Principles in Teaching

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
A Review Material for the NCBTS-

Based
2015Licensure Examination for
Teachers
Compiled by
Maria Ruth M.
Regalado
PNU Manila
Competencies
1. Select activities, PNU-Manila teaching methods, instructional materials and technology,
classroom management techniques appropriate for chosen subject-area.
2. Apply appropriate approaches to lesson planning and curriculum development.
3. Choose appropriate principles in the preparation and utilization of the conventional and non-
conventional technology tools as well as traditional and alternative teaching strategies.
Content Coverage
1. General Principles of Teaching
2. Principles of Teaching Specific Content Areas
3. Management of Instruction
4. Instructional Techniques
5. Classroom Management
Part 1 CONTENT QUEST
I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

A. Defining Philosophy, Theory and Principle of Teaching
1. Philosophy of Teaching
 Concise statements of what a teacher believes in about the teaching and learning, and possibly also
about education in general
 A reflection of a teacher’s beliefs about the learner, what must be taught, and how to teach in order to
come close to the truth
2. Theory of Teaching & Learning

 A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of teaching-learning situations, based on a body of
facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment
3. Principles of Teaching
 A fundamental truth, law, doctrine, or motivating force upon which others are based.
 Overwhelming obvious ideas that are often accepted as a matter of faith
 A set of guidelines that are based on sound beliefs about the nature of the learner, the teacher and
the learning environment that lead to the improvement of teaching and learning
 Covers 4 areas: (1) Students as Learners, (2) Instruction & Assessment, (3) Communication
Techniques, and (4) Profession and the Community. Each of these categories observes specific
principles in the achievement of cognitive, psychomotor and affective learning outcomes.
B. Elements of Teaching and Learning

1. The Learners
 An embodiment of both body and spirit
 Equipped with cognitive faculties
 Senses
 Instinct
 Imagination
 Memory
 Intellect
 Equipped with appetitive faculties
 Feelings
 Emotions
 Rational will
 Elements that make learners different from one another
 Ability
The capacity to understand and assimilate information for their own use and application
 Aptitude
The innate talent or gift; a natural capacity to learn certain skills
 Interests
A strong appeal or attraction towards an activity or an area
 Family and cultural background
May include the exposure that the learners have as they are introduced and interact with
the other people in the environment
 Attitudes
An organized predisposition to respond positively or negatively, favorably or unfavorably
toward as specified class of objects
 Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)
 Verbal-linguistic Intelligence
Sensitivity to the meaning and order of words and the varied uses of language
 Logical-mathematical Intelligence
2 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING A Review Material for the NCBTS-Based Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET)| Compiled by MARIA
RUTH M. REGALADO, PNU-Manila
The ability to handle long chains of reasoning and to recognize patterns and order in the
world
 Spatial Intelligence
The ability to perceive the visual world accurately, and to recreate, transform, or modify
aspects of the world based on one’s perceptions
 Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence
A fine-tuned ability to use the body and to handle objects
 Musical Intelligence
Sensitivity to pitch, melody, and tone
 Interpersonal Intelligence
The ability to notice and make distinctions among others
 Intrapersonal Intelligence
Access to one’s own “feeling life”
 Naturalist Intelligence
Observing, understanding, and organizing patterns in the natural environment
 Learning Styles
The classroom or environmental conditions that students prefer to learn
 Sensing-thinking (mastery)
Inclination for remembering, describing, manipulating, ordering
Ability to organize, report, build, plan and carry out projects
 Intuitive-thinking (understanding)
Inclination for analyzing, testing/proving, examining, connecting
Ability to argue, research, develop theories, explain
 Intuitive-feeling (self-expressive)
Inclination for predicting/speculating, imagining, generating ideas, developing insights
Ability to develop original solutions think metaphorically, articulate ideas, express and
create
 Sensing-feeling (interpersonal)
Inclination for supporting, personalizing, expressing emotions, learning from experience
Build trust and rapport, empathize, respond, teach
2. The Teacher
 Psychological Characteristics of a Good Teacher
 Personality
 Attitude
 Experience
 Aptitude and achievement
 Key behaviors that contribute to effective teaching
 Lesson clarity
Making points clear to learners who come from different levels of understanding;
explaining concepts in ways that would help students follow along in a logical order
 Instructional variety
Variability or flexibility of delivery during presentation of a lesson; the art of asking
questions; the use of instructional materials, equipment, displays and space in the
classroom
 Teacher task orientation
The amount of classroom time the teacher devotes to the task of teaching an academic
subject
 Engagement in the learning process
The amount of time students devote to learning an academic subject
 Student success rate
The rate at which your students understand and correctly complete exercises and
assignments
 Helping behaviors
 Using student ideas and contributions
Includes acknowledging, modifying, applying, comparing, and summarizing
 Structuring
Comments teachers make for the purpose of organizing what is to come, or summarizing
what has gone before
 Questioning
Posing questions to have student deal directly with the content taught, or process of
thinking
 Probing
Teacher statements that encourage students to elaborate on an answer, either their own
or another student’s
 Teacher affect
The emotions underlying a teacher’s actions that are perceived by the students
3. The Learning Environment

 The place where teaching and learning can take place in the most effective and productive
manner
 Consists of the physical, psychological environment that surrounds the learner and that
influences his/her learning
 Factors and situations that are likely to promote or diminish student's motivation to learn, and
how to help students to become self-motivated
 Features of the learning environment:
 Arrangement of furniture
 Physical condition of the classroom
 Classroom proceedings
 Interactions

C. Principles of Teaching
 Teaching is a complex, multifaceted activity, often requiring us as instructors to juggle multiple tasks
and goals simultaneously and flexibly
1. Principles of teaching according to various authors

 According to Tiberius & Tipping
1. Teachers' knowledge of the subject matter is essential to the implementation of important
teaching tasks
2. Active involvement of the learner enhances learning
3. Interaction between teachers and students is the most important factor in student motivation
and involvement
4. Students benefit from taking responsibility for their learning
5. There are many roads to learning
6. Expect more and you will achieve more
7. Learning is enhanced in an atmosphere of cooperation
8. Material must be meaningful
9. Both teaching and learning are enhanced by descriptive feedback
10. Critical feedback is only useful if the learner has alternatives to pursue
11. Time plus energy equals learning
12. Experience usually improves teaching
 According to Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence
1. Effective teaching involves acquiring relevant knowledge about students and using that
knowledge to inform our course design and classroom teaching.
2. Effective teaching involves aligning the three major components of instruction: learning
objectives, assessments, and instructional activities.
3. Effective teaching involves articulating explicit expectations regarding learning objectives and
policies.
4. Effective teaching involves prioritizing the knowledge and skills we choose to focus on.
5. Effective teaching involves recognizing and overcoming our expert blind spots.
6. Effective teaching involves adopting appropriate teaching roles to support our learning goals.
7. Effective teaching involves progressively refining our courses based on reflection and
feedback.
2. Principles of teaching based from the principles of learning (Thorndike)
 Readiness
Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and
they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. Students must have adequate rest,
health, and physical ability prior active learning.
 Exercise
Things that are most often repeated are best remembered. Students learn best and retain
information longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition.
 Effect
Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that
learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
 Primacy
Learning things the first time must be right. Things that are learned first create a strong
impression in the mind that is difficult to erase.
 Recency
Information acquired last generally is remembered best; frequent review and summarization
help fix in the mind the material covered.
 Intensity
The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A student learns more
from the real thing than from a substitute.
II. MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION

A. Definition of Instructional Planning
 The ability to visualize the future classroom events.
 An instructional plan may be likened to a roadmap or a guide that assists in the smooth flow of
movements from the start until the end.
 A means to manage learning time and activities.
 Involves decision-making based on the student’s prior learning experiences, context presented in the
curriculum and support materials, and the actual conditions of the instructional setting.
B. Purpose of Lesson Planning

 Provide an overview of instruction
 Facilitate effective management of instruction
 Provide for logical and purposeful learning
 Efficient utilization of available time and material resources
 Enable teachers to organize and rehearse thoughts and movements prior actual teaching
 Ensure strong link between the curriculum and the actual teaching-learning processes
 Guide substitute teachers in conducting teaching-learning processes appropriately
C. Principles of Instructional Planning

 The course supports the context of the school or district goals.
 The content supports the attainment of the objectives.
 The focus of the course must be clear on what it stresses – the subject matter, the learner or the
societal needs.
 The time allotment must be sufficient to cover each topic.
 The plan considers areas that need special attention – learners with special needs, the instructional
program.
 The important components of instruction must be identified -- content, concept, skill, values. These
must be congruent with:
- the objectives of the course
- fostering critical or high order thinking skills
- students’ interests and abilities
- available resources
- the scope and sequence
 The strategies and techniques are appropriate and can optimize the learning opportunities and needs
of the students
 The assessment procedure must be able to give information on the learners’ attainment of the course
and their difficulties.
 An experienced colleague or supervisor’s comments and suggestions may be considered as inputs to
improve the plan.
 Review and revise the plan to cover gaps and avoid redundancy of activities.
D. The Instructional Planning Sequence
Assessing Learners’ Stating the Goals of

Needs the School
Evaluation of Learning
Organizing the Content
Achievement
& Setting
Conducting Teaching-
Learning Processes
E. Levels of Instructional Planning

1. Yearly Plan - for establishing general content, basic curriculum and for ordering/reserving
materials
2. Term Plan - for scheduling the content in details for the next few months, and to establish
weekly budget of content that conforms with the goals or theme of the term
3. Unit Plan - for scheduling in more detailed manner the content and activities on a month to
week basis
4. Weekly Plan - for reorganizing content and activities in order to adapt to the specific context or
setting, disruptions, and special needs
5. Daily Plan - for organizing the activities to accommodate immediate concerns and/or last
minute adjustments
F. Types of Lesson Plans

1. Brief – an outline of instructional tasks usually prepared by seasoned teachers
2. Semi-detailed – a plan that presents all the activities and the teacher’s questions, required to be
prepared by new teachers
3. Detailed – a plan that presents all the teacher’s questions to be corresponded by the
learners’ responses, in full detail, required to be prepared by pre-service teachers
G. Types of Lessons
1. Drill Lesson - for fixing certain concepts through repetitive activities (Steps: Motivation,
Focalization, Repetition with attention, Application)
2. Review Lesson - for presenting previously learned facts in new ways (Steps: Preparation,
Review Proper/Activities, Further Application)
3. Development Lesson - for presenting new concepts, procedure or skills (Steps: Preparation,
Development, Application)
4. Application Lesson - for fixing the learned concepts after a development lesson through new
experiences and situations
5. Supervised Study - for ensuring individual needs through one-on-one instruction and
guidance
6. Appreciation Lesson - for enjoying while fixing the values learned through aesthetic discussions
and reproduction
H. Components of a Long-Term Instructional Plan

1. Objectives (Gronlund)
 Terminal – the most important learning outcome to be attained at the end of instruction
 Enabling – learning objectives that lead to the attainment of the terminal objective
2. Content
 Knowledge – facts, information, concepts, principles, laws
 Skills – cognitive, affective, psychomotor
 Values/Attitudes – integrity, respectfulness, responsibility
3. Skills
 Reading, writing
 Using references and reading resources
 Inquiry skills
 Researching
 Social skills
 Cooperative learning skills
4. Learning Activities
 Varied techniques used incorporated in strategies or approaches
5. Resources and Materials
 Printed
 Audio-visuals
 Programmed
 Models, charts, specimens
6. Evaluation Procedures
 Public display of outputs or interactions
 Written tests
 Reviews, summaries and generalizations formulated
 Remedial work
 Re-teaching
I. Components of a Daily Lesson Plan

I. Objectives
A. (cognitive)
B. (affective)
C. (psychomotor)
II. Subject Matter
Concepts/Skills:
Values Integrated:
References:
Materials:
III. Learning Activities
A. Preparatory Activities
1. Drill - an activity that automates learners’ prerequisite skills
2. Review - an activity that refreshes learners on a previously learned concept/skill
that is very much related to the new concept/skill
3. Introduction - an activity where the teacher together with the learners agree and set the
purpose of the day’s lesson
4. Motivation - an activity that is related to the new lesson but which is purposefully
done to arouse the interest and set the mood of the learners to proceed
o Intrinsic (self-interest)
o Extrinsic (an external force that motivates one to achieve)
B. Developmental Activities
1. Presentation - activities that incorporate real-life situations or examples that help
translate the concept/skill/value into an opportunity for learning
2. Discussion - an active exchange of questions and answers between and among
the teacher and the students that promote understanding of the new
lesson
3. Generalization - an abstraction of the lesson which is done by the students through the
guidance of the teacher
C. Closure Activities
These are activities where the students are given the opportunity to try-out their new
learning by applying and/or translating it in new, more realistic situations.
IV. Evaluation
These are tasks done by the students to determine the extent of their mastery of the subject
matter, and the attainment of the learning objectives previously set by the teacher.
V. Assignment
A set of activities intended to reinforce or enrich the learning of the day’s plan, and/or to
prepare for the next day’s activities.
J. Developing Learning Objectives

Basic Concepts
 Aims - broad statements about the intention of education, translates the needs of
society into educational policy
 Goals - statements that describe what schools are expected to accomplish vis-à-vis
subjects and grade levels, where it wants to be
 Objectives - specific skills, tasks and attitudes that are stated in behavioral terms and which
are set as a guide or standards of performance in a particular level and class; the
steps be taken to reach the goal
1. Objective Derivation
a. Sources of learning objectives
 constitutional aims
 institutional mission
 curriculum goals
 course/subject goals
 unit objectives
 lesson objectives
2. Objectives Specification
a. Guidelines in Formulating Behavioral Learning Objectives (Drucker)
S – specific
M – measurable
A – attainable
R – result-oriented
T – time bound
b. Criteria of a Measurable Objective
 learners’ behavior
 observable terms
 time-bound
3. Sequencing Objectives
a. Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives
LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL TERMS
1. Knowledg Recall and remember previously name, define, state,
e learned materials recall, identify, label,
select, match,
enumerate, list
2. Compreh Understand the meaning of describe, interpret,
ension something by translating it explain, infer, estimate,
convert, represent
3. Applicatio Use learned rules/formulas in apply, use, demonstrate,
n different situations solve, construct, show,
prepare, carry out
4. Analysis Break down components or classify, compare,
elements to see relationship contrast, differentiate,
categorize, distinguish
5. Synthesis Arrange and organize elements into Combine, suggest, create,
new structures design , conclude,
summarize, plan,
integrate
6. Evaluatio Judge the quality or worth of Judge, weigh, evaluate,
n something based on criteria verify, justify, defend,
confirm, decide, critique
b. Taxonomy of Psychomotor Objectives

1. Receiving Develops awareness of a situation, Listen, look, observe,
receives information watch, attend
2. Respondin Shows an initial level of Share, respond, react,
g satisfaction follow
3. Valuing Shows that something has value or Support, cooperate,
has worth admire, participate,
promote, preserve, assist
4. Organizati Combines together complex set of Organize, integrate,
on values and organizes them into a propose, balance, resolve
harmonious and consistent set of
contents
5. Characteri Practices in real life through Assert, accept, maintain,
zation outlooks and basis of philosophy in advocate approve,
life influence, justify
c. Taxonomy of Affective Objectives

1. Percep Use of sense organs to become aware Observe, watch, listen,
tion of cues monitor
2. Set Preparedness and readiness to take Ready, prepare, set-up,
action show
3. Guide Imitates, conducts trial and error Imitate, follow, copy,
d Response based on a model repeat, practice
4. Mecha Responses are done with confidence Manipulate, collect, draw,
nism use, sketch, demonstrate,
write
5. Compl Performs with confidence and more Construct, troubleshoot,
ex Overt skillfully with proficiency operate, drive
Response
6. Adapt Skills are modified to fit in new Adjust, repair, change,
ation situations integrate
7. Origin Creation of new movements, patterns Create, produce, develop,
ation to solve a situation compose
4. Determining Appropriate Contents
a.The Structure of Subject Matter Content
 Cognitive
Basic Concepts:
 Facts – events or actual states of affairs
 Knowledge – factual information that is initially learned and later remembered
 Concept – an understanding of what something is
 Principle – the relationship between at least 2 concepts
Kinds of Cognitive Learning:
1. Fact, Factual Information, and Knowledge
Principles in Teaching Factual Information:
 Organizing learning materials through meaningful association
 Transition from old to new materials
 Proper sequencing of materials
 Appropriate practice
Self-evaluation
2. Concept and Principles
Principles in Teaching Concepts and Principles:
 Awareness of attributes
 Appropriate language for concepts
 Proper sequencing of instances
 Guided student discovery
 Concept application
 Self-evaluation
3. Problem Solving Abilities
Principles in Developing Problem-Solving Abilities
 Recognizing difficulties in a situation
 Delimiting the problem
 Using new methods for arriving at a conclusion
 Generalizing possible solutions by applying knowledge and methods to the problem
situation
 Inferring and testing hypothesis to solve problems
4. Creativity
Principles in Developing Creativity:
 Providing opportunities for new ideas through self-expression in figural, verbal and
physical forms
 Associating success in creative efforts with level of experience
 Psychomotor
Basic Concepts:
 Capacity – an individual’s potential power to do a certain task
 Ability – the actual power of an individual to perform an act physically and mentally
 Skill – the level of proficiency attained consistently by an individual in carrying out
sequences of action
Phases of Motor Skills Learning
1.Cognitive Phase – understanding the task
2.Organizing Phase – associating responses with particular cues
3.Perfecting Phase – executing performance in an automatic manner
Principles that Promote the Development of Psychomotor Skills:
 Attending to the characteristics of the skill and assessing one’s own related abilities
 Observing and imitating a model’s movements
 Guiding initial responses verbally and physically
 Practicing under desirable conditions to eliminate errors and strengthen and refine
correct responses and form
 Knowledge of results and learning achievement through feedback
 Self-evaluation of a performance
 Affective
Basic Concepts:
 Affective – pertains to the emotions or feeling of an individual rather than on his/her
thoughts
 Affective Learning – consists of responses that are acquired as an individual evaluates
the meaning of an idea, object, person or event based on his/her own view
 Taste – an individual’s preference of a particular thing, object or event
 Attitudes – a learned, emotionally-toned predisposition toward something
 Values – an individual’s inner core belief based on internalized standards as norms of
behavior
Principles that Promote the Development of Attitudes and Values:
 Recognizing an attitude for initial learning
 Observing and imitating a model
 Positive attitudes toward something
 Getting more information about something
 Interacting with the primary sources, and later establishing commitments toward the
sources
 Practicing an attitude
 Purposeful learning
b.Guiding Principles in Content Selection (Ornstein & Hunkins)

 Validity – authenticity of information
 Significance – based on one’s favor (in terms of concepts, needs, interests)
 Utility – usefulness of content
 Learnability – difficulty level
 Feasibility – consider time constraints, expertise of staffs, funding, educational resources
5. Determining Appropriate Instructional Approaches and Methods

Basic Concepts & Terms
 Approach – a teacher’s viewpoint toward teaching
 Method – a series of related, progressive activities performed by a teacher and his/her
students to achieve the learning objectives
 Strategy – a set of decisions to achieve an instructional plan
 Technique – a personal style or the art of a teacher in conducting the teaching activities
Characteristics of a True Method
 Utilizes the theory of self-activity
 Utilizes the law of learning
 Aids the learner in defining his own purposes by setting the situation for the emergence the
desired purpose
 Starts from what is already known to the learners
 Based on an accepted and well-integrated set of educational theory and practice to unify
teaching and learning efforts
 Provides the learners with a wide array of diverse learning experiences or activities
 Challenges and encourages the learners to move further in the process involving differentiation
and integration
 Provides opportunity for the learner to ask and answer questions
 Supplements other teaching methods.
Factors to Consider in Choosing a Method

1. Objectives – the expected outcome of the lesson to be attained by the learners at the
end
2. Subject Matter – the substance of teaching
3. Learners – considered as the center of the educational process. Their nature,
problems, needs and interests are relevant factors.
4. Materials and Technology – tools and devices for the lesson.
5. Time Allotment – the amount of time available for the lesson.
6. Teacher – must be familiar with the method
Characteristics of a Good Teaching Method
 Makes use of the principles of learning
 Utilizes the principle of learning by doing
 Provides for individual differences
 Stimulates thinking and reasoning
 Provides for growth and development
 Liberates the learner
Different Teaching Methods
Major Classifications
 Deductive – direct approach; expository tasks where the teacher puts forth to the learners
the major concepts which they will simply apply in different situations
 Inductive – indirect approach; exploratory activities that enable learners discover the
content
Time-Tested Methods
 Expository – learners listen and observe as the teacher tells or explains a concept
 Lecture – explaining an idea that originates from a question or a problem, done due to
lack of information sources
 Demonstration or Showing – a presenter demonstrates or shows procedures on how things are
done while the audience watch and observe, may be done due to lack of
materials, danger in handling substances and time constraints
 Type Study – tasks focus on the study of a single case, to learn its attributes and qualities
 Problem-Solving – uses a problem as an opportunity to develop scientific attitudes and reflective
thinking skills
 Project – activities that require both intellectual and physical abilities to produce or
construct a product which is the learning evidence
 Unit or Morrison – often utilized in teaching social sciences where there is a need to explore,
present, integrate, organize and recite.
 Laboratory – uses apparatuses and equipment together with materials primarily intended
to develop manipulative and scientific skills
Progressive Methods
 Integrative –
occurs within a learner; initiates, plans activities, integrate, culminates and
evaluates
 Discovery – teacher guides learners in discussing and organizing ideas and processes by
themselves
 Process – emphasizes on the mastery of scientific process skills such as measurement,
inferring, hypothesizing, predicting, controlling variables, experimenting and
communicating
 Conceptual – learners develop their concepts through identification of attributes of examples
and non-examples; steps are initiation, recognizing, identifying major and minor
problems, hypothesizing, grouping, data gathering, organizing data and
summarizing, reporting, testing and accepting or rejecting hypothesis –
conceptualizing, generalizing and evaluating
 Mastery Learning – individualized instruction intended to address specific needs of learners;
provides feedback along the process
 Team Teaching – two or more teachers cluster together to support each other in carrying out
specialized topics and areas
 Programmed Instruction – a device is used to present the learning material as the learner go
through specific steps to learn the content
 Individually Prescribed Instruction – a learner takes a test for placement, works at his/her own
pace on a series of learning tasks, takes another test to see learning
achievement
 Metacognitive Teaching – learners become aware of and control over their own learning using
metacognitive processes; uses advance organization, organizational planning,
directed attention, selective attention, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, auditory
representation
 Constructivist Approach – learners use their own experiences to create their understanding of
new concepts
 Problem-based Learning – learners actively involved in the investigation of real life issues, and
in evolving solutions, involves thinking and scientific skills
Teaching Techniques
 Role Playing – learners spontaneously portray a roles in a situation
 Simulation – learners replicate an episode
 Socio-drama – pantomiming or portraying specific events in history or a fictional material
 Panel Discussion – a group of 4-6 learners with a chairman sit together to discuss a topic
among themselves
 Forum – similar to a panel discussion but the audience takes part at certain points of the
discussion
 Symposium – a group of participants formally present their positions on certain topics before an
audience
 Debate – two groups of participants, each taking a position, intends to defend their stand by
formally presenting their points on a topic
 Buzz session – small groups of participants sit together to discuss among themselves their
opinions on a certain issue
 Brainstorming – a group of participants generate ideas as they meaningfully discuss or solve a
problem
 Jury Trial – combination of group work, research study and panel discussion presented in a
simulated trial court
 Case Study – a class is presented with a situation, and is asked to give their viewpoint on the
matter
 Problem Solving Discussion – a class thinking together to solve a problem at hand
 Field Trip – learners visit real settings to witness and experience first hand the actualities
 Resource Person – an expert speaks before a group of spectators, ably discusses a topic of
interest, and may be asked to answer certain issues relevant to the topic
 Using Media – audio-visual equipment and canned materials are used to present concepts
complete with animation
Structure-Oriented Strategies & Techniques
 Group
1. Whole Group Instruction
- most common; traditional form of classroom instruction
- cost-effective
2. Small Group Instruction
- works best in rooms with movable furniture
- groupings may be done according to ability, interest, skill, viewpoint, activity or project,
integration or arbitrary
3. Cooperative Learning Groups
- best done with a maximum of 4 members in a group
- each member is given a responsibility to contribute for the team’s success
- may require several sets of materials and varied learning tasks
- involves highly learner-centered tasks
- teacher facilitates, oversees conduct of activities
 Dyad
1. Partners Learning Approach
- effective in teaching students who do not respond well to adult intervention
- develops a deep bond of friendship between the tutor and the tutee
- takes pressure off the teacher
- tutors benefit by learning to teach
- happens spontaneously under cooperative condition
2. Peer Tutoring
- gives the slow learners the individual attention they need
 Individualized
1. Adaptive Instruction
- occurs on 2 levels: (1) developing the abilities and learning skills of the student, and (2)
altering instructional environment to correspond to the individual’s abilities and learning
skills
2. Mastery Instruction
- focuses on mastery of skills at the most appropriate pacing of individual learner
3. Computer-Assisted Instruction
-utilizes computer technology to facilitate learning of concepts and skills
-consists of 3 levels: (1) practice and drill, (2) tutoring, and (3) dialogue
 Independent
- A student work on a topic using different resources with occasional supervision from a
teacher.
Selecting Instructional Activities
Bases for Selection
 Goals & Objectives
Will the activity serve the purpose for a particular group in a particular time?
 Maximization of Opportunities Achieve Multiple Goals
Will the activity contribute in the attainment of the specific goals, too?
 Student Motivation
Can the activity engage the students and sustain their interest?
 Principles of Learning
Does the activity satisfy the principles of learning especially those that pertain to the
development of cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills?
 Facilities, Equipment and Resources
Are the material resources needed in the activity available?
Continuum of Instructional Activities from Passive to Active Learning
6. Determining Appropriate Instructional Materials and Tools

Types of Instructional Materials
1. Printed - textbooks, periodicals
2. Visuals – realias, pictures, graphs, charts, photographs
3. Chalkboard/Display board
4. Audios – tapes, recorders, players
5. Overhead transparencies and projectors
6. Slides and slide projectors
7. Filmstrips
8. Televisions
9. Video tape/CDs/DVDs
10. Computers
11. Internet Access
Principles in Selecting Instructional Materials
1. Meaningfulness
2. Appropriateness
3. Breadth
4. Usefulness
5. Communication Effectiveness
6. Authenticity
7. Responsiveness
8. Interest
9. Cost-effectiveness
Factors Affecting Selection of Media
1. Human Factors – learners’ interest and needs; teacher’s skills in handling the media
2. Instructional Method – the method dictates and limits the kind of media
3. Practical Constraints – administrative and economic concerns
General Guidelines in Utilizing Instructional Materials
1. Purpose
2. Learning Objectives
3. Flexibility
4. Diversity
5. Learners’ Development
6. Content
7. Guidance for learners
8. Evaluation Results
7. Determining Appropriate Evaluation Instruments
a. Prior to instruction: Pre-assessment
b. During instruction: Concurrent, Formative
c. After instruction: Post Test/Summative/Mastery Test
III. QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES

A. Definition of Questioning
 A key technique in teaching that is used for a variety of purposes, but most importantly to make
students think.
B. Purposes of Questioning
 Arousing students’ interest and curiosity
 Reviewing content
 Stimulating learners to ask questions
 Promoting thinking and understanding of ideas
 Changing the mood and directions of a discussion
 Encouraging reflection and self-evaluation
 Allowing students to express their feelings
C. Types of Questions
 According to the thinking process involved
Low-Level – focused on factual information
High-Level – beyond facts, moves to higher order thinking
 According to the type of answers required
Convergent – brings about only one specific answer
Divergent – usually open-ended and encourages reasoning
 According to the cognitive taxonomy
Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation
 According to the purposes of the teacher during an open discussion
Eliciting – encourages immediate and initial responses
Probing – seeks to expand or extend ideas
Closure-Seeking – helps students to form conclusions, solutions or create plans
D. Guidelines in Asking Questions
 Provide for “wait time”
 Prompt by using hints and techniques to assist students to successfully arrive at the correct answer
 Redirect by asking a single question where several answers may manifest higher level thinking
 Probe to increase quality in the kind of thought processes that will take place; enable the students to
support their stand
 Comment on the students’ responses to increase achievement and motivation
E. Tips on Asking Questions
 Ask questions that are:
- stimulating
- thought-provoking
- within student’s level of abilities
- relevant to students’ daily life situation
- sequential
- clear and easily understood
 Phrase questions clearly
 Vary the length and difficulty of questions
 Have sufficient time for deliberation
 Call on volunteers or non-volunteers
 Call on disruptive students
 Move around the room for rapport/socialization
 Encourage active participation
 Ask as many learners as possible to answer certain questions
 Follow up incorrect answers
IV. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

A. Definitions of Classroom Management
 The operation and control of classroom activities
 Involves the ability to maintain order and sustain learners’ attention
B. Purposes
 To minimize the occurrences of problems on discipline.
 To increase the proportion of classroom time devoted to constructive and productive activities
C. Basics of Classroom Control
 Content : manage to facilitate the delivery of instruction
 Conduct : manage to promote orderly and safe learning environment
 Context : manage to encourage interaction rather than physical elements associated with the
classroom setting
D. Types of Control
 Preventive : minimizes the onset of anticipated discipline problems
 Supportive : directs students’ behavior before a discipline problem fully blows up
 Corrective : seeks to discipline students who failed to meet the agreed code of conduct in a
particular setting
E. Management Techniques
1. Content
 Establishing standard arrangements
 Identifying traffic routes
 Organizing supplies and materials within learners’ reach
 Consistency on rules and areas where they apply
 Refraining from using the first few minutes of the session for collection
 Using overlapping techniques during collection and distribution of materials
 Preparing for transitions in activities
 Arranging furniture that will aid in monitoring distractions
 Maximizing visibility and accessibility through proper arrangement of furniture
 Developing and utilizing nonverbal techniques to manifest disapproval of certain behavior
 Model and emphasize self-discipline
2. Conduct
 Establishing a code of conduct
 Setting limits to conduct inside and outside the learning area
 Managing consequences of enforced rules
 Seeking the support of the school administration and parents
 Encouraging self-discipline through positive feedback
3. Context
 Respecting students as human beings instead of valuing them for what they can and cannot do
 Attending to disturbances while maintaining your teaching purpose
 Attending to large concerns rather than small issues
 Revealing oneself to the learners
 Get involved in the process and with the learners as their friends
 Capitalizing on interpersonal relationships of trust and confidence
F. Techniques in Developing Good Discipline
1. Demonstration: explain to the students the behavior expected of them.
2. Attention: focus the students’ attention on what was explained and model them
3. Practice: provide opportunities to practice appropriate behavior
4. Corrective Feedback: provide frequent, specific and immediate feedback to correct behavior
5. Application: students now applying the behavior in real-life situations
G. Guidelines for Using Punishments
1. Make sure the punishment is feasible.
2. Never punish when you are not in a proper emotional state
3. Do not assign extra work as punishment.
4. The punishment must follow the offense the soonest time possible.
5. Be consistent with the punishment.
6. Never use double standards when punishing.
7. Give the students the benefit of the doubt.
8. Never hold any grudge after the incident.
9. Never take the incident personally.
10. Document all serious incidents.
SOURCES:
Borich, G. D. (2004). Effective Teaching Methods, 5th ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Corpuz, B.B. and G.G. Salandanan. (2006). Principles of Teaching 1. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Corpuz, B.B., G.G. Salandanan, and D.V. Rigor. (2006). Principles of Teaching 2. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
McNergney, R. F. and J. M. McNergney. (2001). Education: The practice and profession of teaching. USA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Salandanan, G.G. (2007). Elements of Good Teaching. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Salandanan, G.G. (2006). Methods of Teaching. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Salandanan, G.G. (2000). Teaching Approaches and Strategies. Quezon City: Katha Publishing Co., Inc.
Part 2 CONTENT CHALLENGE
DIRECTIONS: Analyze each item carefully. Then choose the best answer.
1. Which signals a teacher that a child is ready to learn?
A. If the child is interested in the assigned task.
B. If the child shows improved performance.
C. If the child manifests sustained interest.
D. All of the above
2. Which teaching principle does a teacher satisfy when the student’s age and cognitive processes are considered
when presenting content activities?
A. Communication Needs
B. Instruction and Assessment
C. Student Development
D. Professional Growth
3. Which learning theory is satisfied when a teacher organizes the learning tasks hierarchically?
A. Cumulative Learning
B. Meaningful Learning
C. Social Cognitive Learning
D. Theory of Instruction
4. When should reinforcement be used by a teacher to be effective?
A. When applied to all behavior
B. When applied to good behavior
C. When applied to specific behavior
D. When applied to either good or bad behavior
5. Which of the following statements will not support the concept of diversity of learners?
A. Consider the uniqueness of each student
B. Use varied activities for a difficult lesson
C. Involve all students regardless of what the activity is
D. Help should be extended to both the gifted and the retarded.
6. Why should teachers provide positive feedback and realistic praise?
A. To motivate the students to study
B. So the students will know what to do
C. To be liked and loved by the students
D. So the students will also praise him/her
7. Why should a teacher do a series of observations, not just one, to be able to make conclusion regarding an
individual’s behavior?
A. To see the consistency of the exhibited behavior
B. To check if the modeled behavior was copied correctly
C. It is better to see the individual show different behavior at different times
D. It is not always possible to draw accurate conclusions by observing only once.
8. Mr. Guerta would like to transfer computing skills to figuring income tax. What should be the teacher’s action?
A. Check students’ knowledge and understanding skills
B. Apply information storage mechanism
C. Teach students to process
D. Develop retrieval skills
9. Ms. Agustin is developing the concept of solid to her Grade 2 pupils. Which of the following actions will she
follow?
A. Present only examples of solid.
B. Present four examples of solid and four non-examples of solid.
C. Present examples of solid in varying sizes, colors and shapes.
D. Present four examples of solid first, then remove them, and present the four non-examples.
10. All are outcomes of learning except one. Which is the exception?
A. Abilities and skills
B. Habits and attitudes
C. Knowledge and understanding
D. Maturation and development
11. Two hyperactive pupils, Francis and Miguel are seated next to each other. Every time Francis pays attention and
completes his tasks, Teacher Roselle praises him. In this condition, the teacher notes that Miguel’s behavior has
also improved even without specific reinforcement from her. What is demonstrated by Miguel?
A. Imitation learning
B. Observational learning
C. Self-regulated learning
D. Vicarious learning
12. In reinforcement, which of the following praise statements enable the students to understand the specific action
that is being praised?
A. “You were very responsible.”
B. “You returned the books in their proper shelves.”
C. “Aren’t you good today?”
D. “You got high in the test. How lucky can you be?”
13. Miss Montalbo is presenting a new unit on plants to her grade two class. She starts with an advance organizer
that is more general, abstract and inclusive. Which principle of teaching does Miss Montalbo apply to facilitate the
acquisition of information?
A. Organizing learning materials through meaningful association
B. Transition from old to new materials
C. Proper sequencing of materials
D. Independent evaluation
14. Which should Miss Tan consider foremost when planning for instruction?
A. Her learners who have special needs.
B. The time allotment for the subject area.
C. The curricular goals and mission of the school.
D. The availability of resources and materials that would be used.
15. What should be the foremost concern when deciding on the type of assessment to be administered?
A. The needs of the learners.
B. The learning objectives of the particular lesson.
C. The extent of accomplishing the planned activities.
D. The time allotted for conducting the assessment tasks.
16. Why should a teacher aid the students’ learning through formulating and asking questions?
A. To help the students develop their self confidence
B. To involve the students in the teaching-learning process
C. To have a basis in assigning the students’ grade in recitation.
D. To stimulate the students to think and discover new concepts.
17. Miss Macatangay needs to get her classroom chalkboard repainted but her school comes short of its budget for
the need. Which of these would be the best thing for her to do?
A. Spend her own money.
B. Wait until the school gets to save enough money for the repainting job.
C. Mobilize the homeroom parent-officers of her advisory class to turn this into their homeroom project.
D. Forget about the repainting need because the teaching-learning processes would still continue even if the
board remains unrepainted.
18. Mr. Jose wants his class to master the basic problem-solving skills. Which should he do?
A. Conduct regular drills on basic operations.
B. Ask the learners to compose their own word problems.
C. Direct them to the steps in solving problems.
D. Provide his learners with as many opportunities to solve problems.
19. Which of these would not be helpful in developing creativity among children?
A. Providing samples to clarify the concepts.
B. Demonstrate how the ideal products are made.
C. Allow the children to express their own interpretations of the task.
D. Involve the learners in determining the set of standards that must be observed while doing creative
activities.
20. A group of young dancers can very well perform a dance sequence. In what phase of motor skills learning are
they in?
A. Cognitive Phase C. Organizing Phase
B. Mechanism Phase D.Perfecting Phase
21. What should be done to master any desired learning outcome?

A. Continuous practice and opportunities to apply the skills in real life situations.
B. Read more about the concepts involved in the learning outcomes.
C. Immediately assess learning performance and provide appropriate reinforcement or enrichment
D. Pair off the learners according to their abilities – fast and slow learners as partners.
22. Which of these is the least reason for teachers to plan for their instructional activities?
A. To utilize the time allotment and resources efficiently.
B. To determine possible free time for other creative activities.
C. To ensure strong link between the curriculum and the actual teaching-learning.
D. To guide substitute teachers in conducting the processes when the originally assigned teacher suddenly
takes the day off.
23. Miss Lopez had to choose the most relevant learning tasks in her plan even if she was interested to conduct so
much more for a single lesson. Why do you think prompted her to do so?
A. Because most of the materials that would be needed are not available.
B. Because the size of the class is too big for effective management.
C. Because some of her learners may feel too tired to finish up all the tasks.
D. Because the time allotted for the lesson is not enough to conduct all of her creative tasks.
24. Why is it helpful to have an experienced colleague check on your instructional plan?
A. To further improve the plan.
B. To ensure the relevance of the tasks to the school’s mission.
C. To create a pool of instructional plans for the grade level.
D. To focus the course on the components of the instructional plan.
25. After assessing his learners’ needs, Mr. Guerta continues to plan for his instructional task. What would be his next
concern?
A. Conducting teaching-learning processes
B. Evaluation of learning achievement
C. Stating the goals of the school
D. Organizing the content
26. The school principal gives out to his teachers a complete list of concepts and skills to be taught during the school
year. What level of instructional planning is manifested here?
A. Daily Plan C. Unit Plan
B. Term Plan D. Yearly Plan
27. What should be the main concern of Grade 1 teacher if he is about to plan for the learning activities?
A. Evaluation of learning outcomes
B. Appropriate strategies and techniques
C. The skills needed by the learners to do the tasks
D. The values to be integrated to make the lesson holistic
28. After preparing the class for the new lesson, a teacher presents, discusses and guides her students in formulating
their generalizations. Under what part of the lesson plan should these three activities fall?
A. Assignment C. Developmental
B. Closure D. Evaluation
29. Jasper was asked by his teacher to flash multiplication cards to his group mates every time they are about to
begin their Math class. What type of lesson does his teacher want them to engage in?
A. Cooperative C. Motivation
B. Drill D. Review
30. In the unit on “Earthquake”, Miss Yeban plans to ask her Grade 6 class students to narrate their personal
experiences on it. In what phase of the lesson will this activity be most appropriate?
A. Apperception C. Evaluation
B. Application D. Motivation
31. Which of these strategies does not require investigation?
A. Inquiry C. Metacognitive Approach
B. Laboratory D. Problem Solving
32. If you wish to do inquiry activities in your class, what should be the initial task to be done?
A. Forming generalization on the bases of hypotheses and data by students.
B. Forming hypotheses and gathering data on questions given by the students.
C. Displaying data on a chart, discussing and assessing hypotheses by students.
D. Presenting questions to the students to further encourage them to ask some more questions.
33. A teacher plans to present to the class important historical facts. What type of lesson is he supposed to prepare?
A. Development C. Drill
B. Discovery D. Review
34. Teacher Tess gives out lollipops to her preschool learners every time they get things right. As a result, the
children became excited and more focused to make correct marks. What kind of motivation is Teacher Tess doing?
A. Artificial C. Intrinsic
B. Extrinsic D. Reverse
35. If you start out your lesson by giving your students a generalization, what teaching strategy are you using?
A. Deductive
B. Discovery
C. Inductive
D. Inquiry
36. Sir Rey drew several triangles on the board. He asked his students to measure the angles of the triangles, and to
sum each set up. The students found out that all the angles of a triangle always add up to 180 degrees. What
teaching strategy did Sir Rey use?
A. Demonstration
B. Deductive
C. Discovery
D. Expository
37. A teacher formulates questions to increase her learners’ participation. Which of these types of questions would
be easiest to redirect?
A. Those that require principles
B. Those that require application
C. Those that require factual information
D. Those that require description or comparison
38. Which learning objective would be taught best using an inquiry method?
A. To diagram paragraphs
B. To know the effect of demand on cost
C. To distinguish between living and non-living things
D. To distinguish between Buddhism and Christianity
39. Which of these questions would require students to do cognitive processing?
A. Explain why smoking is not a natural need.
B. How does the tobacco industry try to market its product?
C. What is the Philippines annual advertising expenditure on cigarette?
D. How much does the Philippine tobacco industry spend per year on advertisement?
40. What type of mental process is a teacher trying to develop if she tries to help her students remember words or
ideas in a definite order?
A. Abstract reasoning
B. Analytical Thinking
C. Logical sequencing
D. Rose association
41. Teacher Mike’s morning routine consists of organizing the room for the day’s lesson, checking materials and
equipment and doing other similar activities that will promote an orderly and safe place for learning. Under what
type of management do these tasks belong?
A. Climate management
B. Conduct management
C. Routine management
D. Setting management
42. If you intend to establish control on the very first day, which action should you take?
A. Give a long list of rules and sanctions.
B. Be in the room when the students arrive.
C. Give a long assignment to command respect.
D. Establish yourself immediately as the supreme authority.
43. If the closure of a day’s lesson is as important as its beginning, which statement should you say?
A. That’s all for today. Goodbye!
B. There’s the bell. Get ready for home.
C. Before we end, let us look at what we learned today.
D. Our time over. Take care of all the problems that we did not finish.
44. Which of the following supports preventive discipline?
A. Stating rules
B. Giving rewards
C. Inflicting punishment
D. Providing reinforcement
45. You hope to make your lesson on the similarities and differences of animals more realistic. What can you do?
A. Present pictures of different animals.
B. Bring your class on a field trip to the nearest zoo.
C. Ask your students to act out their most favorite animals.
D. Make your students surf the internet to view animals around the world.
46. What is the most valuable learning experience that is derived from the use of discussion procedures?
A. Formulating opinions
B. Group thinking
C. Gathering of facts
D. Public speaking
47. When does an instructional material become inefficient in the teaching-learning process?
A. When it facilitates learning.
B. When it increases students’ degree of mastery of its content.
C. When it increase the time take for the learners to attain the desired goal.
D. When it increases efficiency of teachers in terms of numbers for learners taught.
48. What is the best way to maintain discipline inside the classroom?
A. Be democratic in your approach.
B. Frown every time your students misbehave.
C. Be consistent in the rules and regulations agreed upon.
D. Scold at your students everytime they commit mistakes.
49. After planning for instruction, Teacher Racquel found out that not all her needed materials are available. What
should she do?
A. Teach the lesson some other time.
B. Modify your plan to maximize available materials.
C. Change your learning objectives based on available materials.
D. Carry out the activities as planned and make use of the available materials.
50. Which of the following is an ineffective way of presenting your visuals?
A. Show visuals with an element of suspense.
B. Shut off the overhead projector when explaining lengthily.
C. Erase any writing on the chalkboard or whiteboard when you no longer need it.
D. Have as many visuals as you can present simultaneously to hold the learners’ interest.

Principles in Teaching

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

A Review Material for the NCBTS-

1. General Principles of Teaching

2. Principles of Teaching Specific Content Areas

I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

2. Theory of Teaching & Learning

B. Elements of Teaching and Learning

3. The Learning Environment

1. Principles of teaching according to various authors

II. MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION

B. Purpose of Lesson Planning

C. Principles of Instructional Planning

D. The Instructional Planning Sequence

Assessing Learners’ Stating the Goals of

E. Levels of Instructional Planning

F. Types of Lesson Plans

H. Components of a Long-Term Instructional Plan

I. Components of a Daily Lesson Plan

J. Developing Learning Objectives

b. Taxonomy of Psychomotor Objectives

c. Taxonomy of Affective Objectives

Principles that Promote the Development of Psychomotor Skills:

b.Guiding Principles in Content Selection (Ornstein & Hunkins)

5. Determining Appropriate Instructional Approaches and Methods

Factors to Consider in Choosing a Method

Continuum of Instructional Activities from Passive to Active Learning

6. Determining Appropriate Instructional Materials and Tools

III. QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES

IV. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Part 2 CONTENT CHALLENGE

21. What should be done to master any desired learning outcome?

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