.
to maintain status quo, willingness to
Research has also shown that all of us
accept
can
mediocrity, preservation of personal
make better use of our abilities for
security,
creative
social pressure, over dependence on
thinking through practice and training.
others, etc.
We can
The fact that everyone has the potential
become more imaginative, flexible, and
to
original
be creative and that one can differ in
in solving day-to-day problems
one’s
creatively and
expression of creative thinking requires
effectively. Development of creative
that
thinking
we all tap our creative potential and
is important for one’s personal growth
remove
and
the barriers as discussed above.
fulfilment.
Ponder over some statements that we often
Barriers to Creative Thinking use
The first step in developing creative and which may prevent or aid the emergence
thinking of
is to identify inhibiting factors that those creative ideas. List those which may
impede block
new ideas like ‘This is not logical’, ‘Time is too
creative expression and then make
short
conscious to think any more’, ‘It would not work’, etc. and
attempts to overcome the same. As we positive statements like ‘Is there any other
are way?’,
‘What else?’, etc. show
Activity 8.5 that creative thinking is not merely a
can be detrimental to creative cognitive
expression. We process. Lack of motivation, fear of
become so used to thinking and failure, fear
perceiving of being different, fear of ridicule or
things in a familiar way that it becomes rejection,
difficult to think in novel ways. It may be poor self-concept, negativism, etc. may
related to our tendency to quickly jump hamper creative thinking. For example,
to some
conclusions, not to see problems from people may not be motivated enough to
fresh extend
perspectives, be satisfied with routine themselves and make extra efforts. A
patterns person
of doing things, or resist to overcome may find that s/he can not do it further,
preconceived may
viewpoints, and not to change leave the problem in between or may
immediate judgment, etc. The accept
perceptual the intermediate idea as the final idea.
blocks prevent us from being open to Further,
novel some people, for example, have
and original ideas. Try to recall the negative
joining assumptions about themselves. They
dot problem in Activity 8.3, where you feel that
were they are not capable of doing some
required to connect all nine dots with tasks. You
four may be surprised to know that Thomas
straight lines going through each dot Alva
only once Edison, the inventor of the bulb, took
without lifting the pencil or pen from the years of
paper. experimentation with hundreds of
The solution to the problem lies in going failures
beyond the boundaries. We assume that before he produced the first bulb.
boundaries exist whereas they did not. Cultural barriers are related to excessive
Many adherence to traditions, expectations,
would attempt to solve the problem by conformity pressures, and stereotypes.
staying Conformity to some extent is essential
in the square that the nine dots form. for
There social existence but excessive
is nothing in the directions to do this. conformity to
The traditions, rituals, and procedures are
joining dots problem is indicative of the likely
boundaries and the limitations that are Strategies for Creative Thinking
assumed or self-imposed. Research on characteristics of creative
Motivational and emotional blocks also people
interfere with creative thinking which has revealed that there are certain
attitudes,
dispositions, and skills which facilitate
creative
thinking. Here are some strategies to
help you
enhance your creative thinking abilities
and
skills:
• Become more aware and sensitive to
be
able to notice and respond to feelings,
sights, sounds, textures around you.
Spot
problems, missing information,
anomalies,
gaps, deficiencies, and so on. Try to
notice
contradictions and incompleteness in
situations that others may not do. For
this,
cultivate the habit of wider reading,
exposure to a variety of information, and
develop the art of asking questions,
pondering over the mysteries of
situations
and objects.
• Generate as many ideas, responses,
solutions or suggestions on a given task
or situation to increase your flow of
thoughts. Try deliberately to look for
multiple angles of a task and situation to
increase flexibility in your thinking. It
could be, for example, thinking of
alternative arrangements of furniture in
a distinct or remote ideas. A creative
room to generate more space, different
Psychology
162
ways of conversing with people, looking
for
costs and benefits of a course of study
or
career, looking for ways of dealing with
an
angry friend, helping others, etc.
• Osborn’s Brainstorming technique can
be
used to increase fluency and flexibility
of
ideas to open-ended situations.
Brainstorming is based on the principle
that producing ideas should be kept
separate from the evaluation of their
worth.
The basic assumption is to let the minds
think freely and the tendency to put
judgment on the worth of ideas may be
postponed, i.e. imagination should be
given priority over judgment till all the
ideas are exhausted. This helps in
increasing the fluency of ideas and
piling
up alternatives. Brainstorming can be
practised by playing brainstorming
games
with family members and friends
keeping
its principles in mind. Use of checklists
and questions often provide a new twist
for ideas like, What other changes?
What
else? In how many ways could it be
done?
What could be the other uses of this
object?
and so on.
• Originality can be developed by
practicing
fluency, flexibility, habit of associative
thinking, exploring linkages, and fusing
thinker,
it is said, may not evolve new ideas but
evolve new combination of ideas. It is
the
chain of thoughts and cross-fertilisation
of ideas that may bring out something
new.
The idea of the ‘rocking chair’ has come
from the combination of ‘chair’ and
‘seesaw’.
Practice making unusual and
unexpected associations using evaluation of ideas, may bring in the
analogies. ‘Aha!’
Sometimes finding original experience.
ideas/solutions • Sometimes ideas cluster like branches
requires a dramatic shift of focus which of
can be facilitated by asking oneself : a tree. It is useful to diagram your
what thinking
is the opposite of the commonplace or so that you can follow each possible
usual solution to the problem? Allow branch
conflicting thoughts to co-exist. Looking to its completion.
for solutions opposite to the obvious • Resist the temptation for immediate
may reward and success and cope with the
lead to original solutions. frustration and failure. Encourage
• Engage yourself more frequently in selfevaluation.
activities which require use of • Develop independent thinking in
imagination making
and original thinking rather than routine judgments, figuring out things without
work according to your interest and any
hobbies. It may be decorating the help or resources.
house, • Visualise causes and consequences
improvising or redesigning of old and
objects, think ahead, predicting things that have
making use of waste products in never happened, like, suppose the time
multiple starts moving backwards, what would
ways, completing incomplete ideas in happen?, If we had no zero?, etc.
unique ways, giving new twist to stories • Be aware of your own defenses
or poems, developing riddles, puzzles, concerning
solving mysteries and so on. the problem. When we feel threatened
• Never accept the first idea or solution. by
Many ideas die because we reject them a problem we are less likely to think of
thinking that the idea might be a silly creative ideas.
idea. • Last but not the least, be self-
You have to first generate a number of confident
possible ideas or solutions, then select and positive. Never undermine your
the creative potential. Experience the joy of
best from among them. your creation.
• Get a feedback on the solutions you Chapter 8 • Thinking
decide 163
on from others who are less personally THOUGHT AND LANGUAGE
involved in the task. Till now, we have discussed the nature
• Try to think of what solutions someone and
else may offer for your problems. meaning of thinking and how thinking is
• Give your ideas the chance to based
incubate. on images and concepts. We have also
Allowing time for incubation between discussed the various processes of
production of ideas and the stage of thought.
Throughout the discussion did you feel language?
that Benjamin Lee Whorf was of the view
words or language are essential to that
express what language determines the contents of
we think? This section examines the thought.
relationship between language and This view is known as linguistic relativity
thought: hypothesis. In its strong version, this
that language determines thought, that hypothesis holds what and how
thought individuals
determines language, and that thought can possibly think is determined by the
and language and linguistic categories they
language have different origins. Let us use
examine (linguistic determinism). Experimental
these three viewpoints in some detail. evidence, however, maintains that it is
Language as Determinant of Thought possible
In Hindi and other Indian languages we to have the same level or quality of
use a thoughts
number of different words for various in all languages depending upon the
kinship availability of linguistic categories and
relationships. We have different terms structures. Some thoughts may be
for easier in
mother’s brother, father’s elder brother, one language compared to another.
father’s younger brother, mother’s Thought as Determinant of Language
sister’s The noted Swiss psychologist, Jean
husband, father’s sister’s husband, and Piaget
so on. believed that thought not only
An English person uses just one word determines
uncle language, but also precedes it. Piaget
to describe all these kinship argued
relationships. In that children form an internal
the English language there are dozens representation
of words of the world through thinking. For
for colours whereas some tribal example,
languages when children see something and later
have only two to four colour terms. Do copy
such it (a process called imitation), thinking
differences matter for how we think? does
Does an take place, which does not involve
Indian child find it easier to think about language.
and A child’s observation of other’s
differentiate between various kinship behaviour and
relationships compared to her imitation of the same behaviour, no
Englishspeaking doubt
counterpart? Does our thinking involves thinking but not language.
process depend on how we describe it in Language
our is just one of the vehicles of thinking. As
actions become internalised, language of inner speech and vice versa. Thought
may is used
affect children’s range of symbolic without language when the vehicle of
thinking but thinking
is not necessary for the origins of is non-verbal such as visual or
thought. movementrelated.
Piaget believed that though language Language is used without thought
can be when expressing feelings or exchanging
taught to children, understanding of the pleasantries, for example “Good
words morning! How
require knowledge of the underlying are you?” “Very well, I am fine”. When
concepts the two
(i.e. thinking). Thus, thought is basic, functions overlap, they can be used
and together
necessary if language is to be to produce verbal thought and rational
understood. speech.
Different Origins of Language and Psychology
Thought 164
The Russian psychologist, Lev DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE AND
Vyogotsky, LANGUAGE USE
argued that thoughts and language Meaning and Nature of Language
develop In the previous section we discussed the
in a child separately until about two relationship between language and
years of thought.
age, when they merge. Before two years In this section, we will examine how
thought is preverbal and is experienced human
more beings acquire and use language in
in action (Piaget’s sensory motor stage). different
The age groups. Think for a moment: what
child’s utterances are more automatic would
reflexes have happened if you did not have a
- crying when uncomfortable - than language
thoughtbased. to express whatever you wanted to say?
Around two years of age, the child In
expresses thought verbally and her/his the absence of language you will not be
speech able
reflects rationality. Now children are able to communicate your ideas and feelings,
to nor
manipulate thoughts using soundless will you have the opportunity to know or
speech. have
He believed that during this period the access to what others think and feel. As
development of language and thinking a child
become when you first started saying
interdependent; the development of “ma..ma..ma.”,
conceptual thinking depends upon the it not only gave you tremendous boost
quality to
continue repeating this activity but also of
was certain rules that we use to
a great moment of joy for your parents communicate with
and each other. You will notice that language
other care-givers. Slowly you learnt to has
say ‘ma’ three basic characteristics: (a) the
and ‘papa’ and sometime later presence of
combined two symbols, (b) a set of rules to organise
or more words to communicate your these
needs, symbols, and (c) communication. Here
feelings, and thoughts. You learnt words we shall
appropriate for situations and also learnt be discussing these three characteristics
the of
rules of putting these words in language.
sentences. The first characteristic of language is
Initially you learnt to communicate in that
the it involves symbols. Symbols represent
language being used at home (usually something or someone else, for
the example, the
mother-tongue), went to school and place where you live is called ‘home’,
learnt the the place
formal language of instruction (in many where you study is called ‘school’, the
cases thing
this language is different from the that you eat is called ‘food’. Words like
mothertongue), home,
and were promoted to higher grades school, food, and numerous other words
and learnt other languages. If you look do
back, not in themselves carry any meaning.
you will realise that your journey from When
crying these words are associated with some
and saying “ma..ma..ma” to the objects/
attainment of events they attain meaning and we
mastery in not one but many languages, begin
has recognising those objects/events, etc.
been a fascinating one. In this section with
we shall particular words (symbols). We use
be discussing the salient features of symbols
language while thinking.
acquisition. The second characteristic of language is
You have been using language all your that it involves rules. While combining
life. two or
Now try to define accurately what it is more words we usually follow a definite
that and
you have been using. Language consists accepted order of presenting these
of a words. For
system of symbols organised by means example, one would most likely say “I
am going communicating through any two languages.
to school” and not “school am going I”. Learning of more than two languages is
referred
The third characteristic of language is
to as multilingualism. The term mother tongue
that has
it is used for communicating one’s been variously defined as one’s native
thought, language,
ideas, intentions, and feelings to others. the language spoken by the individual from the
On cradle; language ordinarily used at home;
language spoken by the mother; etc. However,
many occasions we communicate
generally the mother tongue is viewed as a
through the language with which one identifies at the
use of our body parts, called gestures or
postures. This type of communication is
Box 8.3 Bilingualism and
called Multilingualism
non-verbal communication. Some emotional level. It is possible for individuals to
people who have
multiple mother tongues. The Indian social
cannot use oral speech, like the ones
context is
with characterised by grass root multilingualism
severe hearing and speech problems, which
communicate through signs. Sign makes bi/multilingualism a characteristic at the
language is levels
also a form of language. of individual as well as society. Most Indians
use more
Development of Language
than one language to communicate in various
Language is a complex system and domains
unique to of their daily life activities. Thus,
human beings. Psychologists have tried multilingualism is a
to way of life in India. Studies reveal that
teach sign language, use of symbols to bilingualism/
multilingualism facilitates cognitive, linguistic,
chimpanzees, dolphins, parrots, etc. But
and
it is academic competence of children.
observed that, human language is more great deal in the rate of their language
complex, creative, and spontaneous development as well as in how they go
than the about
system of communication other animals it. But when you take a general view of
can children’s acquisition of language all
learn. There is also a great deal of over the
regularity world you find some predictable pattern
with which children all over the world in
seem to which children proceed from almost no
be learning the language or languages use of
to which language to the point of becoming
they are exposed. When you compare competent
individual children, you find that they language users. Language develops
differ a through
Chapter 8 • Thinking
some of the stages discussed below.
165
Bilingualism refers to attaining proficiency in
Newborn babies and young infants make
a variety of sounds, which gradually get
modified to resemble words. The first word usually contains one syllable – ma
sound or
produced by babies is crying. Initial da, for instance. Gradually they move to
crying is one
undifferentiated and similar across or more words which are combined to
various form
situations. Gradually, the pattern of whole sentences or phrases. So they are
crying called
varies in its pitch and intensity to signify holophrases. When they are 18 to 20
different states such as hunger, pain, months
and of age, children enter a two-word stage
sleepiness, etc. These differentiated and
crying begin to use two words together. The
sounds gradually become more two-word
meaningful stage exemplifies telegraphic speech.
cooing sounds (like ‘aaa’, ‘uuu’, etc.) Like
usually telegrams (got admission, send money)
to express happiness. it
At around six months of age children contains mostly nouns and verbs. Close
enter to
the babbling stage. Babbling involves their third birthday, i.e. beyond two-and-
prolonged repetition of a variety of ahalf
consonants years, children’s language development
and vowel sounds (for example, da—, aa gets focused on rules of the language
—, they
ba—). By about nine months of age hear.
these How is language acquired? You must be
sounds get elaborated to strings of wondering: “How do we learn to speak?”
some sound As
combinations, such as ‘dadadadadada’ with many other topics in psychology,
into the
repetitive patterns called echolalia. question of whether a behaviour
While the develops as
early babblings are random or a result of inherited characteristics
accidental in (nature)
nature, the later babblings seem to be or from the effects of learning (nurture)
imitative has
of adult voices. Children show some been raised with regard to language.
understanding of a few words by the Most
time they psychologists accept that both nature
are six months old. Around the first and
birthday nurture are important in language
(the exact age varies from child to child) acquisition.
most Behaviourist B.F. Skinner believed we
children enter the one-word-stage. Their learn language the same way as animals
first learn
to pick keys or press bars (refer to innate proposition of development of
Chapter 6 language.
on Learning). Language development, For him the rate at which children
for the acquire
behaviourists follow the learning words and grammar without being
principles, taught can
such as association (the sight of bottle not be explained only by learning
with principles.
the word ‘bottle’), imitation (adults use Children also create all sorts of
of word sentences they
“bottle”), and reinforcement (smiles and have never heard and, therefore, could
hugs not be
Psychology imitating. Children throughout the world
166 seem
Bilingualism, Brainstorming, Concepts,
to have a critical period — a period
Convergent thinking, Creativity,
Decisionmaking,
when
Deductive reasoning, Divergent learning must occur if it is to occur
thinking, Functional fixedness, Illumination, successfully — for learning language.
Images, Incubation, Inductive reasoning, Children
Judgment, Language, Mental representation, across the world also go through the
Mental set, Multilingualism, Problem solving,
same
Reasoning, Remote association, Syntax,
Thinking
stages of language development.
Chomsky
Key Terms believes language development is just
when the child says something right). like
There is physical maturation- given adequate
also evidence that children produce care, it
sounds “just happens to the child”. Children are
that are appropriate to a language of born
the with “universal grammar”. They readily
parent or care-giver and are reinforced learn
for the grammar of whatever language they
having done so. The principle of shaping hear.
leads Skinner’s emphasis on learning explains
to successive approximation of the why infants acquire the language they
desired hear
responses so that the child eventually and how they add new words to their
speaks vocabularies. Chomsky’s emphasis on
as well as the adult. Regional differences our
in built-in readiness to learn grammar
pronunciation and phrasing illustrate helps
how explain why children acquire language
different patterns are reinforced in so
different readily without direct teaching.
areas. Language Use
Linguist Noam Chomsky put forth the As we have discussed earlier, language
use and
involves knowing socially appropriate creative thinking.
• Problem solving is thinking directed towards
ways
the solution of a specific problem.
of communication. Knowledge of • Mental set, functional fixedness, lack of
vocabulary motivation and persistence are some of the
and syntax of a language does not hindrances
ensure for effective problem solving.
proper use of language to achieve the Chapter 8 • Thinking
167
purpose
1. Observe children of 1 year, 2 years, and 3
of communication in a variety of social years old over a period of one week. Record
situations. When we use language we the
have speech and note how the child is learning
various pragmatic intentions such as words and how many words the child has
requesting, asking, thanking, learnt over this period.
2. Make a collage of news headlines,
demanding,
advertisements, cartoons etc. and arrange
etc. In order to effectively serve these them in
social your own way to depict a particular theme or a
goals, language use must be context other than the one in which they
pragmatically were used. Write an original message or slogan
correct or contextually appropriate to describe it. Reflect on the steps and the
barriers you experienced in thinking of original
besides
ideas.
being grammatical and meaningful.
Children Project Ideas
• Reasoning, like problem solving, is goal
often have difficulty with choice of
directed, involves inference and can be either
appropriate utterances for politeness or
deductive
for or inductive.
requests and their use of language • In making judgment, we draw conclusions,
conveys form opinions, make evaluations about objects
a demand or a command instead of a or
events.
polite
• In decision-making one must choose among
request. When children are engaged in
several available alternatives.
conversations, they also have difficulty • Judgment and decision-making are
in interrelated processes.
taking turns in speaking and listening • Creative thinking involves the production of
like something new and original — it may be an
idea,
adults.
object or solution to a problem.
Summary • Developing creative thinking requires
overcoming blocks to creative expression and
• Thinking is a complex mental process using
through which we manipulate information strategies to enhance creative thinking skills
(either and abilities.
acquired or stored). It is an internal process • Language is distinctly human. It consists of
that can be inferred from behaviour. Thinking symbols, organised on the basis of certain
involves mental representations that are either rules
mental images or concepts. to communicate intentions, feelings, motives,
• Complex thought processes are problem and desires among human beings.
solving, reasoning, decision-making, judgment, • Major development in language occurs
during the first two to three years of age.
• Language and thought are intricately related.
1. Explain the nature of thinking.
2. What is a concept? Explain the role of
concept in the thinking process.
3. Identify obstacles that one may encounter in
problem solving.
4. How does reasoning help in solving
problems?
5. Are judgment and decision-making
interrelated processes? Explain.
6. Why is divergent thinking important in
creative thinking process?
7. What are the various barriers to creative
thinking?
8. How can creative thinking be enhanced?
9. Does thinking take place without language?
Discuss.
10. How is language acquired in human
beings?
Review Questions
thinking or trying a simpler and quick method
of pouring water from
A to C. If your friend is following this procedure
then you can conclude that solving the 5
problems has
formed a mental set in her/his mind. The 7th
problem requires a direct solution of pouring
water from A to
C. But the mental set is so powerful that many
would fail to think of any other steps, other
than the already
tried one.
The standard method A simpler method A case
where only the simple method works
Problems 1-5 Problem 6 Problem 7

9
Psychology
168
Answers to problems in Activity 8.3
Problem 1 : ANAGRAM, PROBLEM, SOLVE,
INSIGHT, SOLUTION.
Chapter
Problem 2 :

Motivation
Problem 3 :
The solution for this problem is fill bottle B (127
ml) completely and then pour out water in
bottle A (21 ml)
to fill it completely. Now 106 ml is left in bottle
B (127ml–21ml). Next pour enough water out
of B to fill up C
and Emotion
(3 ml), and then empty the bottle C by pouring • understand the nature of human
out all the water from C. Now there is 103 ml of motivation,
water in B and • describe the nature of some important
C is empty. Then again pour water from B to fill motives,
up C. Now you will be left with 100 ml of water • describe the nature of emotional
in B. expression,
In case of the first 5 problems, the desired • understand the relationship between
amount can be reached by the sequence B–A–
culture and emotion, and
2C. However, the 6th
• know how to manage your own
and 7th problems are critical. In the 6th
problem, the desired amount of water is 20 ml emotions.
and the capacity of After reading this chapter, you
the three bottles are: A can hold 23 ml, B can
hold 49 ml and C can hold 3 ml. Observe how would be able to
the participant Introduction
is solving this problem. Most likely he would Nature of Motivation
successfully solve the problem by following the Types of Motives
already tried Biological Motives
sequence {49–23–(2 X 3)} without even Psychosocial Motives
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Motivation (Box 9.1)
Nature of Emotions
Physiological Bases of Emotions
Physiology of Emotion (Box 9.2)
Lie Detection (Box 9.3)
Cognitive Bases of Emotions
Cultural Bases of Emotions
Expression of Emotions
Culture and Emotional Expression
Culture and Emotional Labeling
Managing Negative Emotions
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (Box 9.4)
Management of Examination Anxiety (Box
9.5)
Enhancing Positive Emotions
Emotional Intelligence (Box 9.6)
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
Contents
Emotion has taught mankind
to reason.
– Marquis de Vauvenargues
Psychology
170
Sunita, a girl from a little known town,
puts in 10-12 hours of hard work
everyday
in order to get through the various
engineering entrance examinations.
Hemant, a
physically challenged boy, wants to take
part in an expedition and trains himself
extensively in a mountaineering
institute. Aman saves money from his
scholarship
so that he can buy a gift for his mother.
These are just a few examples, which
indicate the role motivation plays in
human behaviour. Each of these
behaviours
are caused by an underlying motive.
Behaviour is goal-driven. Goal-seeking
behaviour tends to persist until the goal
is achieved. For achieving their goals
people
plan and undertake different activities.
How is Sunita going to feel if after all
the
hard work she has put in, she does not
succeed or Aman’s scholarship money
gets
stolen. Sunita, perhaps, will be sad and
Aman angry. This chapter will help you
to
understand the basic concepts of
motivation and emotion, and related
developments
in these two areas. You will also get to
know the concepts of frustration and
conflict.
The basic emotions, their biological
bases, overt expressions, cultural
influences,
their relationship with motivation, and
some techniques to help you manage
your
emotions better will also be dealt with.
Introduction
NATURE OF MOTIVATION
The concept of motivation focuses on
explaining what “moves” behaviour. In
fact,
the term motivation is derived from the
Latin
word ‘movere’, referring to movement of
activity. Most of our everyday
explanation of
behaviour is given in terms of motives.
Why
do you come to the school or college?
There
may be any number of reasons for this
behaviour, such as you want to learn or
to
make friends, you need a diploma or
degree
to get a good job, you want to make
your random
parents happy, and so on. Some activity. When one of the random
combination activities
of these reasons and/or others would leads to a goal, it reduces the drive, and
explain the
why you choose to go in for higher organism stops being active. The
education. organism
Motives also help in making predictions returns to a balanced state. Thus, the
about cycle of
behaviour. A person will work hard in motivational events can be presented as
school, shown
in sports, in business, in music, and in in Fig.9.1.
many Are there different types of motives? Are
other situations, if s/he has a very there any biological bases explaining
strong need different
for achievement. Hence, motives are the kinds of motives? What happens if your
general states that enable us to make motive
predictions about behaviour in many remains unfulfilled? These are some of
different the
situations. In other words, motivation is questions we will discuss in the following
one sections.
of the determinants of behaviour. TYPES OF MOTIVES
Instincts, Basically, there are two types of motives
drives, needs, goals, and incentives :
come biological and psychosocial. Biological
under the broad cluster of motivation. motives
The Motivational Cycle are also known as physiological motives
Psychologists now use the concept of as
need to they are guided mostly by the
describe the motivational properties of physiological
behaviour. A need is lack or deficit of mechanisms of the body. Psychosocial
some motives, on the other hand, are
necessity. The condition of need leads to primarily
drive. learned from the individual’s
Fig.9.1 : The Motivational Cycle interactions with
Need the various environmental factors.
Reduction of However, both types of motives are
arousal
interdependent on each other. That is, in
Goal-directed
some
behaviour
kind of situations the biological factors
Achievement
may
Drive
trigger a motive whereas in some other
Arousal
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion situations, the psychosocial factors may
171 trigger the motive. Hence, you should
A drive is a state of tension or arousal keep in
produced by a need. It energises mind that no motive is absolutely
biological something to reduce that impetus. Some
or psychosocial per se, rather they are of
aroused the basic biological needs explained by
in the individual with varying this
combinations. approach are hunger, thirst, and sex,
Biological Motives which
The biological or physiological approach are essential for the sustenance of the
to individual.
explain motivation is the earliest Fig.9.2 : Types of Motives
attempt to Biological Motives
understand causes of behaviour. Most of Focus on the innate, biological causes
the theories, which developed later, of motivation like hormones,
carry neurotransmitters, brain structures
(hypothalamus, limbic system, etc.).
traces of the influence of the biological
For example, hunger, thirst and
approach. The approach adhering to the
sex motives.
concept of adaptive act holds that
Psychosocial Motives
organisms
Focus on psychological and social
have needs (internal physiological
(as well as environmental) factors and
imbalances) how they interact with each other to
that produce drive, which stimulates produce motivation. For example,
behaviour leading to certain actions need for achievement, affiliation, power,
towards curiosity and exploration, and
achieving certain goals, which reduce selfactualisation
the motives.
drive. The earliest explanations of Types of Motives
motivation Psychology
relied on the concept of instinct. The 172
term Hunger
instinct denotes inborn patterns of When someone is hungry, the need for
behaviour food
that are biologically determined rather dominates everything else. It motivates
than people
learned. Some common human instincts to obtain and consume food. Of course
include curiosity, flight, repulsion, we
reproduction, parental care, etc. must eat to live. But, what makes you
Instincts are feel
innate tendencies found in all members hungry? Studies have indicated that
of a many
species that direct behaviour in events inside and outside the body may
predictable trigger
ways. The term instinct most hunger or inhibit it. The stimuli for
approximately hunger
refers to an urge to do something. include stomach contractions, which
Instinct has signify
an “impetus” which drives the organism that the stomach is empty, a low
to do concentration
of glucose in the blood, a low level of stimulated.
protein When it is damaged, animals stop eating
and the amount of fats stored in the and
body. die of starvation. The VMH is located in
The liver also responds to the lack of the
bodily middle of the hypothalamus, which is
fuel by sending nerve impulses to the otherwise known as hunger-controlling
brain. area
The aroma, taste or appearance of food which inhibits the hunger drive. Now can
may you
also result in a desire to eat. It may be guess about people who overeat and
noted become
that none of these alone gives you the obese, and people who eat very little or
feeling who
that you are hungry. All in combination are on a diet?
act Thirst
with external factors (such as taste, What would happen to you, if you were
colour, deprived of water for a long time? What
by observing others eating, and the makes
smell of you feel thirsty? When we are deprived
food, etc.) to help you understand that of water
you for a period of several hours, the mouth
are hungry. Thus, it can be said that our and
food throat become dry, which leads to
intake is regulated by a complex dehydration
feedingsatiety of body tissues. Drinking water is
system located in the hypothalamus, necessary
liver, and other parts of the body as well to wet a dry mouth. But a dry mouth
as does not
the external cues available in the always result in water drinking
environment. behaviour. In
Some physiologists hold that changes in fact processes within the body itself
the metabolic functions of the liver control
result in a thirst and drinking of water. Water must
feeling of hunger. The liver sends a get
signal to a into the tissues sufficiently to remove
part of the brain called hypothalamus. the
The dryness of mouth and throat.
two regions of hypothalamus involved in Motivation to drink water is mainly
hunger are - the lateral hypothalamus triggered by the conditions of the body:
(LH) loss
and the ventro-medial hypothalamus of water from cells and reduction of
(VMH). blood
LH is considered to be the excitatory volume. When water is lost by bodily
area. fluids,
Animals eat when this area is water leaves the interior of the cells.
The (the
anterior hypothalamus contains nerve tendency of the organism as a whole to
cells maintain constancy or to attempt to
called ‘osmoreceptors’, which generate restore
nerve equilibrium if constancy is disturbed) is
impulses in case of cell dehydration. not
These the goal of sexual activity; and (c) sex
nerve impulses act as a signal for thirst drive
and develops with age, etc. In case of lower
drinking; when thirst is regulated by loss animals, it depends on many
of physiological
water from the osmoreceptors, it is Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
called 173
cellular-dehydration thirst. But what conditions; in case of human beings, the
mechanisms stop the drinking of water? sex
Some drive is very closely regulated
researchers assume that the mechanism biologically,
which explains the intake of water is sometimes it is very difficult to classify
also sex
responsible for stopping the intake of purely as a biological drive.
water. Physiologists suggest that intensity of
Others have pointed out that the role of the
stimuli sexual urge is dependent upon chemical
resulting from the intake of water in the substances circulating in the blood,
stomach must have something to do known
with as sex hormones. Studies on animals as
stopping of drinking water. However, the well
precise physiological mechanisms as human beings have mentioned that
underlying sex
the thirst drive are yet to be understood. hormones secreted by gonads, i.e.
Sex testes in
One of the most powerful drives in both males and the ovaries in females are
animals and human beings is the sex responsible for sexual motivation.
drive. Sexual
Motivation to engage in sexual activity is motivation is also influenced by other
a very endocrine glands, such as adrenal and
strong factor influencing human pituitary glands. Sexual drive in human
behaviour. beings is primarily stimulated by
However, sex is far more than a external
biological stimuli and its expression depends upon
motive. It is different from other primary cultural learning.
motives (hunger, thirst) in many ways Psychosocial Motives
like, Social motives are mostly learned or
(a) sexual activity is not necessary for acquired.
an Social groups such as family,
individual’s survival; (b) homeostasis neighbourhood,
friends, and relatives do contribute a lot Need for Power
in Need for power is an ability of a person
acquiring social motives. These are to
complex produce intended effects on the
forms of motives mainly resulting from behaviour and
the emotions of another person. The various
individual’s interaction with her/his goals
social of power motivation are to influence,
environment. control,
Need for Affiliation persuade, lead, and charm others and
Most of us need company or friend or most
want to importantly to enhance one’s own
maintain some form of relationship with reputation
others. Nobody likes to remain alone all in the eyes of other people.
the David McClelland (1975) described four
time. As soon as people see some kinds general ways of expression of the power
of motive. First, people do things to gain
similarities among themselves or they feeling
like each of power and strength from sources
other, they form a group. Formation of outside
group themselves by reading stories about
or collectivity is an important feature of sports
human stars or attaching themselves to a
life. Often people try desperately to get popular
close figure. Second, power can also be felt
to other people, to seek their help, and from
to sources within us and may be expressed
become members of their group. by
Seeking other building up the body and mastering
human beings and wanting to be close urges and
to them impulses. Third, people do things as
both physically and psychologically is individuals to have an impact on others.
called For
affiliation. It involves motivation for example, a person argues, or competes
social with
contact. Need for affiliation is aroused another individual in order to have an
when impact
individuals feel threatened or helpless or influence on that person. Fourth,
and also people
when they are happy. People high on do things as members of organisations
this need to have
are motivated to seek the company of an impact on others as in the case of
others the leader
and to maintain friendly relationships of a political party; the individual may
with use the
other people. party apparatus to influence others.
However, adjust
for any individual, one of these ways of their goals to meet the challenge.
expressing power motivation may Curiosity and Exploration
dominate, Often people engage in activities
but with age and life experiences, it without a
varies. clear goal or purpose but they derive
Need for Achievement some
You might have observed some students kind of pleasure out of it. It is a
work motivational
very hard and compete with others for tendency to act without any specific
good identifiable goal. The tendency to seek
marks/grades in the examination, as for a
good novel experience, gain pleasure by
marks/grades will create opportunities obtaining
for information, etc. are signs of curiosity.
higher studies and better job prospects. Hence,
It is curiosity describes behaviour whose
the achievement motivation, which primary
refers to motive appears to remain in the
the desire of a person to meet standards activities
of themselves.
excellence. Need for achievement, also What will happen if the sky falls on us?
known Questions of this kind (What will happen
as n-Ach, energises and directs if…)
behaviour as stimulate intellectuals to find answers.
well as influences the perception of Studies show that this curiosity
situations. behaviour is
During the formative years of social not only limited to human beings,
development, children acquire animals too
achievement show the same kind of behaviour. We
motivation. The sources from which they are
learn driven to explore the environment by
it, include parents, other role models, our
and curiosity and our need for sensory
socio-cultural influences. Persons high in stimulation.
achievement motivation tend to prefer The need for varied types of sensory
tasks stimulations is closely related to
that are moderately difficult and curiosity. It
challenging. is the basic motive, and exploration and
Psychology curiosity are the expressions of it.
174 Our ignorance about a number of things
They have stronger-than-average desire around us becomes a powerful
for motivator to
feedback on their performance, that is explore the world. We get easily bored
to know with
how they are doing, so that they can repetitive experiences. So we look for
something new. safety needs of physical and
In the case of infants and small children, psychological
this motive is very dominant. They get nature. Next comes the need to seek out
satisfaction from being allowed to other
explore, people, to love and to be loved. After
which is reflected in their smiling and these
babbling. Children become easily needs are fulfilled, the individual strives
distressed, for
when the motive to explore is esteem, i.e. the need to develop a sense
discouraged, as of selfworth.
you have read in Chapter 4. The next higher need in the hierarchy
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS reflects an individual’s motive towards
There are various views on human the
motivation, fullest development of potential, i.e.
the most popular among these is given selfactualisation.
by A self-actualised person is selfaware,
Abraham H. Maslow (1968; 1970). He socially responsive, creative,
attempted to portray a picture of human spontaneous, open to novelty, and
behaviour by arranging the various challenge.
needs in S/he also has a sense of humour and
a hierarchy. His viewpoint about capacity
motivation for deep interpersonal relationships.
is very popular because of its theoretical Lower level needs (physiological) in the
and hierarchy dominate as long as they are
applied value which is popularly known unsatisfied. Once they are adequately
as the satisfied, the higher needs occupy the
“Theory of Self-actualisation” (see individual’s attention and effort.
Fig.9.3). However, it
Fig.9.3 : Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
Selfactualisation 175
needs must be noted that very few people
Esteem needs reach the
Belongingness needs
Safety needs
highest level because most people are
Physiological needs concerned more with the lower level
Maslow’s model can be conceptualised needs.
as realise our goal. The blocking of a
a pyramid in which the bottom of this desired goal
hierarchy represents basic physiological is painful, but all of us experience it in
or life in
biological needs which are basic to different degrees. Frustration occurs
survival when an
such as hunger, thirst, etc. Only when anticipated desirable goal is not
these attained and
needs are met, the need to be free from the motive is blocked. It is an aversive
threatened danger arises. This refers to state
the and no one likes it. Frustration results in
a hierarchy
variety of behavioural and emotional of needs. Soldiers, police officers, and fire
personnels have been known to protect others
reactions.
by
They include aggressive behaviour, facing very endangering situations, seemingly
fixation, in
escape, avoidance, and crying. In fact direct contradiction to the prominence of
frustration-aggression is a very famous safety
hypothesis proposed by Dollard and needs.
Why does it happen? Discuss it in your group
Miller.
and then with your teacher.
It states that frustration produces
aggression. Activity 9.1
Aggressive acts are often directed Frustration and Conflict
towards the So far we have taken a look at the
self or blocking agent, or a substitute. various
Direct theoretical perspectives on motivation.
aggressive acts may be inhibited by the They
threat explain the process of motivation and
of punishment. The main sources or what
causes leads to motivated action and what are
of frustration are found in: (i) the
environmental reasons for different motives. Now we
forces, which could be physical objects, will try
constraining situations or even other to understand what happens when
people motivated
who prevent a person from reaching a action is blocked or it fails due to certain
particular goal, (ii) personal factors like reasons. We will also try to understand
inadequacies or lack of resources that what
make happens when one is faced with more
it difficult or impossible to reach goals, than
and one motive or need at the same time.
(iii) conflicts between different motives. These
Conflict two concerns can be explained in the
Conflict occurs whenever a person must form of
choose between contradictory needs, two important concepts related to
desires, motivation,
motives, or demands. There are three namely frustration and conflict.
basic Frustration
forms of conflicts, for example, We come across many occasions when
approachapproach things
conflict, avoidance-avoidance go in an unexpected direction and we
conflict, and approach-avoidance fail to
Fig.9.4 : Need-Conflict-Frustration Route
conflict.
Drive
Approach-approach conflict comes from
Arousal
having to choose between two positives Need
and Target
Actual actions sometimes contradict the Behaviour
Aggression important
Failure decisions have approach-avoidance
Alternative dimensions.
Pathways
A major source of frustration lies in
A1
motivational conflict. In life, we are often
Conflict Frustration
A2
influenced by a number of competing
A3 forces
A4 that propel us in different directions.
A5 Such
Psychology situations demonstrate the condition of
176 conflict. Hence, the simultaneous
desirable alternatives. Avoidance- existence of
avoidance multiple wishes and needs characterise
conflict comes from choosing between conflict.
two In all the cases of conflicts, the selection
negatives, or mutually undesirable of one option against the other depends
alternatives. In real life, these double on
avoidance conflicts involve dilemmas the relative strength/importance of one
such as over
choosing between the dentist and tooth the other, and environmental factors.
decay, Conflicting situations should be resolved
roadside food and starvation, etc. after
Approachavoidance due consideration of the pros and cons
conflict comes from being attracted of each
to and repelled by the same goal or of the choices. A point to note here is
activity. that
These types of conflicts are also difficult conflicts cause frustration, which in turn,
to can
resolve, as they are more troublesome lead to aggression. For instance, a
than young man
avoidance conflicts. A central who wants to be a musician but is
characteristic of pursuing
approach-avoidance conflict is a course in management due to parental
ambivalence — pressure and is not able to perform as
a mix of positive and negative conflicts. per
Some the expectations of his parents may turn
examples of approach-avoidance aggressive upon being questioned on his
conflicts are: poor
a person wanting to buy a new performance in the course.
motorbike but Try to answer the following questions and work
not wanting to make monthly payments, on the weaker areas:
wanting to eat when one is overweight, 1. List the plans/activities you intend to
and undertake during this week.
2. Do you have any goals set for the month
planning to marry someone her/his
ahead? If yes, what are they? Try to list them.
parents 3. Do you have a daily routine chart? If not,
strongly disapprove of. Many of life’s then
try to prepare one by distributing your time indicates that women experience all the
judiciously for studies, rest, recreation, and emotions except anger more intensely
other activities, if any.
than
4. Are you able to follow your routine chart
successfully? (If you already have one).
men. Men are prone to experience high
5. If you are not able to follow a routine intensity and frequency of anger. This
successfully think about the ways in which gender
you could overcome your irregular habits and difference has been attributed to the
try to follow them. social
Activity 9.2 roles attached to men (competitiveness)
Here are a few ways of motivating your own and
self women (affiliation and caring).
as well as others:
PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF EMOTIONS
1. Be planned and organised in whatever you
do. ‘Divya is desperate to get a job. She has
2. Learn to prioritise your goals (Rank them prepared well for the interview and feels
1,2, confident. As she enters the room and
3…). the
3. Set short-term targets (In a few days, a interview begins, she becomes
week,
extremely tense.
a month, and so on).
4. Reward yourself for hitting the set targets Her feet go cold, her heart starts
(You pounding, and
could reward yourself with small things like a she is unable to answer appropriately’.
new pen, chocolates or anything that you want Why did this happen? Try thinking about
Box 9.1 Self-Motivation a similar situation that you have faced
to have but attach it with some small goal). sometime in your life. Can you describe
5. Compliment yourself on being an achiever probable reasons for this? As we will
each time see, a
you hit a target (Say “Cheers! I did it”, “I am
great deal of physiological changes
really
good with that”, “I think I can do things
happen
smartly”, when we experience emotion. When we
etc.). are
6. If the targets seem difficult to attain, again excited, afraid or angry, these bodily
break changes
them up into smaller ones and approach them
might be relatively easy to note. All of
one
by one.
you must
7. Always try to visualise or imagine the have noted the increase in heart rate,
outcomes of throbbing temples, increased
all the hard work you have to put in to reach perspiration,
your and trembling in your limbs when you
set goals.
are
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
177
angry or excited about something.
influence the experience of emotions. Sophisticated equipment has made it
These possible
factors are gender, personality, and to measure the exact physiological
psychopathology of certain kinds. changes
Evidence that accompany emotions. Both
autonomic as
well as somatic nervous system play emotion is often considered
important synonymous with
roles in the emotional process. The the terms ‘feeling’ and ‘mood’. Feeling
experience denotes
of emotions is a result of a series of the pleasure or pain dimension of
neurophysiological activations in which emotion,
thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, which usually involves bodily functions.
and Mood
the cerebral cortex are involved is an affective state of long duration but
significantly. of
Individuals with extensive injury in these lesser intensity than emotion. Both
brain these
areas have been known to demonstrate terms are narrower than the concept of
impaired emotional abilities. Selective emotion. Emotions are a complex
activation of different brain areas has pattern of
been arousal, subjective feeling, and cognitive
experimentally shown to arouse interpretation. Emotions, as we
different experience
emotions in infants and adults. them, move us internally, and this
One of the earliest physiological theories process
of emotion was given by James (1884) involves physiological as well as
and psychological
NATURE OF EMOTIONS reactions.
‘Swati is very happy. Her examination Emotion is a subjective feeling and the
result experience of emotions varies from
has been declared today and she has person to
topped person. In psychology, attempts have
the class. She is feeling euphoric. been
However, her made to identify basic emotions. It has
friend Pranoy is feeling sad, as he has been
not done noted that at least six emotions are
well. Among her friends some are experienced and recognised
feeling everywhere.
jealous of Swati’s achievement. Jeevan These are: anger, disgust, fear,
who happiness,
has not performed up to his expectation sadness, and surprise. Izard has
is proposed a
angry with himself; he feels unhappy set of ten basic emotions, i.e. joy,
that his surprise,
parents would be very disappointed’. anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame,
Joy, sorrow, hope, love, excitement, guilt,
anger, interest, and excitement with
hate, and many such feelings are combinations of
experienced them resulting in other emotional
in the course of the day by all of us. The blends.
term According to Plutchik, there are eight
basic or the
primary emotions. All other emotions emotion being experienced.
result However, this theory faced a lot of
from various mixtures of these basic criticism
emotions. and fell in disuse. Another theory was
He arranged these emotions in four proposed by Cannon (1927) and Bard
pairs of (1934).
opposites, i.e. joy-sadness, The Cannon-Bard theory claims that the
acceptancedisgust, entire process of emotion is mediated by
fear-anger, and surprise-anticipation. thalamus which after perception of the
Emotions vary in their intensity (high, emotion-provoking stimulus, conveys
low) this
and quality (happiness, sadness, fear). information simultaneously to the
Subjective factors and situational cerebral
contexts cortex and to the skeletal muscles and
Psychology sympathetic nervous system. The
178 cerebral
supported by Lange, hence, it has been cortex then determines the nature of the
named perceived stimulus by referring to past
the James-Lange theory of emotion (see experiences. This determines the
Fig.9.5). The theory suggests that subjective
environmental stimuli elicit physiological experience of the emotion. At the same
responses from viscera (the internal time
organs the sympathetic nervous system and
like heart and lungs), which in turn, are the
associated with muscle movement. For muscles provide physiological arousal
example, startling at an unexpected and
intense prepare the individual to take action
noise triggers activation in visceral and (see
muscular organs followed by an Fig.9.6).
emotional The ANS is divided into two systems,
arousal. Put in other words, James-Lange sympathetic and parasympathetic.
theory argues that your perception These two
about your The nervous system, central as well as
bodily changes, like rapid breathing, a peripheral,
pounding heart, and running legs, plays a vital role in the regulation of emotion.
following Thalamus : It is composed of a group of nerve
cells and acts as a relay center of sensory
an event, brings forth emotional arousal.
nerves.
The Stimulation of thalamus produces fear, anxiety,
main implication made by this theory is and autonomic reactions. A theory of emotion
that given
particular events or stimuli provoke by Cannon and Bard (1931) emphasises the
particular role
of thalamus in mediating and initiating all
physiological changes and the
emotional experiences.
individual’s Hypothalamus : It is considered the primary
perception of these changes results in center for regulation of emotion. It also
regulates parasympathetic system gets active and
the homeostatic balance, controls autonomic restores the balance by calming the
Box 9.2 Physiology of Emotion body. It
Fig.9.5 : James-Lange Theory of Emotion restores and conserves energy and
Perception of brings the
physiological changes individual back to a normal state.
Emotion experienced
Though acting in an antagonistic
Road accident Increased heart rate,
manner,
perspiration Fear
Stimulus
the sympathetic and parasympathetic
Specific physiological systems
changes are complementary to each other in
activity and secretion of endocrine glands, and completing
organises the somatic pattern of emotional the process of experience and
behaviour. expression of
Limbic System : Along with thalamus and
emotion.
hypothalamus the limbic system plays a vital
role in COGNITIVE BASES OF EMOTIONS
regulation of emotion. Amygdala is a part of Most psychologists today believe that
limbic our
system, responsible for emotional control and cognitions, i.e. our perceptions,
involves
memories,
formation of emotional memories.
interpretations are essential ingredients
Cortex : Cortex is intimately involved in
emotions. of
However, its hemispheres have a contrasting emotions. Stanley Schachter and Jerome
role to Singer have proposed a two-factor
play. The left frontal cortex is associated with theory in
positive
which emotions have two ingredients:
feelings whereas the right frontal cortex with
physical arousal and a cognitive label.
negative
feelings. They
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion presumed that our experience of
179 emotion
systems function together in a reciprocal grows from our awareness of our
manner. In a stressful situation the present
sympathetic system prepares the body arousal. They also believed that
to face emotions are
the situation. It strengthens the internal physiologically similar. For example,
environment of the individual by your
controlling Fig.9.6 : Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
the fall in heart rate, blood pressure, Stimulus Thalamus
blood Cerebral cortex
sugar, etc. It induces a state of Subjective experience
of the emotion
physiological
Physiological changes
arousal that prepares the individual for
enabling action
fight Sympathetic nervous
or flight response in order to face the system, Muscles
stressful Lie detectors are also called polygraphs
situation. As the threat is removed the because
they graphically record several bodily reactions emotional
simultaneously which measure the bodily experience requires a conscious
arousal
interpretation
of the individual. Typically a lie detector
measures
of the arousal.
changes in blood pressure, heart rate, If you are aroused after physical
breathing exercise
rate and depth, and the Galvanic Skin and someone teases you, the arousal
Response already
(GSR) which indicates variations in the
caused by the exercise may lead to
electrical
conductivity of the skin.
provocation. To test this theory,
The individual being tested is first asked a Schachter and
series of neutral (control) questions to Singer (1962) injected subjects with
establish epinephrine, a drug that produces high
the baseline. Simple questions are followed by arousal. Then these subjects were made
specific questions that are designed to evoke
to
responses from a guilty knowledge supposedly
indicating the individual’s involvement in the
observe the behaviour of others, either
in an
Box 9.3 Lie Detection euphoric manner (i.e. shooting papers at
crime being investigated. The lie detector or
a
the
polygraph records the changes in waste basket) or in an angry manner
neurophysiological (i.e.
activities that occur while the suspected stomping out of the room). As predicted,
individual the
answers these questions.
euphoric and angry behaviour of others
Though the polygraph makes several objective
influenced the cognitive interpretation
recordings, the interpretation of these records
relies of the
heavily on the subjective judgment by the subjects’ own arousal.
examiner. CULTURAL BASES OF EMOTIONS
It is also probable that several unrelated Till now we have been discussing the
factors
physiological and the cognitive bases of
like fear, pain or anxiety being felt by the
individual emotions. This section will examine the
during the test may affect her/his level of role
arousal. of culture in emotions. Studies have
It is possible for the individual to lie with it. The revealed
validity of polygraph results is doubtful; that the most basic emotions are inborn
however
and
these are still used by law-enforcing agencies
for do not have to be learned. Psychologists
lie detection. largely
Psychology have a notion that emotions, especially
180 facial
heart beats faster when you are excited expressions, have strong biological ties.
or For
scared or angry. You are physiologically example, children who are visually
aroused and look to the external world impaired
for from birth and have never observed the
explanation. Thus, in their view an smile
or seen another person’s face, still smile understand the
or feelings of others.
frown in the same way that children with Fig.9.7 : Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
normal vision do. Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
181
But on comparing different cultures we
Culture and Emotional Expression
see
The verbal channel of communication is
that learning plays an important role in
composed of spoken words as well as
emotions. This happens in two ways.
other
First,
vocal features of speech like pitch and
cultural learning influences the
loudness of the voice. These non-verbal
expression of
aspects of the voice and temporal
emotions more than what is
characteristics of speech are called
experienced, for
‘paralanguage’. Other non-verbal
example, some cultures encourage free
channels
emotional expression, whereas other
include facial expression, kinetic
cultures
(gesture,
teach people, through modeling and
posture, movement of the body) and
reinforcement, to reveal little of their
proximal
emotions
(physical distance during face-to-face
in public.
interaction) behaviours. Facial
Second, learning has a great deal to do
expression is
with the stimuli that produce emotional
the most common channel of emotional
reactions. It has been shown that
communication. The amount and kind of
individuals
information conveyed by the face is
with excessive fears (phobia) of
easy to
elevators,
comprehend as the face is exposed to
automobiles, and the like learnt these
the full
fears
view of others (see Fig.9.8). Facial
through modeling, classical conditioning
expressions
or
can convey the intensity as well as the
avoidance conditioning.
pleasantness or unpleasantness of the
EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS
individual’s emotional state. Facial
Do you get to know that your friend is
expressions play an important role in
happy
our
or sad or indifferent? Does s/he
everyday lives. There has been some
understand
research
your feelings? Emotion is an internal
evidence supporting Darwin’s view that
experience not directly observable by
facial
others.
expressions for basic emotions (joy,
Emotions are inferred from verbal and
fear,
nonverbal
anger, disgust, sadness, and surprise)
expressions. These verbal and nonverbal
are
expressions act as the channels of
inborn and universal.
communication and enable an individual
Bodily movements further facilitate the
to
communication of emotions. Can you
express one’s emotions and to
feel the conveyed not only via face. A felt
difference between your body emotion may
movements be communicated through other non-
when you feel angry and movements verbal
when you channels as well, for example, gaze
feel shy? Theatre and drama provide an behaviour,
excellent opportunity to understand the gestures, paralanguage, and proximal
impact of body movements in behaviour. The emotional meaning
communicating conveyed
emotions. The roles of gestures and via gestures (body language) varies
proximal from
behaviours are also significant. You must culture to culture. For example, in China,
have a
seen how in Indian classical dances like handclap is an expression of worry or
Bharatanatyam, Odissi, Kuchipudi, disappointment, and anger is expressed
Kathak with
and others, emotions are expressed with laughter. Silence has also been found to
the convey different meanings for different
help of movements of eyes, legs, and cultures. For example, in India, deep
fingers. emotions
The dancers are trained rigorously in the are sometimes communicated via
grammar of body movement and non- silence. This
verbal Fig.9.8 : Sketches of Facial Expressions of
communication to express joy, sorrow, Emotions
love, Fear Anger Happy Sad
Psychology
anger, and various other forms of
182
emotional
freely, the North American subjects
states.
produced
The processes involved in emotions
40 different responses for the facial
have
expression
been known to be influenced by culture.
of anger and 81 different responses for
Current research has dealt more
the
specifically
facial expression of contempt. The
with the issue of universality or culture
Japanese
specificity of emotions. Most of this
produced varied emotional labels for
research
facial
has been carried out on the facial
expressions of happiness (10 labels),
expression
anger (8
of emotions as the face is open to easy
labels), and disgust (6 labels). Ancient
observation, is relatively free from
Chinese
complexity
literature cites seven emotions, namely,
and provides a link between subjective
joy,
experience and overt expression of an
anger, sadness, fear, love, dislike, and
emotion.
liking.
Still it must be emphasised that
Ancient Indian literature identifies eight
emotions are
such Emotions exist on a continuum. There
emotions, namely, love, mirth, energy, are
wonder, various intensities of an emotion that
anger, grief, disgust, and fear. In can be
Western experienced by us. You can experience
literature, certain emotions like extreme
happiness, elation or slight happiness, severe grief
sadness, fear, anger, and disgust are or just
uniformly pensiveness. However, most of us
treated as basic to human beings. usually
Emotions maintain a balance of emotions.
like surprise, contempt, shame, and guilt When faced with a conflicting situation,
are individuals attempt to adjust and derive
not accepted as basic to all. a
In brief, it might be said that there are coping mechanism either with task or
certain basic emotions that are defenseoriented
expressed and reactions. These coping patterns help
understood by all despite their cultural them prevent abnormal emotional
and reactions
ethnic differences, and there are certain may convey embarrassment during
others communication in Western countries.
that are specific to a particular culture. Cultural differences have also been
Again, found in
it is important to remember that culture the gaze behaviour. It has been
plays observed that
a significant role in all processes of the Latin Americans and the Southern
emotion. Europeans direct their gaze to the eyes
Both expression and experience of of the
emotions interactant. Asians, in particular, Indians
are mediated and modified by culture and
specific Pakistanis, prefer a peripheral gaze
‘display rules’ that delimit the conditions (looking
under which an emotion may be away from the conversational partner)
expressed during
and the intensity with which it is an interaction. The physical space
displayed. (proximity)
MANAGING NEGATIVE EMOTIONS also divulges different kinds of
Try living a day in which you do not feel emotional
any meaning during emotional exchanges.
emotion. You would realise that it is The
difficult Americans, for example, do not prefer
even to imagine a life without emotions. an
Emotions are a part of our daily life and interaction too close; the Oriental
existence. They form the very fabric of Indians
our life consider a close space comfortable for
and interpersonal relations. an
interaction. In fact, the touching condition that an individual develops in
behaviour in case
physical proximity is considered of failure to adopt an appropriate ego
reflective of defense.
emotional warmth. For example, it was For example, if the individual fails to
observed that the Arabs experience adhere
alienation to a defense of rationalisation for his
during an interaction with the North immoral
Americans who prefer to be interacted act (like cheating or stealing), he may
from develop
outside the olfactory (too close) zone. intense apprehension about the
Emotional expressions vary in their intensity as outcomes of
well as variety. In your spare time, try such an act. Anxious individuals find it
collecting
difficult to concentrate or to make
from old magazines or newspapers as many
pictures of different individuals expressing
decisions
various even for trivial matters.
emotions. Make picture cards pasting each The state of depression affects an
photograph on a piece of cardboard and individual’s ability to think rationally,
number feel
them. You can make a set of such cards that
realistically, and work effectively. The
represent different emotional expressions.
Involve
condition
a group of your friends in the activity. Display overwhelms the mood state of the
these cards one by one to your friends and ask individual.
them to identify the emotions being portrayed. Because of its enduring nature, the
Note down the responses and notice how your individual
friends differ from each other in labelling the
who suffers from depression develops a
same
emotion. You can also try to categorise the
variety
pictures of symptoms like difficulty in falling
using categories like positive and negative, asleep,
intense increased level of psychomotor agitation
and subtle emotions, and so on. Try to notice or
how
retardation, decreased ability to think or
people differ from each other in expressing the
same emotion. What could be the reason for
concentrate, and loss of interest in
such personal or
differences? Discuss in class. social activities, etc.
Activity 9.3 In daily life, we are often faced with
Culture and Emotional Labeling conflicting situations. Under demanding
Basic emotions also vary in the extent of and
elaboration and categorical labels. The stressful conditions, a lot of negative
Tahitian language includes 46 labels for emotions
the like fear, anxiety, disgust, etc. develop
English word anger. When asked to label in an
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion individual to a considerable extent. Such
183 negative emotions, if allowed to prevail
such as anxiety, depression etc. Anxiety for a
is a long time, are likely to affect adversely
the activated
person’s psychological and physical and you feel stressed. If you do not
health. experience the event as disturbing, then
This is the reason why most of the stress there is no stress. Hence, it is you who
management programmes emphasise decides whether to feel sad and anxious
emotion or happy and relaxed.
management as an integral part of • Do some self-monitoring : This
stress involves
management. The major focus of constant or periodic evaluation of your
emotion past
management techniques is the accomplishments, emotional and
reduction of physical
negative emotions and enhancing states, real and vicarious experiences. A
positive positive appraisal would enhance your
emotions. A disaster produces serious disruption of the
Though most researchers focus their functioning of human society, resulting in
widespread material or environmental loss,
attention only on negative emotions like
which cannot be dealt with immediately with
anger, the
fear, anxiety, etc., recently the field of existing resources. Disaster may be natural
‘Positive (like
Psychology’ has gained much earthquake/cyclone/tsunami) or man-made
prominence. As (like
war). The trauma an individual experiences
the name suggests, positive psychology
during a disaster may range from mere
concerns itself with the study of features perception of such an event to actually
that encountering it, which may be life threatening.
enrich life like, hope, happiness,
Box 9.4 Post-Traumatic Stress
creativity,
courage, optimism, cheerfulness, etc. Disorder
Effective emotion management is the Either of these conditions may lead to
development
key
of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), where
to effective social functioning in modern the
times. person tends to re-experience the event
The following tips might prove useful to through
you for achieving the desired balance of flashbacks and get overwhelming thoughts
emotions : about the
event even after a substantial period of time.
• Enhance self-awareness : Be aware of
This
your own emotions and feelings. Try to condition makes a person emotionally
gain insight into the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of disturbed and
your the person fails to adopt an appropriate coping
feelings. strategy in regular activities. Emotions
• Appraise the situation objectively : It manifest in
uniquely recognisable patterns with
has been proposed that emotion is
maladaptive
preceded by evaluation of the event. If behaviour (like depression) and autonomic
the arousal.
event is experienced as disturbing, your Psychology
sympathetic nervous system is 184
faith in yourself and lead to enhanced
feeling of wellness and contentment.
• Engage in self-modeling : Be the ideal
for
yourself. Repeatedly observe the best
parts
of your past performance and use them
as an inspiration and motivation to
perform better in the future.
• Perceptual reorganisation and
cognitive
restructuring : Try viewing the events
differently and visualise the other side of
the coin. Restructure your thoughts to
enhance positive and reassuring feelings
and eliminate negative thoughts.
• Be creative : Find and develop an
interest
or a hobby. Engage in an activity that
interests and amuses you.
• Develop and nurture good
relationships
: Choose your friends carefully. In
the company of happy and cheerful
friends
you will feel happy in general.
• Have empathy : Try understanding
other’s
feelings too. Make your relationships
meaningful and valuable. Seek as well
as
provide support mutually.
• Participate in community service :
Help
yourself by helping others. By doing
For most of us an approaching examination
brings
about a feeling of a churning stomach and
anxiety.
In fact, any situation which involves performing
a task and the awareness of being evaluated
for
the performance is an anxiety-provoking
situation
for most people. A certain level of anxiety is
definitely essential as it motivates and pushes
us to put up our best performance but a high
level
of anxiety becomes an impediment in optimum
performance and achievement. An anxious
individual is highly aroused physiologically and
emotionally, and hence is not able to perform
to
the best of her/his abilities.
An examination is a potentially stress
provoking situation and like other stressful
situations coping involves two strategies, i.e.
Monitoring or taking effective action, and
Blunting
or avoiding the situation.
Monitoring involves taking effective and direct
action to deal with the stressful situation. The
following strategies can be used for monitoring
:
• Prepare well : Prepare well for the
examination and prepare well in advance.
Give yourself ample time. Familiarise yourself
with the pattern of question papers and
frequently asked questions. This gives you a
sense of predictability and control and
reduces the stress potential of the
examination.
• Have a rehearsal : Make yourself go through
a mock examination. Ask your friend to test
your knowledge. You can also rehearse
mentally in your mind. Visualise yourself
taking the examination completely relaxed and
confident and then passing with flying colours.
Box 9.5 Management of
Examination Anxiety
• Inoculation : Inoculate yourself against
stress. Exposure through rehearsals and
roleplaying
prepares you physically and mentally to
face the examination situation better and with
confidence.
• Positive thinking : Have faith in yourself.
Structure your thoughts with systematically
listing
the thoughts that worry you and then rationally
dealing with them one by one. Emphasise on
your
strengths. Suggest to yourself to be positive
and
enthusiastic.
• Seek support : Do not hesitate to ask for help
from your friends, parents, teachers or seniors.
Talking about a stressful situation to a close
person makes one feel light and helps gain
insight.
The situation may not be as bad as it seems. expressing
On the other hand, blunting strategies involve your anger. Have control on the degree
avoiding the stressful situation. True,
and
avoidance is
neither desirable nor possible in an
duration of anger that you choose to
examination express.
situation, but the following techniques may • Look inward not outward for anger
prove control.
useful: • Give yourself time to change. It takes
• Relaxation : Learn to relax. Relaxation
time
techniques help you calm your nerves and give
you an opportunity to reframe your thoughts.
and effort to change a habit.
There are many different relaxation ENHANCING POSITIVE EMOTIONS
techniques. Our emotions have a purpose. They help
In general, this involves sitting or lying down in us
a
adapt to the ever-changing environment
comfortable posture in a quiet place, relaxing
and
your
muscles, reducing the external stimulation as are important for our survival and well-
well being.
as minimising the flow of thoughts and Negative emotions like fear, anger or
focusing. disgust
• Exercise : A stressful situation overactivates
prepare us mentally and physically for
the
taking
sympathetic nervous system. Exercise helps in
channelising the excess energy generated by immediate action towards the stimulus
this. that
A brief period of light exercise or active sport is threatening. For example, if there was
will no
help you concentrate better on your studies.
fear we would have caught a poisonous
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
snake
185
community service (for example, in our hand. Though negative emotions
helping protect
an intellectually challenged child learn us in such situations but excessive or
an inappropriate use of these emotions can
adaptive skill), you will gain important become life threatening to us, as it can
insights about your own difficulties. harm
Think of an intense emotional experience you our immune system and have serious
have consequences for our health.
gone through recently and explain the Positive emotions such as hope, joy,
sequence optimism, contentment, and gratitude
of events. How did you deal with it? Share it energise us and enhance our sense of
with
Managing your Anger
your class.
Anger is a negative emotion. It carries
Activity 9.4 the mind
• Do not ascribe intentions and ulterior away or in other words, the person
motives to others. looses
• Resist having irrational beliefs about control on behavioural functions during
people and events. the
• Try to find constructive ways of state of anger. The major source of
anger is setbacks,
the frustration of motives. However, developing skills to attain targets and taking
initiative
anger is
to act on opportunities). The interpersonal
not a reflex, rather it is a result of our element of
thinking. emotional intelligence includes two
Neither is it automatic nor components:
uncontrollable and social awareness (the awareness and the
caused by others but it is a self-induced tendency
to appreciate other’s feelings) and social
choice
competence
that the individual makes. Anger is a (social skills that help to adjust with others,
result of such as
your thinking and hence is controllable team building, conflict management, skills of
by communicating, etc.).
your own thoughts only. Certain key Psychology
186
points
in anger management are as follows: Key Terms
• Recognise the power of your thoughts. Amygdala, Anxiety, Arousal, Autonomic
• Realise you alone can control it. nervous system, Basic emotions, Biological
• Do not engage in ‘self-talk that burns’. needs (hunger, thirst, sex), Central nervous
Do system, Conflict, Emotional intelligence,
Esteem needs, Examination anxiety,
not magnify negative feelings.
Expression of emotions, Frustration,
Expressions of emotion depend on regulation
Hierarchy of needs, Motivation, Motives,
of
Need, Power motive, Psychosocial motives,
emotion for self or others. Persons who are
Self-actualisation, Self-esteem
capable of having awareness of emotions for
self
emotional well-being. When we
or others and regulate accordingly are called experience
emotionally intelligent. Persons who fail to do positive affect, we display a greater
so, preference
deviate and thereby develop abreaction of for a large variety of actions and ideas.
emotion, resulting in psychopathology of
We
certain
kinds.
can think of more possibilities and
By emotional intelligence, we understand options to
‘the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s solve whatever problems we face and
emotions, to discriminate among them and to thus,
use we become proactive.
the information to guide one’s thinking and
Psychologists have found that people,
actions’ (Mayer & Salovey, 1999). The concept
who
Box 9.6 Emotional Intelligence were shown films depicting joy and
of emotional intelligence subsumes contentment, came up with more ideas
intrapersonal and
regarding things they would like to do as
interpersonal elements. The intrapersonal
element compared to those who were shown
includes factors like self-awareness (ability to films
keep evoking anger and fear. Positive
negative emotions and impulses under emotions give
control), and us a greater ability to cope with adverse
self-motivation (the drive to achieve despite
circumstances and quickly return to a
normal
state. They help us set up long-term
plans
and goals, and form new relationships.
Various
ways of enhancing positive emotions are
given
below:
• Personality traits of optimism,
hopefulness, happiness and a positive
selfregard.
• Finding positive meaning in dire
circumstances.
Summary
• The process of persistent behaviour directed
towards a specific goal, which results from
certain driving forces, is called motivation.
• There are two types of motivation, namely,
biological, and psychosocial motivation.
• Biological motivation focuses on the innate,
biological causes of motivation like hormones,
neurotransmitters, brain structures
(hypothalamus, limbic system), etc. Examples
of biological
motivation are hunger, thirst, and sex.
• Psychosocial motivation explains motives
resulting mainly from the interaction of the
individual with his social environment.
Examples of psychosocial motives are need for
affiliation, need for achievement, curiosity and
exploration, and the need for power.
• Maslow arranged various human needs in an
ascending hierarchical order, beginning with
the most basic physiological needs, and then
safety needs, love and belongingness needs,
esteem needs, and finally on the top of the
hierarchy is the need for self-actualisation.
• Other concepts related to motivation are
frustration and conflicts.
• Emotion is a complex pattern of arousal that
involves physiological activation, conscious
awareness of feeling, and a specific cognitive
label that describes the process.
• Certain emotions are basic like joy, anger,
sorrow, surprise, fear, etc. Other emotions are
experienced as a result of combination of
these emotions.
• Central and autonomic nervous system play
a major role in regulating emotions.
• Culture strongly influences the expression
and interpretation of emotions.
• Emotion is expressed through verbal and
non-verbal channels.
• It is important to manage emotions
effectively in order to ensure physical and
psychological
well-being.
• Having quality connections with
others,
and supportive network of close
relationships.
• Being engaged in work and gaining
mastery.
• A faith that embodies social support,
purpose and hope, leading a life of
purpose.
• Positive interpretations of most daily
events.
Chapter 9 • Motivation and Emotion
187
1. Explain the concept of motivation.
2. What are the biological bases of hunger and
thirst needs?
3. How do the needs for achievement,
affiliation, and power influence the behaviour
of
adolescents? Explain with examples.
4. What is the basic idea behind Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs? Explain with suitable
examples.
5. Does physiological arousal precede or follow
an emotional experience? Explain.
6. Is it important to consciously interpret and
label emotions in order to explain them?
Discuss giving suitable examples.
7. How does culture influence the expression of
emotions?
8. Why is it important to manage negative
emotions? Suggest ways to manage negative
emotions.
Review Questions
1. Using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, analyse
what kind of motivational forces might have
motivated the great mathematician S.A.
Ramanujan and the great shehnai Maestro
Ustad
Bismillah Khan (Bharat Ratna) to perform
exceptionally in their respective fields. Now
place yourself and five more known people in
terms of need satisfaction. Reflect and
discuss.
2. In many households, family members do not Some Interesting Landmarks in the
eat without bathing first and practise religious Evolution of
fasts. How have different social practices Modern Psychology (Box 1.1)
influenced your expression of hunger and
Development of Psychology in India
thirst?
Branches of Psychology
Conduct a survey on five people from different
backgrounds and prepare a report.
Themes of Research and Applications
Psychology and Other Disciplines
Project Ideas Psychologists at Work
Psychology in Everyday Life
Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas

Contents

1
The growth of the human mind
is still high adventure,
in many ways the highest
Chapter adventure on earth.
– Norman Cousins
Psychology

Whatt iiss
Pssychollogy?
• understand the nature and role of
psychology in understanding mind
and behaviour,
• state the growth of the discipline,
• know the different fields of psychology,
its relationship with other
disciplines, and professions, and
• appreciate the value of psychology in
daily life to help you understand
yourself and others better.
After reading this chapter, you
would be able to
Introduction
What is Psychology?
Psychology as a Discipline
Psychology as a Natural Science
Psychology as a Social Science
Understanding Mind and Behaviour
Popular Notions about the Discipline of
Psychology
Evolution of Psychology
2
psychology was a study of the soul or
mind.But since then it has moved away
considerably
from this focus and established itself as
ascientific discipline which deals with
processesunderlying human experience
and behaviour.The range of phenomena
it studies, some ofwhich we mentioned
above, are spread overseveral levels,
viz. individual, dyadic (twoperson)
group, and organisational. They
alsohave biological as well as social
bases.Naturally, therefore, the methods
required to
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Any knowledge discipline is hard to
define.Firstly, because it evolves
continuously.
Secondly, because the range of
phenomena it
studies cannot be captured by any one
definition. This is even more true of
psychology.
Long time back, students like yourself
were told
that the term psychology is derived from
two
Greek words psyche meaning soul and
logos
meaning science or study of a subject.
Thus,
You were, perhaps, asked by your
teacher in the first class why you opted
for
psychology over other subjects. What
do you hope to learn? If you were asked
this
question, what was your response?
Generally, the range of responses which
surface
in class to this question are truly
bewildering. Most students give inane
responses,
like they want to know what others are
thinking. But then one also comes
across
such responses as knowing oneself,
knowing others or more specific
responses like
knowing why people dream, why people
go out of their way to help others or
beat
each other up. All ancient traditions
have engaged themselves with
questions about
human nature. The Indian philosophical
traditions, in particular, deal with
questions
relating to why people behave in the
manner in which they do. Why are
people
generally unhappy? What changes
should they bring about in themselves if
they
desire happiness in their lives? Like all
knowledge, psychological knowledge
too
is intended to contribute to human well-
being. If the world is full of misery, it is
largely due to humans themselves.
Perhaps, you have asked why a 9/11 or
war
in Iraq happened. Why innocent people
in Delhi, Mumbai, Srinagar or in the
North-
East have to face bombs and bullets?
Psychologists ask what is in the
experiences
of young men which turn them into
terrorists seeking revenge. But there is
another
side to human nature. You may have
heard the name of Major HPS Ahluwalia,
paralysed waist down because of an
injury he suffered in a war with
Pakistan,
who climbed the Mt. Everest. What
moved him to climb such heights?
These are not
only questions about human nature
which psychology addresses as a
human
science. You will be surprised to learn
that modern psychology also deals with
somewhat nebulous micro-level
phenomenon like consciousness,
focusing attention
in the face of noise, or supporters trying
to burn down a shopping complex after
their team had scored victory in a
football game over its traditional rival.
Psychology
cannot claim that answers have been
found to these complex questions. But it
surely has improved upon our
understanding and how we make sense
of these
phenomena. The most striking aspect of
the discipline, unlike other sciences, lies
in
the study of psychological processes
which are largely internal and available
to
humans for observation within
themselves.
Introduction
imaging.
However, we cannot say that brain
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? activities
3 and mental processes are the same,
study them also vary greatly depending although
on the they are interdependent. Mental
phenomenon one wants to study. A activities and
discipline neural activities are mutually
is defined both in terms of what it overlapping
studies and processes but, they are not identical.
how it studies. In fact, more in terms of Unlike
how or the brain, the mind does not have a
method/s it uses. Keeping this in view, physical
psychology is defined formally as a structure or has a location. Mind
science emerges and
which studies mental processes, evolves as our interactions and
experiences experiences
and behaviour in different contexts. In in this world get dynamically organised
doing in the
so, it uses methods of biological and form of a system which is responsible for
social the
sciences to obtain data systematically. It occurrence of various mental processes.
makes Brain activities provide important clues
sense of these data so that they can be as to
organised as knowledge. Let us try to how our mind functions. But the
understand the three terms used in the consciousness of our own experiences
definition, namely, mental processes, and
experience, and behaviour. mental processes are much more than
When we say experiences are internal to the
the experiencing person, then we refer neural or brain activities. Even when we
to states are
of consciousness or awareness or asleep some mental activities go on. We
mental dream, and receive some information
processes. We use our mental processes such
when as a knock on the door while we are
we think or try to solve a problem, to asleep.
know or Some psychologists have shown that we
remember something. One level at also
which these learn and remember in our sleep. Mental
mental processes are reflected is the processes, such as remembering,
brain learning,
activity. As we think or solve a knowing, perceiving, feeling are of
mathematical interest to
problem, our brain activities can be psychologists. They study these
observed processes to
using different techniques of brain try to understand how the mind works
and to friends. Thus,
help us improve the uses and the nature of experience can only be
applications of understood
these mental capacities. by analysing a complex set of internal
Psychologists also study experiences of and
people. Experiences are subjective in external conditions.
nature. Behaviours are responses or reactions
We cannot directly observe or know we
someone make or activities we engage in. When
else’s experience. Only the experiencing something is hurled at you, your eyes
person blink in
can be aware or be conscious of her or a simple reflex action. You are taking an
his examination and can feel your heart
experiences. Thus, experiences are pounding.
embedded You decide to go for a particular movie
in our awareness or consciousness. with a
Psychologists have focused on friend. Behaviours may be simple or
experiences of complex,
pain being experienced by terminally ill short or enduring. Some behaviours are
patients or of psychological pain felt in overt.
bereavement, besides experiences They can be outwardly seen or sensed
which lead by an
to positive feelings, such as in romantic observer. Some are internal or covert.
encounters. There are some esoteric When
experiences also which attract the you are in a difficult situation while
attention of playing a
psychologists, such as when a Yogi game of chess you almost feel your
meditates hand
to enter a different level of muscles twitching, trying to experiment
consciousness and with
creates a new kind of experience or a move. All behaviours, covert or overt,
when a are
drug addict takes a particular kind of associated with or triggered by some
drug to stimulus
get a high, even though such drugs are in the environment or changes that
extremely harmful. Experiences are happen
influenced internally. You may see a tiger and run
by internal and the external conditions or think
of the that there is a tiger and decide to flee.
experiencer. If you are travelling in a Some
crowded Psychology
bus during a hot summer day, you may 4
not psychologists study behaviour as an
experience the usual discomfort if you association between stimulus (S) and
are response
going for a picnic with some close (R). Both stimulus and response can be
internal or external. behaviour, mental processes and
Psychology as a Discipline experiences,
As we have discussed above, they seek to understand and explain
psychology them in
studies behaviour, experience and a systematic and verifiable manner.
mental Psychology, though it is a very old
processes. It seeks to understand and knowledge discipline, is a young
explain science, if one
how the mind works and how different were to take the year of the founding of
mental the
processes result in different behaviours. first laboratory of psychology in 1879 in
When Leipzig. However, what kind of science
we observe others as lay or common is
persons, psychology, still remains a matter of
our own points of view or our ways of debate,
understanding the world influence our particularly because of the new
interpretations of their behaviours and interfaces of
experiences. Psychologists try to it that have emerged in recent times.
minimise Psychology is generally categorised as a
such biases in their explanations of social
behaviour science. But it should not come to you
and experience in various ways. Some as a
do so surprise that, not only in other
by seeking to make their analysis countries, but
scientific in India also, it is also a subject of study
and objective. Others seek to explain offered
behaviour from the point of view of the in the faculty of science, both at the
experiencing persons because they undergraduate and post-graduate
think that levels.
subjectivity is a necessary aspect of Many students go on to earn a B.Sc. or
human M.Sc.
experience. In the Indian tradition, degree in universities. In fact, two of the
selfreflection most
and analysis of our conscious sought after emerging disciplines which
experiences, is held to be a major continuously borrow from psychology
source of are
psychological understanding. Many Neuroscience and Computer Science.
western Some of
psychologists have also begun to us would be aware of the fast
emphasise developing brain
the role of self-reflection and self- imaging techniques like fMRI, EEG, etc.
knowledge which
in understanding human behaviour and make it possible to study brain
experience. Regardless of the processes in real
differences in the time, i.e. when they are actually taking
way psychologists go about the study of place.
Similarly, in IT areas, both human- sociocultural
computer context of which s/he is a part. Each
interaction and artificial intelligence behavioural phenomenon is assumed to
cannot have
possibly grow without psychological multiple causes. Let us now discuss
knowledge these two
in cognitive processes. Thus, psychology streams separately.
as a Psychology as a Natural Science
discipline today has two parallel It has been mentioned earlier that
streams. One psychology
which makes use of the method in has its roots in philosophy. However,
physical and modern
biological sciences and the other which psychology has developed because of
makes the
use of the method of social and cultural application of the scientific method to
sciences in studying various study
psychological and psychological phenomenon. Science
social phenomena. These streams places a
sometimes great deal of emphasis on objectivity
converge only to drift apart and go their which
separate ways. In the first case, can be obtained if there is consensus on
psychology the
considers itself as a discipline, which definition of a concept and how it can be
focuses Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
largely on biological principles to explain 5
human behaviour. It assumes that all measured. Psychology was influenced
behavioural phenomena have causes by
which can Descartes and later on by the
be discovered if we can collect data developments in
systematically under controlled physics has grown by following what is
conditions. called
Here the aim of the researcher is to a hypothetico-deductive model. The
know the model
cause and effect relationship so that a suggests that scientific advancement
prediction can take
of the behavioural phenomenon can be place if you have a theory to explain a
made phenomenon. For example, physicists
and behaviour can be controlled if need have
be. On what is called a Big-bang theory to
the other hand, psychology as a social explain
science how the universe came to be formed.
focuses on how behavioural phenomena Theory
can be is nothing else but a set of statements
explained in terms of the interaction about
that takes how a certain complex phenomenon can
place between the person and the be
explained with the help of propositions only influenced by their socio-cultural
which contexts, they also create them.
are interrelated. Based on a theory, Psychology
scientists as a social science discipline focuses on
deduce or propose a hypothesis, that humans as social beings. Consider the
offers a following story of Ranjita and Shabnam.
tentative explanation of how a certain Ranjita and Shabnam were in the same
phenomenon takes place. The class. Although, they were in the same
hypothesis then class,
is tested and proved true or false based they were just acquainted with each
on other and
empirical data that one has gathered. their lives were quite different. Ranjita
The came
theory is revised if data gathered point from a farmer’s family. Her
in a grandparents,
different direction than the one parents and elder brother worked on
suggested by their farm.
the hypothesis. Using the above They lived together in their house in the
approach village.
psychologists have developed theories Ranjita was a good athlete and was the
of best
learning, memory, attention, perception, long distance runner in the school. She
motivation and emotion, etc. and have loved
made meeting people and making friends.
significant progress. Till date, most of Unlike her, Shabnam lived with her
the mother
research in psychology follows this in the same village. Her father worked
approach. in an
Apart from this, psychologists have also office in a town nearby and came home
been during
considerably influenced by the holidays. Shabnam was a good artist
evolutionary and loved
approach which is dominant in biological staying home and taking care of her
sciences. This approach has also been younger
used brother. She was shy and avoided
to explain diverse kinds of psychological meeting
phenomenon such as attachment and people.
aggression to mention just a few. Last year there was very heavy rain and
Psychology as a Social Science the river nearby overflowed into the
We mentioned above that psychology is village.
recognised more as a social science Many houses in the low lying areas were
because flooded. The villagers got together and
it studies the behaviour of human organised help and gave shelter to
beings in people in
their socio-cultural contexts. Humans distress. Shabnam’s house was also
are not flooded
and she came to live in Ranjita’s house fact,
with sometimes, the opposite is true – people
her mother and brother. Ranjita was become antisocial under similar
happy circumstances indulging in looting and
helping the family and making them feel Psychology
comfortable in her house. When the 6
flood water exploitation when some crisis occurs.
receded, Ranjita’s mother and This
grandmother shows that psychology deals with
helped Shabnam’s mother to set-up human
their house. behaviour and experience in the context
The two families became very close. of
Ranjita their society and culture. Thus,
and Shabnam also became very good psychology is
friends. a social science with focus on the
In this case of Ranjita and Shabnam, individuals
both and communities in relation to their
are very different persons. They grew up sociocultural
in and physical environment.
different families under complex social UNDERSTANDING MIND AND BEHAVIOUR
and You will recall that psychology was once
cultural conditions. You can see some defined as a science of the mind. For
regularity in the relationship of their many
nature, decades, the mind remained a taboo in
experience and mental processes with psychology because it could not be
their defined in
social and physical environment. But at concrete behavioural terms or its
the location
same time, there are variations in their could not be indicated. If the term
behaviours and experiences which “mind” has
would be returned to psychology, we should thank
difficult to predict using the known neuroscientists like Sperry and
psychological principles. One can physicists like
understand Penrose, who have given it the respect
why and how individuals in communities which
become quite helpful and self-sacrificing it deserved and now has. There are
in scientists
crisis as was the case with the people in in various disciplines including
the psychology,
village of Ranjita and Shabnam. But, who think that a unified theory of the
even in mind is
that case, not every villager was equally a possibility, although it still is far away.
helpful What is mind? Is it the same as brain? It
and also under similar circumstances is true that mind cannot exist without
not brain,
every community is so forthcoming; in but mind is a separate entity. This can
be
appreciated on account of several
interesting
cases that have been documented.
Some
patients whose occipital lobes, which are
responsible for vision, were surgically
removed
have been found to be responding
correctly to
location and configuration of visual
cues.
Similarly, an amateur athlete lost his
arm in
a motorcycle accident but continued to
feel
an “arm” and also continued to feel its
movements. When offered coffee, his
“phantom arm” reached out to the
coffee cup
and when someone pulled it away, he
protested. There are other similar cases
documented by neuroscientists. A young
man
who suffered brain injury in an accident,
after
he returned home from the hospital,
claimed
that his parents had been replaced by
their
“duplicates”. They were imposters. In
each of
these cases, the person had suffered
from
damage of some part of the brain but
his
“mind” had remained intact. It was
earlier
believed by scientists that there is no
relationship between the mind and the
body
and that they were parallel to each
other.
Recent studies in affective neuroscience
have
clearly shown that there is a relationship
between mind and behaviour. It has
been
shown that using positive visualisation
techniques and feeling positive
emotions, one
can bring about significant changes in
bodily
processes. Ornish has shown this in a
number
of studies with his patients. In these
studies a
person with blocked arteries was made
to
visualise that blood was flowing through
her/
his blocked arteries. After practicing this
over
a period of time, significant relief was
obtained
by these patients as the degree of
blockage
became significantly less. Use of mental
imagery, i.e. images generated by a
person in
her/his mind, have been used to cure
various
kinds of phobias (irrational fears of
objects and
situations). A new discipline called
Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged
which
emphasises the role played by the mind
in
strengthening the immune system.
Imagine and visualise yourself in the following
situations. Mention three psychological
processes
involved in each situation.
1. You are writing an essay for a competition.
2. You are chatting with a friend on an
interesting topic.
3. You are playing football.
4. You are watching a soap opera on TV.
5. Your best friend has hurt you.
6. You are appearing in an examination.
7. You are expecting an important visitor.
8. You are preparing a speech to deliver in your
school.
9. You are playing chess. “Distance makes the heart grow
10. You are trying to figure out the answer of a fonder”. Both
difficult mathematics problem.
of them make opposite statements, so
Discuss your answers with the teacher and
classmates.
which
one is true. The explanation you choose
Activity 1.1 will
POPULAR NOTIONS ABOUT THE DISCIPLINE depend on what happens in your life
OF PSYCHOLOGY after
We mentioned above that everyday, your friend leaves. Suppose you are able
almost to
everyone of us acts like a psychologist. find a new friend, the saying “Out of
We sight,
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? out of mind” will be used by you or
7
others to
try to understand why someone
explain your behaviour. If you are unable
behaved in
to
the manner in which s/he did and come
find a new friend, you will keep
up
remembering
with ready explanations. Not only this,
your friend fondly. In this case, the
most
saying
of us have developed our own theory of
“Distance makes the heart grow fonder”
human behaviour. If we want some
will
worker
explain your behaviour. Notice that in
to perform better than s/he has in the
both
past,
cases the explanation follows the
we know that we will need to push
occurrence
her/him.
of behaviour. Common sense is based
Maybe even use a stick because people
on
are
hindsight. Psychology as a science looks
basically lazy. Such popular theories of
for
human behaviour based on common
patterns of behaviour which can be
sense
predicted
may or may not be true if investigated
and not explained after the behaviour
scientifically. In fact, you will find that
occurs.
common sensical explanations of human
Scientific knowledge generated by
behaviour are based on hindsight and
psychology often runs against common
explain
sense.
very little. For example, if a friend you
One such example is a study performed
love
by
goes away to a distant place, what will
Dweck (1975). She was concerned with
happen to your attraction for her/him?
children who gave up too easily when
There
faced
are two sayings which you may recall to
with a difficult problem or failure. She
answer this question. One of them is
wondered how they could be helped.
“Out of
Common
sight, out of mind”. The second one is
sense tells us to give them easy
problems in notions which you may not find to be
order to increase their success rate so true.
that Not too long ago it was believed in some
their confidence goes up. Only later cultures that men are more intelligent
should than
we give them difficult problems which women or women cause more accidents
they than
will be able to solve because of their men. Empirical studies have shown that
new-found both
confidence. Dweck’s study tested this. of these are untrue. Common sense also
She took tells
two groups of students who were trained us that one is not able to give one’s best
for if you
25 days in solving math problems. The are asked to perform before a large
first audience.
group was given easy problems which Psychological studies have shown that if
they were you
always able to solve. The second group have practiced well, you may actually
had a perform
mix of easy and difficult problems. better because the presence of others
Obviously, helps
in case of difficult problems, they failed. your performance.
Whenever this happened Dweck told It is hoped that as you go through this
them that textbook you will discover that many of
their failure was because they had not your
tried beliefs and understanding of human
hard enough and persuaded them not to behaviour
give will change. You will also gather that
up and keep trying. After the training psychologists are different from
period astrologers,
was over, a new set of math problems tantriks and palm readers because they
were systematically examine propositions
given to the two groups. What Dweck based on
found data to develop principles about human
goes against common belief. Those who behaviour and other psychological
had phenomena.
always succeeded because they were Ask a cross-section of students about what
given they
think psychology is? Draw a comparison
easy problems, gave up much faster
between
when they what they say and what the textbook tells you.
faced failure than those who had What conclusion can you draw?
experience
Activity 1.2
of both success and failure and were
Psychology
taught 8
to attribute failure to their lack of effort. EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
There are many other common sense
Psychology as a modern discipline,
which is
influenced to a large extent by Western
developments, has a short history. It
grew out
of ancient philosophy concerned with
questions of psychological significance.
We
mentioned earlier that the formal
beginning
of modern psychology is traced back to
1879
when the first experimental laboratory
was
established in Leipzig, Germany by
Wilhelm
Wundt. Wundt was interested in the
study of
conscious experience and wanted to
analyse
the constituents or the building blocks of
the
mind. Psychologists during Wundt’s time
analysed the structure of the mind
through
introspection and therefore were called
structuralists. Introspection was
procedure
in which individuals or subjects in
psychological experiments were asked
to
describe in detail, their own mental
processes
or experiences. However, introspection
as a
method did not satisfy many other
psychologists. It was considered less
scientific
because the introspective reports could
not
be verified by outside observers. This
led to
the development of new perspectives in
psychology.
An American psychologist, William
James,
who had set up a psychological
laboratory in
Cambridge, Massachusetts soon after
the
setting up of the Leipzig laboratory,
developed
what was called a functionalist approach
to
the study of the human mind. William
James
believed that instead of focusing on the
structure of the mind, psychology should
instead study what the mind does and
how
behaviour functions in making people
deal
with their environment. For example,
functionalists focused on how behaviour
enabled people to satisfy their needs.
According to William James,
consciousness
as an ongoing stream of mental process
interacting with the environment formed
the
core of psychology. A very influential
educational thinker of the time, John
a Dewey,
used functionalism to argue that human
beings seek to function effectively by
adapting
to their environment.
In the early 20th century, a new
perspective
called Gestalt psychology emerged in
Germany as a reaction to the
structuralism of
Wundt. It focused on the organisation of
perceptual experiences. Instead of
looking at
the components of the mind, the Gestalt
psychologists argued that when we look
at the
world our perceptual experience is more
than
the sum of the components of the
perception.
In other words, what we experience is Behaviourism of Watson was further
more developed
than the inputs received from our by many influential psychologists who
environment. are
When, for example, light from a series of known as behaviourists. Most prominent
flashing bulbs falls on our retina, we among them was Skinner who applied
actually behaviourism to a wide range of
experience movement of light. When we situations and
see a popularised the approach. We will
movie, we actually have a series of discuss
rapidly Skinner’s work later in this textbook.
moving images of still pictures falling on Although behaviourists dominated the
our field
retina. Thus, our perceptual experience of psychology for several decades after
is more Watson,
than the elements. Experience is a number of other approaches and
holistic; it is views about
a Gestalt. We will learn more about the psychology and its subject matter were
Gestalt developing around the same time. One
psychology when we discuss about the person
nature who shook the world with his radical
of perception in Chapter 5. view of
Yet another reaction to structuralism human nature was Sigmund Freud.
came Freud
in the form of behaviourism. Around Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
1910, 9
John Watson rejected the ideas of mind viewed human behaviour as a dynamic
and manifestation of unconscious desires
consciousness as subject matters of and
psychology. He was greatly influenced conflicts. He founded psychoanalysis as
by the a
work of physiologists like Ivan Pavlov on system to understand and cure
classical conditioning. For Watson, mind psychological
is not disorders. While Freudian
observable and introspection is psychoanalysis
subjective viewed human beings as motivated by
because it cannot be verified by another unconscious desire for gratification of
observer. According to him, scientific pleasure
psychology must focus on what is seeking (and often, sexual) desires, the
observable humanistic perspective in psychology
and verifiable. He defined psychology as took
a study a more positive view of human nature.
of behaviour or responses (to stimuli) Humanists, such as Carl Rogers and
which Abraham
can be measured and studied Maslow, emphasised the free will of
objectively. human
beings and their natural striving to grow
and
unfold their inner potential. They argued
that
behaviourism with its emphasis on
behaviour
as determined by environmental
conditions
undermines human freedom and dignity
and
takes a mechanistic view of human
nature.
These different approaches filled the
history of modern psychology and
provided
multiple perspectives to its
development. Each
of these perspectives has its own focus
and
draws our attention to the complexity of
psychological processes. There are
strengths
as well as weaknesses in each approach.
Some
of these approaches have led to further
1879 Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first
psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany.
1890 William James publishes Principles of
Psychology.
1895 Functionalism is formulated as a system
of psychology.
1900 Sigmund Freud develops Psychoanalysis.
1904 Ivan Pavlov wins the Nobel Prize for his
work on digestive system that led to
understanding of principles of
development of responses.
1905 Intelligence test developed by Binet and
Simon.
1916 First Psychology Department at Calcutta
University is established.
1920 Gestalt psychology is born in Germany.
1922 Psychology is included in Indian Science
Congress Association.
1924 Indian Psychological Association is
founded.
1924 John B. Watson publishes ‘Behaviourism’,
a book that led to the foundation of
behaviourism.
1928 N.N. Sengupta and Radhakamal Mukerjee
publish the first textbook on Social
Psychology (London : Allen & Unwin).
1949 Psychological Research Wing of the
Defence Science Organisation of India is
established.
1951 Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers
publishes Client-Centred Therapy.
1953 B.F. Skinner publishes ‘Science and
Human Behaviour’, strengthening
Box 1.1 Some Interesting
Landmarks in the Evolution of
Modern Psychology
behaviourism as a major approach to
psychology.
1954 Humanistic psychologist Abraham
Maslow
publishes ‘Motivation and Personality’.
1954 Bureau of Psychology is established at
Allahabad.
1955 National Institute of Mental Health and
Neurosciences (NIMHANS) is established at
Bangalore.
1962 Hospital for Mental Diseases in Ranchi is
established.
1973 Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen win
the
Nobel Prize for their work on built-in
speciesspecific
animal behaviour patterns that
emerge without any prior experience/
learning.
1978 Herbert Simon wins the Nobel Prize for
work
on decision-making.
1981 David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel win the
Nobel
Prize for their research on vision cells in the
brain.
1981 Roger Sperry wins the Nobel Prize for
splitbrain
research.
1989 National Academy of Psychology (NAOP)
India
was founded.
1997 National Brain Research Centre (NBRC) is
established at Gurgaon, Haryana.
2002 Daniel Kahneman wins the Nobel Prize for
research on human judgment and
decisionmaking
under uncertainty.
2005 Thomas Schelling wins the Nobel Prize for
his
work in applying Game Theory to
understanding of conflict and cooperation in
economic behaviour.
Psychology
10
developments in the discipline. Aspects
of
Gestalt approach and structuralism were
combined and led to the development of
the
cognitive perspective which focuses on
how
we know about the world. Cognition is
the
process of knowing. It involves thinking,
understanding, perceiving, memorising,
problem solving and a host of other
mental
processes by which our knowledge of
the world
develops, making us able to deal with
the
environment in specific ways. Some
cognitive
psychologists view the human mind as
an
information processing system like the
computer. Mind, according to this view is
like
a computer and it receives, processes,
transforms, stores and retrieves
information.
Modern cognitive psychology views
human
beings as actively constructing their
minds
through their exploration into the
physical and
the social world. This view is sometimes
called
constructivism. Piaget’s view of child
development which will be discussed
later is
considered a constructivist theory of
development of the mind. Another
Russian
psychologist Vygotsky went even further
to
suggest that the human mind develops
through social and cultural processes in
which
the mind is viewed as culturally
constructed
through joint interaction between adults
and
children. In other words, while for Piaget
children actively construct their own
minds,
Vygotsky took a view that mind is a joint
cultural construction and emerges as a
result
of interaction between children and
adults.
DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN INDIA
The Indian philosophical tradition is rich
in
its focus on mental processes and
reflections
on human consciousness, self, mind-
body
relations, and a variety of mental
functions
such as cognition, perception, illusion,
attention and reasoning, etc.
Unfortunately,
philosophical roots in the Indian tradition
have
not influenced the development of
modern
psychology in India. The development of
the
discipline in India continues to be
dominated
by western psychology, although some
attempts have been made to find points
of
departure both within the country and
abroad.
These attempts have tried to establish
the
truth value of various assertions in
Indian
philosophical traditions through the
scientific UGC at Utkal University, Bhubaneswar
studies. and
The modern era of Indian psychology at the University of Allahabad. About 70
began in the Department of Philosophy universities offer courses in psychology.
at Durganand Sinha in his book Psychology
Calcutta University where the first in a Third World Country: The Indian
syllabus Experience published in 1986 traces the
of experimental psychology was history of modern psychology as a social
introduced science in India in four phases.
and the first psychology laboratory was According to
established in 1915. Calcutta University him, the first phase till independence
started the first Department of was a
Psychology in phase with emphasis on experimental,
the year 1916 and another Department psychoanalytic and psychological
of testing
Applied Psychology in 1938. The research, which primarily reflected the
beginning of development of the discipline in western
modern experimental psychology at countries. The second phase till the
Calcutta 1960s was
University was greatly influenced by the a phase of expansion of psychology in
Indian India
psychologist Dr. N.N. Sengupta who was into different branches of psychology.
trained in USA in the experimental During
tradition this phase Indian psychologists showed
of Wundt. Professor G. Bose was trained a
in Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
Freudian psychoanalysis, another area 11
which desire to have an Indian identity by
influenced the early development of seeking to
psychology in India. Professor Bose link western psychology to the Indian
established Indian Psychoanalytical context.
Association in 1922. Departments of They did this by using western ideas to
Psychology in the Universities of Mysore understand the Indian situation.
and However,
Patna were other early centres of psychology in India sought to become
teaching and relevant
research in psychology. From these for Indian society in the post 1960s
modest phase of
beginnings, modern psychology has problem-oriented research.
grown as Psychologists
a strong discipline in India with a large became more focused on addressing the
number problems of the Indian society. Further,
of centres of teaching, research and the
applications. There are two centers of limitations of excessive dependence on
excellence in psychology supported by western psychology for our social
context were Alongside, we also find that new
also realised. Leading psychologists research
emphasised the significance of research, studies involving interfaces with
which neurobiological
is of relevance to our situation. The and health sciences are being carried
search for out.
a new identity of psychology in India led Psychology in India is now being applied
to in diverse professional areas. Not only
the phase of indigenisation, which have
started psychologists been working with
during the late 1970s. Besides rejecting children
the having special problems, they are
western framework, Indian psychologists employed
stressed the need for developing an in hospitals as clinical psychologists, in
understanding based on a framework, corporate organisations in the HRD and
which advertising departments, in sports
was culturally and socially relevant. This directorates, in the development sector
trend and
was also reflected in some attempts to in IT industry.
develop BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
psychological approaches based on Various fields of specialisation in
traditional psychology
Indian psychology, which came from our have emerged over the years. Some of
ancient texts and scriptures. Thus, this these
phase are discussed in this section.
is characterised by development in Cognitive Psychology investigates
indigenous mental
psychology, which originated from the processes involved in acquisition,
Indian storage,
cultural context and was relevant for manipulation, and transformation of
society information received from the
and Indian psychology based on the environment
Indian along with its use and communication.
traditional knowledge system. While The
these major cognitive processes are attention,
developments continue, psychology in perception, memory, reasoning, problem
India solving, decision-making and language.
is making significant contributions to the You
field will be studying these topics later in this
of psychology in the world. It has textbook. In order to study these
become more cognitive
contextual emphasising the need for processes, psychologists conduct
developing psychological principles, experiments
which are in laboratory settings. Some of them
rooted in our own social and cultural also follow
context. an ecological approach, i.e. an approach
which we are.
focuses on the environmental factors, to For many years the major emphasis was
study on
cognitive processes in a natural setting. child and adolescent development.
Cognitive psychologists often However
collaborate with today an increasing number of
neuroscientists and computer scientists. developmental
Biological Psychology focuses on the psychologists show strong interest in
relationship between behaviour and the adult
physical system, including the brain and development and ageing. They focus on
the the
rest of the nervous system, the immune biological, socio-cultural and
system, and genetics. Biological environmental
psychologists factors that influence psychological
often collaborate with neuroscientists, characteristics such as intelligence,
zoologists, and anthropologists. cognition,
Neuropsychology has emerged as a field emotion, temperament, morality, and
of social
research where psychologists and relationship. Developmental
neuroscientists are working together. psychologists
Researchers are studying the role of collaborate with anthropologists,
neurotransmitters or chemical educationists, neurologists, social
substances workers,
which are responsible for neural counsellors and almost every branch of
communication in different areas of the knowledge where there is a concern for
brain growth
and therefore in associated mental and development of a human being.
functions. Social Psychology explores how people
They do their research on people with are
normal affected by their social environments,
functioning brain as well as on people how
with people think about and influence others.
damaged brain by following advanced Social psychologists are interested in
technologies like EEG, PET and fMRI, etc. such
about which you will study later. topics as attitudes, conformity and
Developmental Psychology studies the obedience
physical, social and psychological to authority, interpersonal attraction,
changes helpful
that occur at different ages and stages behaviour, prejudice, aggression, social
over a motivation, inter-group relations and so
life-span, from conception to old age. on.
The Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology
primary concern of developmental examines the role of culture in
Psychology understanding
12 behaviour, thought, and emotion. It
psychologists is how we become what assumes
that human behaviour is not only a deals
reflection with causes, treatment and prevention
of human-biological potential but also a of
product of culture. Therefore behaviour different types of psychological
should disorders such
be studied in its socio-cultural context. as anxiety, depression, eating disorders
As you and
will be studying in different chapters of chronic substance abuse. A related area
this is
book, culture influences human counselling, which aims to improve
behaviour in everyday
many ways and in varying degrees. functioning by helping people solve
Environmental Psychology studies the problems
interaction of physical factors such as in daily living and cope more effectively
temperature, humidity, pollution, and with
natural challenging situations. The work of
disasters on human behaviour. The clinical
influence psychologists does not differ from that
of physical arrangement of the of
workplace on counselling psychologists although a
health, the emotional state, and counselling psychologist sometimes
interpersonal deals with
relations are also investigated. Current people who have less serious problems.
topics In
of research in this field are the extent to many instances, counselling
which, psychologists
disposal of waste, population explosion, work with students, advising them about
conservation of energy, efficient use of personal problems and career planning.
community resources are associated Like
with and clinical psychologists, psychiatrists also
are functions of human behaviour. study
Health Psychology focuses on the role of the causes, treatment, and prevention
psychological factors (for example, of
stress, psychological disorders. How are clinical
anxiety) in the development, prevention psychologists and psychiatrists
and different? A
treatment of illness. Areas of interest for clinical psychologist has a degree in
a psychology, which includes intensive
health psychologist are stress and training
coping, the in treating people with psychological
relationship between psychological disorders.
factors and In contrast, a psychiatrist has a medical
health, patient-doctor relationship and degree
ways with years of specialised training in the
of promoting health enhancing factors. treatment of psychological disorders.
Clinical and Counselling Psychology One
important distinction is that problems. A related field, school
psychiatrists can psychology,
prescribe medications and give focuses on designing programmes that
electroshock promote intellectual, social, and
treatments whereas clinical psychologist emotional
cannot. development of children, including those
Industrial/Organisational Psychology with
deals special needs. They try to apply
with workplace behaviour, focusing on knowledge of
both the psychology in a school setting.
workers and the organisations that Sports Psychology applies psychological
employ principles to improve sports
them. Industrial/organisational performance by
psychologists enhancing their motivation. Sports
are concerned with training employees, psychology
improving work conditions, and is a relatively new field but is gaining
developing acceptance worldwide.
criteria for selecting employees. For Other Emerging Branches of Psychology
example, :
an organisational psychologist might The interdisciplinary focus on research
recommend that a company may adopt and
a new application of psychology has led to the
management structure that would emergence of varied areas like aviation
increase psychology, space psychology, military
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? psychology, forensic psychology, rural
13 psychology, engineering psychology,
communication between managers and managerial psychology, community
staff. psychology, psychology of women, and
The background of industrial and political psychology, to name a few. Try
organisational psychologists often the
includes Activity 1.3 to reflect upon your interest
training in cognitive and social areas
psychology. in psychology.
Educational Psychology studies how THEMES OF RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS
people
In the previous section, you got some
of all ages learn. Educational
idea of
psychologists
the various branches of psychology. If
primarily help develop instructional
you
methods
were to ask a simple question about
and materials used to train people in
“what
both
psychologists do?”, the usual answer will
educational and work settings. They are
be
also
that they do several things while
concerned with research on issues of
working in a
relevance
variety of settings. However, if you try
for education, counselling and learning
to
analyse their work, you will notice that differ
they from each other. For example,
basically engage in two kinds of experimental
activities. One Think about the areas of psychology that you
is research in psychology; the other is have
read in the text. Go through the list given
application of psychology.
below
What are some of the themes which and rank them from 1 (most interesting) to 11
provide direction to research and (least
application interesting).
of psychology? There are several such Cognitive psychology
themes. Biological psychology
Developmental psychology
We will focus on some of them.
Social psychology
Theme 1 : Psychology like other Cross-cultural and cultural psychology
sciences Environmental psychology
attempts to develop principles of Health psychology
behaviour and Clinical and counselling psychology
mental processes. Industrial/Organisational psychology
Educational psychology
In research, the main concern is with the
Sports psychology
understanding and explanation of After going through this textbook and
behaviour completing
and mental events and processes. the course you may like to return to this
Psychologists, who choose to engage in activity
research, function more like other and mark the changes in your ranking.
scientists. Activity 1.3
Like them, they draw conclusions which Psychology
are 14
supported by data. They design and psychologists study the processes of
conduct perception, learning, memory, thinking,
experiments or studies under controlled and
conditions on a wide range of motivation, etc., using experiment as
psychological their
phenomena. The purpose is to develop method of enquiry, whereas
general physiological
principles about behaviour and mental psychologists attempt to examine
processes. The conclusions drawn on the physiological bases of these behaviours.
basis Developmental psychologists study
of such studies apply to everybody and qualitative
are, and quantitative changes in behaviour
therefore, universal. Experimental, from
comparative, physiological, the beginning of human life to its end,
developmental, whereas
social, differential and abnormal social psychologists focus on the study
psychology of
are generally regarded as domains experience and behaviour of individuals
representing “basic psychology”. as
The themes of research in these fields they take place in social contexts.
Theme 2 : Human behaviour is a the form of personality psychology.
function of Psychologists believe that although,
the attributes of persons and core
environment. psychological processes are universal,
Kurt Lewin first proposed the famous they are
equation B = f(P,E) – which suggests susceptible to individual dispositions.
that Besides
behaviour is the product of a person and individual differences, psychologists also
her/ believe that there are variations in
his environment. What this equation behaviour
simply which occur due to environmental
tells us is that the variations we find in factors.
human This is a view which psychologists have
behaviour are largely due to the fact taken
that from anthropologists, evolutionary
persons differ with respect to their theorists
various and biologists. Psychologists look for
attributes because of their genetic explanations of various psychological
endowments and diverse experiences phenomena based on individual-
and so environment
do the environments they are placed in. interactions. Although it is difficult,
Here psychologists do seek out the relative
the environment is conceptualised as it importance of heredity and environment
is in
perceived or made sense of by the explaining human behaviour.
person. Theme 3 : Human behaviour is caused.
Psychologists have for a long time Most psychologists believe that all
considered human
that no two individuals are the same, if behaviour can be explained in terms of
one causes
considers their psychological attributes. which are internal (to the organism) or
They external
vary with respect to their intelligence, having location in the outside
interests, values, aptitudes and various environment.
other Causal explanations are central to all
personality characteristics. In fact, sciences
psychological tests came to be because without understanding them no
constructed to prediction will be possible. Although,
measure such differences. A discipline psychologists look for causal
called, differential psychology, which explanations of
focused behaviour, they also realise that simple
on individual differences emerged and linear
flourished in the late nineteenth and explanations, such as X Causing Y do
early not hold
twentieth century. Most of it still remains true. There is no one cause of behaviour.
in Human behaviour has multiple causes.
Psychologists, therefore, look for causal Theme 5 : Human behaviour can be
models where a set of interdependent controlled
variables and modified through the application of
are used to explain a behaviour. When it psychological principles.
is Why do scientists like to know how
said that behaviour has multiple causes, certain
it events can be controlled, be they
means that it is difficult to pinpoint one physical or
cause psychological? Their concern arises from
of a behaviour because it may itself be their
caused desire to develop techniques or methods
by another variable, which in turn may that
be will improve the quality of human life.
caused by some other. Psychologists also seek the same while
Theme 4 : Understanding of human applying knowledge generated by them.
behaviour This often requires removal of certain
is culturally constructed. difficulties or adverse conditions that
This is a theme which has recently individuals experience in different
surfaced. There are psychologists who phases of
believe their life. Consequently, psychologists
that most psychological theories and make
models certain interventions into the lives of
are Euro-American in nature and needy
therefore, people. This applied role of
do not help us in understanding psychologists has,
behaviours on the one hand, brought the subject
in other cultural settings. Psychologists closer
from to the life of people in general than
Asia, Africa and Latin America have other social
been science subjects and in knowing the
critical of Euro-American approaches limits of
which the applicability of its principles. On the
are propagated as universal. A similar other
critique hand, this role has also been very
is made by feminists who argue that helpful in
psychology offers a male perspective popularising psychology as a subject in
and itself.
ignores the perspective of women. They Thus, several independent branches of
argue psychology have emerged that try to
in favour of a dialectical approach which use
will psychological theories, principles and
accommodate both male and female facts to
perspectives in understanding human diagnose and resolve problems related
behaviour. to
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology? industrial and organisational settings,
15 clinical
services, education, environment, of psychology in different settings, many
health, fields
community development and so on. that were regarded as primarily
Industrial “researchoriented”
psychology, organisational psychology, in previous decades, have also
clinical gradually turned into “application-
psychology, educational psychology, oriented”.
engineering psychology and sports Newly emerging disciplines like applied
psychology experimental psychology, applied social
represent some of the areas in which psychology, and applied developmental
psychologists are engaged in delivering psychology indicate that in fact all
services to individuals, groups or psychology
institutions. has the potential of application and is
Basic vs Applied Psychology basically
It may be noted at this point that applied in nature.
various areas Thus, there is seemingly no fundamental
put under the rubrics of “basic” and difference between research and
“applied” application
psychology are identified only on the of psychology. These activities are highly
basis of interrelated and mutually reinforcing.
their emphasis on the study of certain Their
subject mutual interactions and pervasive
matters and broader concerns. There is influences
no on each other have become so specific
sharp cleavage between research and that
application of psychology. For example, several offshoots have emerged in
basic recent years
psychology provides us with theories with very specific emphasis on their
and subject
principles that form the basis of matters. Thus, ecological psychology,
application environmental psychology, cross-
of psychology and applied psychology cultural
provides psychology, biological psychology,
us with different contexts in which the space
theories psychology, and cognitive psychology,
and principles derived from research can to
be mention a few, have come up as new
meaningfully applied. On the other and
hand, frontier areas of research and
research is an integral part of even application that
those fields previously formed part of other fields of
of psychology that are mainly psychology. These newer developments
characterised require highly specialised research skills
by or subsumed under the category of and
application. Due to ever increasing training on the part of researchers than
demands ever
before. certain concerns that are now part of
PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES contemporary psychology like, what is
Any discipline, which deals with people, the
would nature of the mind or how do humans
definitely recognise the relevance of the come
knowledge of psychology. Similarly to know their motivations and emotions
psychologists also acknowledge the were
relevance the concerns of philosophers. In the
of other disciplines in understanding later part
human of the 19th century, Wundt and other
behaviour. This trend has led to the psychologists adopted an experimental
emergence approach to these questions and
of interdisciplinary approach in the field contemporary psychology emerged.
of Despite
psychology. Researchers and scholars in the emergence of psychology as a
science, social science and humanities science, it
have greatly draws from philosophy,
felt the significance of psychology as a particularly
discipline. Figure 1.1 clearly shows the with respect to methods of knowing, and
Psychology various domains of human nature.
16 Medicine : Doctors have realised that
relationship of psychology with other the
disciplines. In studying brain and maxim, healthy body requires a healthy
behaviour, mind,
psychology shares its knowledge with is actually true. A large number of
neurology, physiology, biology, medicine hospitals
and now employ psychologists. The role of
computer science. In studying human psychologists in preventing people from
behaviour (its meaning, growth and engaging in health hazardous
development) in a socio-cultural behaviours and
context, in adhering to the prescribed doctors’
psychology shares its knowledge with regimen
anthropology, sociology, social work, are some of the important areas where
political the
science and economics. In studying two disciplines have come together.
mental While
activities involved in creation of literary treating patients suffering from cancer,
texts, AIDS,
music and drama, psychology shares its and the physically challenged, or
knowledge with literature, art and handling
music. patients in the Intensive Care Unit, and
Some of the major disciplines linked to patients during post operative care
the doctors
field of psychology are discussed below: have also felt the need for psychological
Philosophy : Until the end of the 19th counselling. A successful doctor looks at
century, the
psychological as well as physical well- beginning,
being the effort of computer science has been
of the patients. in
Economics, Political Science and mimicking the human mind. One can
Sociology : As sister social science see it in
disciplines, terms of how a ‘computer’ is structured,
these three have drawn considerably its
from memory organised, sequential and
psychology and have enriched it as well. simultaneous (read parallel) processing
Psychology has contributed a great deal of
to the information. Computer scientists and
study of micro-level economic engineers are seeking to make
behaviour, computers not
particularly in understanding consumer only more and more intelligent but also
behaviour, savings behaviour and in machines which can sense and feel.
decisionmaking. Developments in both these disciplines
American economists have used data have
on consumer sentiments to predict brought about significant advancement
economic in the
growth. Three scholars who have worked field of cognitive sciences.
on Law and Criminology : A skilled lawyer
such problems have received the Nobel and
Prize a criminologist requires knowledge of
in Economics, namely H. Simon, D. psychology in answering such questions
Kahneman as:
and T. Schelling. Like economics, How well a witness remembers an
political accident, a
science too draws considerably from street fight, or a murder? How well can
psychology, particularly, in s/he
understanding report such facts when taking the
issues related to exercise of power and witness
authority, nature of political conflicts stand in the court? What factors
and their influence the
resolutions, and voting behaviour. decision which is taken by the jury?
Sociology What are
and psychology come together to the dependable signs of guilt and
explain and falsehood?
understand the behaviour of individuals Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
within different socio-cultural contexts. 17
Issues What factors are held important in
related to socialisation, group and holding a
collective culprit responsible for her/his action?
behaviour, and intergroup conflicts gain What
from degree of punishment is considered just
both these disciplines. for a
Computer Science : From the very criminal act? Psychologists seek to
answer important.
these questions. Currently, a number of A story will have more impact if it is
psychologists are involved in research based on
on such a background of psychological
Fig.1.1 : Psychology and Other Disciplines knowledge and
Architecture and Engineering insight.
Medicine/Psychiatry
Music and Fine Arts : Music and
Computer Science
Philosophy
psychology
Education have converged in many areas.
Music and Fine Arts Scientists have
Sociology made use of music in raising work
Mass Communication performance. Music and emotions is
Law/Criminology
another
Psychology
Political Science Economics
area in which a number of studies have
Psychology been
18 carried out. Musicians in India have
issues, the answers to which would help recently
the started experimenting with what they
legal system of the country in the call
future. ‘Music Therapy’. In this they use
Mass Communication : The print and the different
electronic media have entered in our ‘Ragas’ for curing certain physical
lives in a ailments.
very big way. They have a major The efficacy of music therapy still
influence on remains to
our thinking, attitudes and our be proven.
emotions. If Architecture and Engineering : At first
they have brought us closer together, glance
they have the relationship between psychology
also reduced cultural diversities. The and
impact architecture and engineering would
of media on the formation of attitudes of appear
children and their behaviour is a domain improbable. But such is actually not the
where both these disciplines come case.
together. Ask any architect, s/he must satisfy
Psychology also helps in developing her/his
strategies clients by providing mental and physical
for better and effective communication. space
A through her design and satisfy
journalist in reporting news must know aesthetically.
the Engineers must also take into account
reader’s interests in the story. Since human
most habits in their plans for safety, for
stories deal with human events, example,
knowledge of on streets and highways. Psychological
their motives and emotions is very knowledge helps in a big way in
designing of clinical psychologists. A counselling
all mechanical devices and displays. psychologist may be involved in
To sum up, psychology is located at the vocational
intersection of many fields of knowledge rehabilitation programmes, or helping
pertaining to human functioning. persons
PSYCHOLOGISTS AT WORK in making professional choices or in
Psychologists today work in a variety of adjusting
settings where they can apply to new and difficult situations of life.
psychological Counselling psychologists work for
principles for teaching and training public
people to agencies such as mental health centres,
cope effectively with the problems of hospitals, schools, colleges and
their lives. universities.
Often referred to as “human service Community psychologists generally
areas” they focus on problems related to community
include clinical, counselling, community, mental health. They work for mental
school and organisational psychology. health
Clinical psychologists specialise in agencies, private organisations and
helping clients with behavioural state
problems by governments. They help the community
providing therapy for various mental and
disorders and in cases of anxiety or fear, its institutions in addressing physical
or and
with stresses at home or at work. They mental health problems. In rural areas
work they
either as private practitioners or at may work to establish a mental health
hospitals, centre.
mental institutions, or with social In urban areas they may design a drug
agencies. rehabilitation programme. Many
They may be involved in conducting community
interviews and administering psychologists also work with special
psychological populations such as the elderly or the
tests to diagnose the client’s problems, physically or mentally challenged.
and Besides the
use psychological methods for their redirection and evaluation of various
treatment Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
19
and rehabilitation. Job opportunities in
programmes and plans, community
clinical psychology attract quite a few to
based
this
rehabilitation (CBR) is of major interest
field of psychology.
to
Counselling psychologists work with
community psychologists.
persons who suffer from motivational
School psychologists work in
and
educational systems, and their roles
emotional problems. The problems of
vary
their
according to the levels of their training.
clients are less serious than those of the
For example, a daughter having to face an
example, some school psychologists alcoholic
only father or a mother dealing with a
administer tests, whereas others also problem child)
interpret test results to help students to those that may be rooted within the
with family
their problems. They also help in the set up (for example, lack of
formulation of school policies. They communication and
facilitate interaction among family members) or
communication between parents, in a
teachers larger group or community setting (for
and administrators, and also provide example,
teachers terrorist groups or socially isolated
and parents with information about the communities) or may have national or
academic progress of a student. international dimensions. Problems
Organisational psychologists render related to
valuable help in dealing with problems education, health, environment, social
that justice,
the executives and employees of an women development, intergroup
organisation tend to face in their relations, etc.
respective are pervasive. While the solution of
roles. They provide organisations with these
consultancy services and organise skill problems may involve political,
training programmes in order to economic and
enhance their social reforms, interventions at the
efficiency and effectiveness. Some individual
organisational psychologists specialise levels are also needed in order to
in change. Many
Human Resource Development (HRD), of these problems are largely of
while psychological
others in Organisational Development nature and they result from our
and unhealthy
Change Management programmes. thinking, negative attitude towards
PSYCHOLOGY IN EVERYDAY LIFE people and
The discussion above may have clarified self and undesirable patterns of
that behaviour. A
psychology is not only a subject that psychological analysis of these problems
satisfies helps
some of the curiosities of our mind both in having a deeper understanding
about of these
human nature, but it is also a subject problems and also in finding their
that effective
can offer solutions to a variety of solutions.
problems. The potential of psychology in solving
These may range from purely personal the
(for problems of life is being realised more
and
more. Media has played a vital role in
this
respect. You may have seen on
television
counsellors and therapists suggesting
solutions to a variety of problems
related to
children, adolescents, adults and the
elderly
people. You may also find them
analysing vital
social problems relating to social change
and
development, population, poverty,
interpersonal or intergroup violence, and
environmental degradation. Many
psychologists now play an active role in
designing and executing intervention
programmes in order to provide people
with a
better quality of life. Hence, it is no
surprise
that we find psychologists working in
diverse
settings such as schools, hospitals,
industries,
prisons, business organisations, military
establishments, and in private practice
as
consultants helping people solve
problems in
their respective settings.
Besides helping you in rendering social
service to others, the knowledge of
psychology
is also personally relevant to you in your
dayto-
day life. The principles and methods of
psychology that you will learn in this
course
should be made use of in analysing and
understanding yourself in relation to
others.
It is not that we do not think about
ourselves.
But very often, some of us think very
highly
of ourselves and any feedback that
contradicts
our opinion about ourselves is rejected
because we engage in what is called a
defensive behaviour. In some other
cases,
persons come to acquire a habit of
running
down themselves. Both conditions do
not
permit us to grow. We need to have a
positive
and balanced understanding of
ourselves. You
Psychology
20
1. What is behaviour? Give examples of overt
and covert behaviour.
2. How can you distinguish scientific
psychology from the popular notions about the
discipline of psychology?
3. Give a brief account of the evolution of
psychology.
Review Questions
Key Terms
Behaviour, Behaviourism, Cognition, Cognitive
approach, Consciousness, Constructivism,
Developmental psychology, Functionalism,
Gestalt, Gestalt psychology, Humanistic
approach, Introspection, Mind,
Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology,
Psychoanalysis, Sociology, Stimulus,
Structuralism
may use psychological principles in a
positive
manner to develop good habits of study
for
improving your learning and memory,
and for
solving your personal and interpersonal
problems by using appropriate
decisionmaking
strategies. You will also find it of use
to reduce or alleviate the stress of
examination. Thus, the knowledge of
psychology is quite useful in our
everyday life,
and is rewarding from personal as well
as
social points of view.
Summary
• Psychology is a modern discipline aimed at
understanding the complexities of mental
processes, experiences and behaviour of
individuals in different contexts. It is treated as
a establishments. Many of them are doing
natural as well as a social science.
• The major schools of psychological thought
are structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism,
Gestalt school, psychoanalysis, humanistic
psychology and cognitive psychology.
• Contemporary psychology is multivocal as it
is characterised by many approaches or
diverse views, which explain behaviour at
different levels. These approaches are not
mutually exclusive. Each provides valuable
insights into the complexities of human
functioning. The cognitive approach uses
thought processes as central to psychological
functions. The humanistic approach views
human functioning as characterised by a
desire
to grow, be productive and fulfill human
potential.
• Today psychologists work in many specialised
fields which have their own theories and
methods. They make efforts to develop
theories and solve problems in specific
domains.
Some of the major fields of psychology are:
cognitive psychology, biological psychology,
health psychology, developmental psychology,
social psychology, educational and school
psychology, clinical and counselling
psychology, environmental psychology,
industrial/
organisational psychology, sports psychology.
• More recently a need is felt to have
multi/interdisciplinary initiatives to arrive at a
better
understanding of reality. This has led to a
collaboration across disciplines. Interests of
psychology overlap with social sciences (e.g.,
economics, political science, sociology),
biosciences (e.g., neurology, physiology,
medicine), mass communication, and music
and
fine arts. Such efforts have led to fruitful
research and application.
• Psychology is a discipline not merely
contributing to the development of theoretical
knowledge about human behaviour, but
contributing to the solution of problems at
different
levels. Psychologists are employed to help in
diverse activities in a variety of settings
including schools, hospitals, industries, training
institutes, military and government
private practice and are consultants.
Chapter 1 • What is Psychology?
21
1. This chapter tells you about several
professionals in the field of psychology. Contact
a
psychologist who fits into one of the categories
and interview the person. Have a list of
questions prepared beforehand. Possible
questions could be: (i) What kind of education
is
necessary for your particular job? (ii) Which
college/university would you recommend for
the study of this discipline? (iii) Are there many
jobs available today in your area of work?
(iv) What would a typical day at work be like for
you – or is there no such thing as
“typical”? (v) What motivated you to enter this
line of work?
Write a report of your interview and include
your specific reactions.
2. Go to the library or some bookstore or surf
the internet and obtain names of some books
(fiction/non-fiction or films), which have
reference to applications of psychology.
Prepare a report giving a brief synopsis.
Project Ideas
4. What are the problems for which
collaboration of psychologists with other
disciplines
can be fruitful? Take any two problems to
explain.
5. Differentiate between (a) a psychologist and
a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a clinical
psychologist.
6. Describe some of the areas of everyday life
where understanding of psychology can be
put to practice.
7. How can knowledge of the field of
environmental psychology be used to promote
environment friendly behaviour?
8. In terms of helping solve an important social
problem such as crime, which branch of
psychology do you think is most suitable.
Identify the field and discuss the concerns of
the psychologists working in this field.