Biological Science

Biological Science
Biological Sciences is the study of life and living organisms. It is also called as “Biology”. The Greek
word ‘bio’ means life and ‘logos’ means study of. In the late 1700s Pierre-Antoine de Monet and Jean-
Baptiste de Lamarck coined the term biology.
Earlier study of living things was restricted to the pure Science like Botany and Zoology that
together comprise the Biology. But as the time passed new branches evolved, new technologies
developed in pure subjects as well as in applied fields, which gave rise to a very broad science called
Biological Sciences.
Biological Sciences is an extensive study covering the minute workings of chemical substances
inside living cells, to the broad scale concepts of ecosystems and global environmental changes. It is also
concerned with the physical characteristics and behaviors of organisms living today and long ago, how
they came into existence, and what relation they possess with each other and their environments.
Intimate study of details of the human brain, the composition of our genes, and even the functioning of
our reproductive system are dealt in Biological science. Today it is also called by new name- Life sciences.
The life sciences can be defined as “a systematic study of living beings or study of nature”.
Teaching of life Science basically deals with providing information about the latest developments in the
field of Biological sciences all over the world.
The knowledge of Biological Sciences helps the student:
1. To develop the individual’s sensitiveness to nature and make him feels at home with it.
2. To understand all living beings on the earth emerged from one being to another which inculcates
‘oneness’s of all living beings.
3. Develops scientific outlook.
4. Develops respect towards nature to protect it.
5. Removes ‘dogmatic approach’.
6. To explain the living world in terms of scientific principles and appreciating all organisms which behave
indifferent ways.
7. Show capabilities, which differ from one another.
8. Satisfy the curiosity of the students.
9. Generate interest about his surroundings.
Man is curious by his nature. This curiosity has driven them to explore the world around them. Over the
time, manipulating and controlling nature for the benefit of the mankind has become an object of
exploration. Initially the pace of exploration was slow, but with the result of industrial revolution in the
west, the pace of exploration has increased manifold. Exploration became a tool for not only modifying
and controlling the nature but also for preserving the natural resources.
History of Biological Sciences
Human knowledge of biology began with prehistoric man and his experiences with plants and
animals and also through the instincts and efforts to explore the nature. The information was verbally
passed on from one generation to another. The history of science therefore can be said to have begun
with the history of human existence.
During early period, people knew about medicinal and poisonous plants and knew that a
heartbeat meant that someone or some animal was alive. They also had the idea that the conception of
babies is in some way connected with sexual reproduction.
References:
2012 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc
https://www.aboutbioscience.org/category/topics/
http://www.biologydiscussion.com/biological-sciences/biological-sciences-definition-history-and-objectives/85935
Some of the important historic contributions in the field of biology are mentioned below:
In the ancient Hebrew creation account as recorded in the book of Genesis (genesis = origin,
birth), the Creator gives the Earth the ability to produce plants and animals. In Genesis 1: 11, the Creator
says, “Let the land produce vegetation.” Verse 12 says, “The land produced vegetation.” Genesis 1:24
adds, “Let the land produce living creatures.” These verses stand in sharp contrast to earlier verses which
say, “. . . Let there be . . . and it was.” In Genesis 1:28, humans are given the responsibility of taking good
care of the creation.
Anaximander, a Greek philosopher who lived from 611 to 546 BC, is credited with the first written
work on natural science; a classical poem entitled On Nature. In this poem, he presented what may be
the first written theory of evolution he said that in the beginning there was a fish-like creature with
scales etc. that arose in and lived in the world ocean. As some of these advanced, they moved onto land,
shed their scaly coverings, and became the first humans.
In 570 BC, Xenophanes was one of the first people to write about his observations on fossils. He
thought that fossils were an indication that there was water/mud previously in an area.
Hippocrates lived from about 400 to 300 BC. One of the things for which he is remembered is his
theory that the human body was composed of the four elements (earth, air, fire, water) plus four fluids
or humors- sanguis or blood, produced by the heart; choler or yellow bile, produced by the liver;
melancholia or black bile, produced by the spleen; and phlegma or phlegm, produced by the brain, which
corresponded with these.
Aristotle, one of Plato’s most famous pupils, lived from 343 to 322 BC, and contributed much to
what we now consider to be in the realm of biology. His refinement of the systems of animal and plant
classification has profoundly influenced the course of biological thought ever since.
His classification system included what he called the Scala naturae, the “scale of nature.” He said
that all organisms are arranged in a hierarchy from simplest to most complex, like rungs on a ladder with
no vacancies, no mobility, and no change possible since all the spots were full.
By the late 1600s, observations were being made with the first, primitive microscopes. In 1665,
Robert Hooke was the first person to see and name cells. He examined (dead) cork bark with a primitive
microscope and saw little cubicles which he called cells.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first person to observe sperm cells with his very primitive
microscope. He thought he saw tiny body parts in the sperm. He used this as “proof” of the idea that the
homunculus was in the sperm and the mother’s body just served as a place for the planted seed to grow.
Additionally, Leeuwenhoek proposed that fertilization occurs when the sperm enters the egg, but this
could not actually be observed for another 100 years.
In the field of botany, there were considerable efforts in the past. Classification of organisms in
India comes from Vedas and Upanishads (1500 B.C to 600 B.C). In these books many technical terms
were used to describe plants and their parts both morphologically as well as anatomically.
Rotation of crops was practiced and medicinal plants were also collected and studied. Two
eminent ancient Indian scholars and Ayurvedic physicians named Charaka and Susruta contributed to
our knowledge of diversity and utility of plants. The ancient Indian scholars compiled ‘Vrikshayurveda’
before the beginning of Christian era and this deals with the scientific study of plants and animal life.
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Two great Greek philosophers, Hippocrates (460-377 B.C) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C) studied and
classified various living organisms, but their classifications were not based on scientific method and
reasoning. Theophrastus (370-285 B .C), a disciple of Aristotle classified the plants on the basis of form
and texture and is known as the ‘father of botany’. His book ‘Historia Plantarum’ deals with 480 plants.
With the decline of the Greek and Roman civilization, there was no significant botanical
advancement for more than fourteen centuries. However, there was again awakening of botanical
learning in the sixteenth century when several herbals, especially those of Brunfels (1530), Bock (1539),
Fuchs (1542), Turner (1551), Cordus (1561), Lobelius (1581) and Gerar (1597) were published.
Otto Brunfels was one of the first among the group of renowned herbalists, who described and
illustrated the plants known to that period. They were more interested in the purported medical values
and domestic uses of plants. Brunfels produced one of the first illustrated herbals and recognized the
perfect and imperfect groups of plants characterized by the presence and absence of flowers
respectively. The herbalists as a group are important for their contribution to the descriptive phases of
systematic botany.
In the 17th century two European scientists John Ray (1627-1706) and Francis Willougby (1635-
1672) collected many plants and animals and classified them. Ray described 18,000 plants and published
between 1686 and 1704 a book ‘Historia Generalis Plantarum’ in three volumes.
Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish naturalist, who is also called ‘father of taxonomy’, classified the
organisms according to his own system of classification, which is called binomial system of
nomenclature. This system is based on the principle of naming organisms by two words: genus and
species. According to him existing species of plants and animals were the descendants of the previously
created species. His ‘Systema Naturae’ appeared in 1735.
His ‘Genera plantarum’ and ‘Classes plantarum’ appeared in 1737 and 1738 respectively.
Linnaeus ‘Philosophia botanica’ appeared in 1751, which was a revised version of his system, published
in ‘classes plantarum’. His ‘Species Plantarum’ was published in 1757, a work in which 1700 species were
described and arranged on the basis of sexual system of classification. His system is considered as an
artificial system.
In either 1809, Jean Baptiste Lamarck published his ‘theory of evolution’. His main points were:
(a) Evolution or change within a species is driven by an innate, inner striving toward greater perfection,
(b) Use or disuse of various organs made them larger or smaller, accordingly, and
(c) These acquired traits could be inherited or passed on to offspring (inheritance of acquired traits).
In 1828, Karl von Baer published the developmental stages in mammalian eggs. He was able to show that
an undifferentiated, single-celled egg grows into a many-celled embryo in which all the cells have
different functions. This disproved the preformation theory (which said that the preformed homunculus
just gets bigger).
In 1859, Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection or the
Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, more commonly known as The Origin of Species.
In this landmark book, he made four main points:
(a) Individuals, even siblings, in a population vary (there is variation),

(b) These variations can be passed on to offspring (are inherited— remember- he, too, thought this
happened via pangenes),
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(c) More offspring are produced than the environment can support, so there is competition for
resources, and
(d) Those individuals whose characteristics make them best suited to the environment live and
reproduce and have more offspring (survival of the fittest).
Thus in any population, there is descent with modification (changes occur over the generations)
due to natural selection the “pressure” the environment puts on the various genetic varieties in terms
of their ability to cope and/or survive.
In 1745-1748, John Needham, a Scottish clergyman and naturalist showed that microorganisms
flourished in various soups that had been exposed to the air. He claimed that there was a “life force”
present in the molecules of all inorganic matter, including air and the oxygen in it that could cause
spontaneous generation to occur, thus accounting for the presence of bacteria in his soups.
In 1865, Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, published a paper on genetics that earned him the
nickname “the Father of Modern Genetics.” One of Mendel’s jobs at the monastery was to care for the
garden. As he went about his chores, he noticed that some of his pea plants were tall while others were
short, some had purple flowers while others had white, some had yellow seeds while others had green,
and some had wrinkled seeds while others had smooth seeds.
As Mendel raised peas, he made specific crosses between certain plants and did something very
unusual for biology in those days- he counted the results. From this he developed a theory of genetics
that refuted the pangene/homunculus idea and enabled people to predict the outcome of a genetic
cross if the genes of the parents were known.
When Mendel first published his paper, the idea of the pangenes was still so deeply held that
people ignored his work or dismissed it as false. It wasn’t until 1900 that a couple of botanists working
on other research rediscovered his work. We will discuss Mendel’s theory in more depth when we talk
about genetics.
In 1870 the process of mitosis, regular cell division by which one cell divides to make two cells,
was observed, and researchers noticed that chromosomes, whose function was not understood, were
moving around in the cell during mitosis so that each daughter cell got an exact set of them.
In 1890 the process of meiosis, a special cell division involved in producing eggs or sperm, was
observed. Again, researchers did not yet understand what chromosomes were, but they did note that as
a result of meiosis, each egg or sperm cell formed had half as many chromosomes as the original cell.
Thus, after Mendel’s work was rediscovered in 1900, researchers started seeing parallels
between his theory of genetics and what the chromosomes were doing in mitosis and meiosis. From this,
people figured out that Mendel’s genes were on the chromosomes.
In the 1940s, people finally started fitting the two together. People began to think that the DNA
in the chromosomes was the genetic material, but because its chemical structure was unknown, a lot of
biologists were skeptical about this idea.
In 1953, James Watson, an American, and Francis Crick, an Englishman, published a paper in
which they proposed a hypothetical structure for DNA, which also showed how DNA could be the genetic
code material and suggested a means whereby it could replicate itself. Subsequent chemical analyses of
DNA have upheld their prediction.
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Until about 100-150 years ago, science/biology and “religion” were intervened in human thought
and culture. Since Darwin’s time, in Western culture, science and religion had pretty much gone their
own ways at a time when new discoveries were constantly being made in science.
In the last 40 years since the publication of Watson and Crick’s paper on DNA, our biological
knowledge has increased exponentially, especially in the field of genetics, and now we’re realizing
there’s no ethical framework on which to hang it. There are all sorts of fantastic, and perhaps life-saving,
things that we are capable of doing which also give us the ability to annihilate whole segments of the
human population and/or whole species of organisms.
Developments in the Field of Medicine:
Medical science has made enormous strides during the last 150 years.
1. Rene Laennec is world renowned for his invention of the stethoscope.
2. With the aid of the microscope, Robert Koch discovered the germs, which caused cholera and
tuberculosis.
3. Emil Von Behring enabled the protection of children from diphtheria by introducing vaccination.
4. Walter Reed, an American doctor, found that mosquitoes spread yellow fever.
5. Sir James Young Simpson discovered the anesthetic properties of chloroform.
6. Sir Joseph Lister, a world-renowned English surgeon of Glasgow University, is considered to be the
father of antiseptic surgery.
7. Sir Alexander Fleming demonstrated that Penicillin is a miracle drug in treating diseases like
pneumonia, syphilis, peritonis, tetanus and other illnesses.
8. The first successful heart transplant was performed by Dr. Christian Barnard.
Branches of Biological Science

 Astrobiology
The branch of Biological Science concerned with the effects of outer space on living
organisms and the search for extraterrestrial life. Astrobiology is the study of life in the universe.
 Elements of Astrobiology
1. Astronomy
It is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It
uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry to try and explain their origin and evolution.
2. Biology
It is a study of living things and their vital processes. The field deals with all the
physicochemical aspects of life.
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3. Astroecology
It concerns the interactions of life with space environments and resources,
in planets, asteroids and comets. On a larger scale, astroecology concerns resources for life
about stars in the galaxy through the cosmological future. Astroecology attempts to quantify
future life in space, addressing this area of astrobiology.
4. Astrogeology
It is a planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of celestial bodies such as
the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. The information gathered by
this discipline allows the measure of a planet's or a natural satellite's potential to develop and
sustain life, or planetary habitability.
 Anatomy
It is the branch of science concerned with the bodily structure of humans, animals, and
other living organisms, especially as revealed by dissection and the separation of parts.
 Botany
Botany is the scientific study of plants, or multicellular organisms, that carry on
photosynthesis. As a branch of biology, botany sometimes is referred to as plant science or plant
biology. Botany includes a wide range of scientific sub disciplines that study the structure,
growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, ecology and evolution of plants. The
study of plants is important because they are a fundamental part of life on Earth, generating
food, oxygen, fuel, medicine and fibers that allow other life forms to exist.
 SUBDISCIPLINES OF BOTANY
1. Agronomy and Crop Science
This is an agricultural science dealing with field crop production and soil management.
2. Algology and Phycology
This is the study of algae.
3. Bacteriology
This is the study of bacteria (also considered part of microbiology).
4. Bryology
This is the study of mosses and liverworts.
5. Mycology
This is the study of fungi.
6. Paleobotany
This is the study of plant fossils.
7. Plant Anatomy and Physiology
This is the study of the structure and function of plants.
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8. Plant Cell Biology
This is the study of the structure and function of cells.
9. Plant Genetics
This is the study of genetic inheritance in plants.
10. Plant Pathology
This is the study of diseases in plants.
11. Pteridology
This is the study of ferns and their relatives.
 Botanical Taxonomy
It is the science that finds, identifies, describes, classifies, and names plants. It is one of
the main branches of taxonomy.
 Biogeography
It is the study of geographic distribution of plants and animals. It is concerned not only
with habitation patterns but also with the factors responsible for variations in distribution.
 Biochemistry
It is the study of the chemical substances and processes that occur in plants, animals, and
microorganisms and of the changes they undergo during development and life. It deals with the
chemistry of life, and as such it draws on the techniques of analytical, organic, and physical
chemistry, as well as those of physiologists concerned with the molecular basis of vital processes.
 RELATED DISCIPLINES
1. Molecular Biology
The study of processes involving DNA and RNA and their replication.
2. Cell Biology
The study of all processes that involve cells and their interactions with other cells.
3. Genetics
The study of the function and behavior of gen
 Bioengineering
It is a branch of Biological Science that is of utmost importance in today's world. It is the
science of adding, removing, or repairing part of genetic material of a cell.
 Biophysics
It is a study concerned with the application of the principles and methods of physics and
the other physical sciences to the solution of biological problems. The relatively recent
emergence of biophysics as a scientific discipline may be attributed, in particular, to the
spectacular success of biophysical tools in unravelling the molecular structure
of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the fundamental hereditary material, and in establishing the
precisely detailed structure of proteins such as hemoglobin in order that the position of each
atom may be known. Biophysics and the intimately related subject biology now are firmly
established as cornerstones of modern biology. Biotechnology - It is a technology which uses
living things or biological system to make or modify certain products we need today like
production of insulin, other hormones and drugs.
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 RELATED DISCIPLINES
1. Biochemistry and Chemistry
These deal with bimolecular structure, nucleic acid structure and structure-activity
relationships.
2. Biology and Molecular Biology
These deal with gene regulation, single-protein dynamics, bioenergetics and
biomechanics.
3. Computer Science
This deals with molecular simulations, neural networks and databases.
4. Mathematics
This deals with graph/network theory and population modeling.
5. Medicine and Neuroscience
These deal with neural networks examined experimentally (brain slicing, for example) as
well as with theory (computer models), membrane permeability, and gene therapy and cancer
research.
6. Pharmacology and Physiology
These deal with membrane channel biology, bimolecular interactions and cellular
membranes.
7. Physics
This deals with bimolecular free energy, bimolecular structures and dynamics, protein
folding and surface dynamics.
8. Structural Biology
This deals with high-resolution structures of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and
carbohydrates and behavior of genes.
 Bioinformatics
It is a hybrid science that links biological data with techniques for information storage,
distribution, and analysis to support multiple areas of scientific research, including biomedicine.
Bioinformatics is fed by high-throughput data-generating experiments, including genomic
sequence determinations and measurements of gene expression patterns. Cell Biology - It is the
study of the plant cell and animal cells, its structure, its organelles, their functions, uses, and their
differences.
 Cryobiology
It signifies the science of life at icy temperatures. In practice, this field comprises the study
of any biological material or system (e.g., proteins, cells, tissues, and organs, insects, seeds or
plant embryos) subjected to any temperature below their normal range (from moderate
hypothermia or over-wintering conditions, down to deep cryogenic temperatures).
 Cytology
It is the study of cells as fundamental units of living things. The earliest phase of cytology
began with the English scientist Robert Hooke’s microscopic investigations of cork in 1665. He
observed dead cork cells and introduced the term “cell” to describe them. Ethology - It is a sub-
topic of Zoology. It is the study of animal behavior and the way they react to certain situations.
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 Entomology
It is a branch of zoology dealing with the scientific study of insects. The Greek
word entomon, meaning “notched,” refers to the segmented body plan of the insect. The
zoological categories of genetics, taxonomy, morphology, physiology, behavior, and ecology are
included in this field of study. Also included are the applied aspects of economic entomology,
which encompasses the harmful and beneficial impact of insects on humans and their activities.
Entomology also plays an important role in studies of biodiversity and assessment of
environmental quality.
 Histology
It is a branch of biology concerned with the composition and structure
of plant and animal tissues in relation to their specialized functions. The terms histology
and microscopic anatomy are sometimes used interchangeably, but a fine distinction can be
drawn between the two studies. The fundamental aim of histology is to determine how tissues
are organized at all structural levels, from cells and intercellular substances to organs.
Microscopic anatomy, on the other hand, deals only with tissues as they are arranged in larger
entities such as organs and organ systems (e.g., circulatory and reproductive systems). These are
the various branches of Biological Science from the letter A to H.
 Herpetology
It is a scientific study of amphibians and reptiles. Like most other fields of
vertebrate biology (e.g., ichthyology, mammalogy), herpetology is composed of a number of
cross-disciplines: behavior, ecology, physiology, anatomy, paleontology, taxonomy, and others.
Most students of recent forms are narrow in their interests, working on only one order or
suborder (e.g., frogs, salamanders, snakes, and lizards). A paleontologist is more likely to work
with both amphibians and reptiles or with intermediate forms. Ichthyology - It is a sub-topic of
Zoology. It is the study of all types of fishes like bony fish, cartilaginous fish, and jawless fish.
 Mycology
It is the study of fungi, a group that includes the mushrooms and yeasts. Many fungi are
useful in medicine and industry. Mycological research has led to the development of such
antibiotic drugs as penicillin, streptomycin, and tetracycline, as well as other drugs, including
statins (cholesterol-lowering drugs). Mycology also has important applications in the dairy, wine,
and baking industries and in the production of dyes and inks. Medical mycology is the study of
fungus organisms that cause disease in humans.
 Morphology
It is the study of the size, shape, and structure of animals, plants, and microorganisms and
of the relationships of their constituent parts. The term refers to the general aspects of biological
form and arrangement of the parts of a plant or an animal. The term anatomy also refers to the
study of biological structure but usually suggests study of the details of either gross or
microscopic structure. In practice, however, the two terms are used almost synonymously.
Typically, morphology is contrasted with physiology, which deals with studies of the
functions of organisms and their parts; function and structure are so closely interrelated,
however, that their separation is somewhat artificial. Morphologists were originally concerned
with the bones, muscles, blood vessels, and nerves comprised by the bodies of animals and
the roots, stems, leaves, and flower parts comprised by the bodies of higher plants.
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The development of the light microscope made possible the examination of some
structural details of individual tissues and single cells; the development of the microscope and of
methods for preparing ultrathin sections of tissues created an entirely new aspect of
morphology—that involving the detailed structure of cells. Electron microscopy has gradually
revealed the amazing complexity of the many structures of the cells of plants and animals. Other
physical techniques have permitted biologists to investigate the morphology of complex
molecules such as hemoglobin, the gas-carrying protein of blood, and deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), of which most genes are composed. Thus, morphology encompasses the study of
biological structures over a tremendous range of sizes, from the macroscopic to the molecular.
A thorough knowledge of structure (morphology) is of fundamental importance to the
physician, to the veterinarian, and to the plant pathologist, all of whom are concerned with the
kinds and causes of the structural changes that result from specific diseases.
 Microbiology
It is the study of microorganisms, or microbes, a diverse group of generally minute, simple
life-forms that include bacteria, archaea, algae, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. The field is
concerned with the structure, function, and classification of such organisms and with ways of
both exploiting and controlling their activities. It is the branch of biology that studies large living
organisms (termed Macro organisms) that can be seen by the naked eye.
 SUBDISCIPLINES OF MICROBIOLOGY
1. Bacteriology
This is the study of bacteria.
2. Environmental Microbiology
This is the study of the function and diversity of microbes in their natural environments.
3. Evolutionary Microbiology
This is the study of the evolution of microbes.
4. Food Microbiology
This is the study of microorganisms causing food spoilage as well as those involved in creating
foods such as cheese and beer.
5. Industrial Microbiology
This is the exploitation of microbes for use in industrial processes, such as industrial
fermentation and wastewater treatment. This sub discipline is linked closely to the
biotechnology industry.
6. Medical (or Clinical) Microbiology
This is the study of the role of microbes in human illness. It includes the study of microbial
pathogenesis and epidemiology and is related to the study of disease pathology and
immunology.
7. Microbial Genetics
This is the study of how genes are organized and regulated in microbes in relation to their
cellular functions. This sub discipline is related closely to the field of molecular biology.
8. Microbial Physiology
This is the study of how the microbial cell functions biochemically. It includes the study of
microbial growth, microbial metabolism and microbial cell structure.
9. Mycology
This is the study of fungi.
10. Veterinary Microbiology
This is the study of the role in microbes in veterinary medicine.
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11. Virology
This is the study of viruses.
 Molecular Biology
Field of science concerned with studying the chemical structures and processes of
biological phenomena that involve the basic units of life, molecules. Of growing importance since
the 1940s, molecular biology developed out of the related fields of biochemistry, genetics,
and biophysics. The discipline is particularly concerned with the study of proteins and nucleic
acids—i.e., the macromolecules that are essential to life processes. Molecular biology seeks to
understand the three-dimensional structure of these macromolecules through such techniques
as X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy. The discipline particularly seeks to understand the
molecular basis of genetic processes; molecular biologists map the location of genes on specific
chromosomes, associate these genes with particular characters of an organism, and
use recombinant DNA technology to isolate, sequence, and modify specific genes.
 SUBDISCIPLINES OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
1. Comparative Genomics
This is the study of human genetics by comparisons with model organisms such as mice,
the fruit fly and the bacterium E. coli.
2. DNA Forensics
This is the use of DNA for identification. Some examples of DNA use are to establish
paternity in child support cases, to establish the presence of a suspect at a crime scene and to
identify accident victims.
3. Functional Genomics
This is the study of genes, their resulting proteins and the role played by the proteins in
the body’s biochemical processes.
4. Gene Therapy
This is an experimental procedure aimed at replacing, manipulating or supplementing
nonfunctioning or malfunctioning genes with healthy genes.
5. Genomics
This is the study of genes and their functions.
6. Molecular Genetics
This is the study of macromolecules important in biological inheritance.
7. Pharmacogenomics
This is the study of the interaction of an individual’s genetic makeup and response to a
drug.
8. Proteomics
This is the study of the full set of proteins encoded by a genome.
9. Structural Genomics
This is the effort to determine the three-dimensional structures of large numbers of
proteins using both experimental techniques and computer simulation.
10. Toxicogenomics
This is the study of how genomes respond to environmental stressors or toxicants.
 Mammalogy
This is the study of mammals, their characteristics, habits, adaptations and capacity to
lead a successful life.
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 Neurobiology
It is the study of cells of the nervous system and the organization of these cells into
functional circuits that process information and mediate behavior.
 Ornithology
It is a branch of zoology dealing with the study of birds. Most of the early writings on birds
are more anecdotal than scientific, but they represent a broad foundation of knowledge,
including much folklore, on which later work was based. In the European Middle Ages
many treatises dealt with the practical aspects of ornithology, particularly falconry and game-
bird management. From the mid-18th to the late 19th century, the major thrust was the
description and classification of new species, as scientific expeditions made collections in tropical
areas rich in bird species.
 Parasitology
The study of animal and plant parasitism as a biological phenomenon. Parasites occur in
virtually all major animal groups and in many plant groups, with hosts as varied as the parasites
themselves. Many parasitologists are concerned primarily with particular taxonomic groups and
should perhaps be considered students of those groups, rather than parasitologists per se; others
are interested in parasitism as an evolutionary phenomenon and work with a number of
taxonomic groups. The science has a number of branches (e.g. Veterinary, medical, or
agricultural parasitology). Primatology - Primates are the most highly developed animals.
The detailed study of primates is known as Primatology. Apes and man belong to this group.
 Physiology
The study of the functioning of living organisms, animal or plant, and of the functioning
of their constituent tissues or cells. The word physiology was first used by the Greeks around
600 BCE to describe a philosophical inquiry into the nature of things. The use of the term with
specific reference to vital activities of healthy humans, which began in the 16th century, also is
applicable to many current aspects of physiology. In the 19th century, curiosity, medical
necessity, and economic interest stimulated research concerning the physiology of all living
organisms. Discoveries of unity of structure and functions common to all living things resulted in
the development of the concept of general physiology, in which general principles and concepts
applicable to all living things are sought. Since the mid-19th century, therefore, the
word physiology has implied the utilization of experimental methods, as well as techniques and
concepts of the physical sciences, to investigate causes and mechanisms of the activities of all
living things.
 Zoology
It is the branch of biology that studies the members of the animal kingdom and animal
life in general. It includes both the inquiry into individual animals and their constituent parts,
even to the molecular level, and the inquiry into animal populations, entire faunas, and the
relationships of animals to each other, to plants, and to the nonliving environment. Though this
wide range of studies results in some isolation of specialties within zoology,
the conceptual integration in the contemporary study of living things that has occurred in recent
years emphasizes the structural and functional unity of life rather than its diversity. Invertebrate
Zoology -It is a detailed study of invertebrates which are animals without backbone.
 SUBDISCIPLINES OF ZOOLOGY
Sub disciplines that concentrate on specific divisions of animal life:
1. Entomology – Insects
2. Herpetology - Amphibians and reptiles
References:
3. Ichthyology - Fish
4. Invertebrate Zoology - Animals without backbones
5. Malacology – Mollusks
6. Mammalogy – Mammals
7. Ornithology – Birds
8. Primatology – Primates
 OTHER SUBDISCIPLINES
1. Ecology - Interactions between animals and their environment
2. Embryology - Development of animals before birth
3. Ethology - Animal behavior
4. Paleontology – Fossils
5. Sociobiology - Behavior, ecology and evolution of social animals such as bees, ants, schooling
fish, flocking birds and humans
 Vertebrate Zoology
It is the study of animals with backbones. The Department is organized into four Divisions:
Fishes, Amphibians and Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals. The systematic and taxonomic research
conducted in the department provides a solid foundation of understanding biodiversity that
benefits our scientific colleagues, government agencies, conservation organizations, and
individuals involved in fish and wildlife management. The department holds the largest collection
of vertebrate specimens in the world, including historically important collections from the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
 Virology
It is the branch of microbiology that deals with the study of viruses. Although diseases
caused by viruses have been known since the 1700s and cures for many were (somewhat later)
effected, the causative agent was not closely examined until 1892, when a Russian bacteriologist,
D. Ivanovski, observed that the causative agent (later proved to be a virus) of tobacco
mosaic disease could pass through a porcelain filter impermeable to bacteria. Modern virology
began when two bacteriologists, Frederick William Twort in 1915 and Félix d’Hérelle in 1917,
independently discovered the existence of bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria).
Direct visualization of viruses became possible after the electron microscope was
introduced about 1940. In 1935 tobacco mosaic virus became the first virus to be crystallized; in
1955 the poliomyelitis virus was crystallized. (A virus “crystal” consists of several thousand
viruses and, because of its purity, is well suited for chemical studies.) Virology is a discipline of
immediate interest because many human diseases, including smallpox, influenza, the common
cold, and AIDS, as well as a host of economically important plant and animal diseases, are caused
by viruses.
References:

Biological Science

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Biological Science

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Biological Science

The knowledge of Biological Sciences helps the student:

History of Biological Sciences

In this landmark book, he made four main points:

(a) Individuals, even siblings, in a population vary (there is variation),

Developments in the Field of Medicine:

1. Rene Laennec is world renowned for his invention of the stethoscope.

5. Sir James Young Simpson discovered the anesthetic properties of chloroform.

Branches of Biological Science

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