Solution-3683 Culture and Building Design 2nd Assignment

Department of Home & Health Sciences
Block No. 06, Sector H-8,

Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad.
Culture and Building Design (3683)

Assignment No. 02
Submitted to:
Omer Shujjat Bhatti
Block No: 6
Dept. of Home & Health Sciences,
Allama Iqbal Open University, Sector H-8,
ISLAMABAD, (0333-3191929)
Submitted by:
Muhammad Hammad Manzoor
3rd Semester, Roll No. BN-523998
M. Sc Sustainable Environmental Design
OGIL, # 514, 5th Floor, Continental Trade Centre (CTC)
Block – 08, Clifton, KARACHI
explorationist@gmail.com / (0332-527 2364)
Q. No. 1: Explain the concept of mega structure and vision of the urban
environment. It is argued the most significant impact of technological changes on
urban locations or structures has been to reduce densities and decentralize or
disperse activities. Discuss with examples of mega cities worldwide including at
least one city of Pakistan. (30 Marks)
Answer)
A megastructure is a very large artificial object, although the limits of precisely how large
vary considerably. Some apply the term to any especially large or tall building. Some
sources define a megastructure as an enormous self-supporting artificial construct. The
products of megascale engineering or astroengineering are megastructures.
Most megastructure designs could not be constructed with today's level of industrial
technology. This makes their design examples of speculative (or exploratory) engineering.
Those that could be constructed easily qualify as megaprojects.
Megastructures are also an architectural concept popularized in the 1960s where a city
could be encased in a single building, or a relatively small number of buildings
interconnected. Such arcology concepts are popular in science fiction. Megastructures
often play a part in the plot or setting of science fiction movies and books, such
as Rendezvous with Rama by Arthur C. Clarke.
In 1968, Ralph Wilcoxen defined a megastructure as any structural framework into which
rooms, houses, or other small buildings can later be installed, uninstalled, and replaced;
and which is capable of "unlimited" extension. This type of framework allows the structure to
adapt to the individual wishes of its residents, even as those wishes change with time.
Existing mega structures

The following mega structures often consist of retaining walls, dams, bridges, buildings or a
variety of other structures that require the planning and skill of civil engineers. There are no
clear guidelines as to what defines a mega structure; however, they are easily identifiable
because of their imposing stature. The following six civil engineering projects are great
examples of mega structures and the value they can provide to their culture and
community.
The Egyptian Pyramids
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By: M. Hammad Manzoor, M.Sc Sus. Env. Design, 514, 5th Floor, Continental Trade Centre (CTC), Clifton – 08, Karachi. (Roll No. BN-523998)
When Egypt was at the height of economic prosperity, the Egyptians erected massive
tombs to house their rulers after death. They believed these rulers were also their gods and
that they must preserve their bodies to continue to prosper. The largest pyramids in the
world, the Great Pyramids of Giza, stand almost 482 feet tall (approximately 44 modern
stories) and are almost 756 feet along its four bases. Almost 4,000 years later, these
structures are still standing.
Great Wall of China

Before and during the Ming Dynasty, builders erected the Great Wall of China, conceived by
Emperor Qin Shi Huang to help stop invading forces. Although the wall was not effective for
its intended purpose, it serves as a symbol of China’s power, and to date, a large part of
this structure still stands and measures 5,500 miles long.
The Capital Gate

Developed by Abu Dhabi National Exhibitions Company, the Capital Gate – also known as
the Leaning Tower of Abu Dhabi – is a Guinness World Records holder for the furthest
leaning man-made tower, with an angle of 18 degrees. The structure stands almost 48
stories tall, houses 15,000 square feet of business space, and is home to a five-star hotel.
The Shanghai MAGLEV Train
Engineers in Shanghai, China have developed a new mass transit medium called the
MAGLEV (magnetic levitation) train. In just eight minutes, the transport carries passengers
18 miles at almost 270 miles per hour, between downtown Shanghai and the metropolis
airport. This trip traditionally takes an hour by highway. In the future, the Transrapid
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Consortium – an international cooperative manufacturing the MAGLEV and its rail system –
hopes to transform long-distance travel globally.
The Deep Sea Highway

The metropolis of Busan, South Korea, is developing a five-mile highway that runs
underwater from congested Busan to Geoje, a neighboring island with a sparse population.
The trip currently takes travelers three and a half hours by highway. This mega-project will
reduce travel time between the two land masses to only forty minutes, while also opening
up Geoje as a habitat relief conduit for the crowded Busan masses.
A Brief Early History of Tall Structures
Many 19th century American architects went to Paris for training and education and
brought back with them ideas that influenced their architecture. In Paris, the Eiffel Tower,
at 300m (984 ft) in 1889, was surely a catalyst for new heights with its remarkable
architectural qualities and became known as an engineering masterpiece. The U.S. also
exported cultural and architectural ideas and developments to Europe that included the
skyscraper, a clearly American innovation with its beginning in Chicago.
The steel-framed structure of the 10-story Home Insurance Building is generally

recognized as the first skyscraper, built in Chicago in 1885. A series of tall buildings,
relatively large at the time of their construction, were built at the turn of the century.
These include the Wainwright Building of 1890 in St. Louis, the Guaranty Building of
1895 in Buffalo, New York, and the Reliance Building of 1895 in Chicago. This trend
continued in New York with the Flat Iron Building of 1903, continuing to the Chrysler
Building of 1930, and the Empire State Building of 1931. Following a pause in
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construction during the Great Depression and World War II years, tall building
construction re-appeared in Chicago in the 1960s.
Enormous progress was made in the development of tall buildings after World War II, first
in the U.S., followed much later by some Pacific Rim countries, parts of Europe, and the
Middle East. Although technology has advanced and the architectural style of tall
buildings has evolved, the architectural planning concept of vertically stacking a series of
floors and achieving spatial efficiencies by increasing the net-to-gross floor area has
remained almost the same. Despite architecturally ambitious thinking, as well as
technical and structural advancement, the primary focus remained on economic viability
and technological and constructional limitations. Beginning with the last decade of the
20th century, this has changed, however, in favor of sustainability, innovative façade
treatment, free-form massing, and iconic architectural vocabulary.
Arguments against Tall Structures

Many critics lament the loss of our old way of life and consider tall buildings as
oppressive symbols and unnecessary intrusions into the urban fabric lowering the quality
of the city dwellers’ natural social life. They may have a point as tall buildings are not free
from some basic problems. The question is whether the benefits of tall buildings outweigh
their demerits. Here are some areas of concern worth pondering over.
Economic Considerations
Undoubtedly, there are some inherent drawbacks of tall buildings from an economic point
of view. Construction of these buildings requires an extra cost premium because of their
need for sophisticated foundations, structural systems to carry high wind loads, and high-
tech mechanical, electrical, elevator, and fire-resistant systems. In addition, a large core
area is needed to accommodate elevators and building services systems. Although
skyscrapers provide more interior space than typical low-rise buildings on a given plot of
land, they also cost more to significantly fortify them against the fierce natural forces of
gravity, high winds, and earthquakes. A high slenderness ratio for serviceability and
motion control demands greater stiffness of the structural system and thus taller buildings
become more expensive. While about 70% of a skyscraper’s floor plate is generally
usable space (the remainder being the building’s elevator core, stairwells, and columns),
more than 80% of low-rise spaces are typically useable.
Tall buildings also suffer from higher operational costs, such as high energy
consumption, elevator maintenance, emergency response preparedness, etc. Depending
on the socio-political circumstances, they potentially could be viewed as targets for
malevolent attacks. Moreover, in difficult economic times, towers simply may not
generate enough sales or rental value to recover the cost of high quality of design,
materials, and detailing and support their mortgage and operational costs. This situation
risks producing low quality towers that aim for maximizing floor area at the expense of
good design.
The economic viability of building tall is ultimately a matter of location and local
conditions. It can be the lowest-cost solution in a developed country in a location with
other high-rises where the needed infrastructure and urban services are in place. Tall
buildings fit in well where business and organizational structures are geared to large-
quantity operations; where building materials are plentiful; and where there is an
adequate force of skilled labor. Building tall could be the highest-cost solution when
these conditions do not exist. Without great care in such situations, the cost of adjacent
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land could be pushed up to create higher costs for structures yet to be built. Further, in
some situations where land costs are low, as in smaller cities, tall buildings may be
unprofitable because of anticipated high vacancy rates. Also, to be considered is the
general economic climate at the particular point in time.
The impact of tall buildings on property values varies. In some places, because of
newly generated traffic and crowding, property values in nearby neighborhoods may
diminish. The opposite also could be true due to the growth of the area showing signs of
economic prosperity. The concentration of jobs and services may create a higher demand
for land which increases their property values. Increasing property prices in cities make
housing in locations accessible to livelihood opportunities and services increasingly
unaffordable for many sections of the population.
Environmental Impact
Tall buildings produce adverse effects on the microclimate, due to wind funneling and
turbulence around them at their base causing inconvenience for pedestrians. Also, tall
buildings cast large shadows, affecting adjacent properties by blocking sunlight. Towers
are environmentally damaging when they fail to incorporate energy efficient design
solutions in their heating, cooling, and ventilation systems. However, tall buildings may
have potential environmental advantages, such as ample access to sunlight and wind for
the incorporation of solar panels, photovoltaic cells, and wind turbines.
Tall buildings require an abundance of energy for operation and utilities. Many high-
rises use more energy per resident than a well-built townhouse, and not much less than
a small, well-built, single-family home. The Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation
(CMHC) states in this regard, “… on a floor area basis, (high-rises) consume more
energy than single-family dwellings—even though the high-rise unit has much less
exposed exterior surface”. More detailed research is, however, needed considering
various factors like building height, orientation and internal layout, materials, window-to-
wall ratio, location, etc. to draw definitive conclusions.
They also require a great amount of embodied energy, the energy needed to construct
the building and to produce and transport required materials. Tall buildings, however,
save energy for a city because people do not need to travel too far for business.
Moreover, there is less power loss in a city’s power grid. One of the principal problems
with tall buildings of the past, even those offering great architecture, has been the failure
to consider how the structure meets the ground and affects the surroundings at its base
and street life. Disappointingly, this remains a common problem. Many tall building
developments offer little to promote active pedestrian and social life at ground level.
From an urban design perspective, environmental impact assessment is essential for any
new tall building project.
Civic Infrastructure
A tall building can create problems, such as overcrowding around it that can decrease
the quality of life unless conceived and adequately mitigated during the planning stage
for the building’s long term function. Tall buildings surely increase demand on
transportation and infrastructure. Possible mitigation for increased traffic includes
expansion of traffic capacities on roads and at intersections and multiplication of public
transit options, which require major public works and construction. Traffic impact
assessment studies should be required to identify its effect on the existing transportation
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systems. Likewise, a new tall building will place additional load on the existing power
grid, water supply, and sewer systems. If a tall building is built in an undeveloped area,
new cost-intensive infrastructure must be provided.
Socio-Cultural Factors
Society and culture play a key role in accepting or rejecting tall building development.
In societies where living in a high-rise is the norm, local culture will have no problem with
adding new tall buildings. People who were born and reared in tall buildings usually have
no problem continuing to live in that environment. In contrast, people in some traditional
societies who have been living for centuries in low-rise buildings may initially feel
uncomfortable with living in high-rises until they become adjusted to the new lifestyle.
Indeed, the type of social community created in the high-rise is different from that found
in the low-rise.
Residential tall buildings, in particular, are linked to the social effects. Many scholars
have expressed concerns about the socio-psychological impacts of living in high-rise
housing. While high-rise housing may be desirable for single people and couples, it may
be less desirable for a family with children. Some sociologists argue that the environment
of tall buildings can make inhabitants feel claustrophobic by creating a rat-cage mentality.
It is argued that low-rise living is closer to nature and facilitates a stronger community-
oriented social life. As structures grow taller and taller, tenants become out of touch with
the city life below.
Constantine Doxiades, a reputable urban planner and architect, summed up this

pessimistic feeling with these forthright words: “High-rise buildings work against man
himself, because they isolate him from others, and this isolation is an important factor in
the rising crime rate. Children suffer even more because they lose their direct contact
with nature, and with other children. High-rise buildings work against society because
they prevent the units of social importance—the family, the neighborhood, etc., from
functioning as naturally and as normally as before.”
Perception
An aesthetically unpleasant tall building may harm the image of a city. Some ill-conceived
tall buildings have created a stigma in the public’s mind. The demolition of the Pruitt-Igoe
housing project in St. Louis in 1972 has been ingrained in the minds of a generation of
planners and architects. The demolition occurred in response to strong residential
dissatisfaction and high levels of criminal activity.
Economic class, race, and poor planning, as well as insensitive linear blockish brutalist
architecture, have been identified as reasons for the failure of this project. To many
people, tall buildings became synonymous with cheaply built, poorly maintained, blocks
of apartments or offices detached from the ground plane which did not meet the needs of
their users. Some tall buildings also failed by not considering the social and community
life of their residents.
However, such misperceptions of vertical architecture are changing. Improvements in the

design of tall buildings and the way they connect with their surrounding environment
have resulted in a new generation of humanized buildings that are harmonious with their
urban contexts. In Australia, Harry Seidler designed tall buildings—the Riverside
Development in Brisbane, Grosvenor Place in Sydney, and the QV1 Office Tower in Perth
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—with landscaped public plazas which contribute to the quality of urban life. Skygardens
in the Menara Mesiniaga in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and the Commerzbank in Frankfurt,
Germany, and an open ground-floor garden in the Capita Centre in Sydney, Australia,
show how green spaces can be incorporated into tall buildings, even on the most
cramped central city sites, thereby contributing to the sustainability of these cities.
Public Safety
Many people are afraid of getting trapped during a fire in the upper floors of a tall
building. Despite such natural feelings of danger, it is comforting, however, to know that
available data and statistics reveal relatively small percentages of injuries and property
damage caused by fire in tall buildings. Improving fire performance and safety involves
provision of passive and active control measures such as fire-resistant materials to
achieve code-specified fire rating, appropriate egress in building layout,
compartmentalization to prevent fire spread along with appropriate fire suppression, fire
detection and alarm systems, sprinklers and fire extinguishing systems, detailed
emergency action and evacuation plans, etc.
Smoke migration in a tall building during a fire is a major threat to life. In the design
process, this threat is usually addressed through structural design, HVAC, and smoke-
spread modeling techniques. These techniques attempt to identify aspects of building
design that could permit smoke to propagate and threaten occupants and fire fighters.
Many contemporary buildings rely on HVAC smoke control and pressurization systems to
contain smoke by applying positive pressure above and below a fire floor and in
stairways.
The malevolent destruction of the WTC towers in New York reinforced opinions about tall
buildings as unsafe and caused some critics to conclude that this event marked the end
of tall buildings. However, such criticism and perception did not impede tall building
development in any way since the past decade has witnessed an unprecedented wave of
new construction of tall buildings around the world. The collapse of the WTC has actually
initiated rigorous research to improve tall building safety, security, and other aspects such
as environmental quality.
Particularly, investigators at the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology

(NIST) have carried out extensive research on the causes of the collapse and on ways to
improve tall buildings’ safety. Many developers, architects, and engineers have taken
advantage of such research findings and recommendations by taking them into
consideration. Replacement of the WTC includes plans to reconstruct tall buildings at the
same location again. The groundbreaking ceremony for the new 541 m (1776 ft) tall One
World Trade Center (earlier called Freedom Tower) took place on 4 July 2004. The
developer plans to build additional towers on the site in the near future.
Digital Revolution
Wireless and paperless communications have facilitated the interaction of people at
disparate locations in various parts of cities, across countries, and around the world.
People can work at home, other locations, or on laptop computers while traveling. The
Digital Revolution has created a mobile and connected workforce. The Global Village of
the early 21st century has declared that “distance is dead” and business can be carried
out in the relatively inexpensive low-rise suburbs via electronic communication.
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It may be argued to the contrary that human interaction in clustered environments has
historically persisted. Apparently, efficient telecommunication has reduced the importance
of the centrality of the urban core and thereby has increased the viability of less
expensive and convenient suburban sites as venues for conducting business. Although
pessimists have raised concerns about the persistence of tall buildings in high-density
urban cores with low- to mid-rise buildings, and enthusiasm for supertall towers may
wane in the near future—this has not yet happened. These predictions also conflict with
the history of high-rise development, expected population explosions, and rapid
urbanization.
The ability of telecommunications to substitute for people interacting in proximity is

questionable at best, since the needs for face-to-face conversation and seeing the body
language of other parties are important elements in the business world. Despite
decreasing costs of telephone services and email connectivity, physical proximity still
matters. Evidence indicates that a majority of telephone and email contact is between
people in close physical proximity .
Face-to-face contact remains crucial for communicating complex and intricate

knowledge. After all, humans are an inherently social and gregarious species. Chemistry
between people cannot be substituted by digital links.
Arguments for Tall Structures

Despite the many challenges enumerated above, there is good reason for cheer. Tall
structures have many practical advantages that are worth exploring and exploiting.
Population and Migration Trends

Among the most pressing issues that have spurred tall building development and will
likely continue, is the exponential increase in urban population worldwide in conjunction
with wealth accumulation. Currently, almost half of the world is urban when 20 years ago
it was only one-third. By 2030, it is expected that about 60% of the world’s population will
be urban. In 2050, over 80% of the world population will live in urban areas when the
world’s population is expected to reach 9 billion.
At that time, all major cities of the world, particularly those in Asia, Africa, and Latin
America, will have enormous populations, probably ranging from 30 million to 50 million,
or more. Accommodating such a large population in cities will be a colossal challenge.
Horizontal scale of cities is continually being strained with no alternative but to build
upward to accommodate people.
Rural-to-urban migration is one of the causes of urban population increase. Between

1945 and 1985, the urban population of South Korea grew from 14.5% to 65.4%, and to
78.3% of the total population by 2000. In China, it is projected that by 2025, 350 million
people will migrate from a rural to an urban environment. Marcos Fava Neves predicted:
“This will require five million buildings…equivalent of ten cities the size of New York”. In
other words, Chinese cities need to build to accommodate a population increase
equivalent to the U.S. population in just 13 years. In such cases, high-rise development
is almost certain to be part of the solution.
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Global Competition and Globalization
The ongoing trend for constructing tall buildings around the world reflects the increasing
impact of global competition on the development of the world’s major cities. These cities
compete on the global stage to have the title of tallest building with which to announce
the confidence and global stature of their growing economies. An iconic tall building
enhances the global image of the city. It is likely to put the city on the world map, thereby
signaling and promoting its significant economic progress and advancement. Political
leaders have supported constructing tall buildings to present their countries as emerging
global economic powers.
For example, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad of Malaysia publicly and strongly
backed the building of the then tallest building in the world, the Petronas Towers in Kuala
Lumpur, as a symbol of Malaysia’s entry into the global economy. Likewise the ruler of
Dubai had enormous influence in transforming it from a fishing town to a world-class
commercial city with the construction of sky-hugging ultra-tall buildings including the Burj
Khalifa and other towers.
In some parts of the world, globalization has immensely promoted local economy and
consequently the construction of tall buildings. The City of Shenzhen, China, for
example, was a small fishing village in the 1970s. Due to global forces and rapid foreign
investment, it was transformed to a modern city of skyscrapers with a supertall tower like
Shun Hing Square, one of the tallest in the world, dominating the Shenzhen skyline to
compete with the nearby towers of Hong Kong.
Foreign nationals have invested billions of dollars for building factories and forming joint
ventures. It now is reputedly one of the fastest growing cities in the world, and is one of
the most successful Special Economic Zones (SEZ) in China. Shenzhen’s population has
increased from 30,000 to more than 13 million during the last two decades. The city is
home to the headquarters of numerous high-tech companies that house their offices in
major tall and supertall buildings.
Urban Regeneration
Many city centers in developed countries that suffered from migration of their population
to the suburbs in the 1970–1990s have witnessed a major return to their centers in
recent years. The convenience of urban living once again is gaining favor by a greater
number of today’s population. Younger people desire city-center living where they can
find residences close to work. The older members of society desire to live in the city to
free themselves from the demanding maintenance of properties, to reduce driving, and to
escape the feelings of loneliness and isolation experienced in suburbs.
City centers provide plenty of socio-cultural activities and services that cover daily needs
such as shopping, groceries, and healthcare within walking distances. Therefore, many
cities are witnessing an urban renaissance and a desire to return to high-rise living in city
centers. Tall buildings are viewed as tools to encourage central living and working.
Construction of new attractive high-rises can also beautify and revitalize dilapidated
districts and neighborhoods within the urban core and surrounding areas. This improves
the quality of life in these areas by minimizing or eliminating social ills such as crime that
might have been prevalent there.
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Land Prices
Land prices always have been a prime driver for constructing tall buildings. A phrase for
skyscrapers came from Cass Gilbert in 1900, “A skyscraper is a machine that makes the
land pay”. In large cities, properties are very expensive, and buildings logically grow
upward. Low land costs clearly keep buildings closer to the ground; tall buildings are not
an attractive option for small towns where land is cheap. Carol Willis has coined the
expression “form follows finance” in which she argues that the economics of tall buildings
play a key role in shaping a tall building.
Land prices recently have been significant drivers for tall building development in many
cities seeking to re-populate their urban centers with residential-recreational complexes
inserted in the predominantly commercial-retail Central Business Districts (CBD). These
relatively new markets help drive up city center land prices, which makes building tall for
investment return increasingly necessary. In the City of London, land prices are among
the highest in the world, and great economic advantages exist for developers to
maximize the rentable floor space of an area of land by building high. Consequently,
London has witnessed a recent boom in tall building construction.
In cities like New York, Hong Kong, and Singapore, there is hardly any choice other than
to build tall because geographic boundaries limit horizontal growth. In Singapore and
urban Hong Kong, land prices are so high that almost the entire population lives in high-
rise apartments. Of Hong Kong’s total expanse of land, only around 25% is buildable;
and yet it needs to house some 7.5 million inhabitants. Land value is unbelievably high,
in the range of $30,000 per square meter, and therefore, developers maximize the site by
building very tall buildings, between 50 to 80 floors. In the case of New York, Rem
Koolhaas, in his book Delirious New York,explained that Manhattan has no choice but
extruding the city grid vertically. Similarly, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, land nearby the
Sacred Mosque (Al-Masjid Al-Haram) is limited and extremely expensive and, therefore,
has recently witnessed significant high-rise development, including the ultra-tall 95-story
Abraj Al-Bait Towers.
Land Preservation
Sustainability promotes compact urban living and density is viewed as a tool to create
more sustainable city. Many planners and institutions such as the Urban Land Institute in
the U.S. are supporting this view: “By strategically increasing the number of dwelling
units per acre, cities not only will go a long way toward meeting their sustainability
objectives, but also will be competitive, resilient, and great places to live”.
Dense arrangements help preserve open space—a core goal of sustainability—that aims
at preserving many different types of open spaces, including natural areas in and around
cities and localities that provide habitat for plants and animals, recreational spaces, farm
and ranch lands, places of natural beauty, critical environmental areas (e.g., wetlands),
and recreational community spaces. Protection of open space ensures that prime farm
and ranch lands are available, and it prevents flood damage.
The availability of open space provides significant environmental quality and health
benefits that include improving air pollution, attenuating noise, controlling wind, providing
erosion control, and moderating temperatures. Open space also protects surface and
ground water resources by filtering trash, debris, and chemical pollutants before they
enter a water system. In many instances it is less expensive for a community to maintain
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open space that naturally maintains water quality, reduces runoff, and controls flooding
than to use engineered infrastructure, such as water filtration plants and storm sewers.
Lands with natural ground cover have no surface runoff problems because 90% of the
water infiltrates into the ground and only 10% contributes to runoff. However, when 65%
of the site is covered with impervious surfaces, 35% of the precipitation contributes to
runoff. On paved parking lots, where the paving surfaces are impermeable and allow for
a small amount of infiltration, about 98% of precipitation becomes runoff . A 2002 survey
of 27 water suppliers found that for every 10% increase in forest cover in a municipal
water system’s watershed, the cost of water treatment decreased by 20%.
Tall buildings can support dense arrangements and help in preserving open and natural
spaces by accommodating many more people on a smaller amount of land area than can
low-rise buildings. When developments expand vertically, public space, agricultural
lands, and wilderness remain untouched. Tall buildings maximize building area with a
minimum physical footprint. Accommodating the same number of people in a tall building
of 50 stories versus 5 stories, for example, requires about one-tenth of the land.
Commercial and residential towers free the ground plane for ample green space, which
supports human connectivity and social vibrancy. Through his “Towers-in-the-Park”
model, Le Corbusier advocated the high-density city mainly for the purpose of increasing
access to nature. Freeing up spaces for parkland brings about “essential joys” of light,
air, and greenery. This will support creating healthy and walkable communities as well.
Consequently, a number of key world cities in recent years have adopted policies that
support tall building development.
Climate Change and Energy Conservation
Global warming could cause changed climate patterns like droughts and excessive
rainfall, and disrupt agriculture. According to a NASA study, the Arctic perennial sea ice
has been decreasing at a rate of 9% per decade since the 1970s, and is likely caused by
climate change. These issues are significant for living conditions since they can
profoundly impact our cities. For example, a 6 m (20 ft) rise in sea level would submerge
all of South Florida.
Consequently, fighting global warming and reducing CO 2 emissions are becoming prime
goals of many cities. The Kyoto Protocol was created in 1997 to fight global warming,
and over 180 states joined the protocol by 2009. The increase in emissions will result in
damaging the climate and hence the desperate need to stabilize carbon emission can
hardly be overemphasized.
A new generation of tall buildings, “green skyscrapers,” improves energy efficiency, and
helps to combat global warming. Tall building design that incorporates energy-saving
technologies also can substantially reduce CO 2 emissions. Green skyscrapers dubbed
“zero energy” buildings have the potential to produce as much energy as they consume,
or can act as “batteries” by producing even more energy than they consume, and are
described as “positive energy” buildings, and can deliver energy to the city’s power grid.
The green skyscraper model is important since the building sector today accounts for
30% to 40% of total energy use.
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Infrastructure and Transportation

The high cost of maintaining expansive infrastructure hurts taxpayers and contributes to
the fiscal crisis that many local governments face. The cost to provide and maintain
public infrastructure and services for a given community in new sprawling development is
higher than to service the same community in a “smart growth” or infill development. By
and large, vertically configured buildings facilitate more efficient infrastructure . Simply
put, a 500-unit single-family subdivision requires many more roads, sidewalks, sewers,
hydro lines, power and gas lines, light standards, fire hydrants, etc., than that of a tall
building, which allows integrating these systems efficiently in a dense manner. Therefore,
tall buildings can play an important role in creating sustainable cities.
Emerging Technologies
The evolution of the tall building has led to major advances in engineering and
technology. As today’s technology becomes increasingly sophisticated, architects have
an opportunity to build taller and implement their desire for the latest and utmost
aesthetic expressions of tall buildings. Developers and architects increasingly are
employing new technologies and aesthetics to boost their reputation, prestige, and
enhance their business. They have been pushing the boundaries of how architecture is
perceived by the society and architecture’s potential for unconventional design through
visionary projects and technological innovation. At the time of this writing, some are
continuing with such visions of building up to as high as 3.2 km (2 mi) piercing through
the clouds. Indeed, new technologies are motivating architects and engineers to provide
new innovative and attractive design.
The demand for high-quality tall buildings has resulted in the advancement of science
and engineering. Proliferation of information technology has facilitated the design and
construction of tall buildings with limitless possibilities. The use of Building Information
Modeling (BIM) and Geographical Information System (GIS) by architects, planners, and
engineers has become ubiquitous.
The search for higher quality encouraged research in areas such as building service
systems, computer sciences, façade engineering, glazing, daylight and heat control,
structural framing systems, ceiling systems, lighting, ventilation, exit strategies, water
recycling systems, among others. Tall buildings have challenged technology itself and
allowed us to build towers more efficiently and sustainably; and to create internal
environments that are comfortable, productive, and energy-efficient. The prevalent green
movement has propelled the design of high performance tall buildings employing
intelligent technologies and smart materials.
Present and future research addresses the possibilities of using powerful technology
such as nanotechnology and biomimesis. Scientific tall building research is generating
new products such as anti-reflective façade coatings with designs based on moth’s eyes!
Technological advances, such as the use of blast furnace slag in high-strength concrete,
offer higher performance and sustainability benefits.
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ABOUT MEGA CITIES
WHAT IS A MEGA CITY?

A mega city is a very large city/metropolitan region that has a population of over ten million
people.The world has 24 mega cities, with the five largest cities being
Tokyo, Delhi, Mexico City, New York City and Shanghai (area wise)
ADVANTAGES OF MEGA CITIES

Mega cities can be very useful for things like business, lifestyle, jobs etc. Some of the
advantages to Mega Cities are:
-Better education/ More Schools

-More jobs
-Better trained labor pool (because of the abundance of school and well educated people,
the labor pool will be better)
-Technological Advancements
-Better Healthcare
-More facilities- Ambulance, Hospitals, Police, Public transport etc.
DISADVANTAGES OF MEGA CITIES

While there are multiple advantages of mega cities, there re also many, many
disadvantages of living in them. Some of these are:
-Pollution (one of the major disadvantages- land, air, water and sound pollution)
-Higher living cost
-Increase in homeless people
-Depletion of natural resources- things like gas, water, etc.
-Traffic Jams (more people means more cars, means more traffic)
-Noisy Environment
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Mega City: Living in New York City
F a c t s A b o u t N e w Yo r k C i t y
 NYC is the most densely populated major city in the USA with a population of over
eight and a half million people
 It is made up of five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, The Bronx, and
Staten Island. They were consolidated into one city in 1898.
 It was initially known as New Amsterdam, with many of the early colonists made up
of Dutch people fleeing the Spanish Inquisition.
 Believe it or not, it is actually illegal to honk your horn in NYC, unless it is an
emergency - a rule that is rarely followed!
 The first American pizzeria opened in the city in 1895.
 It is the most linguistically diverse city in the USA. Around 40% of households speak
a non-English language and there are over 800 languages used.
 Manhattan started out as cattle pasture.
 From 1789 to 1790 the city was the capital of the USA.
 It has the largest Jewish population of anywhere in the world apart from Israel.
 It is home for Albert Einstein’s eyeballs, which are kept in a safe deposit box.
 It is estimated that the city has around 50,000 homeless people.
 It is a world center of international diplomacy, hosting the headquarters of the
United Nations.
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P r o s o f L i v i n g i n N e w Yo r k C i t y
 There are plenty of career opportunities, including jobs in finance, fashion,
modeling, advertising, PR and marketing.
 You don't have to drive anywhere. The subway system is awesome and cost
efficient. There are also taxis, Uber, and buses to consider for some some journeys,
if the subway is insufficient.
 You are surrounded by history and culture. There are world class museums and
museums, as well as iconic buildings all around you.
 As well as high culture, you also have a wide range of restaurants, bars, music and
art events to keep you amused. Food from all over the world is available, most of it
high quality and authentic.
 If you enjoy celebrity spotting then NYC is a great place to be!
 If you are young and single it's a great place for meeting people and dating.
 The dark days of the 1980's and 90's when crime was rife are long gone now and
the city is generally a pretty safe place to live.
 If you are socially connected, you will find plenty of free events to attend, such as
art openings with drinks and snacks, parties with open bars, free concerts, and
more.
 Central Park is one of the most beautiful urban green spaces in the world with
spectacular views in every direction.
C o n s o f L i v i n g i n N e w Yo r k C i t y
 The cost of buying real estate is prohibitive to most people and rent prices are
astronomical. You end up spending a lot of money to live in a shoe box with few
amenities. Like it or not, you may need a room mate to share the costs.
 It is an expensive place to live in other ways too. A beer can easily cost you ten
dollars or more in some places. Utilities, groceries, services, and eating out can be
pricey too.
 It is the city that never sleeps, if you like a quiet, relaxed, laid back life, you may want
to consider another place to live.
 Competition for jobs is huge.
 Traffic is always heavy and noisy. You take your life in your hands if you try to drive.
Cycling sounds like fun but is only for the bravest. The subway can be overcrowded
at rush hour. Train delays and routes closed due to construction will become a
frustrating part of everyday life.
 The Winters are bitterly cold. The Summer can be hot and humid. There are plenty of
cities in the US with much better weather.
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 You will need a thick skin; if you are sensitive to being treated in a rude or aggressive
manner you won't last.
 Once you've lived in the city for a time, you can get jaded and stop noticing the
museums, art galleries, and historic buildings, never mind visiting them. If you are
working all hours to keep a roof over your head, you end up accessing the night life
much less than you anticipated.
 The city is the number one terrorist target in the USA.
 The tourists in Manhattan will begin to annoy you after a time. Groups of visitors
blocking up the sidewalk while they read a street map will become a regular source
of frustration.
 Lots of homeless and crazy people wandering the streets, not to mention the rats.
Mega City: Living in London

One of the world's most famous cities, London is also England's most populous metropolis,
as well as its capital and home to the British royal family. A cosmopolitan and generally
friendly and safe place, the city also suffers from pollution and the weather tends to be
overcast and damp.
The main benefits of living in London include access to a great public transport system, job
opportunities, exceptional cultural and musical entertainment.
The main disadvantages of London include expensive housing, traveling in rush hour,
pollution, and tourists.
London Facts
 Around 8,673,713 people live in the Greater London area.
 It is the biggest city in the European Union.
 The Beatles performed their final concert on the roof of Apple Corps at 3 Saville Row
in the West End of the city. The venue is now an Abercrombie & Fitch store.
 In 2016 London was ranked as the 6th most expensive city in the world to live.
 It is the first city to host the Olympics three times (1908, 1948 and 2012).
 The musician Jimi Hendrix lived at 23 Brook Street, which is now being converted
into a museum.
 London is the world's most visited city. In 2014 it attracted 16 million international
visitors.
 The river Thames flows through London.
 If Hitler had won WWII, his intention was to dismantle Nelson's Column and re-erect
it in Berlin.
 "Big Ben" is not actually the name of the famous clock tower, but the bell inside it.
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 London was founded by the Romans and they named it Londinium.

 London Bridge is often confused with Tower Bridge. London Bridge has no towers,
but Tower Bridge does.
 Traffic in central London moves no faster today than it did a hundred years ago in the
days of horses and carriages.
 In the 14th century a third of London's population were killed by the Black Death
Pros of Living in London
1. Excellent public transport system. The combination of London Underground

trains (known locally as "the tube") and the buses will get you anywhere for a
reasonable price. If you don't mind paying more, you can get a cab.
2. Lots of culture, whether it's museums, art galleries, theaters, and much of it is
free.
3. Lots of companies are London-based so there are plenty of job opportunities, if
you have the qualifications.
4. The music scene is pretty awesome too, whether you like to see big acts on
world tours, or more alternative or breaking bands in intimate surroundings.
5. Travel to other parts of the UK is pretty straightforward too. If you don't want to
drive there are multiple train stations. There are three major airports (Heathrow,
Gatwick, Stansted) in the London area too.
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6. As well as being cosmopolitan and welcoming, overall London is also generally a

friendly and polite city.
7. London has lots of big leafy parks to stroll through, if you tire of the concrete and
brick. Hyde Park, Green Park, Regent’s Park and Richmond Park are all easy to
get to by tube.
8. Living in London means being able to access the UK's free health system.
London has the largest emergency ambulance system in the world, which should
reassure you.
9. Lots of restaurants, pubs, bars, cafes, and nightclubs to enjoy, if you are feeling
social.
10. London is relatively safe, with plenty of CCTV cameras and a professional police
force.
11. London is a great place to start a business, ranking repeatedly as one of the top
ten cities. Tax and legalities are generally favorable and there is plenty of scope
for finding the right area.
12. Historical landmarks are everywhere. It's difficult to go anywhere in central
London without passing multiple historical and famous buildings.
13. Despite being expensive generally, there are some great markets where you can
buy affordable fruit, vegetables, clothes, and other things. Notable markets
include Camden, Portobello Road and Borough Market.
14. London is home for Britain's royal family.
15. If you are an English speaker, then you will have very few problems
communicating with the locals.
Cons of Living in London

1. The city is very expensive, particularly if you want to buy a house, or rent
somewhere to live. The closer you are to the center, the more expensive it gets.
2. Traveling at peak times really is a drag. The trains and buses can be overcrowded. It
can also be expensive traveling at rush hour.
3. The infamous British weather can get you down after a while. A day or two of damp,
dark weather is bearable but when it goes on for two weeks, you can begin to feel
depressed.
4. All the tourists will begin to irritate you after a while. When you are trying to get to
work and there is a crowd blocking your path while they study a map, or a family
wanting the world to stop while they take a photo on a bridge.
5. The best restaurants usually require you to book in advance, sometimes weeks
ahead.
6. Parts of the city are very dirty and pollution is rife.
7. The cost of running a car is big in the UK generally, but huge in London, especially if
you want to enter the city center. Compared to somewhere like the USA, gas/petrol
prices are also significantly larger.
8. There are CCTV cameras everywhere. You are being spied on wherever you go.
9. Lack of personal space and queues/lines become your norm. Being crushed up
against a stranger on the morning every morning is not fun.
10. You are often totally reliant on public transport which is fine when it's running
smoothly, but terrible when there is work been done and services are stopped, or
there's a tube strike.
11. There are some very nice parts of London, but also some very rough, run down, and
crime-ridden areas. If you aren't wealthy, you may end up living in one of the less
appealing areas.
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12. Nobody talks to you on the tube. Even eye contact is generally taboo. It's very
impersonal.
13. Driving in central London is hard work and should be avoided. It's also expensive
since congestion charges were introduced.
Karachi as a Mega-City
Karachi is the largest and most populous city

in Pakistan. The population of Karachi is estimated to
be around 15 million (14,910,352) in
2017. The population and demographic distribution in
the megacity has undergone numerous changes over
the past 150 years. On 14 August 1947, when it
became the capital city of Pakistan, its population was
about 450,000 inhabitants and was capital
of Sindh province.
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Five of South Asia’s mega-cities, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Dhaka and Karachi, have
become the focal point for diverse forms of economic, social and political interaction. Their
combined population is 15 per cent of the region’s total urban population. Each of these
cities performs a vital function with regard to trade, investment, employment, growth and
innovation while simultaneously bearing the cost of this function.
Not only do these cities face acute challenges in terms of densification, overburdened and
dilapidated infrastructure, poor urban service provision and a growing slum population, they
also pose significant threats to urban life—traffic congestion, environmental pollution,
polarization of communities and rampant poverty and violence.
Unplanned and chaotic urban development is central to understanding such dichotomies.

Karachi in many respects exposes the underlying link between a city’s social, economic and
governance arrangements and how they undermine the quality of urban life.
Karachi’s importance in Pakistan’s urban demography and economy

As the first and largest mega-city of Pakistan—a country that has the highest rate of
urbanization (36.2 per cent) in South Asia following the Maldives— and as the capital of
Sindh—the most urbanized province of Pakistan—Karachi plays a central role in the
country’s urban demography, where one in five urban dwellers reside in this city alone.
Economic activity in Karachi is central to Pakistan’s economy, representing 20 per cent of
total national output and 30 per cent of total industrial output. Major sectors contributing to
the city’s gross metropolitan product include trade and commerce; manufacturing; transport
—ports, airport and shipping; real estate; and construction and services.
Over the years, the sectoral focus has shifted increasingly from manufacturing towards
services. The combined effects of frequent power outages, reliance on informal transactions
and political instability have been detrimental for businesses in the city. Although Karachi
accounts for 30 per cent of small- and medium-scale manufacturing and 40 per cent of
large-scale manufacturing, the share of this sector in total metropolitan output has fallen
from 37 per cent in 1985 to 18 per cent today.
On the other hand, the services sector has grown steadily at 8 per cent per annum,
contributing significantly to the metropolitan and national economy. The banking and
financial sector and wholesale and retail trade have expanded enormously. Forty per cent
of total financial activity and 50 per cent of all bank deposits are made in Karachi alone.
Twenty-five per cent of national tax revenues, 40 per cent of Sindh’s provincial revenues
and 62 per cent of income tax collections are generated from Karachi. Ninetyfive per cent of
Pakistan’s foreign trade also relies on the city’s two Sea ports and airport.
Karachi’s role in Pakistan’s economy as gauged through its contribution to national output,
revenue collection and financial activity depends on a productive labour force, good
infrastructure, stable conditions and effective mega-city administration. The scale of urban
expansion however has outpaced the capacity of the city to deal with competing interests,
resource deficits and ecological pressures.
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Challenges facing the mega-city

Three major challenges that need to be addressed by urban policy makers include:
1. The social and spatial divide
2. Shortage of key infrastructure
3. Environmental degradation
Social and spatial divide

Population
Successive phases of migration have resulted in a complex distribution of communities and
have had far-ranging consequences for the city’s growth. Karachi’s population has
increased considerably over time. Although the United Nations Population Division (UNPD)
projects that this number is likely to cross 20 million in 2025, the 2011 pre-census accounts
suggest that the population of Karachi has already reached this figure. Official census
values have not been updated since 1998, thereby exacerbating the problems of
conducting reliable assessments of urban demographic change in the city.
Urban planning
Karachi has made several attempts to plan urbanization. These include the Karachi
Physical Plan of 1945; the Greater Karachi Plan, otherwise known as the Merz Rendall
Vatten (MRV) Plan 1950; the Greater Karachi Resettlement Plan carried out in the late
1950s; the Karachi Master Plan 1974- 85; the Karachi Development Plan 2000; and most
recently, the Karachi Strategic Development Plan 2020.
Although planners have clearly identified the need for managing the size of the city,
planning is at a standstill. Land, development and municipal control are divided into several
federal, provincial and local level agencies. Overlapping responsibilities, conflicts of interest
and poor coordination across the various development agencies and authorities have
jeopardized the implementation of projects, and placed the city in the hands of an extremely
powerful informal network that controls access to water, land, housing and transport.
Employment
Roughly 75 per cent of Karachi’s population is employed by the informal sector, mainly in
businesses, workshops, manufacturing units and transport. Informal settlements, which are
home to the city’s low-income groups, also contain smallscale manufacturing units, mainly
for garments, leather products, carpets and textiles. Components for the light engineering
and electronics industries and spare parts for machineries, cars and tractors are also
produced in such locations, employing a sizeable number of residents.
Forty per cent of the people employed in Pakistan’s large-scale manufacturing sector are
based in Karachi. The city employs 71.6 per cent of Sindh’s industrial labour force and
provides 78 per cent of jobs for the province’s formal private sector
Poverty
Urban poverty is stark in Karachi in that 50 per cent of the total population lives below the
poverty line. More than eight per cent of the people live above the poverty line, but fall in
the vulnerable category. The high incidences of poverty are recorded in low-income
settlements, particularly in katchi abadis. Eighty-nine per cent of the people living in katchi
abadis are below the poverty line. Out of these people, 54 per cent are chronically poor
while 35 per cent are transitory poor. The other 11 per cent are considered vulnerable.
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Approximately 75 per cent of all households in Karachi belong to poor and low-income
groups, whereas the remaining 25 per cent belong to middle and highincome groups. The
average monthly income of households is PKR 15,000, varying significantly across the
upper and lower income categories.
Urban poverty is a growing concern for the city’s residents and administrative agencies.
Typically, the urban poor consist of people that lack sufficient income, permanent jobs,
tenure security and access to education, health, basic services and infrastructure.
Deplorable living conditions and unhygienic environments expose the urban poor to ill
health and low productivity, limiting their capacity to generate income and avail proper
livelihoods. Deprived of their ‘rights to the city’, these underprivileged residents are stuck in
a perpetual poverty trap.
Violence
In its recent history, Karachi has been flagged as a violent city both within Pakistan and
abroad. Statistics on crime compiled by governments, police departments and the UN
indicate that Karachi has the highest homicide rate among the world’s 13 largest cities, at
12.3 per 100,000 residents. Homicide is particularly common in the city’s central and
southern parts, where political parties and criminal gangs exercise violence with impunity.
Karachi also has very high rates of street crime including phone and vehicle thefts.
Economic advancements in the city have been curtailed by conflict along ethnic and
sectarian lines, however the roots of such conflict have more to do with dysfunctional urban
development than simply, ethnicity and religion. The social and economic division of the city
into planned and unplanned areas, the competition over resources and public services and
the interplay between political parties and interest groups have tainted the city to a
considerable degree. The combination of arms and drugs circulating in Karachi during the
Soviet occupation of Afghanistan also bred a culture of violence.
Even though urban crises of the 1980s and 1990s have largely subsided, the city has been
subjected to violence time and again. Between 2003 and 2011, more than five thousand
people were exposed to brutalities in the form of terrorism, target killings and sectarian
disputes. According to the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP), 2,284 people,
died in 2012 due to ethnic, sectarian and political violence; 1,725 people died due to target
killings; in addition to 133 policemen and 12 paramilitary officers. More than a hundred
kidnapping cases were also reported. As counter measures, law enforcement agencies
conducted as high as 28,104 target operations the same year. Apart from the loss of human
lives, the toll on Karachi’s economy has been substantial. Revenue losses from increased
crime reached PKR 33,417 billion in 2012.
Shortage of key infrastructure

Housing
Urban settlement patterns are haphazard in Karachi with a distinct ethnic undertone. Katchi
abadis have consolidated themselves mainly because of the government’s inability to
respond to the housing needs of low-income groups. Over time and through various
experiments with housing schemes, it has become evident that both the state and the
formal housing development sector are ill suited to provide affordable housing to the poor.
The Karachi Strategic Development Plan (KSDP) 2020 seeks to address the housing
shortage by promoting high-rise development, densification and in-fill within the
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metropolitan city in addition to augmenting occupancies in already developed but vacant

housing schemes. Upgrading and regularizing katchi abadis are also components of this
strategy. Upgrading will involve the provision of trunk infrastructure to improve housing
conditions while regularization will facilitate land titling and ownership. The extent to which
these measures will be adopted remains to be seen
Water supply
Karachi receives an inflow of 30 cubic metres/per second from the Indus River and the Hub
and Dumlottee reservoirs. However, supplies are insufficient to meet the growing demand
for water. Domestic water use in the city is roughly 165 litres per person per day. In addition
to the shortfall and poor tariff collection, lack of maintenance and management of the water
supply system has resulted in distribution losses of roughly 35 per cent.
Water supply in Karachi is not only inadequate, but also irregular and inequitable. Only 60
per cent of households are linked to the main supply network. Households with piped water
receive better supply than those without. In most places, water is available for four hours in
a day at very low pressure. Due to the lack of alternatives, several households also have to
rely on vendors that supply water through commercial tankers at exorbitant prices.
Water quality is another area of concern. Filtration plants are limited in their capacity to filter
water. While 60 per cent of the water supply goes through a filtration process, the remaining
is disinfected through chlorination. Neither of these methods is sufficient to purify water. The
measures to prevent users from receiving contaminated water are also ineffective.
Wastewater and sewerage disposal

The city generates 472 millions of gallons of sewage per day. The sewerage system not
only lacks citywide coverage, but also lacks treatment capacity. If optimally used, existing
treatment plants can treat 32 per cent of the sewage, but only manage to treat 12 per cent.
Therefore, 88 per cent of sewage in Karachi is left untreated.
Poor maintenance of the sewerage system, dilapidated infrastructure and inadequate

drainage are key impediments to managing wastewater. Open sewers and overflowing
manholes are prevalent in many parts of the city, creating poor sanitary conditions and
unhealthy physical environments.
Transport
Over the years, several proposals for expanding Karachi’s transport network have been
incorporated into the city’s master plans. A number of projects have been partially
implemented or abandoned midway, magnifying the city’s transport deficit.
Private transport in the form of motorcycles and privately owned vehicles is predominantly
used. While low-income groups typically rely on mini-buses and rickshaws, middle and
high-income groups prefer to use cars. With increasing rates of motorization, the city is
witnessing unprecedented levels of traffic congestion and environmental pollution.
Environmental degradation
Karachi is confronted with severe environmental challenges. Expansion of the built-up
space and increased densification has intensified pressures on public infrastructure. Large-
scale construction projects related to housing, commerce and transport have altered the
urban landscape.
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The level of air pollution in the city exceeds the limits set by the World Health Organization
(WHO) and the National Environmental Quality Standards of Pakistan. Eighty-six per cent
of air pollution is attributed to emissions from fuel inefficient motor vehicles, particularly
diesel-run buses with high sulphur content and two-stroke engine rickshaws. Traffic
congestion is especially high in the inner city as a result of port-related activities. The
increasing number of motorized vehicles on the road also poses a significant threat.
Improper waste disposal is acute in lowincome settlements, particularly katchi abadis giving
way to poor practices in sanitation, hygiene and public health. Streets, lanes and roadsides
are regularly dumped with garbage. Only 60 per cent of solid waste is transferred to landfill
sites, most of which have reached full capacity.
Pollutants are also present in Karachi’s water supply. Pathogens found in sewage-
contaminated water pipes have led to water-borne diseases and epidemics. The city’s water
quality standards have also fallen well below the guidelines set by the WHO.
Moreover, the dumping of untreated sewage into the rivers and the Arabian Sea has
exacerbated environmental conditions. The Lyari and Malir rivers are polluted by domestic
and industrial sewage. In the absence of effluent treatment plants, industrial waste
containing oil, heavy metals and toxic chemicals are discharged directly into the rivers and
have affected marine life considerably.
For a city of the size of Karachi, good urban planning can result in real urban
transformation. Balancing the negative externalities associated with a spatial concentration
of people and economic activities is contingent upon effective mega-city management.
More often than not, the city’s problems are caused by the pattern of land-use, the violation
of laws and regulations and overall urban mismanagement. To rectify these, the city’s
administrative apparatus can conduct annual surveys and assess both the quality of
urbanization and its scale. Moreover, it can document the contribution of the informal sector,
which plays a central role in the city’s growth and function.
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Q. No. 2: What do you understand by “Language Analogy in Architecture”?

Discuss with reference to Luwig Wittgenstein’s theory for the use of language in
behavioral context. (20 Marks)
Answer)
An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is

quite different from it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something
that is familiar. Metaphors and similes are tools used to draw an analogy. Therefore,
analogy is more extensive and elaborate than either a simile or a metaphor. Consider the
following example:
“The structure of an atom is like a solar system. The nucleus is the sun, and electrons are
the planets revolving around their sun.”
Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Philosophical Theory of Language Acquisition and Use

Language acquisition is the result of a complex interrelationship of verbal and non verbal
elements. The work of sociolinguistics makes it qui te clear that message communication
(both for sender and receiver) is improperly conceived when understood and explained by
strictly verballyoriented methods and models. Indeed, research in the area of kinesics gives
added support to a much broader understanding of language acquisition that views the
process as an interplay of a number of factors, for instance: maturational, biological and
cultural.
This stands quite in contrast to a Chomskian-style transformational understanding of

acquisition which reduces this dynamic process to a universally-shared, innate mechanism.
Simply put, the contrast is between a view of language behavior that is dynamic and
context-centered as over against a view that is mechanical and posits the ideal speaker-
hearer. The transformation list orientation and its model of language acquisition and use is
akin to a philosophical tradition that has received a severe criticism in the twentieth century
with the rise of linguistic philosophy, especially that of Ludwig Wittgenstein. Chomsky's
linguistic mode! with all of its daims for innateness and universality may be vigorously
criticized from a Wittgensteinian view toward language acquisition, language use, and the
diversity of the means of communication in its manifold cultural and interpersonal aspects.
In this regard, Wittgenstein's dynamic mode! of language with its focus upon language use
rather than an innate mechanism puts him in the framework of the sociolinguists.
Wittgenstein's philosophical method is useful in clarifying certain transformationalist

principles and eventually criticizing them. With respect to Chomsky's methodology, four
important areas are of concern: the task-the clarification and description of the meaning of
and possibility for communication; the method-the description of linguistic structures at ali
levels; the subject matter-the form of human discourse; and the model of language-the
conception of language, what it is, what it does, and how it does it. Where linguistic
philosophy and transformational linguistics address themselves to these four areas, there
will be a number of superficial agreements. But there also are deep-seated differences on
the nature finally ofwhat is "real", of the basic understanding of language and human
speaking, and of the implications that these have for explaining language acquisition.
Let us begin by examining Wittgenstein's understanding of the nature of philosophy. This is

important since it has implications for not only the method which is to be investigated but
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also the understanding of the philosophical task as it pertains to our view of the form and
use of language: "The object of philosophy is the logical clarification of thought. Philosophy
is not a theory but an activity. A philosophical work consists essentially of elucidations. The
result of philosophy is not a number of 'philosophical propositions,' but to make propositions
clear. Philosophy should otherwise make clear and delimit sharply the thoughts which
otherwise are, as it were, opaque and blurred."
The philosophical descriptive activity goes beyond a simple analysis of the expressions of
philosophical propositions; philosophy must address itself to the constraints and conditions
of manthe-language-user in the world, conditions which make communication and meaning
possible. Wittgenstein's philosophical task is, however, more than an explication of a theory
of language-of "meaning as use" as is commonly attributed to him.
lt is at the very !east a portrayal of the complex picture of man in the world as a linguistic
creature who communicates in various ways and whose linguistic behavior may be
explained in as many different ways. We might say that these conditions are structures of
language use and that part of philosophy's task is to ascertain the nature and logic of these
structures.
According to Wittgenstein, the philosophical task has as its goal a certain type of
phenomenological clarification. To this end philosophy must become a skill, a method, a
technique, an activity, an art: "the art of clarification, of relief from the toits of philosophical
confusion. lt is the art of freeing us from the illusions.
lt is the art of finding one's way when lost." Wittgenstein's philosophy aims at language
misuse and confusion. For it is because of the prostitution of and incestuous relationships
of certain expressions that, oftentimes, misunderstandings arise. Renee, the "results of
[Wittgenstein's] philosophy are the uncovering of one or another piece of nonsense and of
bugs that the understanding has got by running up against the limits of language. "
Language pro vides the context for, as well as the means by which, philosophical problems
arise and are dealt with. Indeed, what we need is to command a clear view of the use of
our words.
Finally, Wittgenstein's proposai for philosophy and his model of language are consistent
with the sociolinguistic focusing upon the multidimensional nature of communication. The
notion of language behavior captures not only the verbal but also the nonverbal features of
message communication. As we have seen, Chomsky's transformational model is plainly
inadequate in accounting for the complexity of the languageacquisition process because his
scheme is too reductionistic and mechanical. By contrast, Wittgenstein's "language game"
offers an alternative proposai that much more persuasively explains the phenomenon of
language acquisition and use.
Philosophy of Analogy
Reasoning, thinking, and coming to a perception is between two entities (source or base,
and a target) where reaching a level and dealing with a target as the base or source.
Hofstadter (1995) considered Analogy as a kind of high-level perception, where one
situation is perceived as (in terms of) another one.
Definition: The New Oxford Dictionary of English (2001) defines analogy as follows:
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A comparison between one thing and another, typically for the purpose of explanation or
clarification
 A correspondence or partial similarity.
 A thing which is or is represented as being comparable to something else in

significant respects.
 A process of arguing from similarity in known respects to similarity in other respects.
AR as a problem solving technique

AR is one of the strategies used to solve complex problems. Analogical problem solving
takes a solution from the source, and transfers it to the target (problem). Using analogy in
solving problems enables the solver to connect the familiar; known (a previously used
method, strategy, or context) to the unfamiliar; unknown (a new problem)
Schunn and Christensen agreed that AR was mainly used for three purposes:
1. Solve Problems – AR has been used more for this purpose with 40%
2. Explain to others – AR has been used secondly for this purpose 32%
3. Identify Problem – AR has been used with least for this purpose 28%
As analogy takes place between two items, these items might belong to the same domain
(Within-Domain) or different domains (Between-Domain). Between-Domain Analogy has
been evoked to explain a problem or situation more that to solve or identify a problem.
WHY ANALOGY
Analogy and Creativity
Analogical reasoning may play a critical role in scientific thinking stated by Klein G. A.
(1987). Gentner (1980) in Klein G. A. (1987) examined the structure of analogical models in
science, and Hoffman (1980) presented arguments for viewing analogical and metaphorical
process as central to the development of scientific discovery. Hesse (1966) in Klein G.
A. (1987) also presented reasons for believing that new hypothesis in science are
generated through analogical reasoning.
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Daugherty J., Mentzer N. (2008) added that analogical reasoning is one of the techniques
used for problem solving, to provide creative reasoning, looking for great flexibility in the
retrieval and mapping phase. Valid analogies cannot be ensured.
Thus, a validation phase must be considered after mapping. In order to guarantee a

creative analogy, the LTM (long term memory) must be imposed. As long as analogy
depends on similarities/referents or constraints, a successful retrieval of such elements will
affect the analogy process. Here come the LTM, where the background knowledge matters
in case of bringing similarities as well as differences.
Boden (1990) and Koestler (1964) in Maher M.L. and Gero J. (1995) discussed three main
aspects of creativity:
1. Combining ideas from different domains

2. Use visual imagination, metaphor, and analogy
3. Expanding and varying the search space of alternatives
Metaphor, Analogy, and imagination assimilate the first point of combining ideas from
different domains (Inter-Domain/Between Domain Analogy ). Looking for alternatives and
expanding the search will bring more parameters to the analogy process. Hence,
comparing between them will lead to a good evaluation and a creative analogy.
Conveying Hadamard Stages of creativity and relating them to the Analogy process
component will help us conceive how creativity embodies analogy. This correspondence
has been used as a guide for generating a computational model for creative reasoning.
Hadamard Four stages of creativity correspondent to Analogy Phases
Maher M.L. and Gero J.S. (2006) emphasized the previous correspondence considering
computer-aided design. They agreed that in order to make use of analogy and mutation to
support creativity in CAD, they must consider three principles:
1. Representation of design experience------------------------Retrieval

2. Identification and application of mutation operators-----Mapping
3. Development and application of analogical reasoning---Validation
(Mutation is deliberate action to change features or attributes of an object or concept in an

unconventional manner.)
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Analogical Reasoning Types in Architecture

Based on Similarity Nature
Broadbent G. (1973) considers analogical design as the most powerful source of creative
ideas in the architectural design. He distinguished 3 categories of Analogy:
1. Visual analogies
2. Structural
3. Philosophical.
Together with Philip Steadman (2008) who defined two distinct kinds of interpretation to
analogy, both are related
1. Visual (Appearance - Composition)

2. Functional
Visual analogies
In such analogy, designers refer to existing buildings, forms from the nature, paintings
Broadbent G. (1973). They borrow and refer to what they visually see around them whether
it is other buildings or nature or even paintings, anything their eye sees and their mind
visualizes it and imagine it in a building.
"Architects are visually oriented and are taught to think graphically "(McKim 1972; Laseau
1980)
Structural analogies
Predicting from its title, the similarities drawn in this analogy is based on structure. As
Broadbent stated, where powers of tension and compression in the human body are
referred to
Sometimes referring to it as how deep is the analogy between the source and the target, or
the nature of the similarities taken in the analogy process, how deep are these similarities
relating to the source and the target as well.
Structural Analogy
Gentner (1989) and Keane (1988) argued that although these” surface “types of analogies
are easy to create, under normal circumstances they could not guarantee the transfer of
structural relations between source and target.
This deep or structural analogy is of a higher level, higher order relations based on deep
properties, which no doubt considering an issue more deeply led always to better results,
that is better solution among the target and source
Architecture Education with Example

Metaphor/Analogy has been used for education all through several ages and many fields. It
has been used to expand children learning abilities. Anthony C. Antoniades (1992) suggests
that metaphor can be more useful to architecture instructors. Thus many instructors used it
especially through the recent years. They use exercises that depend on metaphoric
departures, so it is possible to test and to develop students’ fantasy and imagination.
Horden R. encourages students at the Institute for Architecture and Product Design, Faculty
for Architecture, Technical University of Munich to develop their design from an object or
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living thing (Source of analogical reasoning technique) that demonstrates beauty and a link
to the topic of the design (looking for similarity to infer Analogy).
Here are examples from students taught by Professor Richard Horden at the institute
depending on living things as a source of their analogy.
Project Bridge (Munich 2002)

Students Georg Glas – Julian Hildebrand
Location Barcelona
Teaching Prof. Richard Horden – Burkhard Franke
Team
These students were inspired by the shape of the wing tip of a seabird seems to caress the
water as it makes a turn. This form provided them with a flexible form, while considering
structural issues
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Q. No. 3: Define Metaphor. Explain the role of metaphor in changing architectural

concepts. (20 Marks)
Answer)
METAPHOR:
A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by
mentioning another. It may provide clarity or identify hidden similarities between two
ideas. Antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy and simile are all types of metaphor. One of the
most commonly cited examples of a metaphor in English literature is the "the entire world's
a stage" monologue from As You like It:
All the world's a stage,

And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances
—William Shakespeare, As You Like It,
Metaphoric architecture
Metaphoric architecture is an architectural movement that developed in Europe during the
mid-20th century.
It is considered by some to be merely an aspect of postmodernism whilst others consider it
to be a school in its own right and a later development of expressionist architecture.
The style is characterised by the use of analogy and metaphor as the primary inspiration
and directive for design. Well known examples of this can be found in:
The Palm Mosque at the King Saud University in Riyadh by Basil Al Bayati, based upon the
form of a palm tree.
The Lotus Temple in New Delhi, by Fariborz Sahba, based on a lotus flower.
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The TWA Flight Center building in New York City, by Eero Saarinen, inspired by the form of
a bird's wing.
The Sydney Opera House, in Australia, by Jørn Utzon that is derived from the sails of ships
in the harbour.
Certain architects have also been known to utilise metaphors as a theme throughout their
work such as Le Corbusier and the open hand motif. This to him was a sign of "peace and
reconciliation. It is open to give and open to receive
The role of metaphors in the architectural identity

Metaphors, creativity and architectural identity
Aristotle was the first philosopher known in history who pointed out the effective role played
by metaphors in creative processes. He briefly defines a metaphor as, consists in giving the
name that belongs to something else” (Poetics, 1457b). And he explains the importance of
metaphors: ordinary words convey only what we know already: it is from metaphor that we
best get hold of something fres. It is a great thing by far to be master of metaphor”
(Rhetoric, 1410b).
Metaphors are not just a matter of language; they are also a matter of thought and action.
They involve all natural dimensions of our sense experience such as color, shape, texture,
sound (Lakoff and Johnson, 2003).
As a matter of fact, it is a much more intelligent attitude than using visual metaphors
straightaway and has potential to create more sophisticated architectural designs because
a concrete graphic image of an abstract concept changes from one architect to another and
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varies even according to different perspectives of the same architect at different times.
Every image appearing as a result of this process would be superposed on previous
images. Thus imagination would be activated and new images would emerge.
Examples based on metaphors prior to the modern movement

The ideas about the role of metaphors in architecture date back to ancient times. Vitruvius
(1960) suggests the use of nature as metaphor and observation of things growing like a
tree almost two millennia ago. He also points out that when people adopted a sedentary
life, some build shelters for themselves resembling bird nests by getting inspiration from
swallows. As nature designed the human body symmetrically, perfect buildings, particularly
temples, were symmetrically designed by the ‘ ancients.
The distinctive and effective identity of the Crystal Palace designed by Joseph Paxton in
1851 is the result of a design approach based on metaphors. Almost one-meter long, the
large leaves of a water lily called as Victoria Amazonica are strong enough to carry Paxton’s
seven year old daughter.
The picture depicting the strength of water lily leaves carrying Paxton’s 7-years old
daughter Annie. Source: Wikipedia
This strength is the result of rib’s of water lily structural pattern.
Structural pattern of water lily’s leaf.
He clearly described his metaphoric inspiration in his lecture at the Royal Society of Arts
during construction of Crystal Palace as follows:
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“ the underside of the leaf presents a beautiful example of natural engineering in the
cantilevers which radiate from the centre, where they are nearly two inches deep, with large
bottom flanges and very thin middle ribs from buckling; their depth gradually decreases
towards the circumference of the leaf, where they also ramify”.
This observation brings to his mind the idea of building a structure which has never been
accomplished before with a light but strong roof. He has also applied to the metaphor of
table cloth which covers this roof structure.
After such inspirations, Paxton has used steel which represents the function of ribs and
glass for the flat surface of the leaf. This building has become one of the major architectural
symbols of the New Industrial Age.
Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton.
Examples related to the modern movement in architecture

Glass Pavilion
The Glass Pavilion, built in 1914 by Bruno Taut, was a prismatic glass dome structure at the
Cologne Deutscher Werkbund Exhibition. The structure was a brightly colored landmark at
the exhibition, and was constructed using concrete and glass.The concrete structure had
inlaid colored glass plates on the facade that acted as mirrors.
Taut described his little temple of beauty as "reflections of light whose colors began at the
base with a dark blue and rose up through moss green and golden yellow to culminate at
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the top in a luminous pale yellow."Taut's Glass Pavilion is his best known single building
achievement. He built it for the association of the German glass industry specifically for the
1914 exhibition. They financed the structure that was considered a house of art. The
structure was made at the time when expressionism stood highest in Germany.
There are only black and white photographs known of the building that were taken in
1914.The building was destroyed soon after the exhibition since it was an exhibition
building only and not built for practical use.The Glass Pavilion was a pineapple-shaped
multi-faceted polygonal designed rhombic structure. It was a fourteen-sided base
constructed of thick glass bricks used on the exterior walls devoid of rectangles.Taut's
Glass Pavilion was the first building of glass bricks of importance.
There were glass-treaded metal staircases inside that led to the upper projection room that
showed a kaleidoscope of colors.Between the staircases was a seven-tiered cascading
waterfall with underwater lighting. The interior had prisms producing colored rays from the
outside sunlight.The floor-to-ceiling colored glass walls were mosaic. All this had the effect
of a large crystal producing a large variety of colors.The frieze of the Glass Pavilion was
written with aphoristic poems of glass done by the anarcho-socialist writer Paul Scheerbart.
GLASS AS METAPHOR AND MATERIAL

The Glashaus was an extraordinary building of its time concealing mystery and symbolism.
In the article, "The Interpretation ofthe Glass DreamExpressionist Architecture and the
Crystal Metaphor," Rosemary Haag Bletter describes the Glashaus as: "an icon of the
crystal-!glass metaphor."
Her article traces the iconographic tradition of glass back through history and describes
how the imagery of transcendence through glass and crystal has undergone transformation
through time. In the Solomonic legends, Moslem architecture, Grail legends and the Gothic
cathedral, the glass-crystal metaphor was expressed through more or less architectonic
concepts. But with later the Romantic and Symbolist movements it became an image of the
soul or brain.
Within this history of glass and crystal imagery metamorphosis, the Glashaus of Taut and
his symbolic use of glass architecture are, for the first time since Gothic architecture,
reinstated in built form.
The Glashaus was also a simple showroom of the Luxfer Prism Glass Company, with the
explicit purpose to display the firm's products. Glass was presented in every form: mirrors,
glass prisms, colored and clear glass, glass tiles, glass mosaic, window glass and balls and
beats of glass.
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The earliest manmade glass origins from ceramic glazes in pottery making and early glass
manufacturing was developed by the Egyptians, based on cast and pressed procedures.
Up until and during the time of the Romans, glass was mainly looked at, than looked
through and not until the invention of the blow-pipe, glass becomes somewhat transparent
in the sense we recognize today.
Glass applied in construction does not really occur before the middle ages and was mainly
applied in church buildings as stained glass windows.
As construction methods changed at the end of the eighteenth cencur)!, with the use ofiran
and reinforced concrere, rhe depth of manufacruring and office buildings increased and rhe
need far daylight rose. The Luxfer Prism Company challenged that problem by launching
competitions where Glass Prisms were ro be incorporated in masonry and concrere
construction.
Taut did not officially focus on technical issues in his Glashaus, since he in the program for
the Werkbund Exposition only wrote on the symbolic aspects of glass. But his through all
detaiiing and arrention ro the various glass products suggesrs a genuine interest in issues
of technology.
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Q. No. 4: Explain the symbolic function of architecture and formation of personal

& social identities. Discuss Kevin Lynch approach of cognitive mapping and relate to
place identity and social activity. (20 Marks)
Answer)
Symbols of function
Society requires that architecture not only communicate the aspirations of its institutions but
also fulfill their practical needs. When architectural forms become the vehicles of content—
in plan, elevation, and decoration—they are symbolic. Their symbolism can be understood
consciously or unconsciously, by association (e.g., spire = church) to a building one has
seen before and by the fact that it suggests certain universal experiences (e.g., vertical
forms “rise”; low roofs “envelop”). One comprehends the meaning of symbols that are new,
as well as those that are known, by association, because the laws of statics restrain
builders from putting them into forms so completely unfamiliar that they do not suggest
some tradition, just as the structure of language permits endless new meanings but retains
a fairly constant vocabulary.
The meaning of architectural symbols—or of words—may even change, but the process
must be both logical and gradual, for, if the change is irrational, the purpose—
communication—is lost.
The architectural plan, when used symbolically, communicates through its shape. From
prehistoric times and in many cultures, the circle, with its suggestion of the planets and
other manifestations of nature, gained a symbolic, mystical significance and was used in
the plans of houses, tombs, and religious structures. By slow processes it came to be
employed for memoria and shrines and for hero cults in both the East and the West. When
building techniques permitted, its symbolism often merged with that of the dome. In
Hindu temples, the square (and the cross plans developed from it) expressed
celestial harmony.
The central-plan Christian church (circle, polygon, Greek cross, ellipse) fascinated the
architects of the Renaissance with its symbolic and traditional values, and it is found in their
drawings and treatises to the virtual exclusion of the more practical longitudinal basilicas
that architects were often commissioned to build.
In elevation the most consistent symbolic forms have been the dome, the tower,
the stairway, the portal, and the colonnade. Domes imply the meanings of the circle and
more, since a dome is a covering. Long before masonry domes could be built, the
hemisphere was associated with the heavens as a “cosmic canopy,” and throughout history
domes have been decorated with stars and astrological symbols.
The tower, with origins in primitive nature rites, has consistently symbolized power.
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U.S. Capitol building U.S. Capitol building, Washington, D.C.Brand X Pictures/Thinkstock
Architectural elements conceived to facilitate the use of buildings may also take on
symbolic significance. The stairway, employed in the past to give “monumentality” to
important buildings, frequently became more expressive than convenient, especially in
Baroque palaces.
Portals, from the time of ancient Egyptian temple pylons and Babylonian city gates, became
monuments in themselves, used to communicate a heightened significance to what lay
behind them. In the Gothic cathedral they became the richest element of the facade—a
translation of biblical doctrine into stone. Since the development of the classical Greek
temple, the colonnade on the exterior of buildings has borne similar implications.
The Role of Culture in Promoting Architectural Identity
Culture
Culture is a set of beliefs, knowledge, education, customs and values that society has
developed them based on their own beliefs and in the process, it aims to achieve a
development defined and explained to him by its worldlook (Naghizadeh, 2000). The impact
of culture in different areas of life, including art, architecture and urban planning and
development, and ways of life is undeniable (Madadpoor, 2000).
Architecture
Architecture is scientific- artistic activities to create space and organize it; crystallization of
the culture of a community over time; and clear mirror of the society in different periods.
Architecture is apart from a building or building, but also how to build it and not related to
construction materials, However, it is related to the way a house or city is built in order to
meet non- material human needs. Architecture is both formed and has continued to the
present time since the old time when building and trimming were popular, and its variety
has been created (Parhizgar, 2003). The model of the relationship between culture and
architecture can be expressed based on four different definitions as shown in Table 1.
Identity
Identity is an issue that is important in all areas including architecture. Questions like "
where do we belong? Who are we? Where are we going? ", can be come up in various
forms, and related to cultures, religions or nations and countries. The notion that
architecture is a reflection of a culture is a strong idea and will continue to be discussed. It
is a perspective that is a source of inspiration and also the preventive source of the best
architects returning to their roots.
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Human identity is manifested in art as well as in architecture. Human has always showed
his dedication to his roots in his arts. So, it can be said that Every civilization or ethnic
groups offers specific architecture in accordance with their culture at different times
(Shayan, 2011). Identity literally means character, essence, and the existence attributed to
Hu. In Moein Dictionary, identity can be expressed as follows: Supreme being, essence,
existence; and What causes a person to be identified which means what differentiate an
individual from the others. Hence, identity is not expressed in the vacuum. Identity is
defined as who and what an individual is in Oxford Dictionary (Mahdavineja, Bemanian,
Khaksar, 2010).
Relationship between culture and architecture

To understand the relationship between culture and architecture, the relationship between
space and culture should be first mentioned. Space, as well as culture, has a social
construction formed in the process of shaping people's perception of themselves. Space
has an important role in strengthening cultural change, because the expected behavior
patterns within a particular space reflects the specific cultural values. This definition implies
the construction of a mental space.
Influence of mental space, ranging from concrete and physical space gets understandable.
Organizing the operation of subjective and objective space in the mixed continuous form is
called architecture. Proposing the relationship between culture and architecture, especially
in the field of psychology, clarifies the need to caring the relationship between human and
their artifical environment. With this attitude, culture is the factor or way of human’s relation
with an artificial environment and implies on two categories:
a) Standardized behaviors, thoughts, and feelings;

b) Products that are the result or a continuation of the behavior and thinking of people in a
given society (Shayan, 2011);
Architecture as a symbol of the culture

Every society with a system being managed, and any ideology governing it has its own
goals and aspirations. The main role of culture is to present the mental ideas by
introducing the concrete forms. Architecture plays a key role in the process of this
transformation. According to Herman Motsios, architecture was and is the true measure of
a nation's culture. When a nation can make beautiful furniture and lustres but the worst
buildings are built every day implies dark abnormal situation of the society in which
irregularities and lack of power to organize the nation are generally proved (Geroter, 2007).
Cultural factors affecting the formation of architectural spaces

Culture can affect on the formation of architectural spaces through two following ways:
1. Through the creation of behavioral laws and rules that leads to functional organizing and
spatial hierarchy.
2. Through the creation of memories, beliefs and physical symptoms in the form of symbols,
archetypes and metaphors that lead to creating meaning in the architectural space
The reflects of culture in the architectural spaces

There are several factors affecting the artworks and architectural spaces that are subsets of
culture. This effect is sometimes obvious and sometimes subtle and non- obvious , such as
the effect of the cross in churches clearly and hierarchically between different spaces such
40
as the elements of the input space Iranian Jameh Mosque and the concept of cultural
content in the early stages of visitor’s look remains hidden . Some features of culture do
not have the same impact on architecture, some are easy, and some are difficult to identify.
One of the effects of arts on culture is that some numbers and shapes become important.
One of the reasons that numbers are more considered is due to human’s perception of the
world order in the past understood in the most tangible form, the numerical order. Many of
the shapes and numbers were particularly utilized in ceremonies, arts, schools of thought,
etc. The application of each number or shapes in any activities or arts were dependent on
the one hand, on the numerical and visual features of the activity and on the other hand, on
the the features and properties of the shape or number.
Therefore, the shapes and numbers consistent with characteristics of mathematics ,

geometry , and less tangible art and culture of this land were used and considered in the
architectural arts like number four , square and circle characteristics , common features of
circle and square , cube , sphere-shaped volumes and four arches, etc
The role of culture in promoting architectural identity

What was described as a culture ( rules, values, etc.) were only parts of the culture of any
community. Culture has another aspect called material aspect indicating to the buildings,
factories, etc. In fact, these things are considered as a part of the culture of a society.
Because it is rooted in the values, beliefs, etc. and from here the link between culture and
architecture can be seen.
Buildings are like a book covered with dust which should really go and read them. In this
way, the culture of people and the society in which they were built are identified (Parhizgar,
2003). The most important factors for the emergence of different architectural schools are
the turning points in the culture direction and creativity. Each culture and civilization starts
from a point in which the old ones stopped faced with a crisis. However, its direction is to
follow and develop old and historical directions and at some points rebuilds its structures.
Due to direct effect of culture on architecture, it is natural that cultural changes cause
transformation in effective concepts and theories in the appearance of the architecture and
consequently , different ideas of architecture comes into existence
That determine the interaction between theoretical concepts and methods of culture in
general and specifically the theoretical concepts and architecture (Diba, 1999). Every
society has its own culture, upon which its foundation of architecture was established, and
its architecture is the objective image of its culture. In fact, architecture was and is a true
measure of a nation 's culture. The culture of the community is responsible for the ways
spaces get formed.
Foundations of Iranian culture and its influence on architecture

Cultures have various manifestations. Despite the apparent differences, manifestations of
each culture have undeniable similarities. For example, the similarity among Japanese
literature, architecture, dressing and customs of the seventeenth century is evident. The
similarities resulted in each cultural manifestation being fed by common principles in the
culture. In Persian literature, vocabularies do not have the capacity of long and deep
meanings, so poets and writers were utilizing metaphors, ambiguities, ironies and other
literary industry to convey their ideas and meanings. The words of a poem have material
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nature concept imposed for immaterial concepts. Therefore, there are profound meanings
in other manifestations of the culture and architecture has inner meaning in the
culture. In particular, there are many subcultures in Iran and people inherited diverse and
various historical heritage which have common inner contents organizing them under a
general collection
Isfahan Jameh Mosque

The first building of this mosque was built in chamber plan by order of the governor of
Isfahan in 156 AH. Much of this mosque was built after the fourth century and in Razi plan,
so that the building is known as Razi style. The building of the mosque remained is the four
–Ivan.
Cultural indices: Iranian government in this period; the continuity of Iranian tradition;
following the old architecture reasonably; repeating Islamic unity; popularity of applying
bricks in the building instead of old material like canvas; increasing international
communication and contiguity of the East and West; starting the use of Islamic decoration
in the architecture after Islam; applying mathematics and geometry.
Architectural indices: Dome - structure is based on the style before Islam; applying bricks
as the main material in constructing a building; Creating a corridor above the bedchamber;
domes of the mosque built during the Seljuk has precious decorations coated with plaster;
creating Mogharnas dome in the mosque which belongs to the Seljuk artworks.
KEVIN LYNCH MAPPING METHOD

Kevin Lynch (1960) was an urban planner who carried out pioneering work on people's
urban cognitive maps from the 1950s. He was mainly interested in how people structure
their image of their environment, so as to design city layouts which would accord with the
ways we perceive and understand our environments.
For Lynch, being able to orient oneself in one's environment is a fundamental existential
necessity for humans. In our distant past we needed a 'sense' of orientation in order to keep
track of where we are relative to sources of food and our home. In the age of massive
cities, we need this sense in order to navigate between the numerous locations where we
carry out our everyday activities: home, work, entertainment, holidays etc. Lynch points out
the fear that we associate with becoming disorientated in our surroundings: "The very word
'lost' in our language means more than simple geographic uncertainty; it carries overtones
of utter disaster"
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As a planner, Lynch was interested in analysing the urban form, and in particular identified
the criterion of the 'legibilty' of a cityscape which he defined as " the ease with which its
parts can be recognized and can be organized into a coherent pattern" a legible city would
thus be one "whose districts or landmarks or pathways are easily identifiable and are easily
grouped into an over-all pattern".
His method involved externalising the 'mental images' that city-dwellers have of their cities,
through interviews and sketch-mapping exercises. Because of his focus on identifying ways
of improving the physical structure of cities, he was less interested in individual differences
in mental images than in the aggregate image of inhabitants of a particular city. This 'public
image' was used to identify aspects of good and bad structure in the cities.
Lynch proposed a set of elements which should be fundamental to the structure of the
urban environment and thus were expected to be manifest in people's mental structuring of
the environment. The five elements proposed by Lynch are presented in Table 1 with his
original definitions. For Lynch, the elements of the city constitute the palette of the urban
planner; the appropriate placement and arrangement of the elements on the canvas of the
urban environment will produce a legible city in which people can thrive. Conversely, a slap-
dash approach to painting the urban picture will result in a disorientating city.
The data was obtained in two ways: firstly urban residents were interviewed about their city
and asked to draw sketch maps, and secondly trained field workers were sent out on foot to
make detailed plans of the city with the five elements and their interrelationships in mind. All
the data were analyzed to determine:
a) What were the distinctive features of each city and which areas were more or less
legible, and
b) How well did the field maps compare which the aggregate maps of the interviewees.
************************************************************************
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Q. No. 5: Review the work of two researchers in regard to architecture and

identity and explain with reference to cultural values. (10
Marks)
Answer)
Case Study 1. Reviewing the Role of Culture on Formation of Vernacular Architecture
In the contemporary time, according to replacement of materialistic culture, the framework

of vernacular architecture collapsed and ignored deliberately by builders, investors and
architects. Architecture encompasses the life, meaning that each aspect of our life can be
influenced by architecture. Some believe that architecture and human’s manner have a
mutual relationship and they are closely effect on each other.
According to this theory, many architects and sociologist claim that architecture can change
peoples’ behavior and move along with culture. In term of cultural effect of architecture,
function and form play a role when cultural, social and even economic points are wisely
considered. In other words, architecture can shape the life style and mutual communication
among users and it displays the historical and revolutionary role of culture in combining
these factors together. Architecture can create the identification and help the expression of
the dominant cultural value in the society, those values that the society aims to achieve
them and the cultural factors that form the identification.
The definition of Culture

Culture is an interlocking concept including science, religion, art, ethnic, customs and any
kind of capability. To some scholars, the social life means to live together in the cultural
atmosphere. Living in the most primitive tribe or the technological society has the equal
conditions as living, which is influenced by human conditions although each cultural aspect
is different from others in form and content.
Reviving the cultural and vernacular identification

Some architectural features do not impact on spaces equally and some of them simply and
others hardly can be identified. One of these features is the importance of numbers and
shapes, as everything around can be understood by numbers. Therefore, geometry and
math have become important characteristics of activities, rituals, arts and school of
thoughts. The function of each number or shape depends on the visual characteristics of
designated form. Therefore, shapes and numbers in art and architecture are paid more
attention to become compatible with math, geometry and art. For instance, number four and
its role in square or the common features of circle and square in shaping the religious
buildings have a close relationship with nature. Moreover, many natural shapes and
phenomena can be analyzed and justified by them. Of course, when these numbers enter
the world of architecture, they turn into shapes and forms, therefore, geometrical shapes
are represented themselves as numbers already existing.
Architecture for people is shaped based on people’s need and in spite of some common
thoughts, it does not mean primitive or commonplace or they are offered just to adjust with
their surroundings but they have been chosen intellectually in order to cope with
unexpected natural disaster and more importantly maintain their cultural and ritual values of
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the society. To add more, this type of architecture helps local people to find the sense of
place and to devote themselves to their territory (figure 1).
Vernacular architecture is advanced form architecture for people and is associated with
climate, weather culture and local material. Using local material and given solution by the
nature are the priority of vernacular architecture. Interestingly, this architecture dates back
thousand years ago and through centuries remains intact (figure 2).
Opportunist architecture is the consequence of new civilization and takes advantage of the
improper situations and prefers materialistic benefits rather than logical solutions (figure 3)
But, the most important kind of architecture includes social culture and reflects the
vernacular culture of people living in that area.
In aforementioned definition, the participation of people in building vernacular architecture

and consideration to value and compatibility with nature are essential factors that all can
lead up to a satisfactory point meaning architecture for and by people.
Rappaport believes that vernacular architecture is presenting the changing values, the
picture of the house, ideology and the life style and finally the combination of these
situations. He also claims that vernacular architecture instead of dominating the nature is
going to be compatible with that and it is the most positive point in this style.
According to Pietro Belluschi, vernacular art is not made by specialist and based on plans
because it is in the continuation of old tradition which is inherited to us.
Hassan Fathi in his book” Architecture for people” expresses that each nation establishes
its own architecture and represents its favorite lines, forms into habits, traditions and
customs. He also emphasizes on dependency and compatibility of forms deriving from
context: Before dethronement of cultural borders in 19 century, forms and elements of
vernacular architecture were along with environment. As it was already mentioned, man is
making an effort to cope and resolve the environmental problems arisen in the nature and
architecture is based on vernacular architecture, science and culture. Therefore, it is going
to prepare itself to fit in the nature.
The characteristics of vernacular architecture

The vernacular architecture, all buildings, spaces and houses are made for man and no
matter whether they are built by the owners or society, they depend on environmental
factors and resources and benefit from traditional technologies. All architectural and
vernacular forms are to respond the certain needs determined quality of habitation and life
45
styles; As a result, architecture has to follow any kind of cultural or social changes and
rapidly adjust itself with it (Bemanian, 2000).
The vernacular structure is created in confrontation of dwellers with climatic situations but
the simplicity of the relation can explain the familiarization and adherence of vernacular
structure. The present culture is resulted by confrontation of man with nature in the process
of time. Any event can influence on culture and after a while reappears as a language,
poem, metaphor and proverb in literature and on other side color, line in painting and
shapes and volumes in sculpture and architecture and even invention and science in space
can participate in forming cultural items in such a way that is impossible to distinguish them.
This interlocking relationship is the main characteristics of vernacular architecture.
In term of defining the characteristics of authentic architecture, regardless of the

geographical situation of each climate and the features of dwellers, it seems impossible and
the relationship between environment and nature is the key to learn their relationship
(Beheshti 1999).
The vernacular architecture can evolve in such a way that includes all parts of aesthetic and
it can utilize related matters such as rhythm, symmetry, harmony and contrast. Vernacular
architecture can create the proportional ideas in dividing faces and volumes and measure
the amount of lightings in order to change the essence of the atmosphere and give new
characteristics and attribution to the space (figure 4).
Vernacular architecture is fulfilled without paying attention to expertise and specialty and
take responsibility to answer all materialistic and spiritual needs because their participation
stems from their communal life and inspired by their daily life. In addition, vernacular
architecture do not boat and keep its improvising features, which is the main reason that no
cycle can be found in it.
The influence of culture on vernacular architecture

It is required to know that culture has materialistic dimension as well and they are the
buildings and monuments that create nostalgic feelings and more importantly, derives from
beliefs and values. In fact, architecture can make the connection between culture and
society and considers as a part of people‘s cultural identifications. Not only does
architecture respond the basic need of users, meaning a shelter, but it also tightly related to
culture.
Architecture as a cultural phenomenon derives from culture and impacts on it and of

course, it can represent the human’s thoughts. Some researchers find architecture as a
turning point in the path of culture and creativity. Each civilization and culture starts from a
point that previous civilization could not cope with or find itself in a chaotic situation but with
a small and subtle difference: the new civilization recovers the previous structure.
Therefore, regarding the direct influence of culture in the architecture, it is natural that
46
changes in culture can make fundamental changes in basis of influential concepts and help
creating different thoughts which determine the mutual understanding between theory and
culture.
The rapid upcoming changes in new century produce some changes in life and culture. The
process of vernacular architecture stopped and could not adapt itself with culture. However,
in some European countries, these changes took place gradually and they replace the
changes easily. It is clear that reviving the culture and architecture are two important
elements that can help the society make a big progress. Architecture does not consist of
styles and school of thoughts and even is not distinguished by social and economic
circumstances while it is a combination of all these features. In fact, architecture is not
focused on the strength of cement and metal but it needs the cultural needs of people. In
order to know the architectural features incorporated in Persian architecture, some of them
are explained below:
Privacy
Beliefs and attitudes are vital factors that impacts on forming different spaces. One of these
characteristics is to respect people’s private life. In Persian houses, the interior spaces is
separated by a wall from exterior space and there is only a projected part named narthex.
This part has two platforms in two sides and it was used for guest who was waiting till the
owner opens a door. Engraving and installing almost big platforms was not an easy job but
due to hospitality, Iranian was encouraged to build these platforms. This example is the
influence of culture on housing (figures 5 and 6)
Door opener was two metal handles: one ring shaped and another hammer-like. If a person
was a female uses a ring shaped and if a male the hammer-like handle was used, therefore
the owners easily realized who is referring to them.
This strategy was used to respect the privacy of males and females and could protect them
in their social relationship and avoid unnecessary commuting because a male usually
indented to meet a man and obviously a female was going to see a female. To learn more
the necessity of the strategy, the size of yard should be considered.
After the entrance, there was a corridor that although it was a part of house, it has been
separated from the main atmosphere. One of the functions of corridor was preparation to
enter the main area of house and at the same time, the house members also were
prepared for the guest. One of the functions of these corridors or small halls in front of the
building was to create calmness and protecting the house members’ privacy.
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Introversion
The introversion has a deep root in philosophical and social concepts because in culture
and architecture, the main value is attributed to the essence and inner core (figure 7)
Introversion is in search of maintaining the environmental privacy that is supported by

thoughts, and beliefs in order to help man evolve and reach perfectionism. Paying attention
to internal issues according to culture, life style and customs can clarify the meaning of
culture.
Centralization
This feature is parallel with introversion, the process of moving from diversity in unity and
vice versa is a common idea in Islamic art; the central space is distributing all activities
(Falamaki,2005)
Reflection
In all Persian architectural spaces, the main scene is formed by physical elements which is
visual and its parts set a framework that evolves shapes and forms.
The relationship of architecture and nature

In Iran Persian’s vernacular architecture, there is a friendly coexistence among man,
architecture and nature. In the Muslims’ holy book, many references about plants, lightings
and natural part and metaphor of paradise produce the scene of nature in Persian’s culture
and spaces beside each other based on a special hierarchy prove that nature has a sacred
position.
Social activities, culture and religious commands are in harmony and adjacent with nature
and due to this feature, nature is involved with architecture in different forms and users
benefit from this relationship.
Geometry
The language of architecture is geometry and through it, the relationship is appeared. In
Islamic art and architecture, geometry plays an important role and describes the divine and
logical thoughts. In Geometry, science and math and complicated combination are always
go with intuition and other words sense and intelligence cannot be detached. Persian
Geometry does not comply the materialistic and ecological functions and is implying other
connotations as well (figure 8).
48
Transparency and continuity

Transparency and continuity are in contradiction with confined spaces because the path of
man’s movement is in continuation in such a way that spatial opening in vertical and
horizontal can create transparency. The concept of hierarchy and continuity are important
matters in explaining the Iran’s architecture. Continuity is not related to the size of space
and using the diverse geometry that includes faced and points the spatial continuation
maintain its bond with gravity (figure 9)
Mystery
The sense of spiritual grandeur in simplicity and purification are fundamental principles in
building but in order to perceive the building, spirituality and none materialistic world of
builders should be considered (Montazaeran,L (2013)
The harmonic stability

In architecture, there is a harmonic stability between building and natural environment,
sense and deep nature help the physical elements fit in their right place and their functions
can respond the environment. There are so many factors effecting on artifact and
architectural spaces. This effect sometimes is not apparent and hidden such as the
influence on cross pattern on designing historical churches or the hierarchy in Persian
architecture that may be ignored by visitors.
Conclusion
Custom and traditions make an influence on the region and with maintaining the
fundamental, cultural and artistic factors in the building, a very simple building without spirit
turn into a perfect building. More importantly, the function of the building can evolve the
expression of the architect and it is simultaneous with emergence of the message of
architecture, cities and areas. Following the pattern and diverse culture have created a
varied architecture and vernacular language.
49
Case Study 02: Architecture as Embodied Culture; the Traditional as a Cultural Body in
Ganjuran Church, Yogyakarta
Architecture; embodied culture.

Architecture’s roles in culture manifested in three phases;
1. Conceptualization; when architecture
becomes representation of certain values (especially introduction of new ones).
2. Replacement;
When architecture, through its ritualized form and space, becomes a process of interactions
between cultural values where they were lived and practiced. 3. Constitution; architecture is
an on going process of making a new and stable value. These phases are occurring in
parallel states. One may precede the others, but not in a linear fashion. These three
processes are the practices of interaction between ‘space’and ‘place’.’Place’, upon Michel
de Certeau’s idea is ‘definable, limited, and enclosed’, just as ‘space’ is constantly being
produced by the practices of living.
Ganjuran Church is one example on how architecture represents the above process.
Architecture is actively present when the cultural values (e.g. Christianity, Catholicism) were
being introduced, represented, and adapted to a local culture (e.g. Javanese). Ganjuran
Church is also an example on how traditionalism is a strong cultural idea that always
presents to constitute new cultural values.
Ganjuran church
Location and history
This church is located in Ganjuran. Ganjuran is located around 20 kilometers south of
Yogyakarta. It’s on the rural area of Bantul residency. The church’s official name is The
Jesus’ Sacred Heart Church (Gereja Hati Kudus Tuhan Yesus), but it’s well-known as
Ganjuran Church.
50
Ganjuran church is one of the cultural heritages in Bantul. As the first Catholic Church in the
area, built by an initiative from Julius Schmutzer’s family in 16 April 1924. Julius Schmutzer
was the owner of sugar cane factory in Ganjuran.
The church was conceived with Julius Schmutzer’s ethical idea towards local inhabitants
and their culture. He initiated a devotional area beside the main church. This devotional
area is dominated by a sculptural alter which mimics the Prambanan temple. Prambanan
temple is a major Hindu temple in Yogyakarta area. This devotional ‘altar’ was inaugurated
in 11 February 1930. The devotional area’s design is an outdoor version of the classical
church aisle.
The devotional area’s altar is surrounded by water taps, distributed from a natural source
around the church’s area. This altar becomes a meditative space for the visitors and
prayers. The altar’s form mimed the formal figure of Prambanan temple, despite the fact
that Prambanan temple is a Hindu temple.
51
The main church building was shaken by 27 May 2006 earthquake and being replaced by a
copy of traditional Javanese-styled building envelope. The skin of the original main church
transformed, from a balance language of western classical church style with local
ornaments to a dominance of local traditional architectural style.
The post earthquake building is using a “Javanese-hall” or the “Pendopo”. It’s basically
based on an open plan design, with four main columns supporting the middle area of the
hall.
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Conclusion
Ganjuran Church is to be understood as the strengthening of traditional culture. The

destruction brought by natural disaster came as a chance for the traditional representations
to replace the non-local symbols and representations. The toleration from Catholicism
during the initial building of the church is being replaced by a totally domination of traditional
image and representation.
Ganjuran Church is becoming a cultural hybrid. The phases of conceptualization,

replacement and constitution are apparent. New values brought by Christianity (e.g.
Catholicism) are blended over the time, represented in a dominant local, traditional
symbolism.
*****************************************************************************************
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References & Researches Cited:

Question. 01
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megastructure
 https://online.norwich.edu/academic-programs/masters/civil-
engineering/resources/articles/what-is-a-megastructure
 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02665430600555255?
src=recsys&journalCode=rppe20
 https://futurecitiesandenvironment.com/articles/10.1186/s40984-016-0014-2/
 https://www.versobooks.com/blogs/2481-megastructure-visions-an-extract-from-last-
futures
 https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/2/4/384/htm
 https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-a-megacity.html
 https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/the-pros-and-cons-of-mega-cities-281152
 https://toughnickel.com/real-estate/Pros-and-Cons-of-Living-in-New-York-City
 https://toughnickel.com/real-estate/Pros-and-Cons-of-Living-in-London
 https://mhrc.lums.edu.pk/sites/default/files/user376/the_rise_of_karachi_as_a_mega
_city_0.pdf
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Karachi
 https://www.quora.com/What-is-it-like-to-live-in-Karachi
Question. 02
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogy
 https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wittgenstein/
 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1971.11435619
 https://www.upress.virginia.edu/title/4325
 https://www.domusweb.it/en/reviews/2011/06/24/a-house-is-a-house-architecture-is-
a-gesture.html
 https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2016/05/24/wittgensteins-handles/
 https://www.academia.edu/3667749/Influence_of_Analogical_Reasoning_on_Archite
cture_design_the_Evolution_of_Form_Structure_and_Function
Question. 03
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphor
 https://www.scribd.com/doc/68281606/Conceptual-Metaphor-in-Architecture
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphoric_architecture
 https://www.pinterest.com/valeriegoodwinart/metaphors-in-design-architecture/?
lp=true
 http://www.az.itu.edu.tr/azv9no2web/03-ayiran-09-02.pdf
 http://architectuul.com/architecture/view_image/glass-pavilion/32
 http://architectuul.com/architecture/glass-pavilion
Question. 04
 http://homepages.phonecoop.coop/vamos/work/lecturenotes/sun/LectureNotes/Env4
_EnvCog/environmental9.html
 file:///C:/Users/Hammad/Downloads/Conference_paper_Sulsters.pdf
 file:///C:/Users/Hammad/Downloads/2156-Article%20Text-9156-1-10-20110406.pdf
 http://www.cpas-egypt.com/pdf/Abd_ElBaser/M.SC/003.pdf
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272174216_The_Role_of_Culture_in_Prom
oting_Architectural_Identity
 https://www.britannica.com/topic/architecture/Symbols-of-function
Q.5 file:///C:/Users/Hammad/Downloads/2519-6773-1-PB.pdf
 file:///C:/Users/Hammad/Downloads/011-ICKCS2012-K00026.pdf
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Department of Home & Health Sciences

Block No. 06, Sector H-8,

Culture and Building Design (3683)

Existing mega structures

The Egyptian Pyramids

Great Wall of China

The Capital Gate

The Shanghai MAGLEV Train

The Deep Sea Highway

A Brief Early History of Tall Structures

The steel-framed structure of the 10-story Home Insurance Building is generally

Arguments against Tall Structures

Constantine Doxiades, a reputable urban planner and architect, summed up this

However, such misperceptions of vertical architecture are changing. Improvements in the

Particularly, investigators at the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology

The ability of telecommunications to substitute for people interacting in proximity is

Face-to-face contact remains crucial for communicating complex and intricate

Arguments for Tall Structures

Population and Migration Trends

Rural-to-urban migration is one of the causes of urban population increase. Between

Global Competition and Globalization

Climate Change and Energy Conservation

Infrastructure and Transportation

ABOUT MEGA CITIES

WHAT IS A MEGA CITY?

ADVANTAGES OF MEGA CITIES

-Better education/ More Schools

DISADVANTAGES OF MEGA CITIES

Mega City: Living in New York City

Mega City: Living in London

 London was founded by the Romans and they named it Londinium.

Pros of Living in London

1. Excellent public transport system. The combination of London Underground

6. As well as being cosmopolitan and welcoming, overall London is also generally a

Cons of Living in London

Karachi is the largest and most populous city

Unplanned and chaotic urban development is central to understanding such dichotomies.

Karachi’s importance in Pakistan’s urban demography and economy

Challenges facing the mega-city

Social and spatial divide

Shortage of key infrastructure

metropolitan city in addition to augmenting occupancies in already developed but vacant

Wastewater and sewerage disposal

Poor maintenance of the sewerage system, dilapidated infrastructure and inadequate

Q. No. 2: What do you understand by “Language Analogy in Architecture”?

An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is

Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Philosophical Theory of Language Acquisition and Use

This stands quite in contrast to a Chomskian-style transformational understanding of

Wittgenstein's philosophical method is useful in clarifying certain transformationalist

Let us begin by examining Wittgenstein's understanding of the nature of philosophy. This is

 A thing which is or is represented as being comparable to something else in

 A process of arguing from similarity in known respects to similarity in other respects.

AR as a problem solving technique

Thus, a validation phase must be considered after mapping. In order to guarantee a

1. Combining ideas from different domains

Hadamard Four stages of creativity correspondent to Analogy Phases

1. Representation of design experience------------------------Retrieval

(Mutation is deliberate action to change features or attributes of an object or concept in an

Analogical Reasoning Types in Architecture

1. Visual (Appearance - Composition)

Architecture Education with Example

Project Bridge (Munich 2002)

Q. No. 3: Define Metaphor. Explain the role of metaphor in changing architectural

All the world's a stage,