MOHAMED SATHAK ENGINEERING COLLEGE

KILAKARAI – 623 806

(AN ISO 9001 – 2000 CERTIFIED INSTITUTION)

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

AE6612 AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-1

“DESIGN OF SUBSONIC PASSENGER AIRCRAFT”

SUBMITTED BY

NAME: REG NO:

HAR IHARAN . S 911516101009

SHAMEER AQTHAR .A.B 911516101019

SUBASH . T 911516101021

SURIYA KUMAR . K 911516101022

1
 MOHAMED SATHAK ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KILAKARAI – 623 806
(AN ISO 9001 – 2000 CERTIFIED INSTITUTION)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

It is certificate that this is bonafide of work done by

Mr./Ms. A.B.SHAMEER AQTHAR (911516101019) of VI-semester
(B.E AERO) class in the AE6612 - AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-I
Laboratory during the year 2019.

“DESIGN OF SUBSONIC PASSENGER AIRCRAFT”

Signature of incharge Signature of H.O.D

(Dept.of Aeronautical Engg) (Dept.of Aeronautical Engg)

Submitted for the practical examination held on …………….

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
ABSTRACT:

The purpose of the project is to design a subsonic passenger aircraft .The

aircraft will possess a mid wing, tricycle landing gear and a conventional tail
arrangement. Such an aircraft much possess a wide body configuration to provide
sufficient seating capacity. It must possess turbofan engines to provide the
required amount of speed, range and fuel economy for the operator. The aircraft
will possess two engines.

3
TABLE OF CONTENT

S.NO TOPICS PAGE NO

1 INTRODUCTION 6

STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

2 12
AIRPLANES
STUDY ON SPECIFICATION AND
3 PERFORMANCE DETAILS OF 13
AIRCRAFTS
GRAPH PREPARETION& SELECTION OF
4 15
MAIN PARAMETER FOR THE DESIGN

5 PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATION 18

6 POWERPLANT SELECTION 24

7 AEROFOIL SELECTION 27

8 WING SELECTION 30

9 ESTIMATION VARIOUS DRAGS 34

10 V-n DIAGRAM 39

11 3-VIEW DIAGRAM 43

12 CONCLUSION 44

4
LIST OF GRAPH:

S.NO CONTENT PAGE NO

1 VELOCITY VS ALTITUDE 16

2 VELOCITY VS RANGE 17

3 VELOCITY VS WING AREA 17

4 VELOCITY VS HEIGHT 18

5 VELOCITY VS ASPECT RATIO 18

5
1.INTRODUCTION

The design method to be followed from the start of the project to the nominal
end can be considered to fall into three main phases. These phases are illustrated in
Figure. The preliminary phase (sometimes called the conceptual design stage)
starts with the project brief and ends when the designers have found and refined a
feasible baseline design layout. In some industrial organizations, this phase is
referred to as the ‘feasibility study’. At the end of the preliminary design phase, a
document is produced which contains a summary of the technical and geometric
details known about the baseline design. This is known as the aircraft Type
Specification.The next phase (project design) takes the aircraft configuration
defined towards the end of the preliminary design phase and involves conducting
detailed analysis to improve the technical confidence in the design. Wind tunnel
tests and computational fluid dynamic analysis are used to refine the aerodynamic
shape of the ircraft. Finite element analysis is used to understand the structural
integrity. Stability and control analysis and simulations will be used to appreciate
the flying characteristics.. Operational factors (cost, maintenance and marketing)
and manufacturing processes will be investigated to determine what effects these
may have on the final design layout. All these investigations will be done so that
the company will be able to take a decision to proceed to manufacture’

1.1 Defining a new design

The preliminary design also involves a more detailed analysis of the

aerodynamic loads and component weights. Based on this, the structural design
is further refined. Aero elastic motion, fatigue and flutter are considered at this
stage. Additional confirmation of estimates may require building and testing
some of the proposed structural components. At the completion of this stage, the

6
manufacturing of the aircraft is given serious consideration and the cost
estimates are further refined. At the end of this step, the decision is made
whether to build the aircraft.
With the decision to build the aircraft, the design is “frozen.” The detailed
design involves generating the detailed structural design of the aircraft. This
involves every detail needed to build the aircraft. Sometimes component mock-
ups are built to aid in the interior layout. However, the present use of computer
aided design (CAD) software can substantially minimize the need for mock-ups
by providing realistic 3-D views.

1.2 Aircraft Purpose

The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With
this, it is often possible to place a design into a general category. Such
categories include combat aircraft, passenger or cargo transports, and general
aviation aircraft. These may also be further refined into subcategories based on
particular design objectives such as range (short or long), take-off or landing
distances, maximum speed, etc.
With modern military aircraft, the purpose for a new aircraft generally
comes from a military program office. For example, the mission specifications
for the X-29 pictured in figure 1.1 came from a 1977 request for proposals from
the U.S. Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory in which they were seeking a
research aircraft that would explore the forward swept wing concept and
validate studies that indicated such a design could provide better control and lift
qualities in extreme maneuvers.

1.3 Payload

The payload is what is carried on board and delivered as part of the aircraft’s
mission. Standard payloads are passengers, cargo or ordnance. The first two are
considered nonexpendable payload because they are expected to be transported
for the complete duration of the flight plan. Military ordnance is expendable
payload since at some point in the flight plan it permanently leaves the aircraft.
This includes bombs, rockets, missiles and ammunition for on-board guns.
For personal or small general aviation aircraft, the payload includes the pilot
as well as passengers and baggage. For business, commuter and commercial
aircraft, the payload does not include the flight or cabin crew, only the
passengers, baggage and cargo.

7
1.4 Cruise and Maximum Speeds

The mission of an aircraft usually dictates its speed range. Propeller-

driven aircraft are usually designed to cruise at speeds between 150 to 300 knots.
Jet powered aircraft have higher cruise speeds that are normally specified in
terms of Mach number. The typical cruise Mach number for business and
commercial jet aircraft is from 0.8 to 0.85. This range of cruise speeds is close to
optimum for maximizing the combination of payload weight, range and speed.
The few supersonic commercial aircraft designs (1) have supersonic cruise speed
as their principle design driver and (2) sacrifice range and payload. The cruise
Mach number of the Concorde is 2.02. It will carry 100 passengers with a range
of 3740 miles, which is considerably less than the aircraft of normal class, which
have high subsonic cruise speeds.

Modern military jet combat and attack aircraft usually have a flight plan that
involves efficient cruise at high subsonic Mach numbers. This is usually in the
range from Mach 0.85 to 0.90. The maximum speed is usually specified in the
context of an intercept portion of the flight plan. This has a Mach number that is
typically in the range of 2.0.

1.5 Range

The range is the furthest distance the aircraft can fly without refueling. In a
flight plan, range refers to the distance traveled during the cruise phase.The
choice of the range is one of the most important decisions because it has a large
(exponential) effect on the aircraft take-off weight. An aircraft that is intended to
fly across the United States (New York to Seattle) should have a minimum range
of 2500 nautical miles. A range of 3500 nautical miles would be necessary for
transatlantic flights from East coast U.S. cities to coastal cities in Western
Europe. Shorter range transports that are designed to fly between major cities in
a regional area (e.g., Los Angeles to San Francisco) should have a minimum
range of 500 nautical miles. Twice that range would allow an aircraft to fly non-
stop between most of the major cities along either coast of the United States.

1.6 Endurance

Endurance is the amount of time an aircraft can fly without refueling. With a
reconnaissance aircraft, endurance is one of the main design drivers. For a
commercial aircraft, a flight plan will include an endurance phase to allow for
time that night is spent in a holding pattern prior to landing. For operation within
8
the continental United States commercial aircraft are required to be able to hold
for 45 minutes at normal cruise fuel consumption. For international operation,
the required hold time is 30 minutes.

1.7 Take-off Distance

The total take-off distance of the length of a runway needed to

accelerate, lift off, and climb to prescribe obstacle height. The obstacle height is
50 feet for military and small civil aircraft, and 35 feet for commercial aircraft.
The take-off distance that is required to accomplish this depends on different
factors in the design such as the thrust to weight ratio, the maximum lift to
weight ratio and the surface of the air field that affects the rolling friction of the
landing gear wheels.

1.8 Conceptual Design

This article deals with the steps involved in the conceptual design of
an aircraft. It is broken down in to several elements, which are followed in order.
These consist of,

1. Literature survey
2. Preliminary data acquisition
3. Estimation of aircraft weight
a. Maximum take-off weight
b. Empty weight of the aircraft
c. Weight of the fuel
d. Fuel tank capacity
4. Estimation of critical performance parameters
a. Wing area
b. Lift and drag coefficients
c. Wing loading
d. Power loading
e. Thrust to weight ratio
5. Engine selection
6. Performance curves
7. 3-view diagram

9
1.9 Engineering units of measurement

Many different systems of measurement are used throughout the world but two
have become most common in aeronautical engineering. In the US the now
inappropriately named ‘British’ system (foot, pound and second) is widely used.
In the UK and over most of Europe, System International (SI) (metres, newton
and second) units are standard. It is advised that students only work in one
system. Confusion (and disaster) can occur if they are mixed. The results of the
design analysis can be quoted in both types of unit by applying standard
conversions. The conversions below are typical:

1
1 inch = 25.4 mm 1 cu. ft = 28.32liters
1 sq ft = 0.0929 sq. m 1 1 Imp. Gal = 4.546 liters
1USgal = 3.785 liters 1 1 litre = 0.001 cubic
1USgal = 0.833 Imp.gal meters 1 1 nautical
1 statute mile = 1.60 mile = 1.852 km
1ft/s = 0.305 m/s 1 1 knot = 0.516 m/s
1 knot = 1.69 ft/s 1 1 knot= 1.151 mph
1poundforce =4.448 Newton 1 1 pound mass = 0.454 kilogram
1 horsepower = 745.7 watts 1 1 horsepower = 550 ft lb/s
1 foot = 0.305 meters

To avoid confusing pilots and air traffic control, some international

standardization of a unit has had to be accepted. These include:

Aircraft altitude – feet Aircraft forward speed – knots∗

Aircraft range – nautical miles Climb rate – feet per minute

10
2.COMPARATIVE CONFIGURATION STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES
OF AIRPLANES

Before designing an airplane, it is very essential to choose the type of airplane.

For that, he/she must undergo a thorough stud on different types of airplane.
There are many types of airplane such as

11
 3.COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SPECIFICATION AND
PERFORMANCE DETAILS OF AIRCRAFT

3.1. Dimensions :

Length Height Wing Wing Aspect Capac

S.NO Aircraft area span ratio ity
(m) (m) (sq.m) (m)
1 BOEING 37.77 8.87 NA 28.48 8.5 117
717-200
2 BOEING 31.008 11.15 105.4 28.9 9.46 132
737-500
3 AIRBUS 33.84 11.76 122.4 35.8 9.39 134
A319
4 AIRBUS 35 11.5 112.3 35.1 8.0 133
A220
5 YAKOVLEV 36.38 9.83 150 34.88 NA 122
YAK-42

3.2. Weight configuration :

Empty Take Off Loaded THRUST/

S.NO Aircraft Weight Weight Weight WEIGHT
(kg) (kg) (kg) RATIO
1 BOEING 30617 49900 28082 1.649
717-200
2 BOEING 31300 60550 30410 1.486
737-500
3 AIRBUS 40800 75500 30410 1.298
A319
4 AIRBUS 35221 60781 32757 1.3836
A220
5 YAKOVLE 33000 57500 NA 1.108
V YAK-42

12
3.3. Performance :

Max Max Range Wing Rate of

S.NO Aircraft Speed Altitude loading Climb
(km/hr) (m) (km) (kg/sq.m) (m/sec)
1 BOEING 817.867 11000 2645 NA NA
717-200
2 BOEING 786 11300 4444 574.478 NA
737-500
3 AIRBUS 829 12500 6940 616.83 NA
A319
4 AIRBUS 871 12000 5460 541.237 NA
A220
5 YAKOVLEV 740 9600 4000 383.33 NA
YAK-42

3.4. Engine Configuration :

Number of Type of Max Thrust

S.NO Aircraft Engine Engine (KN)

1 BOEING 717- 2 RR BR 715- 82.3

200 AI
2 BOEING 737- 2 CFM 56-3 90
500 SERIES
3 AIRBUS 2 CFM 56-5B 98-120
A319
4 AIRBUS 2 PW 1000 G 84.1
A220
5 YAKOVLEV 3 LOTAREV 63.75
YAK-42 D-36

13
3.5.SELECTION OF MAIN PARAMETERS:

Average values

S.NO DESCRIPTION VALUE

1. CAPACITY 128

2. LENGTH (m) 34.799

3. HEIGHT (m2) 10.622

4. WING AREA (m2) 122.525

5. WING SPAN (m) 32.628

6. ASPECT RATIO 8.83

7. EMPTY WEIGHT (Kg) 34187.6

8. TAKEOFF WEIGHT (Kg) 60846.2

9. LOADING WEIGHT (Kg) 30554.8

10. THRUST/WEIGHT RATIO 1.384

11. CRUISE SPEED (Km/hr) 808.77

12. MAXIMUM ALTITUDE (m) 11380

13. RANGE (Km) 4697.8

14. WING LOADING (Kg/m2) 528.968

15. MAXIMUM THRUST (KN) 83.68

14
 4.COMPARATIVE GRAPH PREPARETIONS & SELECTION OF
MAIN PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN

Comparative graph is prepared with the help the optimized value for design. The
graphs are:

4.1. Altitude Vs Velocity

4. 2. RangeVs Velocity

4. 3. Wing area Vs Velocity

4. 4. Height Vs Cruise

4. 5. Aspect ratio Vs Velocity

850

800

750
Velocity(m/s)

700

650

600

550

500
8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000

ALTITUDE (m)

Graph4.1: Altitude Vs Velocity

15
 14000

12000

10000

velocity
8000

6000

4000

2000

0
850 900 950 1000 1050
range

Graph4.2. Range Vs Velocity

1040
1020
1000
980
velocity

960
940
920
900
880
860
840
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
wing area

Graph4.3. Wing area Vs Velocity

16
 1040
1020
1000
980
960
velocity

940
920
900
880
860
840
0 2 4 6 8 10
Height

Graph4.4. Height Vs Velocity

1040
1020
1000
980
velocity

960
940
920
900
880
860
840
0 5 10 15
Aspect ratio

Graph4.5. Aspect ratio Vs Velocity

17
 5.PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATIONS

There are a number of weights that must be considered in aircraft weight

and balance. The following are terms for various weights as used by the General
Aviation Manufacturers
Association(GAMA).

• The standard empty weight is the weight of the airframe, engines and all items
of operating weight that have fixed locations and are permanently installed in the
aircraft.

This weight must be recorded in the aircraft weight and balance records. The
basic empty weight includes the standard empty weight plus any optional
equipment that has been installed.

• Maximum allowable gross weight is the maximum weight authorized for the
aircraft and all of its contents as specified in the Type Certificate Data Sheets
(TCDS) or Aircraft
Specifications for the aircraft.

• Maximum landing weight is the greatest weight that an aircraft normally is

allowed to have when it lands.

• Maximum takeoff weight is the maximum allowable weight at the start of the
takeoff run.

• Maximum ramp weight is the total weight of a loaded aircraft, and includes all
fuel. It is greater than the takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during
the taxi and run-up operations. Ramp weight is also called taxi weight.

5.1.Gross weight:

The total weight of the aircraft at any particular time. Thus Basic Empty Weight
plus Pilot, Crew and their baggage plus payload (passengers and cargo) plus fuel
load. The aircraft gross weight (also known as the All-Up Weight (AUW)) is the
total aircraft weight at any moment during the flight or ground operation.

18
5.2.Payload

The payload is what is carried on board and delivered as part of the aircraft’s
mission. Standard payloads are passengers, cargo or ordnance. The first two are
considered nonexpendable payload because they are expected to be transported
for the complete duration of the flight plan. Military ordnance is expendable
payload since at some point in the flight plan it permanently leaves the aircraft.
This includes bombs, rockets, missiles and ammunition for onboard guns.For
personal or small general aviation aircraft, the payload includes the pilot as well
as passengers and baggage. For business, commuter and commercial aircraft, the
payload does not include the flight or cabin crew, only the passengers, baggage
and cargo.

5.3.Mission Profile:

WEIGHT ESTIMATION;

5
6

4 7

1 2 3 8 9

5.4.Gross Weight

W0=W crew + W payload+ W fuel+ W empty

Empty weight includes structures, landing gear, lift equipment avionic

instruments. To simplify fuel weight and empty weight calculation take fraction
of them based on total weight..

19
1.Overall weight of the aircraft is given by

W 0 = W crew+ W payload+ W fuel+ W empty

𝑾𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 + 𝑾𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝑾𝒐 = 𝑾𝒇 𝑾𝒆
𝟏 − ( 𝑾𝒊 ) − ( 𝑾𝒊 )

𝑳 𝑾𝒊 𝑽
R= ∗ 𝒍𝒏 [ ]∗
𝑫 𝑾𝒊−𝟏 𝑪

𝑾𝒊 −𝑹𝑪 𝑳
= 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [ ∗ ]
𝑾𝒊 − 𝟏 𝑽 𝑫

20
 MISSION 0-1:

The mission 0-1 is the engine start, warm up and the Take off from
the historical data, it isFound to be.

W1/Wo= 75500/75900 =0.99

MISSION 1-2:
The mission 1-2 is the climb. The fuel fraction from historical datawas
W2/W1=0.985

MISSION 2-3:
The mission 2-3 is the cruise. The fuel fraction for this mission was found
from the range Equation
(i.e.) Brequet equation.
𝑉∝ 𝐿 𝑊2
R= ln
𝐶𝑡 𝐷 𝑊3

𝑳
=16
𝑫

𝑽 ∝= 871 km/hr

𝑻𝑺𝑭𝑪 = 𝑪𝒕 = 0.36

Safe range =4626.67 km

R= 4626.67 + 830

R= 5456.93 km
871 𝑊2
5456.93= 16 ln
0.600.36 𝑊3
𝑊2
ln = 0.1409
𝑊3
𝑊2
= 1.1583
𝑊3

21
 𝑊3
= 0.8685
𝑊2

MISSION 3-4:
The mission 3-4 is loitering. The fuel fraction for this mission was found from
the endurance equation.
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Time = = 7.96 ℎ𝑟𝑠
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
Additional distance = Head wind× total time
= 54×7.96
= 430.26km
Diverssion airport = 400km

Wi/Wi-1= e-((E*Cj) / (L/D))

W4/W3= e-((0.5*0.36) / (16))
W4/W3= 1.01
MISSION 4-5:
The mission 4-5 is the landing. The fuel fraction of this mission was found
from the historical data to be,

W5/W4= 0.995

FUEL FRACTION
The fuel fraction is found from the product of all the values,

W5/W0= (W1/W0)× (W2/W1)×(W3/W2)×(W3/W4) ×(W4/W5)×(W5/W0)

W5/W0= 0.99×0.985×0.869×1.011×0.995
W5/W0= 0.8524
Wf/Wo= 1.06(1- W5/W0) where, 1.06 = (+6% fuel allowance)
= 1.06(1-0.8524)
= 0.1564

Approximated Weight estimation:

We/WO = A * W 0^C *K

W 0 = W crew+ W payload+ W fuel+ W empty = 64656.43 kg

22
Where K = No. of sweep and so K =1.
A = 1.02, C = -0.06
We/WO = 1.02* (71000)^0.06 * 1 = 0.521

Wo= ((300) + (17390))/ (1-0.1564-0.521) =54835.70 Kg.

Actual Weight estimation:

To obtain the actual weight for the aircraft to be designed iteration process
carried such that the error is less than 5% when compared with the approximated
weight obtained.

1. We/WO= A *WoC* K, Where K = No. of sweep and so K =1.

A = 1.02, C = -0.06

𝑊0 (𝑔𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑠) kg 𝑊𝑒 /𝑊𝑜 𝑊0 (𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)

71000 0.521 54835.7
54935.7 0.529 56405.1
56405.1 0.529 56405.1

Therefore the empty weight of the aircraft is = 56405.1 kg

23
 6.POWER PLANT SELECTION

6.1 TURBO FAN :

The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is
widely used in aircraft propulsion. The word "turbofan" is a portmanteau of
"turbine" and "fan": the turbo portion refers to a gas turbine engine which
achieves mechanical energy from combustion, and the fan, a ducted fan that
uses the mechanical energy from the gas turbine to accelerate air rearwards.
Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the turbine
(through the combustion chamber, in a turbofan some of that air bypasses
the turbine. A turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to
drive a ducted fan, with both of these contributing to the thrust.
The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine core divided by
the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass
ratio. The engine produces thrust through a combination of these two
portions working together; engines that use more jet thrust relative to fan
thrust are known as low-bypass turbofans, conversely those that have
considerably more fan thrust than jet thrust are known as high-bypass. Most
commercial aviation jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type.
Hence turbofan engine has more efficiency and suitable for business jet
aircraft.
6.2LOCATION OF ENGINES:
There are two turbofan engines fixed on a each side of a wing. The
wing mounted engines help in providing thrust as well as stability. It
reduces the maneuverability which is overcome by the wing designs used in
the subsonic passenger aircraft

6.3Thrust Calculation:
The thrust of the aircraft is thus found by the previous data and the
weight estimated from the above calculations
T/W = 0.3176
T/Wo= 0.3176
T = 0.3176*56405.1
=17914.259 kN.

24
6.4 Thrust Vs SFC

6.5 Engine selected:

The engine selected for our design is CFM 56-5B TURBOFAN.
The specification for the enginewas given above.

6.6 Engine Configuration/Dimension:

Fan Diameter = 173.48cm

Length = 242.31 cm
Dry weight= 4975 lb
SFC at maximum power = 0.59
Overall pressure ratio at sea level = 24.

6.7 Thrust Matching:

From the historical data,
(L/D)max for loitering = L/D
(L/D)max for loitering = 16
(L/D)max for cruise = 0.866 * (L/D)max for loitering
= 0.866 * 16
= 13.364
(T/W) cruise = 1 / (L/D) cruise = 1/ 13.364 = 0.074
(T/W) loiter = 1 / (L/D) loiter = 1/15.54 = 0.064
(T/W) climb = 1 / (L/D) climb + (Vvertical / V)

25
 Where, V vertical = 1.2 V stall and
V stall =0.25 Vcruise
Therefore,
(T/W) climb = 1 / (L/D) climb + ((1.2*0.25* Vcruise / V)
= (1/15.54 )+ (1.2*0.25*241.94)
= 0.3826
(T/W) take-off = (T/W) cruise * (Wcruise/ W take- off ) * (Ttake-off/ Tcruise)
(T/W)take off =0.34

26
 7.Aerofoil Selection

An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces

an aerodynamic force. The component of this force perpendicular to the
direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to the direction of
motion is called drag subsonic. airfoils have a characteristic shape with a
rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with
a symmetric curvature of upper and lower surfaces. Foils of similar function
designed with water as the working fluid are called hydrofoils.
The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack and
shape. When oriented at a suitable angle, the airfoil deflects the oncoming
air (for fixed-wing aircraft, a downward force), resulting in a force on the
airfoil in the direction opposite to the deflection. This force is known
as aerodynamic force and can be resolved into two
components: lift and drag. Most foil shapes require a positive angle of attack
to generate lift, but cambered airfoils can generate lift at zero angle of attack.
This "turning" of the air in the vicinity of the airfoil creates
curved streamlines.
For aerofoil selection, we have to find the following parameters and
draw the following graphs.

7.1. Calculation of CL:

a) Reynolds’s No:

Re = Vc / γ

V = velocity of a/c= 241.94m/s

C = chord length= 3.61
γ= 1.4603*10^-5 N-s/m2
Therefore,
Re = (241.94*3.61) / 1.4603*10^-5
Re = 59.82*10^6
b) Co-efficient of lift (CL Max):
CL Max = (2* (W/S)) / (ρ*VStall^2)
Where,
ρ = 0.45135
Vstall = 0.25 * Vcruise = 60.48m/s
27
 W/S = 6051.102N/m2
Therefore,
CL Max = (2*6051.102) / (0.45135*60.48^2)
CL Max = 2.7

c) Skin-friction drag for turbulence flow:

Cf1 = 0.455 / ((log10 Re) ^2.58 + (1+0.144M2) ^0.65)

Cf1 = 2.27*10^-3
Cut-off Reynolds’s No, R cut = 44.62* (L/ k) ^1.053 * M^1.16

Where,

k = 0.052*10^-5 and M = 0.73

R cut = 44.62* (5.6/ (0.068*10^-5)) ^1.053 * 0.70^1.16

R cut = 0.8501*10^9
Cf2 = 1.328 / sqrt (R) = 4.4089*10^-5
Cfe = (Cf1+Cf2) / 2 = 1.1605*10^-3
CDo = Cfe * (Swet / Sref) = 1.1605*10^-3 * 6.3
CDo = 7.311x10^-3
Oswald’s efficiency for supersonic flow,
e = 4.61 * (1-0.045Aeff0.66) * (cos ALE) 0.15- 3.1

Where,
Ale =350
Aeff =1.2A = 11.268
e = 0.328
Co-efficient of drag,
CD = CDo + KCL^2
Where,
K= 1 / (π*AR*e) = 1 / (3.14*9.39*0.8) = 0.0423

d) Calculation of CLmax Required:

Required CLmax = CLavailable + _CLmax
= (2*0.95*(W/S)) / (ρ* V2 Stall)
Required CLmax = 2.56
CLmax = Required CLmax - CLavailable
= 2.7-2.56
= 0.14
28
 This extra lift can obtain by the use of flap. Our required CLmax is
0.14. Hence we can use conventional flap which meets our lift
requirement.
Thus the airfoil of NACA series NACA -2412is selected as this airfoil
satisfies the above required conditions .

NACA -2412
2 – Max camber height as % of chord
4 - Max. camber position as % of chord
12- Max. airfoil thickness as % of chord

29
 8.WING SELECTION

A wing is a type of fin that produces lift, while moving through air
or some other fluid. As such, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are
subject to aerodynamic forces and act as an .airfoils. A
wing's aerodynamic efficiency is expressed as its lift-to-drag ratio. The lift a
wing generates at a given speed and angle of attack can be one to two orders
of magnitude greater than the total drag on the wing. A high lift-to-drag ratio
requires a significantly smaller thrust to propel the wings through the air at
sufficient lift.
Lifting structures used in water, include various foils,
including hydrofoils. Hydrodynamics is the governing science, rather than
aerodynamics. Applications of underwater foils occur
in hydroplanes, sailboats and submarines.

8.1 WING SELECTION DESIGN

After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary

component of the aircraft to be designed is the wing. The wing weight and
its lifting capabilities are in general, a function of the thickness of the airfoil
section that is used in the wing structure. The first step towards designing
the wing is the thickness estimation. The thickness of the wing, in turn
depends on the critical mach number of the airfoil or rather, the drag
divergence Mach number corresponding to the wing section.

The critical Mach number can well be delayed by the use of an

appropriate Sweep-back angle to the wing structure. The natural choice of
the standard series is the 65 series which is designed specifically for use in
high-speeds.

30
 Wing Geometry Design:

For wing geometry design we have to find the following things

1. Equivalent AspectRatio
2. WingArea
3. WingSpan
4. ChordLength
5. WingSection
6. Mean AerodynamicCentre:
7. Structural weight for varying the thickness ofairfoil
8. Location of Centre ofGravity

8.1.1 Equivalent Aspect Ratio:

Equivalent AR = a. M c
Equivalent AR = 9.39

8.1.2 Wing Area:

We know from the exercise 2, W/S =522.88

S = 56405.1 / 522.8
S = 122.4 m2

8.1.3 Wing Span:

WKT, AR = b2 / S
9.39 = b2 /122.4
b2 = 9.39* 122.4
b = 33.90m

8.1.4 Chord Length:

WKT, AR = b / C
9.39= b / C
C = b / AR _ C = 33.90/9.39=3.61
Therefore,
Airfoil tip chord (Ct ) , C = 1.08
WKT, Taper Ratio, = Ct / Cr
0.35 = Ct / Cr
root chord (Cr) = Ct /0.35
31
 = 1.08/0.35
Cr =3.61m

8.1.5 Mean Aerodynamic Centre:

C = 2/3 * Cr * ((1 + + ^2) / (1 + ))
C = 2/3 * 3.61 * ((1 + 0.4 + 0.16) / (1 + 0.4))
C = 2.6817m

8.1.6 Structural weight for varying the thickness of airfoil:

Volume of fuel = Weight of the fuel / 800

Weight of the fuel = Wf / Wo =0.1564
Wf = 0.1564* 56405.1
Wf =8821.75 kg

Therefore,
Volume of fuel = 8821.75 / 800
Volume of the fuel = 11.027 m3
Total volume of the fuel = 11027 liters

Assume,
20% of fuel carrying in the wings = t/c * C * (0.5*C)*(0.5*b*0.75*2)
Since, 20% of the fuel = 2.205 m3

Therefore,
2.205= t/c * 3.61 * (0.5*3.61) * (0.5*33.9*0.75*2)
t/c = 0.0133

Thereby we get,
Thickness of the root, tr = 0.013* 3.61 =0.048m
Thickness of the tip, tt = 0.013* 1.08= 0.014m

8.1.7 Location of Centre of Gravity:

To find C.G. :-

x= b/2; Ў = h/3 * ((b+2a) / (b+a))

Centroid (Cg):
x = b/2 = 1.08/2 = 0.54m;

32
 y = h/3 * ((b+2a) / (b+a))
y= 9.998m

Wing Cg = (0.54m,9.998m)

Advantages of mid Wing:

a) Less interference drag .

b) More lift in Wing.
c) Mid wing has neutral roll stability

Disadvantages of mid Wing:

a) It occupies lots of useful fuselage volume

b) Shifting of center of mass at rear side of fuselage.

33
 9.ESTIMATION OF VARIOUS DRAGS

9.1 DRAG:

• Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force

which is parallel to the flight direction (or relative oncoming
airflow).it always acts to oppose the direction of motion.
• It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift
is the desirable component.
• Drag Coefficient (CD)

Amount of drag generated depends on:

Plan form area (S), air density ()flight speed(v),drag

coefficient (cd) CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly
depends upon:Section shape, plan form geometry, angle of attack (),
compressibility effects (Mack number), viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).

Drag Components:

9.1.1Skin Friction Drag

Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer.
Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary layers.

34
9.1.2 Form (Pressure) Drag

Due to static pressure distribution around body - component resolved in

direction of motion. Sometimes considered separately as fore body and rear
(base) drag components.

9.1.3 Wave Drag

• Due to the presence of shock waves at transonic and supersonic

speeds.
• Result of both direct shock losses and the influence of shock waves on
the boundary layer.
• Often decomposed into portions related to:
• Lift.
• Thickness or Volume.

35
9.1.4 Typical streamlining effect

36
9.1.5 Lift induced (or) trailing vortex drag:

The lift induced drag is the component which has to be included to account
for the 3-D nature of the flow (finite span) and generation of wing lift.

37
CALCULATION:
Generally for jet aircrafts, it is given that
CD0 = 7.311X10^-3
e = 0.328
The general drag equation is given by, For calculating d,

WHERE, CD=CD0+KCL^2
CD=0.3156

TAKEOFF;

V=1.1XVSTALL=1.1X241.94=266.134 m/s
S=122.4
D=1.67MN

LANDING;

V=1.1XVSTALL=1.13X241.94=273.39 m/s

S=122.4
D=1.765MN

CRUISE;
(AT ALTITUDE 12500m)
V=241.94m/s
S=122.4
D=214.4KN

38
 10. V-n DIAGRAM

DESCRIPTION:

The V-n diagram velocity vs.load diagram,describes the

relationshipbetween an aircraft’s speed, its longitudinal capability and its
structuralStrength V-n diagram are useful in determining in manoeuvring
capability of an aircraft.

In accelerated lift becomes much more compared to the weight of the

aircraft .this implies a net force contributing to the acceleration. This causes a
stress on the aircraft structure. “The ratio of the lift experienced to the aircraft
weight at any instant is defined as load factor (n)”.

39
10.1. SUBSONIC AIRCRAFT PARAMETER:
𝟏 𝑾
Load factor: 𝒏 = × 𝝆𝜶 × 𝑽𝜶 × 𝑪𝑳𝑴𝑨𝑿 /
𝟐 𝑺

10.2. STALL VELOCITY:

𝑾𝑺 = 𝟐𝑾/𝝆𝒔𝑪𝑳𝑴𝑨𝑿

= 53.74m/s

10.3. CRUSE VELOCITY:

VS=241.94m/s

10.4. DRIVE VELOCITY:

Vd=1.25*Vcruise

= 302.4

10.5. NEGATIVE ANGLE OF ATTACK:

=AR*0.555=5.26

10.6. MANEUVERINGVELOCITY:

Vman = √2nw/ρsclmax

10.7. POSITIVE MANEUVERING VELOCITY:

=(2*56405.1*10)/(1.225*122.4*2.56)

= 0.068

10.8. NEGATIVE MANEUVERING VELOCITY:

=(2*56405.1*1.5)/(1.225*122.4*9.81)

=0.035

40
N 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒏 (𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆)

0 0

10 0.068

20 0.69

30 1.16

40 2.18

50 3.83

N 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒏 (𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆)
0 0
10 0.068
20 - 0.69
30 -1.16
40 -2.18
50 -3.83

41
V-n curve:

42
11.PREPARATIONS OF LAYOUTS OF BALANCE DIAGRAM
AND THREE VIEW DRAWING

43
12.CONCLUSION:

Design is a fine blend of science presence of mind and the application

of each one of them at the appropriate time. Design of anything need
experience and an optimistic progress. This involves a strong fundamental
science and skillfull application which is a tough job endowed upon the
designer.

New aircraft and innovative models are the outcome of experimental

design, which are put in many trials. These models may be successful
when put on paper. Also there may arise many debatable topics on our
design and hidden loose strings. These are many of designing of a
“SUBSONIC PASSENGER ” has thus been accomplished which exceed
our requirements and expectation, thus making our aircraft a competitive
one among others in sky.

44
REFERENCES:

1. Airplane design by Dr. Jan roskam,3rd edition.

2. Aircraft performance and design by John D. Anderson,2rd edition.
3. Introduction to flight by JOHN D. ANDERSON,2nd edition.
4. Wikipedia the free encyclopaedia.

45
 MOHAMED SATHAK ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KILAKARAI – 623 806
(AN ISO 9001 – 2000 CERTIFIED INSTITUTION)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

It is certificate that this is bonafide of work done by

Mr./Ms. K.SURIYA KUMAR (911516101022) of VI-semester (B.E
AERO) class in the AE6612 - AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-I
Laboratory during the year 2019.

“DESIGN OF SUBSONIC PASSENGER AIRCRAFT”

Signature of incharge Signature of H.O.D

(Dept.of Aeronautical Engg) (Dept.of Aeronautical Engg)

Submitted for the practical examination held on …………….

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

46
 MOHAMED SATHAK ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KILAKARAI – 623 806
(AN ISO 9001 – 2000 CERTIFIED INSTITUTION)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

It is certificate that this is bonafide of work done by

Mr./Ms S.HARIHARAN (911516101009) of VI-semester (B.E
AERO) class in the AE6612 - AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-I
Laboratory during the year 2019.

“DESIGN OF SUBSONIC PASSENGER AIRCRAFT”

Signature of incharge Signature of H.O.D

(Dept.of Aeronautical Engg) (Dept.of Aeronautical Engg)

Submitted for the practical examination held on …………….

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

47
 MOHAMED SATHAK ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KILAKARAI – 623 806
(AN ISO 9001 – 2000 CERTIFIED INSTITUTION)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

It is certificate that this is bonafide of work done by

Mr./Ms T.SUBASH (911516101021) of VI-semester (B.E AERO)
class in the AE6612 - AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-I
Laboratory during the year 2019.

“DESIGN OF SUBSONIC PASSENGER AIRCRAFT”

Signature of incharge Signature of H.O.D

(Dept.of Aeronautical Engg) (Dept.of Aeronautical Engg)

Submitted for the practical examination held on …………….

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNALEXAMINER

48